Encyclopædia britannica; or, A dictionary of arts, sciences, and miscellaneous literature

(jEnt|)Clopaeliia iSritanmca;

OR, A

DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS
LITERATURE ;

ENLARGED AND IMPROVED.

THE FOURTH EDITION.

3[Uu0trateD tottlj nearly 0iv ftunnreD cDngraDingjef.

VOL. IX.

IJfDOCTI discant: ament memixisse periti.

EDINBURGH :

Printed by Andrew Bell, the Proprietor,

!0R ARCHIBALD CONSTAULK AND COM PAN Y, EDIN BURGH ;

AND rOR VERNOR, HOOD, AND SIIARl'E,

LONDON.

;io.

Encyclopaedia Britannica.

STACK
ANNU(

/!£

FOR

•oriyce T70RDYCE, David, an elegant and learned wrl-
•— Y"^-" JL ter, was bom at Aberdeen in the year 1711. Hav-
ing received the early part of his education at the gram-
mar Ichool, at the age of 13 he was entered at the Greek
clafs in Marifchal college, Aberdeen j in 1 7 i& he took
the degree of A. M. and was afterwards, in 1 742, ad-
mitted profelTor of philofopliy in the fame college. He
was originally defigned for the miniftry ■, to prepare
himfelf for which was the whole objeft of his ambition,
and for a courfe of years the whole purpofe of his flu-
dies. How well he was qualified to appear in that cha-
racler, appears from his " Theodorus, a dialogue con-
ceniing the art of preaching." Having finiited this
v,-ork, he went abroad in 1 750 on his travels, in order
to obtain frelh (lores of knowledge : but after 3 fuccefs-
ful tour through feveral parts of Europe, he v/as, on
his return home, unfortunately cafl way in a florra en
the coa!f of Holland, in the 41ft year of his age. Be-
fidcs the above work, he wrote Dialogues on Educa-
tion, 8vo, and a Treatife of Moral Philofophy, pub-
liftied in the Preceptor. The third edition of his Theo-
dorus was publiflied in London, in 1751, after his death,
by his brother James, the fubjeift of the following ar-
ucle.

FoRDYCE, James, _a. Scotch divine, juilly efleemed
for hts piety and insenuity, as well as for his pulpit
eloquence, was bom at Aberdeen in the year 1720.
He received his clalFical education at the public gram-
mar fchool, and went afterwards to the Marifchal col-
lege, where he went through the ufual ccirfc of lludies
r.eceflary for a minitler of the gofpel. His natural abi-
lities were excellent, and he improved to the utmoft the
r^vourable opportunities he enjoyed at the univerfity,
which made him be confidered as well qualified for a
preacher of the gofpel at an early period of life. His
f.T^ appointment was that of fecond minifter in the
church of Brechin in the county of Angus, after which
he accepted of a call to Alloa near Stirling. The peo-
ple of ihst pariih were prcpoireffed in favour of another,
and prejudiced agaiiift Mr Fordyce, which could not
fail to be a moft unpleafant circamftance ; yet by his
inipreilive delivery, and indefatigable attention to every
part of his mittifterial duty, he foon changed their pre-
judice into efteem, and their eftecm into admiration.

During his reddence at Alloa, he drew on him Ihe
notice of the public by three excellent feimons; the fir.a
on the eloquence of the pulpit, the fecoiid on the me-
thod of promoting edification by public inftitutions, and

Vol. LX. P:.n L

FOR

the third on the delufive and bloody fpirlt of popery, Fordyre.
preach«d before the lynod of Perth and Stirling. But '■' v ■■
ftill greater wonder and aftonilhment were excited by
his inimitable iennon on the folly, infamy, and mifery
of unlawful pleafure, preached before the general af-
fembly of the church of Scotland in 1760. It contains
fuch mafterly compofition with relpecl to defcription,
fpirit, and elegance, and was delivered with fuch un-
common folemr.ity, animation, and pathos, that it filled
his learned fathers and brethren ^vith aftonifliment, and
juftly raifed him to unrivalled eminence among his cle-
rical cotemporaries. About this time he was compli-
mented with the degree of doctor in di\-inity by the uiii-
verfity of Glalgow, probably on account of the fame he
acquired by this extraordinary fernion.

'I'he friends of Dr Fordyce being mjftly in London,
he was invited to that metropolis to be the' colleague of
Dr Lawrence, miniller of a refpeclable congregation in
Monkwell-itreet, on whofe death, which happened a
few months after, Dr P'orjyte became once more fa-
mous for his pulpit eloquence, always preaching to
overflowing audiences. Thi« popularity he juftly de-
ferved, whether with refpeft to the elegance of his'com-
pofitions, or their happy tendency to imprefs the heart,
with the love of virtue and religion. Yet even Dr For-
dyce lived to fee his popularity on the decline ; for
fuch as attend a place of ■vvorfliip from mere motives of
curioiity muft have fickle and unliable minds, changing
their preachers as they do their drefs, loving to be
^vhere others are, of doing what others do, and of ad-
miring what others admire, for they have no taile of
their ov.-n.

His pews were thinned from another caufe, whicli.
was the failure of a younger brother, an extenfive ban-
ker, which ruined many of the doctor's conftant hear-
ers and molt liberal fupnorters. Although thfc doftor
could not be reafonably blamed for the failuieXof his
brother, yet it is certain that it brought a degree of
odium on the v;hole family. Another caufe of the di-
minution of his hearers was an unhappy difference be-
tween him and Mr Toller his colleague, \4iuch hap-
pened in the yeaj 1755, and which ended in a divifion
of the congregation, many refpeiflable families follow-
ing Ml- Toller to another place of worihip. Soon af-
ter this he declined o.Ticiating as a minifter, the declin-
ing Hate of his health rendering luch a flep neceiTary.
The bell fpecimcn of pulpit eloquence which perhaps
ever came from his pen, vas delivered at the otdina-
A tion

is pc

happy method of engaging the attention ;
piety, and a zeal for the iuterefts of ge-

FOR I

Fordycc. tion of his fuccefibr Mr James Lindfay, and highly me-
' riting the attentive perufal of every clergyman. The
remainder of his valuable life he fpent chierly at a re-
tirement in Hamp(hire in the Wcinity of the earl of
Bute, with whom he lived in the greateft intimacy,
rtnd to whofe valuable library he had unlunited accefs.
He afterwards went to Bath, where he fufFered much
from an ailhmatic affeflion, but bore it with the heroic
fortitude of a Chriilian, and expired without a groan on
the firft of Otlober 1796, in the 76th year of his
age.

The doiSor's writings difcover much genius and ima-
gination, a correft ■ taile, extenfive knowledge of the
^vorld, and a "
full of ardent . .

nuine virtue. His religious fentiments ivere manly and
rational ; in private life he was highly amiable, and de-
fervedly beloved by all who knew him. He was au-
thor of Sermons to Young Women, in two volumes
1 2mo, which have been tranflated into feveral Euro-
pean languages ; A Sermon on the Charader and
Condudl of the Female Sex ; Addrefles to Young Men,
in tivo volumes 1 2mo ; AddreiTes to the Deity ; A vo-
lume of Poems ; A difcourfe on Pain, and Additions
to his brother's Temple of Virtue.

FoRDYCE, George, a WTiter and lefturer on medi-
cine, was born in the year 1736, and ftudied at the
univerfity "of Aberdeen, where he obtabed the literary
degree of M. A. at the early age of 14, perhaps not
altogether owing to the fuperior caft of his genius, or
the extent of his acquirements, which could not be ex-
traordinary in a .boy of his years. He became appren-
tice to an uncle ivho praftifed furgery at Uppingham in
Rudandlliire, when he was only 15, and afterwards
went to the univerfity of Edinburgh, where his dili-
gence and progrefs attrafted the attention of Dr Cullen,
at that time profeflbr of chemillry, who very- generoufly
promoted his improvement. He graduated in 1758,
when only 22 years of age ; after which he refided one
winter at Leyden. The greater part of his patrimony be-
ing fpent on his education, he refolved to try his for-
tune in London, where he fettled in the year 1759.
He commenced with a courfe of leisures on chemiftry ;
and although his encouragement at firll was by no means
flattering, yet he fteadily and diligently perfevered, not-
withllanding fuch unfavourable appearances, till his li-
terary merit began gradually to be dilcovered and pro-
perly appreciated. A number of young men who came
to iludy in London did not think that their medical
courfe was complete, without availing themfelves of the
benefit of his coiu-fe of leftures.

In the year 1768, he publiihed his Elements of the
Praflice of Phyllc, which formed the text book of his
medical courfe, and were much read as a valuable epi-
tome of medicine. His private praiSice was very re-
fpeftable ; and in the year 1770 his medical reputation
was fo great, that he was chofen phyfician to the holpi-
lal of St Thomas, although he had to contend again!!
a gentleman ivith very powerful intereft ; and his merit
as a man of fcience made him a member of the Royal
Society in 1776. He was chofen in 1787 a fellow of
the College of Phyficians ; and his chemical knowledge
was of fmgular importance to that body for a new edi-
tion of their Pharmacopoeia. By the influence of his
tonnedions, but probably raoxe fo by his literary repu-

2 ] FOR

tation, he was appointed to furnilh the navy with four-
krout, which we believe he executed with advantage
both to himfelf and the public.

His conftitution difcovered fyraptoms of premature
decay, yet he continued to dil'charge his profeirional du-
ties till he fell a viclim to an irregular gout, and a wa-
ter in his cheft, on the 25th of June 1S02, in the 66th
year of his age. If his leclures wanted the charms of
an eloquent delivery, he made ample compenfation by
the originality of his ideas and his fcientific informa-
tion, and by a memory which was uncommonly reten-
tive. His works are, Elements of Agriculture and
Vegetation ; Of the Pra£lice of Phyfic ; A Treatife on
the Digeflion of Food; and Four DilTertations on Fe-
ver.

FORE, applied to a fliip, denotes all that part of a
fhip's frame and machinery ^vhich lies near the ftem.

FoKE and aft, is ufed for the whole (hip's length, or
from end to end.

FORECASTLE of a Ship, that part where the
foreraaft ilands. It is divided from the reft by a bulk-
head.

FOREIGN, fomething extraneous, or that comes
from abroad. The word is formed from the Latin
fores, " doors •," oxforis, " out of doors ;" or forum,
" market," &c.

Foreign minifter, foreign prince, foreign goods, &c.
are thofe belonging to other nations. See Minister,

&.C. .

Foreign to the purpofe, figniSes a thing remote or
impertinent.

Foreign', in the Engliflj Law, is ufed in various fig-'
nifications. Thus,

Foreign Attachment, is an attachment of the goods
of foreigners found within a city or liberty, for the fa-
tisfaclion of fome citizen to whom the foreigner is in-
debted ; or it fignifies an attachment of a foreigner's
money in the hands of another perfon.

Foreign Kingdom, a kingdom under the dominion
of a foreign prince.

At the inilance of an ambaffador or conful, any of-
fender againft the la^vs here may \}e fent for hither from
a foreign kingdom to which he hath fled. And,
where a ftranger of Holland, or any foreign coun-
try, buys goods at London, for inftance, and there
gives a note under his hand for payment, and th<;n
goes away privately into Holland ; in that cafe, the
feller may have a certificate from the lord mayor, on
the proof of the fale and delivery of fuch goods, ivhere-
upon a procefs will be executed on the party in Hol-
land,

Foreign Oppofer, or Appofer, an officer in the ex-
chequer that oppofes or makes a charge on all Iheriffs,
&c. of their green wax ; that is to fay, fines, iffues,
amerciaments, recognizances, &c. ^

Foreign P/ea, fignifies an obje£lion to the judge of
the court, by refufing him as incompetent, becauie the
matter in queftion is not within his jurifdiftion.

Foreign Seamen, ferving two years on board Bri-
tifh (hips, whether of war, trade, or privateers, du-
ring the time of war, (hall be deemed natural-bom fub-
jcQs.

FOREIGNER, the natural-born fubjed to fome fo-
reign prince.

Foreigners, though made denizens, or naturalized.

FOR [

' arc difabled to bear any ofF.ce in goverhraent, to be of
the privy counci], or members of parliament, &c. —
This is by the acls of the fetdement of the crown. —
Such perlbns as are not freemen of a city or corpora-
tion, are alio c^\\i.i foreigners, to diiUnguifli them from
the members of the fame.

FOREJUDGER, in Law, fignifies a judgment
whereby one is deprived or put by a thing in quellion.

To \>t forejudged the court, is where an officer or at-
torney of any court is expelled the fame for malprac-
tice, or for not appearing to an aftion on a bill filed
againft him, Sec. And where an attorney of the com-
mon-pleas is fued, the plaintiff's attorney delivers the
bill to one of the criers of the court, who calls the at-
torney defendant, and foleranly proclaims aloud, that,
if he does not appear thereto, he will be forejudged :
likewife a rule is given by the fecondary for his appear-
ance j and if the attorney appears not in four days,
then the clerk, of the warrants ftrikes fuch an attorney
off the roll of attorneys ; after which he becomes liable
to be arrefted like any other perfon ; but ivhere an at-
torney is forejudged, he may be rertored on clearing
himfelf from his contumacy, and making fatisfaftion to
the plaintiff, &c.

FORELAND, or Forekess, in Navigation, a point
of land jutting out into the fea.

North Foreland, in the ille of Thanet, Kent, of
which it is the N. E. point, is the promontory afcer-
tained by afl of parliament to be the moft fouthem
part of the port of London, which is thereby extended
N. in a right line to the point called the Nafe on the
coaft of ElTex, and forms that properly called the
Mouth of the Thames. A fea-mark was erefted here
by the Trinity-houfe corporation at the public ex-
pence, which is a round brick tower, near 80 feet high.
The iea gains fo much upon the land here by the
winds at S. W. that within the memory of lome that
are living about 30 acres of land have been loft in one
place. All vefTels that pafs on the fouth fide of this
Head-land are faid to enter the Channel, which is the
name for the narro^v fea between England and France ;
and all the to^vns or harbours between London and this
place, whether on the Kentilh or Eifex (hore, are called
Members of the port of London.

South FoRELASD, in Kent, a head-land forming the
eaft point of the Kentiih (hore ; and called South, in
refpeft te its bearing from the other Foreland, which is
about fix miles to the north. Its fituation is of great
fccurity to the Do^vns, the road bet^veen both, which
xvould be a very dangerous road for ihips, did not this
point break the fea off, that would otherwile come
rolling up from the weft to the Flats or banks of fand,
which for three leagues together, and at about a league
or a league and a half from the ihore, run parallel with
it, and are dry at low water ; fo that thefe two capes
breaking all the force of the fea on the S. E. and
S. W. make the Downs accounted a good road, except
when the wind blows exceflive hard from S. E. E. by
N. or E. N. E. %vhen (hips in the Downs are driven
from their anchors, and often run alhore, or are
forced on the fands, or into Sandwich bay or Ramfgate
pier.

FORE- LOCKS, in the fea language, little flat
wedges made of iron, ufed at the ends of bolts, to
keep them from flying out of their holes.

; ] FOE

FOREMAST of a Ship, a large round piece of Fj
timber, placed in her fore part or fore-caftle, and car- '
rying the fore-fail and forc-top-fail yards. Its length
is ufually -| of the main-maft, and the fore-top-gallant'
mart is ~ the length of the fore-top.

FoRESjAiT Men, are thofe on board a (hip that take
in the top-fails, iling the yards, furl the fails, bovvfe,
trice, and take their tuni at the helm, &c.

FOREST, in Geography, a huge ^vood ; or, a large
extent of ground covered with trees. The word is form-
ed of the 'Lznnforcjia, which firft occurs in the capi-
tulars of Charlemagne, and which itfelf is derived from
the German yj-o/?, fignifying the fame thing. Spelman
deri\-es it from the i.zUx\foris rejiat, by reafon foreib
are cut of towns. Others Atrrvt forejla from feris. q. d.
Farejla, quod fit tuta JJatio ferarum, as being a fafe (la-
tion or abode for wild hearts.

The Caledonian and Hercynian forefts are famous
in hiflory, The firft was a celebrated retreat of the
ancient PIcls and Scots : The latter anciently occupied
the greateft part of Europe-, particularly Germany,
Poland, Hungary, &c. In Caefar's time it extended
from the borders of Alfatia and Switzerland to Tran-
fylvania ; and wa.% computed 60 days journey long, and
9 broad : fome parts or cantons thereof are ftill re-
maining.

The ancients adored forefts, and imagined a great
part of tiieir gods to refide therein : temples were fre-
quently built in the thickeft forefts ; the gloom and
filence whereof naturally infpire fentiments of devotion,
and turn men's thoughts within themfelves.

For the like reafon, the Druids made forefts the place
of their refidence, performed their facrifices, inftrufte'd
their youth, and gave laws therein.

Forest, in Law, is defined, by Manwood, a certain
territory of woody grounds and fruitful paftures, pri-
vileged for wild hearts and fowls of foreft, chafe, and
warren, to reft and abide under the protection of the
king, for his princely dehght •, bounded with unre-
moveable marks and meres, either knoivn by matter
of record or prefcription ; replenlllied with wild beafts
of venery or chafe, Tvith great coverts of vert for the
faid hearts ; for prefervation and continuance whereof,
the vert and veniibn, there are certain particular laws,
pri\alegef, and officers.

Forefts are of fuch antiquity in England, that, ex-
cepting the New Foreft in Hampfliire, erected by Wil-
liam the conqueror, and Hampton Court, erefted by
Henry VIII. it is faid, that there is no record or hi-
ftory which makes any certain mention of their erec-
tion, though they are mentioned by feveral writers and
in feveral of our laws and ftatutes. Ancient hirtorians
tell us, " that New foreft was raifed by the deftruclion
of 22 parifh churches, and many villages, chapels, and
manors, for the fpacc of 30 miles together, whiah was
attended ivith divers judgments on the pollerity of
William I. who erefted it : for William Rufus was
there (hot mth an arrow, and before him Richard the
brother of Henry I. ; and Henry nephew to Robert,
the eldeft fon of the (ilonquereor, did hang by the hair
of the head in the boughs of the foreft, like unto Ab-
falom." Blount.

Ikfides the New foreft, there are 68 other forefts in

England, 13 chafes, and more than 700 parks : the

four principal forcRs are New foreft on the fea, Shirr-

A 2 wood

FOR

[

the Sever:

4 ]

FOR

FoiTft. wood foreft on the 'I'rcnt, Dean forefl:
•■f~'—' and Windibr foieil on the Thames.

A forcft in the hands of a lubjecl is properly the
fdme thing with a Chase ; being fubjed to the common
law, and not to the foreft laws. But a chafe differs
from a foreft in that it is not enclofed : and likewife,
that a man may have a chafe in another man's ground
as ^vell as his owti j being indeed the liberty of keep-
ing beafts of chafe, or royal game therein, protected
even from the owner of the land, with a power of
hunting tliem thereon. See Park.

The mannej of crefting a foreft is thus : Certain com-
milTioners are appointed under the great feal, who view
the ground intended for a foreft, and fence it round ;
this commllTion being relumed into chancery, the king
caufeth it to be proclaimed throughout the county
■where the land lieth, that it is a foreft j and prohibits
all perfons from hunting there, without his leave.
Though the king may ereiA a foreft on his own ground
and wafte, he may not do it on the ground of other
perfons without their confent ; and agreements with
them for that purpofe ought to be confirmed by par-
liament.

A foreft, ftriftly taken, cannot be in the hands of
any but the king ; for no perfon but the king has
power to grant a commilTion to be juftice in eyre of
the foreft : yet, if he grants a foreft to a fubjeft, and
that on requeft made in the chancery, that fubjecl and
his heirs ftiall have juftices of the foreft, in which cafe
the fubjecl has a foreft in law.

A fecond property of a foreft is, the courts thereof.
See FonEst Court!, infra.

A third property is the officers belonging to it, as
the juftices, warden, verderer, forefter, agiftor, regarder,
keeper, bailiff, beadle, &c. See the articles Agistor,
Bailiff, Forester, &c.

Ey the laws of the foreft, the receivers of trefpaiTes
in hunting, or killing of the deer, if they know them
to be the king's property, are principal trefpaffers.
Likewife, if a trefpafs be committed in a foreft, and
the trefpaffer dies, after his death it may be puniftied
in the lifetime of the heir, contrary to common law.
Our Norman kings puniftied fuch as killed deer in any
of their forefts with great feverity ■, alfo in various man-
ners ; as by hanging, lofs of limbs, gelding, and put-
ting out eyes. By magna charta eie foreja, it is or-
dained, that no perfon ftiall lofe life or member for kill-
ing the king's deer in fcrefts, but fliall be fined ; and
if the offender has nothing to pay the fine, he ftiall be
imprifor.ed a year and a day, and then be delivered, if
he can give fecurity not to offend for tlie future, &c.
^Hen.Ul.c. I.

Before this ftatute, it was felony to hunt the king's
deer ; and by a late ad, perfons armed and difguifed,
appearing in any foreft, &c. if they hunt, kill, or
ileal any deer, &.C. are guilty of felony, p Geo. I.

C. 11.

He who has any licenfe to hunt in a foreft or chafe,
&c. is to take care that he does not exceed his autho-
rity ; otherwife he ftiall be deemed a trefpaffer from
the beginping, and be puniftied for that fa£l, as if he
had no licenfe. ••Seefurther, the articles Game, and
Game-L.iar.

Beafts of the forefl are, the hart, hind, buck, doe,
boar, wo]f, fox, hare, 8cc. The feafons for hunting

whereof are as follow, viz. that of the liart and buck
begins at the feaft of St John Eaptift, and ends at
Holy-rood-day ; of the lund and doe, begins at Holy-
rood, and continues till Candlemas ; of the boar, from
Chriftmas to Candlemas ; of the fox, begins at Chrift-
mas, and continues till Lady-day ; of the hare at Mi-
chaelmas, and lafts till Candlemas.

FoRSST-Cowts, courts inftltuted for the government
of the king's forefts in different parts of the kingdom,
and for the puniftiment of all injuries done to the king's
deer or venifon, to the vert or greenfvverd, and to the
covert in which fuch deer are lodged. Thefe are the
courts of Attachments, of Regard, of Swein-
MOTE, and of Justice -SE.VT. i. The court of attach-
ments, woodmote, or forty-days court, is to be held be-
fore the verderers of the foreil once in every forty days ;
and is inftituted to inquire into all offenders againll vert
and venifon : who may be attached by their bodies,
if taken with the mainour {ox mainauiire, a mami) that
is, in the very a6l of killing venifon, or ftealing wood,
or in the preparing fo to do, or by trefti and immediate
purfuit after the aft is done ; elfe they muft be attach-
ed by their goods. And in this forty-days court the
forefters or keepers are to bring in their attachments, or
prefentments i/e viridi et venatione ; and the verderers
are to receive the fame, and to enrol them, and to
certify them under their feals to the court of juftice-
feat or fweinmote : for this court can only inquire of,
but not convift, offenders. 2. The court of regard,
or furvey of dogs, is to be holden every third year fox
the lawing or expeditation of maftiffs •, which is done
by cutting off the claws of the fore feet, to prevent
them from running after deer. No other dogs but
maftiffs are to be thus lawed or expeditated, for none
other were permitted to be kept ivithin the precindls
of the foreft ; it being fuppofed that the keeping of
thefe, and thefe only, was neceffary for the defence of
a man's houfe. 3. The court of fweinmote is to be
holden before the verderers, as judges, by the fteward
of the fweinmote, thrice in every year ; the fweins or
freeholders within the foreft compofing the jury. The
principal jurifdid^ion of this court is, firft, to inquire
into the oppreffions and grievances committed by the
officers of the foreft j " de fuper-oneratione farejlarorium,
et aliorum mittiJJrorum forefltv ; et de eorum oppreffionihw.
pofiuto regis illatis ." and, fecondly, to receive and try
prefentments certified from the court of attachments
againft offences in vert and venifon. And this court
may not only inquire, but convitl alfo ; which con-
viclion ftiall be certified to the court of juftice-feat un-
der the ferls of the jury, for this court cannot proceed
to judgment. But the principal court is, 4. The court
of juftice feat, which is held before the chiefjuftice in
eyre, or chief itinerant judge, capita/is JuJIiciarius in iti~
nere, or his deputy ; to hear and determine all trcfpat-
fes within the foreft, and all claims of franchifcs, liber-
ties, and privileges, and all pleas and caufes whatfocver
therein atifing. It may alfo proceed to try prefent-
ments in the inferior courts of the forefts, and to give-
judgment upon conviiflion of the fweinmote. And
the chief juftice may therefore, aftej prefentment
made or indiflment found, but not before, iffue his
warrant to the ofticers of the foreft to apprehend the
offenders. It may be held every third year ; and 40
days notice ought to be given, of its fitting. This court

may

FOR [5

Foreft, may fine and imprifon for offences within the foreft, it

I" ifp-lt.iil. being a court of record : and therefore a ivrit of error

'■"■"*""' lies from hence to the court of king's-bench, to reclify

and redrefs any mal-adminiltrations of julticc ; cr the

chief jultice in eyre may adjourn any matter of law

into the court of king's-bench.

FoRssT-Laios, arc peculiar laws, different from the
common iaw of England. Before the making ot C!uir-
ta de ForcJIa, in the time of King John and his fon
Henry III. continned in parliament Ly 9 HLenry III.
offences committed therein were puniihed at the plea-
fure of the king in tlie feverefl manner. By tliis char-
ter, many foreils were difafforefted and ftrip,'ed of their
oppreffi\'e privileges, and regulations i\ere made for
the goveniment of thofe that remained ; particularly,
killing the king's deer was made no longer a capital
offence, but only puniihed by fine, iraprifonment, or
abjuration of the realm : yet even in the charter there
were fome grievous articles, wlaich the clemency of la-
ter princes have fince by ftatute though fit to alter
per ajjifasforej)^. And to this day, in trefpafles relat-
ing to the forefl, voluntas npulabitur />rofacio ; fo that
if a man be taken hunting a deer, he may be arreffed
as if he had taken a deer.

FoREST-Toivas, in Geography, certain to^vns of
Suabia in Germany, lying along the Rhine, and the
confines of Switzerland, and fubject to the houfe of
Auliria. Their names are Rhinefield, Scckingen, Lau-
ffnburg, and Waldjhul.

FORE-STAFF, an inftrument ufed at fea for taking
the altitudes of heavenly bodies. The fore-ftaff, called
alfo crofs-Jlaff', takes its denomina'tion hence, that the
obferver, in ufing it, turns his face towards the object ;
in oppolition to the back-ftafF, where he turns his back
to the objeft.

The fore or crofs-flaflF, confifts of a ftraight fquare
flaff, graduated like a line of tangents, and four erodes
or vanes, \vhich llide on it. The firft and ihortell of
thefe vanes, is called the ten crcfs, or vane, and belongs
to that fide of the inftrument on '.vhich the divifions
begin at three degrees and end at ten. The next
longer vane, is called the thirty crofs, belonging to that
fide of the itafF in which the divifiuns begin at ten de-
grees and end at thirty, called the thirty fcale. The-
ne.xt vane is called ihtfixty crofs, and belongs to the
fide ^vhere the divifions begin at twenty degrees and
end at fixty. The lail and longeft, called the ninety
crofs, belongs to the fide where the divifions begin at
thirty degrees and end at ninety.

The ufe of this inftrument is to take the height of
the fun and ftars, or the diftance of two ftars : and
tlie ten, thirty, fixty, or ninety crofTes, are to be ufed
according as the altitude is greater or lefs ; that is, if
the ahitude be lefs than ten degrees, the ten crofs is to
be ufed ; if above ten, but lefs than thirty, the thirty
crofs is to be ufed, &.c. Note, For altitudes greater
than thirty degrees, this inftrument is not fo conveni-
ent as a quadrant or femicircle.

To ohferve an Altitude by this injlrumenl. -~A.^^\y the
flat end of the ftafFto your eye, and look at the upper end
of the crofs for the centre of the fun or ftar, and at the
lower end for the horizon. If you fee the Iky inftead of
the horizon. Aide the crofs a little nearer the eye ; and
if you ka the fea inftead of the horizon, ilide the crofs
farther from the eye 3 and llius conlinue moving till

FOR

y^ . iee exaflly the fun or ftar's centre by the top of FjrcP.
the crofs, and the horizon by the bottom thereof. Then I

the degrees and minutes, cut by the inner edge of the . '
crofs upon the fide of the ftalf peculiar to the crofs
you ufe, giv.c the altitude of the fun or ftar.

If it be the meridian altitude you ^vant, continue
your obfenfation as long as you find the altitude in-
creafe, ftill moving the crofs nearer to the eye. By
fubtrading the meridian altitude thus found from 90
degrees, you will have the zenith diftance. To work
accurately, an allowance rauft be made for the height
of the eye above the furface of the fea, viz. for one
Englilh foot, I minute; for 5 feet, 2 J 5 for lo/eet, 35-;
for 20 feet, 5 ; for 40 feet, 7, &lc. Thefe minutes
fubtrafted from the altitude obferved, and added to the
zenith diftance obferved, give the true altitude and
zenith diftance.

To ohferve the difance oft'xoflars, or the moon''s di-
ftance from a far, by the fore-faff'. — Apply the inftru-
ment to the eye, and looking to both ends of the crofs,
move it nearer or farther from the eye till you fee the
two ftars, the one on the one end, and the other on the
other end of the crofs ; then the degrees and minutes
cut by the crofs on the fide proper to the vane in ufe
give tiie ftars diftance.

FORESTALLER, a perfon who is guilty of fore-
ftaliing. See the next article.

FORESTALLING, in Laiv, buying or bargaining
fur any corn, cattle, victuals, or merchandife, in the
way as they come to fairs or markets to be fold, before
they get thither, ivith an intent to fell the fame again
at a higher price.

The punilhraent for this offence, upon cOn\'idion at
the c[uarter felTions by two or more witneffcs, is, for
the firft time, two months imprifonment and the I0&
of the goods, or the value ; for the fecond offence the
offender fhall be imprifoned fix months, and lofe double
the value of the goods ; for the third offence he ihali
luffer imprilonment during the king's plealure, forfeit"
all his goods and chattels, and ftand on the pillory ;
but the ftatute does not extend to maltfters buying
barlev, or to badgers licenfed.

FORESTER, a fwom officer of the foreft, ap-
pointed by the king's letters patent, to walk the foreft
at all hours, and watch over the vert and venifon ; al-
fo to make attachments and true prefentments of all
trefpaffes committed within the foreft.

If a man comes into a foreft in the night, a forefter
cannot lawfully beat him before he makes fome refill-
ance ; but » cafe fuch a perfon refifts the [forelter, he
may juftify a battery. And a forefter ftiall not be que-
ftioned for killing a trefpaffer that, after the peace
cried to him, will not furrender himfelf, if it be not
done on any former malice ; though, where trefpaffers
in a foreft, &c. do kill a perfon that oppofes them, it
is murder in all, becaufe they were engaged in an un-
lawful acl, and therefore malice is implied to the per-
fon killed.

FORETHOUGHT feloxy, in Scots Law, figni-
fies premeditated murder. See Murdf.r.

FORFAR, a town of Scotland, and capital of the
county of that name, fituatcd in N. Lat. 56. 25.
W. Long. 2. 32. This town, \vith Dundee, Cupar,
Perth, and St Andrew's, jomtly fend one member
to the Eritifh parliament. It itands in the great

valley

FOR

TiUcy of Stratlimore that runs from Pertli ncrtli-eafl
to the ic3, :ilnieft in a ftraight line, about 50 miles
Jong and betu-ixt four and five miles broad, bounded
on the fcutb lide by gentle hill», and on the north by the
Grampian mountains.

Forfar is a very ancient town, and vrs.s once a royal
I'fidence. Here Malcolm Canmore held his firft par-
liament in 1057. The ruins of his palace are ftill to be
feen on the top of an artificial mount of a circular form,
reding upon a bafe of about three acres of ground, and
riling 50 feet high above the plain. The lake of For-
far, ftretching two miles in length from eaft to weft,
and half a mile in breadth, and covering the palace on
the north, afforded not only a plentiful iupply of water
for every purpofe, but alfo added to the ftrength of the
place. This lake which abounds with trout, pike, perch,
and eel, has been greatly reduced by draining ; and
fine marl has been found in llrata from tv^o to fix and
eight feet deep, with mofs below ten feet deep.

Within this lake were formerly two iilands raifed
by art, with buildings on each ; to \vhich Margaret,
Malcolm Canmore's queen, retired after the deceafe of
her hulband. Part of the ruins of thefe edifices are
ftill to be feen.

Little is known of Forfar till the middle of the 17th
century, except an act patfed in the 13th parliament of
James VI. 21 ft July, 1593, in the following words,
which affords a fpecimen of the manners and language
of the times, " Our foveraine Lorde, underftand-
ing that be acle and ordinance maid anent obfer-
vation of the Sabbath-daie within this realme, the
niercatte-daie of the burgh of Forfare, being the head
burgh of the fchire, quhilk was Sundaie, is taken from
them ; and his hienefle not willing that they in onie
waies fuld be prejudged hereby, therefore his hienefle,
with advife of the eftaites of this prefent parliament,
alteris and changis their faid mercattc-daie from Sun-
daie to Fridaie, and willis the famen Fridaie oukly to
be their mercatte-daie to them in all times hereafter ;
and the famin to ftande with the like priveleges and
freedomes as the Sundaie did of before." The mar-
ket day has beep long held on Saturday.

During the ufurpation of Oliver Cromwell, a de-
tachment of his forces, after facking Dundee, came to
Forfar and burnt all the public records of the place •,
and the only charter the town now has is fine granted
by Charles II. after his reftoration, confirming all its
ancient rights and privileges.

As an evidence of the ignorance and barbarity of
the times, it appears from the records of the trials kept
in the charter-cheft of Forfar, that nine perfons were
condemned and burnt here for witchcraft betwixt the
years 1650 and 1662. Thefe innocent people were
all tried by a fpecial comnailTion from the lords of the
privy council at Edinburgh ; and although the com-
miflion exprefsly difcharged torturing them on purpofe
to extort a confeffion of their guilt, yet, as it was
then thought meritorious* to obtain confeffion of guilt
by whatever means, many inhuman cruelties were ex-
ercifed upon the unfortunate objefls ; particularly, an
iron boot was dra\vn upon one of their legs, and a
wedge driven with great force between it and the leg.
Another inftrument, flill carefully preferved here, was
likewife ufed, and is called the witcA bridle. It is made
of iron in the fliape of a dog's collar, with ttvo pikes
3

[ 6 ]

FOR

on the infidc, about four inches diftant nnj tivo and a
half long. Thefe pikes were put into the moutli, and
the collar afterwards buckled ftrait on the back of the
head, to \vhich ivas affixed an iron cluain, whereby the
condemned perfons were led to the place of execution
called the Play-f.eld, about a quarter of a mile to the
northward of the town.

The ilrects of Fofsr are rather irregular 5 but many
of the houfes are neat and well built. Ofnaburgs and
coarfe linens are manufactured here ; and many of
the inhabitants are employed in making a coarfe kind
of (hoes.

For fAR-S/i:re, a county of Scotland, of which For-
far is the capital. Including Angus, Glenila, Glenelk,
and Glenproffin, it extends between 40 and 50 miles
from eaft to weft, and 1 6 were broadeft, though in fome
places the breadth does not exceed five miles. On the
north it is divided from the Brae of Mar by a ridge of tlie
Bincb'nnan mountains ; it is bounded on the fouth by
the frith of Tay and the Britiih ocean, on the eaft by
Meams, and on the weft by Perthftiire. Part of the
Grampian mountains runs through this county, which
is agreeably divcrfified with hill and dale. It produces
fome lead and iron, together with freeftone, flate, and
limeftone. Coarfe linens and fail-cloth are the chief
manufactures of the county. It is well watered with
lakes, rivers, rivulets, and fountains, ftiaded with
large forefts, roughened with brown motmtains and
waved with green hills interfperfed with fields and
meadoivs, and adorned with fine feats and plantations.
Their heatlis and woods abound with hart, hind, roe-
buck, and moor game ; their ftreams are flocked with
trout and falmon. Their hills are covered with flocks
of ftieep, and their fields afford plentiful harvefts of
wheat and all forts of grain. The mountains to the
iveft and north are inhabited by Highlanders : but the
Lowlanders poffefs the towns and champaign coun-
try, and are remarkable for their politenefs and hofpi-
tality.

The population of this county in 1801 amounted to
97,778. But in the following table is exhibited a view
of its population, at two different periods.

TariJJies.

1 Aberbrothwick

Aberlemno

Airly

Arbirlot
5 Auchterhoufe

Barry

Brechin

Carmylie

Carraldftonc
10 Cortachy

Craig

Dun

Dundee

Dunnlchen
15 Edzell

Effie and Ncvay

Feam

Fernell

Forfar
20 Glammis

Population

Population io

in 1755.

1790— 1798.

2098

4676

943

'O33

1013

865

865

1055

600

600

689

796

•3181

5000

745

700

269

260

'233

1020

935

13 '4

657

500

'2,477

23-500

653

872

862

963

500

6.^0

too

490

"799

620

2450

4756

1780

2040

Glenifla

FOR

[

^.i:r f-y-.

Population
>=' '-Si-

Population in
I7pc— 175S.

orfeiture.

Glenilla

1852

1018

"* '

Guthrie

584

571

Innerarity

996

929

Inverkellor

12S6

1747

*i

Kettins

1475

11 00

Kingoldrum

7S0

600

Kinnell

761

830

Kinnettles

616

621

Kirkden

5^5

727

33

Kirrymuir

3 4' 9

4358

Lentrathcn

1165

900

Lethnol

63s

505

Liff

13 11

1790

Lochlee

686

608

3S

Logic Pert

696

999

Lunan

208

291

Mains

709

876

Marytoii

633

529

Menmuir

743

900

40

Moneikie

1345

1278

Monifeith

142 1

1218

Montrofe

4150

6194

Muirhoufc

623

462

Newtyle

9'3

594

45

Oathlaw

43 J

43=

Panbride

i2J9

146c

Refcobie

798

934

Ruthven

280

220

St Vigeans

1592

335^

50

Strathraartlne

368

340

Strickathro

529

672

Tannadyce

1470

1470

S3

Tealing

755

802

68,297

91,001
68,297

Increafe,

22,704

FORFEITURE, originally fignilies a tranfgref-
iion or offence againft fome penal law. The word is
fornied of the bafe Latin farUfaBura ; whence forfai-
ttira and forfaiciura, and the French farfait. Fon's-
faBura comes oi forisfacere ; which, according to Ifi-
dore, fignities to " hurt or offend," facere contra ra-
lionem ; and which is not improbably derived of furis
" out," and facere, " to do," q. d. an atlion out of
rule or contrary to the rules. Borel will hzvejorfait
derived from the u2ng of force or violence : Lobineau,
in his gloflary, \vill have /ornjaBa properly to fignify a
raulft or amend, not ^forfeit ; which latter he derives
from the Bas-Breton_/6r/i'i2', " a penalty."

But, with us, it is now more frequently ufed for the
effeft of fuch tranfgrefTion j or the lofing fomc right,
privilege, ellate, honour, office, or effefl';, in confequence
thereof; than for the tranfgrefl"ion ilftlf.

Forfeiture differs from confifcalion, in that the former
is more general ; %vhile confifcation is particularly ap-
plied to fuch things "as become forfeited to the king's
exchequer ; and goods confifcated are faid to be fuch as
nobody claims.

Forfeitures may be either in civil or criminal cafes.

L With refpccl to the full, a man that hath an

7 ] FOR

eftate for life or years, may forfeit it many ways, as well Foifefm
as by treafon or felony ; fuch as alienation, claiming a ""^'v—
greater eftate than he hatli, or allirming the reverfion
to be in a ftranger, &c. When a tenant in tail makes
leafes not warranted by the ftatute ; a copyholder
commits wade, refufes to pay his rent, or do fuit of
court ; and where an eftate is granted upon condition,
on non-performance thereof, &c. they will make a for-
feiture.

Entry for a forfeiture ought to be by him who is
next in reverfion, or remainder, after the eftate for-
feited. As if a tenant for life or years commits a forfei-
ture, he who has the immediate reverfion or remainder
ought to enter, though he has the fee, or only an eftate-
tail.

IL Forfeiture in criminal cafes is twofold ; of real,
and perfonal eftates.

I. As to real eftates by Attainder in high tren-
fon, a man forfeits to the king all his lands and tene-
ments of inheritance, whether fee-fimple or fee-tail ;
and all his rights of entry on lands and tenements,
which he had at the time of the offence committed, or
at any time afterwards, to be for ever veiled in the
croivn ; and alfo the profits of all lands and tenements,
which he had in his own right for life or years, fo long
as fuch intereft Ihall fublift. This forfeiture xfiiiXti BUclf.m
backwards to the time of the treafon committed j fo as drmr.cr.t
to avoid all intermediate fales and encumbrances, but
not thofe before the faft : and therefore a wife's join-
ture is not forfeitable for the treafon of her hulhand ;
becaufe fettled upon her previous to the treafon com-
mitted. But her dower is forfeited, by the exprefs
provifion of ftatute 5 and 6 Edw. Vl. c. 11. And yet
the hulhand ftiall be tenant by courtefy of the wife's
lands, if the wife be attainted of treafon \ for that is
not prohibited by the ftatute. But, though after at-
tainder the forfeiture relates back to the time of the
treafon committed, yet it does not take eft'ecl unlefs an
attainder be had, of which it is one of the fruits ; and
tljerefore, if a traitor dies before judgment pronounced,
or is killed in open rebellion, or is hanged by martial
law, it works ^no forfeiture of his lands ; for he never
was attainted of treafon. But if the chief juftice of the
king's bench (the fupreme coroner of all England) in
perlon, upon the view of the body of him killed in open
rebellion, records it and returns the record into his own
court, both lands and goods fiiall be forfeited.

The natural juftice of forfeiture or confifcation of
property, for treafon, is founded on thi-> confideration :
That he who hath thus violated the fundaraenlal prin-
ciples of government, and broken his part of the ori-
ginal coutracl between king and people, Ir.iih abandon-
ed his connexions ^vith fociety, and lialh no longer
any right to thofe advantages which before belonged
to him purely as a member of the community ; among
which focial advantages, tlie right of transferring or
tranfmitting property to others is one of the chief.
Such forfeitures, moreover, uhereby his pofterity muft
fuffcr as well as himfelf, will help to reitrain a man,
not only by tlie fenfe of his duly, and dread of perfonal
punifliment, but alfo by his pailions and natural affec-
tions J and will intereft every dependent and relation
he has to keep him from offending : according to that
beautiful fentiment of Cicero, '• nee vera mefugil quam
fit acerbum, parcntum fcelcra filiorum potnis lui;feil hoc
prceclarc

FOR

[ 8

. pr^etlare Iirg'ibvs Coinparatu7n e/l, ut cantas lihcrorum
r pareates relpubiiae redderet." And therefore
Aulus Cafcellius, a Roman lawyer in the time of the
triumvirate, ufed to boaft that he had two reafons for
dcfpifing the power of tlie tyrants ; his old age and
his want of children •, for children are pledges to the
prince of the father's obedience. Yet many nations
have thought, that this jjofthumous punidiment favours
of hardihip to the innocent ; efpecially for crimes that
do not Ihike at the very root and foundation of fo-
ciety, as treafon againft the goveniment exprelsly does.
And therefore, although confifcations were very fre-
quent in the times of the earlier emperors, yet Arca-
diiis and Honorius, in every other inftance but that of
treafon, thought it more juft, ili effe panam, iihi et noxa
ej} i and ordered, xha.t'-'' peccatofiws teneant auHores, nee
ulterius prngrediatur mdus, quam rcperiatur delitlum C''
and Juftinian alfo made a law to reftrain the puniiliment
of rela;ions ; which direfts the forfeiture to go, except
in the cafe of crimen nwje/latis, to the next of kin to the
delinquent. On the other hand, the IVIacedonian laws
extended even the capital puniiliment of treafon, not
only to the children, but to all the relations of the de-
linquent ; and of courfe their eftates muft be alfo for-
feited, as no man was left to inherit them. And in
Germany, by the famous golden bull (copied ahnolf
■verhalim from Juftinian's code), the lives of the fons of
fuch as confpire to kill an eleftor are fpared, as it is ex-
prefied, by the emperor's particular bounty. But they
are deprived of all their effefts and rights of fucceffion,
and are rendered incapable of any honour ecclefiaftical
and civil : to the end that, being always poor and ne-
cefTitous, they may for ever be accompanied by the in-
famy of their father ; may languilh in continual indi-
gence ; and may find (fays this mcicilefs edift) their
punilhment in living, and their relief in dying."

In England, forfeiture of laniis and tenements to
the crown for treafon is by no means derived from the
feodal policy, but v,'as antecedent to the ellabliihment
of that fyftem in this ifland i being tranfmitted from
our Saxon anceftors, and forming a part of the ancient
Scandinavian conftitution. But in certain treafons relat-
ing to the coin (which feem rather a fpecics of the
crimen falfi than the crimen Icefic majejlalis), it is pro-
vided by foroe of the modern ftatutes which conftitute
the oflfence, that it fliall v^ork no forfeiture of lands,
fave only for the Viic of the offenders ; and by all, that
it (hall not deprive the wife of her dower. And, in
order to abolifh fuch hereditary punilhment entirely, it
was enafted by ftatute 7 Ann. c. 21. that, after the
deceafe of the late pretender, no attainder for treafon
fliould extend to the dilmheriting of any heir, nor to
the jirejudice of any perfcn, other than the traitor him-
felf. JBy which the laiv of forfeitures for high trea-
fon would by this time have been at an end, had not a
fubfequent ftatute intervened to give them a longer du-
ration. The hiilory of thi-s matter is fomevvhat fm-
gular, and worthy obfcrvation. At the time of the
imion, the crime of treafon in Scotland was, by the
Scots law, in many refpefts different from that of trca-
fc^i in England ; and particularly in its confcquence
of forfeitures of entailed effates, which was more pe-
culiarly Rngljffi : yet it feemed ne^effary, that a crime
fo nca'iy affccVinw trovernment fhould, both in its ef-
icnce and confequences, be put upon the fame footing

] FOR

in both parts of the united kingdoms. In new-mo- Forfritn
delling thel'e laws, the Scots nation and the Englifti '~~"V
houfe of commons fti-uggled hard, partly to maintain,
and partly to acquire, a total immunity from forfeiture
and corruption of blood : ^vhich the houfe of lords as
firmly reiifted. At length a compromife was agreed
to, which is eftablidied by this ftatute, viz. that the
fame crimes, and no other, fliould be treafon in Scot-
land that are fo in England ; and that the Engliih for-
feitures and corruption of blood fhould take place in
Scotland till the death of the then pretender, and then
ceafe througliout the whole of Great Britain : the lords
artfully propofing this temporary claufe, in hopes (it
is faid) that the prudence of fucceeding parliaments
would make it perpetual. This has "partly been done
by the ftatute 17 Geo. II. c. 39. made in the year pre-
ceding the late rebellion), the operation of thefe in-
demnifying claufes being thereby ftill farther fufpend-
ed till the death of the fons of the pretender.

In petit treafon and felony, the offender alfo for-
feits all his chattel interefts abfolutcly, and the profits
of all freehold eftates during life ; and after his death
all his lands and tenements in fee fimple (but not thofe
in tail) to the crown, lor a very (liort period of time :
for the king ftiall have them for a year and a day, and
may commit therein what wafte he pleafes ; which is
called the king's year, day, and lua^e. Formerly the
king had only a liberty of committing wafte on the
lands of felons, by pulling down their houfes, extir-
paling their gardens, ploughing their meadows, and
cutting down their woods. And a punifhment of a
fimilar fpirit appears to have obtained in the oriental
countries, from the decrees of Nebuchadnezzar and
Cyrus in the books of Daniel and Ezra ; which, he-
fides the pain of death intlided on the delinquents
there fpecified, ordain, " that their houfes (hall be made
a dunghill." But this tending greatly to the prejudice
of the public, it was agreed in the reign of Henry I,
of England, that the king (liould have the profits of
the land for one year and a day in lieu of the deftruc-
tion he was olherwife at liberty to commit : and there-
fore magna c/.arta provides, that the king (hall only hold
fuch lands for a year and a day, and then reftore them
to the lord of the fee, without any mention made of
wafte. But the ftatute 17 Edward II. de prcrogativa
regis, feems to fuppofe, that the king ftiall have his year,
day, and wafte ; and not the year and day in/lead of
wafte : wliich Sir Edward Coke (and the author of the
Mirror before him) very juftly look upon as an en-
croachment, though a very ancient one, of the royal
prerogative. This year, day, and wafte, are now u-
fually compounded for ; but otherwife they regularly
belong to the crown : and after their expiration the
land would naturally have defccnded to the heir (as in
gavelkind tenure it ftill does) did not its feudal quality
intercept fuch defcent, and give it by way of efcheat
to the lord. Thefe forfeitures for felony do alfo arife
only upon attainder ; and therefore a Je/o de fe forfeits
no lands of iidieritance or freehold, for he never is at-
tainted as a felon. They likewife relate ba'-k to the
time the offence was committed as well as forfeitures
for treafon, fo as to avoid all intermediate charges and
convey?.nces. This may be hard upon fuch as have
unwarily engaged with the offender ; bit the cruelty
and reproach mult lie on the part, not of the law, but

of

F O R

[

I'irigly and dilhon-

FOR

of t!ie criminal : »vho has thus knovvi
eflly involved others in his own calamities.
, 2. The forfeiture of goods and chattels accrues in
every one of the high kinds of offence ; in high treafon,
or mifprilion thereof, petit treafon, felonies of all forts
whether clergyable or not, felf murder or felony dc fe,
petty larceny. Handing mute, &c. For flight alfo, on
an accufation of treafon, felony, or even petit larceny,
whether the party be found guilty or acquitted, if the
jury find the flight, the party (hall forfeit his goods
and chattels ; for the very flight is an offence, carrying
n-.'th it a Itrong prefumption of guilt, and is at leall an
endeavour to elude and to ftifle the courfe of juftice
jirefcribed by the law. But the jury very feldom find
the flight : forfeiture being looked upon, fince the vail
iucreafe of perfonal property of late years, as too large a
penalty for an offence to which a man is prompted by
the natural love of liberty.

There is a remarkable difference between the
forfeiture of lands and of goods and chattels, (i.)
Lands are forfeited upon attainder, and not before ;
goods and chattels are forfeited by conviBion. Be-
caufe in many of the cafes where goods are forfeited,
there never is any attainder ; which happens only where
judgment of death or outlawry is given ; therefore, in
thofe cafes, the forfeiture mull be upon conviftion, or
not at all ; and, being necelTarily upon conviftion in
thofe, it is fo ordered in all other cafes, for the law
loves uniformity. (2.) The forfeiture of lands has
relation to the time the faft was committed, fo as to
avoid all fubfequent fales and encumbrances : but the
forfeiture of goods and chattels has no relation back-
wards ; fo that thofe only which a man has at the time
of conviflion (hall be forfeited. Therefore a traitor
or felon may bona fide fell any of his chattels, real or
perfonal, for the fuftenance of himfelf and family be-
tween the faft and conviftion ; for perfonal property
is of fo fluftuating a nature, that it paffes through
many hands in a rtiort time j and no buyer could be
lafe, if he were liable to return the goods which he
had fairly bought, provided any of the prior venders
had committed a treafon or felony. Yet if they be
collufively and not bona fide parted with, merely to
defraud the crorni, the law (and particularly the fta-
tute 13 Eliz. c. 5.) will reach them ; for they are all
the while truly and fubflantially the goods of the
offender : and as he, if acquitted, might recover them
himfelf, as not parted with for a good confideration ;
fo, in cafe he happens to be convidled, the law will re-
cover them for the king.

FORFEX, in Roman antiquity, was a way of
drawing up an army in the form of a pair of (heers.
It was intended to receive the ciinctis or wedge, if the
enemy (hould make ufe of that figure. For when the
forfex opened to admit the wedge, they had an opportu-
nity of defeating their defign, and cutting them in pieces.

FORFICULA, the earwig, a genus of infetls be-
longing to the order of coleoptera. See E.ntomolggy
Index.

FORGE, properly fignifies a little furnace, where-
in fmiths and other artificers of iron or Heel, &c. heat
their metals red hot, in order to foften them and render
them more malleable and manageable on the anvil.

An ordinary forge is nothing but a pair of bellows,
the nozzle of which is dlrefted upon a fmooth area,

Vol. IX. Part I.

on which cOals are placed. The nozzle of a pair of Forge
bellows may be alfo direfted to the bottom of any fur- H
nace, to excite the combuftion of the coals placed ^"^"J-^
there, by wliich a kind of forge is formed. In labo-
ratories, there is generally a Iniall furnace confifling
of one cylindrical piece, open at top, which has at its
lower fide a hole for receiving the nozzle of a double
bellows. This kind of forge furnace is very conveni-
ent for fufions, as the operation is quickly performed,
and with few coals. In its lower part, two inches
above the hole for receiving the nozzle of the bellows,
njay be placed an iron plate of the fame diameter, fup-
ported upon two horizontal bars, and pierced near its
circumference with four holes diametrically oppofite to
each other. By this difpofition, the wind of the beV-
lovvs, pullied forcibly under this plate, enters at thefe
four holes ; and thus the heat of the fire is equally dif-
tributed, and the crucible in the furnace is equally fur-
rounded by it. This contrivance is ufed in the forge-
furnaces for melting copper, with this difference on-
ly, that thefe fturnaces are fquare, which is a matter of
no confequence.

As the wind of bello^vs flrongly and rapidly excites
the aftion of the fire, a forge is very convenient when
a great heat is to be applied quickly : but it is not
fuitable when the heat is to be gradually increafed.

The forge, or blail of bellows, is ufed in feveral ope-
rations in fmall ; as to fufe falts, metals, ores, &c. It
IS alio much u!ed in works in the great, which require
(Irong heat, without much management ; and chiefly in
the fmelting of ores, and fufion of metaUic matters.

Forge is alfo ufed for a large furnace, wherein iron
ore, taken out of the mine, is melted doivn : or it is
more properly applied to another kind of furnace,
wherein the iron-ore, melted down and feparated in a
former furnace, and then cafl into fows and pigs, is
heated and fufed over again, and beaten afterwards
with large hammers, and thus rendered more foft, pure,
dutlile, and fit for ufe.

Forge, in the train of artillery, is generally called
a travelling forge, and may not be improperly called
a portable fmith's Ihop : at this forge all manner of
fmith's work is made, and it can be ufed upon a march
as well as in camp. Formerly they were very ill con-
trived, with two wheels only, and wooden fupporters to
prop the forge for working when in the park. Of late
years they are made ivith foiu: wheels, ivhich anfwers
their purpofe much better.

Forge for red-hot Balls, is a place where the ballj
are made red hot before they are fired off : it is built
about five or fix feet below the furface of the ground,
of Ihong brick-work, and an iron grate, upon which
the balls are laid, with a large fire under them.

FORGER, in Law, one guilty of forgert.

FORGERY (from the Yxench forger, i. e. accudare,
fahricare, " to beat on an anvil, forge, or form,") may
be defined at common law, to be " the fraudulent
making or alteration of a writing, to the prejudice of
another man's right :" for which the offender may fuf-
fer fine, imprifonment, and pillory. And alfo, by a
variety of flatutes, a more fevere punilhment is inflifted
on the offender in many particular cafes, which are fo
multiplied of late as almoft to become general. We Ihall
mention the principal inftances.

Vij ftatute 5 Eliz. c. 14. to forge or make, or know-
ii inelvr

FOR

[ 10 ]

FOR

Tjrgery. in<rly to publilh or give in evidence, any forgcvl deed, change, promiflory note, indorfement or aflignment

' court-roil, or Ail!, w-ith intent to affeft the right of real
property, either freehold or copyhold, is puniihed by
a forfeiture to the party grieved of double colVs and
damages ; by (landing in the pillory, and having both
his ears cut off, and his nollrils flit and feared ; by
forfeitui-e to the cromi of the profits of his lands, and
by perpetual impriionment. For any forgery relatmg
to a term of years or annuity, bond, obligation, ac-
debt or demand

thereof, or any acquittance or receipt for money
goods, with intention to defraud any perfon (or cor-
poration), is made felony without benefit of clergy.
And by liatute 7 Geo. II. c. 22. it is equally penal to
forge, or caufe to be forged, or utter as true, a coun-
terfeit acceptance of a bill of exchange, or the number
of any accountable receipt for any note, bill, or any
other fecurity for money, or any is-arrant or order for
the payment of money, or delivery of goods. So th

Forg.sg

II

Folk.

quittance, releafe, or difcharge of any debt or demand the payment ct money, or dehvery ol gooQs. So that,
of any pe'rfonal chattels, the fame forfeiture is given to through the number of thefe general and fpecial pro-
"^ ' ■ ■ •^■-' -' '•-- viiicns, there is now hardly a cafe poflible to be con-
ceived, wherein forgery, that tends to defraud, whether
in the name of a real or fictitious perfon, is not made

the party grieved ; and on the offender is intlieted th
pillory, lofs of one of his ears, and half a year's im-
prifonment : the fecond offence, in both cales, being
felony v.ithout benefit oF clergy.

BeSdes this general p.a, a multitude of others, finee
the Revolution (when paper credit was firft eftablilhed),
have inflided capital punilhment on the forging, al-
tering, or uttering as true when forged, of any bank
bills or notes, or other fccurities j of bills of credit
idiied from the exchequer j of South Sea bonds, 6ic. ;
of lottery tickets or orders ; of army or na'.y deben

a capital crime.

FoRGiXG, in Laiv, the a^ of Forgery.

Forging, in fmithery, the beating or hammering
iron on the anvil, after having firft made it red hot in
tiie forge, in order to extend it into various forms, and
fafliion it into various works. See FoKGE.

There are t^vo ways of forging and hammering iron.
One is by the force of the hand, in which there are

tures ; of Fall Inula bonds ; of writings under feal of ufual'y feveral penbns employed, one of tliera turning
the London or royal exchange affurance j of the hand ""^ ' — ^ " ' '"- '" '''

of the receiver of the pre-fines, or of the accountant-
general and certain other oihcers of the court of chan-
cery; of a letter of attorney or other power to receive
or transfer ftock or annuities ; and on the perfonacing
a proprietor thereof, to receive or transfer fuch annui-
ties, rtock or dividends: alfo on the perfonatlng, or
procuring to be perfonated, any feaman or other per-
fon, entitled to wages or other naval emoluments, or
any of his perfonal reprefentatives ; and the taking, or
procuring to be taken, any falfe oath in order to ob-
tain

the iron and hammering likewife, and the reil only
hammering. The other ^^■ay is by the force of a wa-
ter-mill, which railes and works fe^•eral huge hammers
beyond the force of man •, under the ftrokes whereof
the workmen prefent large lumps or pieces of iron,
which are fuft.iined at one end by the anvils, and at
the other by iron chains fattened to the ceiling of the
forge. See Mill.

This laft way of forging is only lifed in the largelt

works, as anchors for (hips, &:c. which ufually weigh

feveral thoufand pounds. For the lighter works, a

probate or letters of adminiftration, in order to fingle man ferves to hold, heat, and turn with one hand,

fuch payments ; and the forging, or procuring while he hammers with the other.

to be forged, and likewife the uttering or publiihing. Each purpole the work is defigned for requires its

^- " 1.-. . f.- :r :. u. ^j ■■* -ill not feel the

call it when it
and if it be too hot,

: true, of any counterfeited feaman's will or power : " proper heat ; for if it be too cold, it w
to ^vhich may be added, though not ftriclly reducible weight of the hammer, as the fmiths <

to this head,' the counterfeiting of Mediterranean paf-
fcs under the hands of the lords of the admiralty, to
proteift one from the piratical ftates of Barbary •, the
forging or imitating of any (lamps to defraud the
public revenue •, and the forging of any marriage re-
gilter or licenfe : all which are, by diltincl ads of par-
liament, made felonies without benefit of clergy. By
rtatutes 13 Geo. III. c. j2. & 59. forging or counter-
feiting any (lamp or m.irk to denote the ftandard of
gold and lilver plate, and certain other offences of the
like tendency, are puniihed with tranfportation for 14
years. By I'tatute 12 Geo. III. c. 48. certain frauds
on the ftamp-duties, therein defcribed, principally by
uiing the fame ftamps more than once, are made fingle
felony, and liable to tranfportation for feven years.
And the fame punilhment is inflifted by (latute 13
Geo. III. c. ^8. on fuch as counterfeit the common
kal of the corporation for manufafturing plate glafs
(thereby erefted), or knowingly demand money of the
corapany by virtue of any writing under fuch counter-
feit leal. ^

There are alfo two other general laws with regard
to- forgery -, the one 2 Geo. II. c. 25. whereby the firft
offence in forging or procuring to be forged, afting or
aftifting therein, or uttering or publiihing as true, any
forged deed, will, bond, writing obligatory, bill of ex-

w-ill not batter under the ha

it will red fear, that is, break or crack under the ha

mer.

The feveral degrees of heat the fmiths give their
irons, are, firft, a blood-red heat 5 fecondly, a white-
flame heat ; and thirdly, a fparkling or welding heat.

FORISFAMILIATION, in Law. When a child,
upon receiving a portion from his father, or otherwife,
renounces his legal title to any further (hare of his fa-
ther's fucceflion, he is faid to he forisfamiliated.

FORK, a well known iniirument, confifting of a
handle and blade, divided at the end into two or more
points or prongs.

T\it pitchfork is a large uteniil of this conftrnftion,
employed In hay-making, &c.

The table fork, an iniirument now fo indifpenfable,
did not come into ufe in England till the reign of
James I. as we learn from a remarkable paffage in Co-
ryat. The reader will probably fmile at the folemn man-
ner in which this important difcovery or innovation is
related : " Here I will mention a thing that might have
been fpoktn of before in difcourfe of the firll Italian
towncs. I obferved a cuflom in all thofe Italian cities
and townes through the which I paffed, that is not
ufed in any other country that I faw in my travels,
neither do I thinke that any other nation of Chrifteti-

dorae

FOR [I

dome ilotii ufe it, but only Italy. The Italians and al-
fo moll ilrangers that are comtaorant in Iialy, doe al-
ways at their meals ufe a little f'orke .when they eat
their meate ; for while with their knife ^vhich thty
hold in one hand they cut the meate out of the dilh,
they fafteii the forke which they hold in tlie other
hand upon the fame dilh, fo that whatfoevcr he be
that fittmg in the company of any others at meale
Ihall unadvifcdiy touch the dilh of meat with his fin-
gers from which all the table doe cut, he will give oc-
cafion of offence unto the company as ha\nng tranl-
grelTed the lawes of good manners, infomiich that
for his error he ihall be at leall brow-bfaten if not re-
jirehended in wordes. This form of feeding I under-
lland is geijerally ufed in all parts of Italy, their forkes
for the moft part being made of yronn, fteelc, and
Ibme of filver, but thoi'e are ufed only by gentlemen.
The reafon of this their curiofity is, becaule the Ita-
lian cannot by any means indure to have his dilh touch-
ed with fingers, feeing all men's fingers are not alike
cleane. Hereupon 1 myfelf thought good to imitate
the Italian falhion by this forked cutting of meate,
not only while I was in Italy, but alfo in Germany,
and often times in England fmce I came home : be-
ing once quipped for that frequently ullng my forke,
by a certain learned gentleman, a familiar friend of
mine, Mr La;vrence Whitaker ; who in his merry hu-
mour doubted not to call me a table furcifer, only for
ufing a forke at feeding, but tor no other caule."

FORLI, an ancient and confiderable town of Italy,
and capital of a territory ot the fame name, in Ro-
rcagna, with a bithop's fee. The public flTUctures are
very handiome ; and it is feated in a fertile, healthy,
and pleafant country, lo miles fouth-eart of Faenza,
and 45 north-eall of Florence. E. Long. 12. I . N.
Lat. 44. 28.

FORLORN-HOPE, in the military art, fignifies men
cftached from feveral regiments, or otherwiie appoint-
ed, to make the firft attack in day of battle ; or, at a
iiege, to ftorm the counterfcarp, mount the breach, or
the like. They are fo called from the great danger
they are unavoidably expofed to ; but the word is old,
and begins to be obfolete.

FORM, in Pin/lies, denotes the manner of being pe-
culiar to each body 5 or that which conftitutes it fuch
a particular body, and diftingurihes it from every o-
ther.

Mr Harris ufes the t&qca form likewife in another
fenfe, as an efficient animating principle ; to which he
fuppofes Ovid to refer in the firil lines of his Metamor-
phofis,

/;; novafert animiis r/iu tolas dicere formas.
Corpora.

Thefe animating forms are of themfelves no objects
either of the ear or of the eye ; but their nature or
cl«irafter is underliood in this, that were they never to
exert their proper energies on their proper fubjeds,
the marble on which the fculptor exercifes his art
would remain for ever (hapelefs, and the harp from
which the harper calls fortli foimds would remain for
ever fdent.

Thus, alfo, the animating form of a natural body
is neither its organization nor its figure, nor any other
of thofe inferior fonus which make up the fyilem of

I J FOR

its vifible qualities : but it is the power, which is yet
able to produce, preferve, and employ thefe. It is the '
poiver, which firll moves, and then condufts tliat la-
tent procefs, by which the aconi becomes an oak, and
the embryo becomes a man -, by which digeftion is
performed in plants and animals, and, %vhich depart-
ing, the body ceafes to live, and its members putrefy :
and by which every being produces another like itfelf,
and every fpecies is continued. In animals, it is that
higher faculty, which by employing the orgaixs of
fenfe, peculiar to them as animals, diltingullhes them
as fenfitivc beings from vegetables ; and it is alfo that
more noble faculty, which by its own divine \igour,
unaffifted perhaps with organs, makes and denominates
him a being intelleclive and rational. So that Mr
Harris reckons two forts of forms, thofe which are
paffive elements, and thofe which are eflicient caufes.
And all of them agree in this, that they give to every
being its peculiar and diftinftive charaiEler : and on the
whole he concludes, that form appears in part, to be an
element, and in part an efficient caufe, L e. a caufe
which aflbciates the conlUtuent ekments of natural
fubftances, and which employs thejii, when affociated,
according to their various and peculiar charaftcrs.

The philofophers generally allow two principles of
bodies : matter, as the common bafis or fubftratum of
all ; andyLrm, as that which fpecifies and dilfinguiflics
each ; and which added to a quantity of common mat-
ter, determines or denominates it this or that j wood,
or fire, or alhes, &.c.

Subllantial forms feem to have been firft broached by
the followers of Ariftotle, who thought matter, under
different modes or modifications, not fufficient to con-
Ititute different bodies ; but that fomething fubftantial
was neceffary to fet them at a greater diilance : and
thus introduced fubftantial forms, on the footing of
i'ouls, \vhich fpecify and diftinguifli animals. \\ hat
led to this erroneous notion were the circumftances of
life and death : For obferving, that, as foon as the
foul was departed out of a man, all motion, refpira-
tion, nutrition, &.c. immediately ceafed, they conclud-
ed, that all thefe funftions depended on the foul,
and confequently that the foul was the form of the
animal body, or that which conllituted it fuch : that
the foul was a fubilance, independent of matter, no
body doubted ; and hence the forms of other bodies
were concluded equally fubrtanlial. But to this it is
anfwered, that though the foul be that by which a
man is man, and confequently Is the form of the hu-
man body, as human ; yet it does not follow, that it
is properly the form of this body of ours, as it is
a body ; nor of the feveral parts thereof, conlidered as
diilincl from each other ; For thofe feveral parts have
their proper forms fo clofely conneiled with iheir mat-
ter, that it remains "tnfcparable therefrom long after
the foul has <4uJttcd the body ; thus tlelh has the form
of flelh, bone of bone, ike. long after the foul is re-
moved as well as before. The truth is, the body does
not become incapable of performing its accuftomed
fundions becaufe the foul has deferted it; but the foul
takes its leave, becaufe the body is not in a condition
to perform its fundUons.

The ancient and modem corpufcular philofophers,

therefore, ^vith the Cartefians, exclude tlie notion of

fubftantial forms ; and fliow, by many argtiments, that

li 2 the

FOR [1

tiie form is only the modus or manner of the body it is
inherent in. And as there are only three primary
modes of matter, viz. figure, reft, or motion, with
two others arifing therefrom, viz. magnitude and fitua-
tion, the form of all bodies they hold to confifl there-
in ; and fappofe the variations thefe modes arc capable
of, fufficient to prefent all the variety obfervable in bo-
dies.

Forms are ufually dillinguiihed into cjjential and ac-
cidental.

Ejfential. Though the five modes above mentioned,
generally taken, be adventitious ; yet to this or that
body, <^. _f r. to fire or i\ater, they are eflential ; thus,
h is accidental to iron, to have this or that magnitude,
figure, or fituation, iince it might cxift in different
ones ; yet to a knife or hammer, the figure, magni-
tude, and pofition of parts, which conftitute it a ham-
mer or knife, are eflential ; and they cannot exift or
be conceived without them. Hence it is inferred,
that though there be no fubftantial, there are eflen-
tial, forms, whereby the feveral fpecies of bodies be-
come what they are, and ar« dillinguiihed from all
ethers.

jdccidental forms, are thofe really inherent in bodies, .
but in fuch manner as that the body may exill in all
its perfeflion without them. Such as whitenefs in a
wall, heat in water, a figure of a man in wax, &c.

Form is alfo ufed, in a moral fenfe, for the manner
of being or doing a thing according to rules : thus
ive fay, a form of government, a form of argument,
&c.

Form, in Law, the rules eftablifhed and requifite to
be obferved in legal proceedings. — The formal part of
the law, or method of proceeding, cannot be altered
but by parliament ; for if once thefe outworks were
demoliihed, there ivould be an inlet to all manner of in-
novation in the body of the law itfclf.

Form, in carpentry, is ufed to denote the long
feats or benches in the choirs of churches or in fchools,
for the prieils, prebends, religious, or fcholars, to fit
on. Du Cange takes the name to be derived from
hence, that the backs of the feats v.ere anciently en-
riched with figures of painting and fculpture, called in
Latin yorOTrt- et typi. In the life of St William of Rof-
child, we meet with forma as fignifying a feat for an
ecclefiaftic, or religious, in a choir ; and in that of St
Lupicin, we have formula in the fame fenfe. In the
rule of the monaflery of St Caefarea, the man who pre-
fides over the choir is called primiceria, •velformari.

At fchools, the word form is frequently applied to
•what is otherwife termed a clafs. See Class.

Form alfo denotes the external appearance or fur-
face of a body, or the difpofition of its parts as to the
length, breadth, and thicknefs.

Form is alfo ufed among mechanics, for a fort of
mould wherein any thing is falhioned or wrought.

Frinter''s Form, an affemblage of letters, words, and
lines, ranged in order, and fo difpofed into pages by
the compofitor ; from which, by means of ink and a
prefs, the printed fheets are drawn.

Every form is enclofed in an iron chafe, wherein it
is firmly locked by a niunber of pieces of ivood ; fome
long and narrow, and others of the form of wedges.
There are two forms required for every (heet, one for

■ fewer pages Form

2 ] FOR

each fide ; and each form confifls of mere i
according to the fize of the hook.

Hatter's Fork, is a large block or piece of wood, pf ^^'^rman
a cylindrical figure ; the top thereof rounded, and the *
bottom quite flat. Its ufe is, to mould or falhion the
crown of the hat, after the matter thereof has been
beaten and fulled.

Papermaker''s Form, is the frame or mould wherein
the flieets are fafliioned. See Paper.

FORMA PAUPERIS, in Law, is when a perfon has
juft caufe of fuit, but is fo poor that he cannot de-
fray the ufual charges ef fuing at law or in equity ; in
which cafe, on making oath that he is not worth 5I.
in the world, on all his debts being paid, and produ-
cing a certificate from fome lawyer that he has good
caufe of fuit, the judge will admit him to fue in forma
pauperis ; that is, \vithout paying any fee to counfel-
JoTs, attorneys, or clerk; the llatute 11 Hen. VII.
c. 12. having enadled, that counfel and attorneys, &c.
fliall be aflTigned to fuch poor perfons gratis. Where
it appears that any pauper has fold or contrafted for
the benefit of his fuit whilft it is depending in court,
fuch caufe fhall be thenceforth totally difmifled ; and a
perfon fuing in forma pauperis fliall not have a new trial
granted him, but is to acquicfce in the judgment of
the court.

FORMAL, fomething belonging to or conftituting
the form of a thing. See FoRM.

FORMALITY, the quality of a form, or formula ;
or that which conllitutes and denominates them fuch.

Formality, as defined in the fchools, is any man-
ner wherein a thing is conceived ; or a manner in any
objeft, imponing a relation to the underftanding,
whereby it may be diftinguifhed from another objedt.
Thus, animahty and rationality are formalities. The
Scottifls made great ufe of formalities, in oppofition to
the virtualities of the Thomifls.

Formalities, in matters of law, are frequently
ufed for the formulas themfelves, or the rules prefcrib-
ed for judiciary proceedings. In contrafls of ftrift
law, all the formalities mufl be flriftly obferved : an
omilfion of the leafl formality may ruin the whole con-
vention.

The term is alfo ufed for a certain order or deco-
rum to be obferved.

FORMAN, Akdrew, archbifliop of St Andrew's,
earl of Pittenweem, and of Cottingham in England^
one of the lords of the regency appointed by the ftates
during the minority of King James V. of Scotland,
legate a latere, primate of all the kingdom of Scot-
land, and archbifliop of Bourges in France, was de-
fcended from the family of the Formans of Hutton in
the fliire of Berwick, and is confidered to have been
one of the bclf flatefmen of the age in which he lived.
He was employed in 1501, along with Robert Black-
ader archbifhop of Glafgow and Patrick earl of Both-
well, to negotiate a match between Ja. IV. of Scotland
and Margaret eldefl daughter of Hen. VII. of England,
which next year was ratified by the Scottilh ambalTadors.
He was afterwards frequently employed as Scots am-
baflador to Rome, England, and France, upon the moft
important occafions. In 1514 he was tranllated from
the fee of Moray, to which he had been appointed in
1502, to that of St Andrew's. During the time of

his

FOR [

Formin. hU polTelTing tlie former, he was employed as mediator

^—'-v betwixt Pope Julius II. and Louis XII. of France, who

were at that time at variance ; and he happily fucceed-
ed in conciliating the difference. Having taken leave
of the Pope, he" palled through France on his return
home, where he was kindly received hy the king and
queen, who beftowed upon him the biihopric of Bour-
gcs in France, which annually brought him in 400
tons of wine, 10,000 franks of gold, and other fmaller
articles. Befides all this, he was molt liberally rewarded
by Pope Julius, who promoted him to the archbilliopric
of St Andrew's, as has been already mentioned •, con-
ferred on him the two rich abbeys of Dunfermline and
Aberbrothic ; and made him his legate ;i latere. At
that time, however, there w-ere two other candidates
for the archiepifcopal fee. The learned Gavin Dou-
glas, bilhop of Dunkeld, having been nominated by
the queen, had actually taken poflellion of it ; but
John Hepburn, a bold and factious man, having
been preferred by the monks, drove out the ofEcers
of Gavin Douglas, and placed a ftrong garrifou
in the caftle. So great was the power of this man,
that when Ferraan was nominated by the Pope, no
perfon could be found who durll proclaim the bulls
for his eleftion. At laft Lord Home, at that time the
moft powerful nobleman in Scotland, was induced, by
large promiles, befides fome gifts of great confequtnce,
among which was the donation of the abbacy of Cold-
ingham to his youngell brother David, to undertake
the talk. It was executed at Edinburgh and St An-
drew's ; to which places Lord Home's brother went
with 10,000 men ; though the doing of it, contrary
to Forman's inclination, proved a fource of much
trouble to that nobleman aftenvards. The quarrel be-
twixt Hepburn and Forman, however, was at laft ter-
minated by the latter furrendering the biihopric of
Moray, as well as fome years revenue of the archbi-
shopric itfelf-, paying Hepburn alfo 3000 French
crowns annually out of his eccleiiallical revenues. On
the appointment of the duke of Albany to the regen-
cy, Hepburn endeavoured to undermine the primate's
credit with that nobleman, by reprefenting him as one
who had in a manner collei5led all the money in the
country, and who confequently might endanger the
tranquillity of the kingdom. Thefe infinuations, how-
ever, were but little regarded by the regent ; and For-
man had the good fortune afterwards to make up a
difference between him and the nobility, which was
likely to be attended with much bloodlhed. In 1517,
the archbiihop was appointed by the ftates one of the
lords of the regency, on occafion of the duke of Al-
bany's going to France. We have already mentioned
his embalTy to Pope Julius II. In M'Kenzie's Lives
we are informed, that in the colleftion of the Letters
of the Scottilh Kings from the year 1505 till the year
1626, in the lawyers library, there is a letter from that
pope to King James IV. wherein he not only highly
commends Forman, but likewife promifes that at the
firft creation of cardinals he fhould be made one. This
letter is dated the 6th of May 151 r : but the pope
died before he had an opportunity of performing his
promife. In the fame coljeilion there is a letter from
the duke of Albany to Leo X. Julius's fucceifor,
wherein he prelTe'; the pope to advance him to the dig-
nity ^of a cardinal promifed him by his predecclTor,

Forming.

13 ] FOR

and to continue him his legate h latere. Archbifliop FormatiuB
Forman died in 1521, and was buried at Dimfermline. _ 11.
Dempfter fays that he wrote a book againft Luther, a
book concerning the Stoic Philofophy, and a Collec-
tion out of the Decretals.

FORMATION, in PhUoffjphy, an ad whereby
fomething is formed or produced. For the formation
of the fostus in the womb, fee AN.A.TOJiy, N* 109.
110.

Formation of Stones. See Stone.

Formation of Metals and Minerals. See Metal
and Mineral.

FoR.MATloN, in Grammar, fignifies the manner of
forming one word from another j thus accountantjhip is
formed from accountant, and this lall from account,

FORMEDON, in Law, (breve de forma donationis),
a writ that lies for a perfon who has a right to lands or
tenements, by virtue of any entail, aniing from the
ftatute of Wertm. 2. Ch. II.

This writ is of three kinds, viz. a defcender, remain- _
der, and revetter. Formedon in defcender, lies where a
tenant in tail infeofFs a ftranger, or is dilfeifed and dies,
and the heir may bring this writ to recover the lands.
Formedon in remainder, lies where a man gives lands,
&c. to a perfon in tail, and for default of iffue of
his body, the remainder to another in tail : here if the
tenant in tail die without ilTue, and a ftranger abates
and enters into the land, he in remainder lliall have
this writ. Formedon in reverter, lies where lands are
entailed on certain perfons and their iffue, with re-
mainder over for want of iffue ; and, on that remain-
der failing, then to revert to the donor and his heirs ;
in this cafe, if the tenant in tail dies without iifue,
and alfo he in reniainder, the donor and his heirs,
to whom the reverfion returns, may have this writ for
the recovery of the etfate, though the fam.e be aliena
ted, &c.

F0RMI.<E, or FoRmA, in Ancient Geography, a ma-
ritime town of the Adjeftedor New Latium, to the fouth-
eaft of Cajeta ; built by the Lacedaemonians, (Strabo) ;
called originally Hormtir, on account of its commo-
dious harbour. An ancient municipium. Formiam,
the people ; who were admitted to the liberty of the
city the very year in which Alexandria was built ; but
not to the right of fuifrage till a long time after the
fecond Punic war, (Livy). Formia; at this day lies in
ruins, near a place now called Mola.

FORMICA, the ANT, a genus of infefts belonging
to the order of hymcnoptera. See Entomology.
index. ■

The infefts called xvhite «////, which abound in Afri-
ca a:id the Eafl Tndies, belong to the genus termes,
^vhich fee in Entomology Index.

Formica Leo, the Ant /ion, fo called from its de-
vouring great numbers of ants. It is the caterpillar or
worm of a fly much refembling the libelLe or dragon flies j
and feeds chielly upon ants.

FORMING is ufed for the a£l of giving being or
birth to any thing.

Tlie word is alio fimply ufed for giving the figure
to any thing. The potter forms liis veifels as he
pleafes. Geometry teaches how to form all kinds of
figures.

It is likewife ufed for the producing of a thi?ig :
thus, the lineaments of the fucc began to be formed.

FoR.^tlMg

FOR [I

, FcsMiifC of a Sieg&, is the making lines of circum-
valhtion to fortify the camp, and difpofing things for
" the attack of a place in form.

They alfo fay, to form a fquadron or battalion ;
nieiiiing to range the foldiers in form of a fquadron,
&c.

Forming the Line, is drawing up infantry, cavalry,
ar.d artillery, into line of battle. See Line.

Forming is alfo ufed in grammar, in fpeaking of
certain tenfes of verbs, which are mads from others by
a change of certain letters. The prefcnt tenfe is formed
from the infinitive! Compound and derivative words
alfo, and eren all that have any etymology, are faid to
be formed.

FORMOSA, an ifland in the Pacific ocean, be-
tween 119° and 122* of E. Long, and 22° and 25*
N. Lat. about 100 miles eaft of Canton in China. It
is fubjecEl to the Chinefe ; who, however, notwithftand-
ing its vicinity, did not know of its exillence until the
year 1430. It is about 85 leagues in length, and 25
•5n breadth. A long^chain of mountains, which runs
from north to fouth, divides it into t^vo parts, the
eaftern and weftem. The Dutch formed an eftablifh-
inent in the weftem part in 1634, and built the fort
of Zealand, ivhicb fecured to them the principal port
of the ifland ; but they were driven from thence in
1659 ""^ 1661 by a celebrated Chinefe pirate, who made
himfelf mafter of all the weftem part, which afterwards
I'ubmitted in 1682 to the authority of Kang-he emperor
of China.

This weftem part of Formofa is divided into three
diftincl governments, all fubordinate to the governor
ofTA£-OUAN, the capital of the ifland, who is himfelf
fubjeft to the viceroy of the province of FoKlEN.

This ifland prefents extenfive and fertile plains, wa-
tered by a great number of rivulets that fall from the
eaftern mountains. Its air is pure and wholefome •, and
the earth produces in abundance, com, rice, and the
greater part of other grains. Moft of the Indian fruits
are found here, fiich as oranges, bananas, pine-apples,
guavas, papaws, cocoa nutt ; and part of thofe of Eu-
rope, particularly peaches, apricots, figs, raifins, chef-
nuts, pomegranates, v.ater melons, &c. Tobacco, fu-
gar, pepper, carapliire, and cinnamon, are alfo common.
Horfes, ftieep, and goats, are very rare in this ifland :
there are even few hogs, although thefe animals
abound in China. Domeftic poultry, fuch as foivls,
geefe, and ducks, are exceedingly plenty ; pheafants
alfo are fometines feen ; and monkeys and flags have
multiplied fo much, that they wander through the coun-
try in large flocks.

The inhabitants of Formofa rear a great number of
oxen, which they ufe for riding, from a want of horfes
and mules. They accuftom them early to this kind
of fervice, and by daily exercife train them to go as
well and as expeditioufly as the beft horfes. Thefe
uxen are fumifhed with a bridle, faddle, and crupper.
A Chinefe looks as big and proud when mounted in
this manner, as if he were carried bv the fineft Barbary
courfer.

Wholefome water fit for drinking is the only thing
wanting in the ifland of Formofa. It is ver)- extraor-
dinary, that every kind of water in it is a deadly poi-
ion 10 ftrangers, for which no remedy has hhherto
been found. " One of the governor's fervants," fays

4 ] FOR

Father de Mailla, " whom I had in ray train (a ftrong Tota-.iU.

and robuft man), trufting too much to the force of his — v— -<

conftitution, would not believe what liad been told

him concerning this water : he drank fome of it ; and

died in lefs than five days, after every medicine and

antidote had been adminillered without fuccefs. There

is none but tlie water of the capital which can be

drunk : the mandarins of the place therefore alv.ays

took care to tranfport a fuificiency of it in carts for ■

our ufe." Our author adds, that at the bottom of a |

mountain a league diftant from Fong-kan-liien there is

a fpring that produces a ftream, the water of which is of

a whitifli blue colour, and fo no.\ious, that no one caii

approach it.

There are few mulberry trees in Formofa, confe-
quently little filk is made in the country. Numerous
manufaflures, hoivever, \vould foon be introduced in-
to it, were the Chinefe permitted indifcriminately to
tranfport themfelves thither, and to form eflabliflimenls
in the ifland. Thofe who go to it rauft be prottcled
by paflports from the Chinefe mandarins, and thefe
paflports are fold at a dear rate j fecurities are faefides
required. This is not all : when they arrive, moitey
muft be given to the mandarins ^vho are appointed to
examine thofe who enter or quit the ifland, and who
generally difcharge this duty with the moft rigid feve-
rity. If they give no prefent, or ofter only a trifle,
they meet with little mercy ; and are fure to be fent
back, ivhatever pafi"port they may have. The Cliinefe,
through policy, connive at thefe exactions, to prevent
too great a number of people from emigrating to this
ifland, which is rendered a place of great importance
by its proximity to China. They fear, and with great
reafon (efpecially fince Tartar emperors have been on
the throne), that if any revolt fliould happen in For-
mofa, its influence might fpread and occafion great
dillurbance in the whole empire. On this account, the
Tartars kept a garrifon there of I0,00D men : wliich
they take care to change every three, years, or even
oftener if they judge it neceflary.

Belides the capital, the Chinefe have alfo two other
cities, and fome villages, where they inhabit alone ;
for they do not permit the Indians, who are their fub-
jefts, to live among them ; they lufFer none to remain
but thofe who are either their flaves or doraeftics. —
Thefe Indians are united into 45 villages-, 36 of which
lie to the north, and 9 towards the fouth. The nor-
thern villages are very populous, and the houfes are
built almoft after the Chinefe manner. The habita-
tions of the fouthern iflanders are only heaps of huts
or cottages of earth. In thefe huts they have neither
chairs, benches, tables, beds, nor any piece of furni- I

ture ; the middle part is occupied by a kind of heartli I

or chimney, raifed two feet high, and conftrufled of ■

earth, upon which they drefs their vifluals. Their
ordinary food is rice, other fmall grain, and the game
which they catch by courfmg or kill with tlieir arms.
Thefe iflanders run with fuch furprifing Aviftnefs, thdt
they can almoft outftrip the fleetcft greyhound. The
Chinefe attribute this agility to the precaution they
take of confining their knees and reins by a clofe ban-
dage until the age of 1 4 or 15. Their favourite arms are
lances, which they dart to the diftance of 60 or 80 feet
with the greateft dexterity and precifion. They ufe
bows and arro^vs, and can kill a phe»faat on «-ing with

FOR

[ 15 ]

ch certainty as an European fportfinan could witli

Thefe people are very dirty in their manner
of eating. 'J'hey have neither plates, dilhes, nor fpoons,
nor even the fmall flicks ufed in China. Whatever
they drefs is placed on a plain board or mat, and
they tnake ufc of their fingers for conveying it to
their mouths. They eat flefli half raw ; and provided
it has been only prefented to the fire, it appears to
them excellent. Their beds are formed of freili ga-
thered leaves. They go almoft naked, and wear only
a piece of cloth which hangs from their girdle to their
knees. Thofe among them, who, according to the
judgment of the chiefs of the villnge, have borne away
the prize for agility in running or dexterity in the
chafe, o'btain the honourable prinlcge of making on
their (kin, by a very painful operation, feveral fantafli-
cal figures of floivers, trees, and animals. All have
the right of blackening their teeth, and of v.'earing or-
naments of bracelets and cro\\'ns made of ihells and
cryftal.

The if.anders ^vho inhabit the northern part, where
the climate is fomething colder, clothe themfelves with
the (kins of the flags which they kill in hunting. They
make a kind of drefs of them without (leeves, that
pretty much refembles a dalmatic, or veilment worn
at the altar by the Reman clergy. They wear on
their heads caps in the form of a cylinder, made of
palm leaves, and ornamented with feveral crowns
placed one above aHother, on the top of which they
fix plumes compofed of the feathers of a cock or
pheafant.

The marriage ceremonies of the Inhabitants of For-
mofa approach near to the fimple laws of nature. They
neither purchafe, as in China, the women whom they
efpoufe, nor does intereft ever prefide over their unibns.
Fathers and mothers are fcarcely ever confulted. If a
young man has a mind to marry, and has fixed his
affection on a young girl, he appears for feveral days
following near the place where fhe lives v^^th a mufic'al
inlirument in his hand. If the young woman is fatis-
fied %%-ith the figure of her gallant, (lie comes forth and
joins him : they then agree and fettle #)e marriage
contract. After this they give notice to their parents,
who prepare a wedding dinner, which is always given
in the houfe where the young woman refides, and where
the bridegroom remains without returning again to
his father. The yoying man afterivards confiders the
houfe of his father-in-law as his own. He becomes
the whole fupport of it, and he has no farther connec-
tion with that of his father ; like married women in
Europe, who generally quit their paternal home in
order to live with their hufhands. Thefe illanders
therefore feldom offer up vows for obtaining male
children : they prefer daughters, becaufe they pro-
cure them fons-in-law, who become the fupports of their
old-age.

Although the Formofans are entirely fubjefled to
the Chinefe, they ftill prefcrve fome remains of their
ancient government. Each village choofts three or
four old men from among thofe who have the greateft
reputation for probity. By this choice they become
the rulers and judges of the reft of the hamlet. They
have the power of finally determining all differences ;
and if any one (hould rcfufe to abide by their judge-
ment, he would be immediately baijillied from the vil-

FOR

lage, without hopes of ever being able to re-erter it, Formosa.

and none of the inhabitants would aftenvards dare to ^ '

leceive him.

The natives pay in grain the tribute impofed on
llicm by the Chinefe. To regulate every thing that
concerns the laying on and collcfling of this ininofi
government has eftablilhed a Chinefe ''in cvc.-y viiTacre'
i^ho is obliged to learn the language and aft as inter-
preter to the mandarins. Thefe interpreters are moll
cruel extortioners to the miferable people, whom they
ought rather to protecl; : they are fuch inlbliabl'-
leeches, that they can fcarcely ever be fatisfied. Thi^
daily and domellic tyranny has already caufed the de-
feftion of three villages in the fouthern part of tlje
illand, where formerly there were twelve. The inlui-
bitants of thefe tillages revolted, expelled their inter-
preters, refufed to pay tribute any longer to the Chinefe,
and have united themfelves to the independent nation
in the eaftern part of the illand.

It was in the illand of Formofa that John Suuyj
affirms to have feen with his own eyes a man who had
a tail more than a foot in length, covered with red
hair, and greatly refembling that of an ox. This man
with a tail faid, that his deformity, if it ivas one, pro-
ceeded from the climate, and that all thofe of the
fouthern part of the illand were bom with tails like
his. — But John Struys is the only author who attells
the exiftence of this extraordinary race of men ; no
other writer ^vho has fpoken of Formofa makes the
leaft mention of them. Another circumftance, no lels
fingular,^ and \vhicli appears to be little better authen-
ticated, is, that in this illand women are not permit-
ted to bring forth children before they are 35, although
they are at liberty to marry long' before that age. '
Rechteren * thus exprefles himfelf concerning this, „ ,
ftrange cuftom : ° Ef/'/^j;^

" When women are fiift married, they bring no chil- cLpLy'
dren into the world : they muft, before that is permit- ytygei,
ted, have attained the age of 35 or 37. When they ™'- ''■• P-
arebigu-Itli child, their prielleffes p"ay them a vifit,''^-
and tread on their bellie? with their feet, if it be necef-
fary, and make them mifcarry, with perhaps greater
pains than they would have in' being brought to bed.
It would be not only a Ihame, but an enormous crime,
to bring forth a child before the term prefcribed. I
have feen fome females who had already deftroyed the
fruit of their womb 15 or 16 times, and who were big
for the 1 7th when it was lawful for them to bring forth
a living child."

To our defcriptlon of Formofa we (hall add the fol-
lowing account of the dreadful difafter that lately be-
fel this unhappy illand. The details were conveyed by
a letter from Peking, addreffed to M. Bertin, and dat«d
the 14th of July 1782.

" 'l"he waters of the ^cean liave well nigh deprived
China of one of its mod valuable m.uitirae poffefTions.
The illand ot Tay-ouan, known in Europe by the
name of Formolii, has been almoft fwallowed up by
them. ^ It has been reported here, that part of the
mountain which divides the illand has funk and difap-
peared ; that the reft has been overturned ; and that
the greater part of the inhabitants have pe:i;hed. Such
have been for fome days the popular reports in this
capital. Government, however, has put a Hop to them,
by inforreing the publk of the real truth ; fuch as it is'

F O R

[ 16 3

Uas been announced to the emperor by the officers wh.o
' have this fmall portion of his territories under their ju-
rifdiftion. I cannot do better than traiilcribe what
they have written. The defpatchcs of the Ch.iuel'e of-
ficer«, addreffed to the emperor, run thus ;

" Bechen, governor-general of the provinces of Fo-
kien and Tche-Kyang-ya, viceroy of Fokien, and
others, make knorni to your majetly the dilafter
that has lately befallen the ifland of Tay-ouan. Mon-
ha-hon, and other principal officers of this itland, have
acquainted us, that on the 21 ft of the fourth moon
(May 22. 1782), a moft furious wind, accompanied
with'heavy rain and a fwell of the fea greater than ever
remembered, had kept them under continual apprehen-
lion of being fwallowed up by tl-.e waves, or buried in
the bowels of the earth, from the hour of 7jn until the
hour o//f/(A). This dreadful tempeft feemed to blow
at the fame time from the four cardinal points of the
compafs, and continued with equal violence during the
above-mentioned time. The buildings where the tri-
bunals were held, the public granaries, the barracks,
fait warehoufes, and works, have been totally deftroy-
ed, and every thing they contained is loft ; warehoufes
and work fhops, as well as private houfes, for the moft
part, prefent nothing but ruins and heaps of rubbilh.
Of 27 fliips of war which were in the harbour, 1 2 have
difappeared ; two others have been dalhed to pieces,
and 10 are fliattered in fuch a manner that they are
rendered entirely unfit for fervice ; other fraaller vef-
fels of different fizes, above too in number, have
fliared the fame fate ; eighty have been f^vallowed up ;
five others, which had juft taken in a lading of rice
for Fokien, have funk, and their cargoes, which
amounted to 100,000 bufliels, are wholly loft. With
regard to other veffels, whether fmall or great, which
had not entered the harbour, 10 or 12 of the largeft
are reckoned to have been fwallowed up •, thofe of in-
f ;rior fize, as well as a prodigious number of barks,
boats, and other fmall veffels of different kinds, have
difappeared, without leaving the leaft piece of wreck
behind them. As the whole illand has been covered
\vith water, the provifions have been either fwept
away, or fpoilt fo as to render them prejudicial to the
health of thofe who ufe them in their prefent ftatc.
The crops are entirely loft. When we ihall have
been informed of particulars, we ftiall not fail to give
your majefty the earlieft intelligence of them. — After
having received this letter from Mon-ha-hon, and the
other principal officers refiding at Tay-ouan, I em-
ployed the utmoft diligence to give every affiftance
In my power to this unfortunate ifland ; and I or-
dered the travelling commilTary, and Trey-ouer, ge-
neral of the province, to get particular information
of the number of thofe who have periflied, of the
houfes deftroyed, and of the quantity of fait and other
provifions that has been loft : I have likewife enjoined
them to rebuild with the utmoft expedition the tribu-
nals, granaries, aad other public edifices •, to defpatcli
proper perfons to fearch for the veffels and ftiips that
have difappeared ; to repair thofe which are not altoge-

F O H

ifit for fervice, and to fend immediately to the Formofa,

neighbouring countries for fait and other neceffary pro-
vifions ; but above all, to aicertain in the moft accurate ~
manner the different loffes fullained by the inhabitants,
and the precife number of people that have periflied, in
order that I may be able to give the fulleft information
to your majefty."

' The emperor of China caufed a particular detail of
thefe loffes to be publilhed, together with the following
letter :

" Tchang-yu, &c. Tchem-hoei-Thon-Tfong-tou of
Fokien, and others, have informed me of the difmal
event that hath taken place in the ifland of Tay-ouan,
which is a diftrift of the province of Fokien. They
have written to me, that on the 21ft of the fourth
moon. [Here the emperor repeats what is contained
in the preceding letter, and continues thusj : I com-
mand Tfong-tou to get the beft information he can of
the different loffes fuftained by the inhabitants of the
ifland, and to tranfmit the particulars to me, in order
that I njay give them every affiftance to repair them.
My intention is, that all the houfes which have been
thrown down fliall be rebuilt entirely at my expence ;
thgt thofe be repaired which are only damaged ; and
that provifions, and every thing which the people
ftand in immediate want of, be fupplied them. I
ftiould feel much pain, were even one among them to
be neglefted : I therefore recommend the utmoft di-
ligence and ftridfeft inquiry, as I am deflrous that none
of my fubjefts Ihould entertain the leaft doubt of the
tender aftedion which I have for them •, and that they
ftiould know that they are all under my eyes, and
that I myfelf will provide for their wants. With
regard to my Ibips of war, tribunals, and public edi-
fices, let them be reftored to their former ftate with
money taken from the public treafury, and let the
general account of the whole expence be laid before
me."

The miffionary who fent this account farther fays.
From thefe letters it evidently appears, that this dif-
after happened in confequence of an earthquake ; but
he adds, that the volcano which occafioned it muft be
at a prodigious depth below the fea. He does not pre-
tend to give an explanation of it ; he is contented with
obferving, that the fame fcene feems to have paffed at
the ifland of Formofa as at Lima and Lilhon.

FORMULA, or Formulary, a rule or model, or
certain terms prefcribed or decreed by authority,^ for
the form and manner of an aft, inftrument, proceeding,
or the like.

Formula, in Church-Hljiory and Theology, fignifies
a profeffion of faith.

Formula, in Medicine, imports the conftitution of
medicines, either fimple or compound, both with re-
fpeft to their prefcriptlon and confiftence.

Formula, a theorem or general rule, or expreflion,
for folving certain particular cafes of fome problem, &c.

fo ij-J-i// is a general formula for the greater of

(a) The hours of the Chinefe are double ours : th(
(}!iei begins at three in the afternoon and ends at five.

hour yn begins at three in the rooming and ends

FOR

[ 17 1

two qu?.iui'.Ls wliofe fuin is s, and dlircrence </; and
- J- ei is the formula, or general value, for the lefs

[■very

R

id iii'dance of fornica- ■? r.'.

quantity. Alfo V^x — .v', is the formula, or general
value, of the ordinate to a circle, whofe diameter is J,
and ahfcifs x.

FORMULARY, a wTiting, containing the form or
formula of an oath, declaration, attertation, or abjura-
tion, &c. to be mads on certain occalions.

There are alfo formularies of devotion, of prayers,
&c. Liturgies are formularies of the public fervice in
moll churches.

FORNACALIA, or Forkicalia, in Roman an-
tiquity, a feftival inftituted by Numa, in honour
of Fornax, the goddefg of ovens ; wherein certain
cakes were made, and offered in facrifice before the
ovens.

fORNICATION {Fornicano, from the/orn/f^x in
Rome, where the lewd women proftituted themfelves
for money y, is whoredom, or the aS of incontinency,
between ftngle perlbns ; for if either of the parties is
married, it is adulter!/. Formerly court leets had power
to inquire of and punilh fornication and adultery ; in
which courts the king had a fine aflreffed on the offend-
ers, as appears by the book of Domelday.

In the year 1650, when the ruling powers found it
for their interelt to put on the femblance of a very ex-
traordinary ftriftnefs and pm-ity of morals, not only
inceft and wilfiil adultery were made capital crimes,
but alfo the repeated acf of keeping a brothel, or com-
mitting fornication, were, upon a fecond conviflion,
made felony without benefit of clergy. But, at the
Reftoration, when men, from an abhorrence of the hy-
pocrify of the late times, fell into a contrary extreme
<if lie entioufnefs, it was not thought proper to renew
a la'.v of fuch untafhionable rigour. And thefe offen-
ces have been ever fmce left to the feeble coercion of
the fpiritual court, according to the rules of the canon
law ; a law which has treated the offence of inconti-
nence, nay, even adultery itfelf, with a great degree of
tendemefs and lenity ; owing perhaos to the conilrain-
ed celibacy of its firft compilers. The temporal courts
therefore take no cognizance even of the crime of adul-
tery otherwife than as a private injury. See Adul-

IKRY.

The t\'\h of fornication, which too many wiih to
confider as no fin, may be judged of from the following
particulars.

J. The malignity and mora! quality of each crime is
not to be eftimated by the particular effeft of one of-
fence, or of one perfon's offending, but by the general
tendency and confequence of crimes of the fame nature.
In the prefent cafe, let the libertine confider and fay,
what would be the confequence, if the fame licentiouf-
nefs in which he indulges were univerfal ? or \vhat
fhould hinder its becoming univerfal, if it bf innocent
or allowable in him I

2. Fornication fuppofes proftitution ■, and by pro-
fntution the viftims of it are brought to almoll cer-
tain raifery. It is no fmall quantity of mifcry in t!ie
aggregate, which, between want, difcafe, and infult,
is fuffcred by thofe outcalls of human fociety who in-
feil populous cities ; the whole of which is a general
confequence of fornication, and to the iucrcafe and

Vol. IX. Part I.

i of ungovern.able lewd-
aggravated crimes of

contii^ancc of whic!
tiun contributes.

3. Fornication produces h;.bit
nefs, which introduce the mort

feduclion, adultery, violation, &c. The criminal in.-
dulgenccs between the fcxcs prepare an eafy admilfion
for every fin that feeks it : they are, "in low life, ufual-
ly the firit ftage in men's progrcfs to the moft defperate
villaiiies ; and in high life, to that lamented diffolute-
nefs of principle, which manifeffs itfelf in a profligacy
of public condufl, and a contempt of the obligations of
religion and moral probity.

4. Fornication perpetuates a difeafe, which may be
accounted one of the forell maladies of human nature,
and the effects of which are faid to vifit the conftitution
of even dilfant generations.

The paffion being natural, proves that it was in-
tended to be gratified ; but under what reftriclions, or
whether without any, muft be colleded from different
confiderations.

In the Scriptures, fornication is abfolutely and pe-
remptorily condemned. ' Out of the heart proceed
evil thoughts, murders, adulteries, fornication, thefts,
falfe witnefs, blafphemies ; thefe are the things ^vhich
defile a man.' Thefe are Chrill's own words ; and one
word from him upon the fubjecl is final. The apoftles
are more full upon this topic. One well-known psf-
fage in the Epiftle to the Hebrews may Hand in the
place of all others ; becaufe, admitting the authority
by which the apoftles of Chrift fpake and wrote, it is
decifive. ' iNIarriage and the bed undenled is honour-
able araongft all men, but whoremongers and adulter-
ers God will judge j' which was a great deal to fay, at
a time when it was not agreed even amongft philolo-
phers that fornication was a crime.

Upon this fubjeft Mr Paley adds the following ob-
fervations *. 'ATcrala.-n

" The Scriptures give no faniElion to thofe aufterities p/'','^ ,
ivhich have been fince inipofed upon the world under '^°^^ •''
the name of Chrift's religion, as the celibacy of the
clergy, the praife of perpetual virginity, the prohibitio
concuiitus cum gramda tixore ; but with a jult kncrtv-
ledge of, and regard to the condition and intereft of the
human fpecies, have provided in the marriage of one
man with one woman an adequate gratification for the
propenfities of their nature, and have reftrained them
to that gratification.

" The avo^ved toleration, and in fome countries the
licenfing, taxing, and regulating of public brothels, has
appeared to the people an authorizing of fornication,
and has contributed, with other caufet, fo far to vitiate
the public opinion, that there is no practice of which
the immorality is fo little thought of or acknowledged,
nlthough there are few in which it can more plaiiJy
be made out. The legiilators who have patronized re-
ceptacles of proftitution ought to have forcfeen this
effefl, as well as confidercd, that whatever facilitates
fornication, diminilhes marriages. And as to the ufual
apology for this relaxed difcipline, the danger of great-
er enormities if accefs to proilitutes were too ftriclly
watched and prohibited ; it will be time enough to look
to that, after the laws and the magift rates have done
their utmoft. The greateft vigilance of both will do
no more, than oppofe fome bounds and forae difficul-
ties to this intcrcourfe. And after all, thefe pretended
^ fears

FOR

[ 18 ]

FOR

fears are ^vithout foundation in experience. The men
are in all refpefts the molt virtuous in countries where
, the women are moft chafte.

" If fornication be criminal, all thofe incentives
which lead to it are acceffaries to the crime : as lafci-
vious converfatiop, ^vhether exprefled in obfcene or
difguifed under modeft phrafes ; alfo wanton fongs,
piflures, books ; the u-riting, publilhing, and circula-
ting of which, whether out of frolic or for fome piti-
ful profit, is productive of fo extenfive a mifchief from
fo mean a temptation, that few crimes within the
reach of pri\ate n-ickednefs have more to anfwer for,
or lefs to plead in their excufe.

" Indecent converfation, and by parity of reafon all
the reft, are forbidden by St Paul, Eph. iv. 29. ' Let
no Corrupt communication proceed out of your mouth •,'
and again. Col. iii. 8, ' Put filthy communication out
of your mouth.'

" The invitation or voluntary admiflion of impure
thoughts, or the fufFering them to get poffeflion of the
imagination, falls within the fame defcription, and is
condemned by Chrift, Matt. v. 28. ' Whofoever look-
eth on a woman to lull after her, hath committed a-
dultery with her already in his heart.' Chrift, by thus
enjoining a regulation of the thought, ftrikes at the
root of the evil."

FORNIX, in Anatomy, is part of the corpus callo-
fum in the brain j lb called, on account of a diftant re-
femblance to the arches of ancient vaults when viewed
in a particular manner.

FORRAGE, in the military art, denotes hay, oats,
barley, wheat, grafs, clover, &c. brought into the
camp by the troopers, for the fuftenance of their
horfes.

It is the bufinefs of the quartermafter general to
appoint the method of forrage, and poft proper guards
for the fecurity of the forragers.

FORRES, a parliament town of Scotland in the
county of Murray, claffing with Invernefs, Fortrofe,
and Nairn. It is a fmall well built town, pleafantly
fituated on an eminence near the river Findhorn. The
country about it has a cheerful appearance, having a
few gentlemen's feats, with fome plantations about
them. On a hill ^veft of the towTi are the remains of
a caftle ; and a melancholy view of a number of fand-
hills, that now cover that traft of land ^vhich was
formerly the eftate of a Mr Co.vben in the parifti of
Dyke. This inundation was occalioned by the influx
of the fea and the violence of the wind. It had been
the cuftom to pull up the i)ent, a long fpiry grafs near
the thore, for litter for horfes, by \vhich means the fand
was loofened, and gave way to the violence of the fea
and wind, which carried it over feveral thoufand acres
of land. The people having been prevented from pul-
ling up any more of the grafs, the progrefs of the fand
is now nearly ftopped, and the fea has retired j but the
v.'ind has blown fome of the fand from the hills over
Colonel Grant's land, and dellroyed near 100 acres.
A fand bank, which is all dry at low water, runs out
from this place for feveral miles into the Murray Frith.
Some of the land, which has been long forfaken by
the v.ater, is now beginning to be ufc-ful again, and is
turned into grazing land. At Forres, coarfe linen and
fe\ving thread are made. Eaft from the town, and
on the left hand fide oi the road, is a remaikable obe^

lifli, faid to be the moft ftately monument of the Go-
thic kind to be feen in Europe. It has been the fub-
jeft of many able pens ; but totally overlooked by ,
Dr Johnfon, who fays, " At Forres we found good
accommodation, but nothing worthy of particular re-
mark."— It is thus defcribed by Mr Cordiner, in a let-
ter to Mr Pennant : " In the firft divifion, underneath
the Gothic ornaments at the top, are nine horfes with
their riders marching forth in order : in the next is a
line of warriors on foot, brandilhing their weapons,
and appear to be ihouting for the battle. The import
of the attitudes in the tliird divifion is very dubious,
their exprellion indefinite. The figures which form *
fquare in the middle of the column are pretty complex
but diftinft ; four ferjeants with their halberts guard a
canopy, under which are placed feveral human heads
which have belonged to the dead bodies piled up at
the left of the divifion •, one appears in the character of
executioner fevering the head from another body j be-
hind him are three titimpcters founding their trum-
pets, and before him two pair of combatants fighting
with fword and target. A troop of horfe next ap-
pears, put to flight by infantry, whole firft line have
bows and arrows •, the three following, fwords and tar-
gets. In the lowei-moft divifion now vifible, the horfes
leem to be feized by the viftorious party, their riders
beheaded, and tlie head of their chief hung in chains
or placed in a frame •■, the others being thro^s-n toge-
ther befide the dead bodies under an arched cover.
The greateft part of the other fide of the obelilk,
occupied by a fumptuous crofs, is covered over with
an uniform figure, elaborately railed, and interwoven
with great mathematical exaftnefs. Under the crofs
are two auguft perfonages, with fome attendants, much
obliterated, but evidently in an attitude of reconcilia-
tion ; and if the monument was ereiSled in memory of
the peace concluded between Malcolm and Canute,
upon the final retreat of the Danes, thefe large figures
may reprefent the reconciled monarchs. On the edge
belou' the fretwork are fome rows of figures joined
hand in hand, \^hich may alfo imply the new degree
of confidence and fecurity which took place, after the
feuds were compofed, which are charaifterized on the
front of the pillar. But to whatever particular tranf-
aclion it may allude, it can hardly be imagined, that
in fo early an age of the arts in Scotland as it mull
have been raifed, fo elabor.'-.te a performance would
have been undertaken but in confequence of an event
of the moft general importance ; it is therefore fur-
prifing, that no diftinfter traditions of it aixived at the
era when letters were kno%vn. The height of this
monument (called King Sueno's Jlone^ above the groimd
is 23 feet ; befidcs 12 or 15 feet under ground. Its
breadth is 3 feet 10 inches by i foot 3 inches in
thicknefs."

FORSKOHLEA, a genus of plants belonging to
the decandria clafs. See BoTAKY Index.

FORSTERA, a genus of plants belonging to the
gynandria clafs. See Botany Index.

FORT, in the military art, a fmall fortified place,
environed on all fides uith a moat, rampart, and para-
pet. Its ufe is to lecure fome high ground, or the paf-
fage of a river, to make good an advantageous poft, to
defend the lines and quarters of a iiege, &c.

Forts are made of diffcient figures and extents, ac-
cording

F O 11

r 19

nth

cording as tlie ground requires. Some are fortified
baflions, others -nith demibaftions. Some again are
in form of a fquare, others of a pentagon. A fort dif-
fers from a citadel, as this lall is built to command
fome town.

Roijal FoKt, is one vrhofe line of defence is at lead
26 fathoms long.

Star Fort, is a fconce or redoubt, conftituted by re-
entering and falient angles, ba^^ng commonly from
five to eight points, and tlie fides flanking each other.

Vitrifitii Forts, a very finguhr kind of llruftures
found in the highlands and northern parts of Scotland,
in ^vhich the ivalls have the appearance of being melted
into a folid mafs, fo as to refemble the lava of a volcano,
for ^vhich indeed they have been taken by feveral perfons
who have vifited them.

Thefe walls were taken notice of by Mr Williams
an engineer, who wrote a treatife upon the fubjeil,
and was the firll who fuppofed them to be works
of art ; other naturalifls having attributed them to a
volcanic origin. Thefe ^vorks are commonly fituated
on the tops of fmall hills, commanding an extenfive
view of the adjacent vaUey or lo'.v country. The area
on the fummit, \-arying, as is fuppofed, according to
the number of cattle the proprietor had to proteft, or
the dependents he wa5 obliged to accommodate, is fur-
rounded ivith a high and ftrong wall, of which the
ftones are melted, moll; of them entirely •, while others,
in which the fufion has not been io complete, are funk
in the vitrified matter in fuch a manner as to be quite
enclofed with it ; and in fome places the fufion has
been fo perfect, that the ruins appear like maffes of
coarfe glafs. Mr Williams has not only abfolutely de-
termined the walls in queftion to be the ^vorks of art,
but has even hazarded a conjeclure as to the manner
in which they were conftrufled, and which, according
to him, was as follows. Two parallel dikes of earth
or fod being ralfed, in the direftion of the intended
Avail, with a fpace between them fufficient for its thick-
nefs, the fuel was put in, and fct on fire. The ftones
bell adapted for the purpofe, called the [>him-ptMing
pone, are everywhere to be found in the neighbour-
hood. Thefe were laid on the fuel, and when melted,
\vere kept by the frame of earth from running off ^ and
by repeating the operation, the w-all was raifed to a
fufficier.t height. This opinion of the ftones being
throwni in without any order, is thought to be con-
firmed by the circumftance of there not being any-
where a large one to be feen, nor a ftone laid in any
particular direclion, nor one piece which has not in
lome degree been affefted by the fire. Mr Williams
mentions a faft tending to confirm his hypothefis,
viz. of a brick kiln fituated on the declivity of an
eminence, fo as to be expofed to the wind, which
happening to rife briflily one time wlien the kiln was
burning, fo increafed the heat, that the bricks were
melted, and ran, like a lava, for a confiderable way
down the hill.

The opinion of Mr Williams has been embraced by
feveral other authors ; particularly Mr Freebaim and
Dr Anderfon, the latter hanng publiftied two treatifes
upon thefe buildings in the Archseologia. In the lame
^^ork, however, we meet with a paper by the Hon.
Dainef Rarrington, in which the author expreflfes quite
dilTercfit fentiments. He obferves, that Mr Williams,

FOR

and the other antiquaries, who fuppofe the walls in
queftion to be works of art, imaghie that the reafon
of their being conftruclcd in this manner was the
ignorance of cement, which in thefe remote ages pre-
vailed in Scotland : but ^vith relpecl to this circum-
ftance, he. fays, that if one fide of the ^va!i only was
heated, and tllat to any confiderable height, the
matter in fufion would in all likelihood drop do^\'n to
the bottom, without operating as any cement to the
loofe ftones thrown in amongft it. This circumftance
of the walls being vitrified only on one fide, is indeed
remarkable, and takes place in moil of the forts of this
kind to be met with at prefent : but with regard to
it, Mr Harrington obferves, that he himfelf has been
twice in the Highlands of Scotland, and has found
very few hills of any height whicli ^vete clothed with
ivood ; the troulile therefore of carryir.g it up to the
top of fuch a mountain ^vould be very confiderable.
But to this it might eafily be replied, that we cannot
by any means argue from the prefent ftate of the hills
in the Jlighlands to their ftate in a very remote period
of antiquity. At that time, it is neither irapoffible,
nor in the leaft improbable, that moll of the hills in
Scotland \vere overgro^vn with wood ; or at any rate,
tliere undoubtedly was plenty of peat, which is ftill
ufed as fuel in Scotland, and which affords fuch a ftrong
heat as to be advantageoufly employed in fmelting
iron, as we are informed by M. Magellan. A third
particular mentioned by Mr Williams is, that thefe en-
clofures were intended as places of defence ; and in
fupport of this opinion he alleges, that there are dried
wells found within moll of them. But on this Mr
Barrington obferves, that flielter from the weather was
alfo necefiary, " upon the top of a bleak Scotch hill,
whilll whilky (or a fuccedaneum for it) would be often
in greater requeft than the bare element of water."
This objeiSlion, however, as well as the laft, is evidently
very frivolous ; for thefe buildings might have roofs as
ivell as any other ; and whatever necelfity there might
be for whifky occafionally, water was certainly an in-
difpenfable requifite.

Mr Barrington having thus gi\en his reafons for
diffenting from the opinion of Rlr Williams and the
antiquaries juft mentioned, proceeds to ftate his ov\ti.
He tells us, that having travelled for 2 1 years the moft
mountainous circuit in Wales, he has frequently ob-
ferved enclofures of dry ftones, particularly a long tract
in the weflern part of Merionethlhire, called in the
language of the country Diiffnjn, i. e. the vale. On
firft viewing thefe fmall enclofures made with walls
of thick ftones, he was at a lols to imagine how it
could be worth while t& conftrud fuch ftrong fences
for fo inconfiderable a piece of grour.d as they enclofed j
but, on examining the adjacent country, he found it
almoft entirely covered with ftones of a fimilar kind ;
and, of confequence, the fmaller the fpace to be cleared,
the lefs expenlive would be the removal. " For the
fame reafon (fays he), fuch dry walls are often of a
great thicknefs, and fometimes the comers of the en-
clofures are filled with ftones to a great width, this
being the only poITible means of procuring pafture."
To a praciico of the fame kind our author would afcribe
the origin of the works in queftion : but the objedion
occurs very ftrongly,- that the walls in Scotland are
vitrified, and it is not to be fuppofed that fuch trouble
C 2 would

FuTti.

F OR [ :

T.^r li d would be t-ikeu nith fences made in fucii a fortuitoU'?
^__2r'^^_j niatnier. This objeftion, our author owns, would indeed
'■""""^ be unanfwcrable, oa the fuppolition that the vitrification
was made on purpol'e to lirengthen the ivall.s of the
fortrefs ; but (fays lie) may not the vilrification have
been occafioned by volcanoes, or by what arc called
h/oomeries ? The fame effefh may be produced like-
wife oa dry walh of ftone by lightning paffing along
them. The loofe flones in either cafe would not be
rejefted becaufe tliey were glally, and would be piled
up in the fence of the enclofure : as the great point
upon thefe occafions is to clear the ground, and remove
the encumbering ftones to the fmalleft dillance. One
of the advocates for the defigncd and not fortuitous
vitrification, fays, that the pieces he had procured did
not refemble what is called lava. But every volcano
-!S not nccefiarily an Etna or a Vefuvius ; and confe-
quently the matter difgorged from the crater muft per-
petually vary both in fubllance and form. Vitrified
mafles, larger or fmaller, will likewife be produced by
the fame means. It may be contended, indeed, that
paflure thus procured, by clearing the ground, would
be more convenient at the bottom or on the fides,
than on the top of the hill : but to this I anfuer, that
in rocky countries you muft get what pittance you can
of foil, and often it wiU happen that the only detached
nnd removeable flones are on the fummit. When fuch
enclofures have been made, they became very conveni-
f at for putting cattle into ; and hence perhaps fome of
the wells which Mr Williams hath mentioned."

Our author concludes his dilTertation on this fubjeft
by obferving, that if vitrification anfwered the purpofe
of cement, it is very extraordinary that the ancient in-
habitants of Scotland did not apply it to the houfes
or huts in which they conftantly lived, but referred
this troublcfome and expenfive procefs merely for a
fortification, which might not perhaps be ufed in half
a century againll an enemy. On this it is almoft fu-
perrluous to obferve, that in the ages of barbarity and
bloodfhed, in ^vhich thefe enclofures, whether natural
or artificial, were fuppofed to be ufed as fortreiTes,
war was fo frequent, that a defence againft an enemy
might feem to be neceflary every day, inftead of on«e
in half a century. Before we proceed further in the
argument, however, it will be neceffary to give fome
account of the fituation and appearance of thefe for-
treffcs.

According to Mr Cardonnell, the largeft of them
is fituated on the hill of Knockfarrill, to the fouth of
the valley of Strathpeffer, two miles weft from Ding-
wall in Rofsfhire. The enclofure is 1 20 feet long and
40 broad within the walls ; ftrcngthened on the out-
fide with works at each end. A range of habitations
feems to have been creeled againft, or under, the fhade
of the outward wall ; of which thofe on the fouth fide
feem to have been liigher and larger than thofe on the
north. There are two wells in the middle, which,
on being cleared out, filled with water. On the
fldrts of the hill to the fouth are many detached build-
ings j which, from the ftratum of dung found on re-
moving th< ruins, appear plainly to have been ufed fcr
fecuring the cattle. This place feems to have been
anciently of confequence, and the refidencc of fome
powerful chief, from a road which leads through the
HUs-to the north-v,-eft k?. To the call of the works

o ] F O R

are a number of vitrified rains, extending for a conCi- V.'trif,;,!
derable way along the ridge of tlie hill. The end Foits.
next the fort feems to have joined the outer wall, and *~~v—
confifted either of tivo parallel walls, clofed above, with
a paiTage between them under cover, or a high wall
broad enough to walk on. In this wall there is the
vellige of a break about the middle, over which a
bridge has been laid, to be drawn up or removed as
occalion might require.

The fort next in confequence to that of Knock-
farril is fituated on the hill of Craig-Phadrick near In-
vernefs, " which (fays Mr Cardonnel) has this pecu-
liar circumftance, that there appears to have been two
vitrified walls quite round the area. The inner one
feems to have been very high and llrong j the outer
wall but low : probably the fpace between was intend-
ed for fecuring their cattle, as there are no remains of
dry-ftone buildings, fuch as are found near the reft.
Se\-eral parts of this outer wall appear quite entu-e,
fticking to the firm bare rock, ^vhere it was firft run.
The area within the inner wall is near 80 paces long
and 27 broad." Of this we have an account J by j ^,.„ j>^,
Alexander Frafer-Tytler, Efq. profcflor of civil hiftory Tranfaa. '
in the univerfity of Edinburgh, who vifited it in the Vul. II.
year 1782. The hill ilfelf is a fmall conical eminence, ''''f* In-
forming the eaftern extremity of that ridge of moun-"'^"^'* "'
tains which bounds Loch Nefs on the north-weft fide.
It is fituated about a mile to the north of Invernefs,
and is accelTible on two different quarters, viz. the
v.eft and fouth-eaft j the former affording entrance by
a narrow level ridge joining the hills on Loch Net's,
and the latter by an eafy afcent from the high groimd
above Invernefs. On approaching the hill from the
weft, we firft meet with a road cut through the rock
from the bottom to the top, in raoft places 10 feet
broad and nearly as deep ; winding, for about 70 feet,
with an eafy ferpentine diretflion, by which we gain
an afcent o^■er a I'leep rock otherwife quite inacceftible
from that quarter. This road, in our author's opi-
nion, is undoubtedly the work of art, and the vitrified
matter on the top is the only thing which indicates
the effecf of fire ; there being neither an appearance
of pumice-ftone, lava, nor bafaltes, about the hill other-
wife. There is indeed plenty of plum-pudding ftcne ;
which fome have fuppofed to be of the nature of vol-
canic tufa ; but this opinion is rejefted by our author
as erroneous. " But the circumftance (fays he)
^vhich in my apprehenfion evinces, in the moft fatis-
faclory manner, that thefe appearances of the effect
of fire on the fummit of this hill are not the .opera-
tion of nature but of art, is the regular order and dif-
pofition of thofe materials, the form of the ground,
and the various traces of fkill and contrivance which
are yet difcernible, though confiderahly defaced either,
by external violence or the obliterating hand of time."
To inveftigate this matter regularly, he begins with tlic,
winding road already mentioned, and which is evi-
dently cut through the rock for the purpofe of gain-,
ing an eafy afcent from the level ridge to the fummit,
which ivould otherwife have been impraSicable. In^
afcending by this road, there appear.-;, towards the
middle, on the right hand, a fmail platform overhang-
ing the pafTage, and inclining by a very gentle declivity
to the very edge of the rock. Four enormous ftones
are placed upon the pkiUorm, and gn the edge and..
CiUeraitj

FOR

iritnfitJ cxtr'en-.ity of it, which hnve evidently been guided by
Fo'ts. art into that poiition ; it being impoffible that they
"■^"""^ coukl have relied there, had they been rolled dovvu
from the higher parts. The obvious reafon for placinjj
them in fuch a pofition has been, that on an alarm of
danger they mij^ht be projected into the path below,
which could be done by the efturts of a very few men :
and when this was done, the pafTage would be entirely
obftrucled, or at lealt rendered i'o diScult that it could
be defended by a few againil any number of alTallants.
Some other large Hones are placed on an eminence to
the left, probably ivith a view to block, up a hollow
channel, by ^vhich an enemy might have attempted to
afcend. When we come to the top of the hill, a few
feet below the rampart which crowns the whole, there
appears an outward wall, approaching on the fides of
the hill fo near the upper rampart, as to liave only a
trench of xo or 12 feet wide between them. This
outward wall is in fonie places fo loiv as to be almoft
level \vith the rock, though in other places it rifes to
the height of two or three feet ; but even where
loweft, it may be traced by a line of vitrified matter
flicking faft to the rock all along, and nearly of the
fame breadth, which is about r.ine feet. The remains
of this wall are llrongly vitrified, except in one place
on the north fide, where, for about ~o yards, the
rampart is formed only of dry flones and earth. At
the eall fide, where the hill is more acceffible, there
is a prodigious mound of viviified matter, extending
itfelf to the thicknefs of above 40 feet. At the fouth-
eaft corner, and adjoining to tliis immenfe mound,
is an outwork, confilHng of two femicircular vitrified
wall-s, -with a narrow pafs cut through them in the
middle ; which appears to have been another, and per»
haps the principal, entry to the fort.

The inner wall, furrounding the fummit of the hill,
enclofes an oblong level area of about 75 yards long
and 30 broad, rounded at each of the ends like the
outward wall. It is of confiderable height, and near-
ly of the fame thicknefs with the outward one. — It
has fome appearance of having been defended with
four turrets or baftions ; but the traces are fo imper-
feft, that Mr Tytler does not lay much ftrefs on his
obfervations in this refpecl ; a number of fmall tumuli
of earth, with a ftone in the centre, were more dif-
cernible. On the eaft fide a portion of the internal
fpace appears feparated from the reft by two ranges of
ftones fixed ftrongly in the earth, and forming a right-
angled parallelogram. " This feparation (fays our
author) is immediately difcernible by the eye, from
this circumrtance, that the whole of the enclofed fum-
mit has been moil carefully cleared from Hones, of
which there is not one to be feen, unlefs thofe that
form this divifion, and the fingle one in the middle
of the circle of tumuli above mentioned. What has
been the defign of this feparated fpace, it is difficult to
conjefture. It might perhaps have marked the rcfi-
dence of thofe of a higher rank, or ferved as a temple
for the purpofes of devotion." On the eaft end of
the large area on the fummit is a well of about fix
feet in diameter, which ha? probably been funk very
deep in the rock, though now it is filled up with rub-
bifii to within a yard of the top.

The other fortified hills 'mentioned by Mr Cardon-
nel are thofe cf Pun- Evan in ihc flute of Naitn •, Tot-

I ] ¥ O R

dun caille, near Fort Auguftus ; and another on I'lc
weft fide of Gleneves in Lochaber, three miles to the
fouth of Fort William. The Cafilc hill of Finhaven, '
in the county of Angus, has likeva.^c fome confissrablc
ruins of the fame kind.

Dun-Evan and the hill of Finhaven have Hkewife
been vifited by Mr Tytler, who gives an account of
them in the paper already quoted ; of which the fol-
lowing is an abilracl. " On the fummit of the hill
of Dun-Evan, whofe name implies that it had betfn
originally a place of defence, are the remains of two
walls furrounding an oblong fpace like that of Craig
Phadrick already defcribed, but fomewhat fmaller in
fize. [Mr Cardonnel fays that it is about 70 paces
long and 50 broad]. There are likewile the traces
of a well in the enclofed area ; and at the eall end are-
the remains of a prodigious mafs of building, much
more extenfive than that on Craig Phadrick." Here,
however, our author could not perceive any marks of
fire ; and Mr Williams owns that the vitrified ruins
here arc more wailed than on Knockfarril or Craig
Phadrick. But ^vith regard to the vitrifications here,
our author is inclined to fuppofe Mr Williams to have
been entirely in a millake. On the Caftle hill of
Finhaven, however, the vitrified remains are very
vifible all round the fummit, which is cleared of Hones
and levelled, unlefs at one end, where there is a great
hollow fpace feparated from the reft cf the^ area, and
probably deftined exclufively for the keeping of cattle.
The enclofed area is about 140 yards long, and upwards
of 40 broad.

Befides thefe fortifications, the hill of Noth affords
a remarkable appearance of the fame kind : of which
IMr Cordiner gives the following defcription, not from
his own obfervation, but thole ot a gentlemen of cre-
dit who vifited the place. " On the top of the hill
there is an oblong holloiv, as I could guefs, of about
an Englilh acre, covered with a fine fward of grafs :
in the middle toward the eaft end of this hollow is a
large and deep well. The hollow is furrounded on all
fides with a thick rampart of Hones. On three fidc>-
of this rampart, from 8 to 12 feet thick, is one com -
padl body of ftones and minerals which have been in a
flate of fufion, reftmbling a mixture of ftone and
iron-ore, all vitrified, calcined, and incorporated. On
the north fide, the rampart confills of broken pieces 01
rock, which have the appearance of having been torn
to pieces by fome extraordinary violence. If the cal-
cined compaft wall exifts under them, it is not at pie-
fent vifible."

Such are the defcriptions of the moft remarkable of
thefe curious fortifications, which of late feem to have
engaged the attention of the learned in a confiderable
degree. We have already taken notice, that by fome
they are fuppofed to be the works of art, by others
the produflions of a volcano. Mr Cardonnel adopts
the opinion of Mr Williams as the moll probable, both
with rcfpeft to their ufe and manner of conftruftion.
Mr Tytler takes notice of the remarkable difference
of opinion among thofe who have viewed the places
in queftion. " It is curious to remark (fays he)
how the fame appearances, to different obfcrvers, lead
to the moft oppofite opinions and conclufions. The
two gentlemen above mentioned (Mr Williams and
Dc Andcifo".) fccm not to h.^vc entertained the fmall-

ea.-

FOR [22

Vitrified eft *doul5t, that the vitrified materials on the tops of
F"''"- thefe hills were the veftiges of works of art, and the
• remains of Itruvlures reared for t'le purpofes of fccu-
rity a. '1 dffs.ice. The bilhop of Dcrry, when on a
tour to the north of Scotland, vifited the hill of Craig
Phadrick near Invern^fs, and expreiTed his opinion,
tli.it the mounds of vitrified matter were not the re-
mains of any artificial work, but the traces of an an-
cient volcano. In the Phil. Tranf. of the Royal So-
ciety of London for 1777, Part II. N° 20. is an account
of Creel- Faterick, there termed a Volcanic Mil near In-
vernefs, m a letter from Thomas Well, Efq. to Mr
La^vj F. R. S. in which the writer does not hefitate
to pronounce this hill an extinguiihed volcano ; and
having fent fpecLmens of the burnt matter for the in-
fpeclion of the Royal Society, the I'ecretary fubjoins
a note to the paper, intimating, that thefe fpeciraens
having been examined by fome of the members well
acquainted ^vilh volcanic productions, ivere by them
judged to be real lava. Such was likemie the opinion
"of the late Andrew Crolhie, Efq. who, in an account
which he gave to the Philofophical Society of Edin-
burgh in 1730, offered fome very curious conjeclures
Avith regard to the procefs of nature, by which he fup-
pofed the \vhole of this hill to have been throivn up
from the bottom of the fea by the operation of inteftiue
fire.

Mr Tytler agrees with thofe who think the vitrified
llruftures' to be artificial works : but he differs from
Mr Williams and others, who think that they were
vitrified oi\ purpofe for cementing the materials toge-
ther. His reaibn for this is, that the number of forts
that iho^v marks of ^atrification, is confiderable when
com.pared with thole that do not. He therefore con-
fiders the vitrification as accidental ; and that it muft have
been accorapliflied in the foUoinng manner. In the rude
(late in which we muft fuppcfe Scotland to have been
in early times, it is very probable that their buildings,
both for habitation and defence, would be frequently
conftrucled of loofe Hones of an irregular Ihape ; of
which, by ihcmfelves, it would fcarce be poflible to fa-
bricate a wall of any tolerable ftrangth. Hence it
became ncccffary to ufe wood as well as ftone in their
conftru£iion. This kind of building, then, in our au'
thor's opinion, was begun by raifmg a double row of
jiallifades or ftrong Hakes in the form of the intended
ilrufture, in the fame way as in that ancient mode of
building defcribed by Palladio under the name ol riem-
f>iula a caffa, or coffer-work. Thefe flakes \vcre pro-
bably warped acrofs by boughs of trees laid very clofe-
ly together, fo as to form two fences panning parallel
to each other at the diftance of fome feet, and fo clofe
as to confine all the materials of whatever lize that
\vere thrown in between them. Into this intermediate
fpace Mr Tytler fuppofes were thron-n boughs and
trunks of trees, earth and ftones of all fizes, large or
fmall as they could quarry or colleft them. Very little
care would be neceffary in the difpofition of thefe ma-
terials, as the outward fence would keep the mound
in form. In this way it is eafy to conceive that a very
ftrong bulwark might be reared with great delpatch ;
which, joined to the natural advantage of a very inac-
ceffible fituation, and that improved by artful contri-
vances for incrcafing the difticulty of accefs, would
form a ftrudlure capable of anfwering every purpofe of
3

1

FOR

fecurity or defence. The moft formidable attack a- Vitrl
galnft fuch a building tvould be fire, which ivould I'""''
no doubt be always attempted, and often ivith fuccefs, """"V
by an enemy who undertook the fiege. If the beCegers
prevailed in gaining an approach to the ramparts, and,
furrounding the external wall, fet fire to it in feveral
places, the conflagration muft fpeedlly have become
univerfal, and the effect may be ealjly imagined. If
there happened to be any wind at the lime to increafe
the heat, the ftony parts could not fail to come into
fuiion J and as tire wood burnt away, finking by their
own Aveiglit into a folid mafs, there would remain a
wreck of vitrified matter tracking the fpot where the
ancient rampart had ftood j irregular, and of unequal
height, from the fortuitous ar.d unequal diftribution
of the ftony materials of which it had been compofed.
This conjedure appears very probable from their ap-
pearance at this day. They do not feem to have ever
been much higher than they are at prefent, as the
fragments that have fallen from them, even where the
^vall is loweft, are very inconCderable. The durable
nature of the materials would prevent them from fuf-
fering any changes by time ; though from the gradual
mcreafe of the foil, they muft in fome places have loft
confiderably of their apparent height, and in other*
been quite covered. Mr Williams, in making a cut
through the ramparts at Knockfarril, found in many
places the vitrified matter covered with peat mofs half
a foot thick.

In confirmation of this opinion, our author likewife
urges that in the fortification on Craig Phadrick, a
large portion of the outward rampart bears no marks
of vitrification. The reafon of this feems to be, that the
fteepnefs of the hill on that fide renders a low fence of
ftones and turf futficient ; and no wood had probably
been employed in its conftruclion. " It appears there-
fore highly probable (concludes our author), that the
effefl of fire upon thefe hill fortifications has been en-
tirely accidental ; or to fpeak more properly, that fire
has been employed not in the conftniftion, but to-
wards the demolition of fuch buildings ; and for the
latter purpofe it would certainly prove much more ef-
ficacious than for the former. It is much to be doubt-
ed, whether it would be at all polTible, even in the pre-
fent day, by the utmoft combination of labour and of
Ikill, to furround a large fpace of ground with a double
rampart of ftones compafted by fire, of fuch height
and folidlty as to anfwer any purpofe of "fecurity or de-
fence againft an enemy. Any ftrudlure of this kind
muft have been iifegular, lo^v, fragile, eafily fcaled,
and quite infecure j a much ^veaker rampart, in ftiort,
than a iimple wall of turf or wooden pallifade. Tlie
veftiges yet remaining, as I have already obferved, give
no room to fuppole that the vitrified mound has ever
been much more entire than It is at prefent. The ef-
fect of fire upon ftruftures reared in the manner I have
fuppofed them to have been, will account moll per-
fedly for their prefent appearance. It was from ne-
ceflity that the builders of thefe fortifications betook
themfelves to a mode of ftruftiire fo liable to be de-
llroyed by fire. In thofe parts ^vhere ftones could be
eafily quarried, of fuch fize and form as to rear a ram-
part by themfelves of fulRcient ftrength and folidity,
there was no occafion to employ ivood or turf in its
conftrudlion ; and it was therefore proof againft all af-

faults

F OR [ :

YitiifieJ faults by fire. Such are tlie ramparts which appear on
^'^'''- the hill of Uau-Jardel, Dun-Evan, and many others,

^"^ on ivhich there is not the inialleft appearance of vitri-

fication. But on Craig Phadrick, and the other hills
above defcribed, where, from the nature of the rock,
the llones could be procured only in irregular and ge-
nerally fmall fragments, it was neceffary to employ
lome fuch mode of conllruftion as I have luppoled ;
and thefe rampaits, though folid and well calculated
for defence againil every attack by force or rtratagem,
were not proof againll an affault by fire."

I\Ir Cordiner is of opinion, that the vitrifications in
queftion cannot have been the works of art, and ridi-
cules the contrary hypothefis ; though without addu-
cing any argument againft it. The Hill of Noth is
by him fuppofed to have been a volcano. He de-
fcribes it as " a molt majellic mountain, in general
brown, with mots and heath, interfperfed with bare
rock, in many places crumbling down. The higheft
part of it is a circular hill, %vhofe verdure, as \vell as
height, dillinguillies it from the reft of the mountain.
This is called the To/> of Nolh ; and bears the ftrongelt
rtTemblance to every defcription of a volcanic mount.
At the diftance of many miles, one can diftinguilh
thofe ridges which are the boundaries of the crater, in-
dicating the hollow in the top." The gentleman from
whom Mr Cordiner received the account of the vitrifi-
cations on the fummit, informs us, that on firft feeing
fpecimens of them, he imagined that they had been pie-
ces of Itone calcined by the burning down of a callle •,
as he had found fomething very like them on the
caftle-hill at CuUen, in parts ivhere the fward of grafs
was broken ; but on reaching the top, and viewing
the appearances on it already defcribed, he altered his
opinion. " That men hardly befet (fays he) might
climb up with fome provifions to this as a place of re-
fuge, is probable : but that, on a barren mountain
top, far from cultivated ground, half a day's journey
from the plain •, that there, in any period of foclety,
man ihould have been tempted to build that amazing
rampart, is not to be imagined : they have found it a
natural and extenfive fortrefs, and in critical circum-
ftances
been (

very evident ; for, fome hundred yards loiver doivn on
the hill, thfre are the remains of another rampart or
wall, confifting of loofe llones piled together without
any cement, carried quite round the hill. This lafl has
been built for an additional defence to thofe who niade
their abode on the top. The top of Noth, for two-
thirds downwards, is covered ^vith a green f'.vard ; be-
low that, it is brown with heath : this is the very re-
verfe of the adjacent mountains ; and the greater ver-
dure of the upper part I imputed to a new foil created
by the a(hes of the volcano. The opening, called a
■wcli, I fuppofe to have been the lateft crater. About
a mile fouth, do\vn towards the lower grounds of the
Cnhrock, there is a very pretty regular green hill,
which I afcribe to a later eruption than thofe which
may have formed the contiguous hills now covered
with heath. There is an extraordinary luxuriant fpring
of v.aler ru(hes out at once from the fide of the hill of
Noth ; which is likeivife fome confirmation of the
opinion that a volcano has fome time exiiled. there,

have made ufe of it accordingly. That it has
:cupied as a place of ftrength and of refuge, is

3 ] FOR

which has occafioned great hollows and refervoirs of Vii
w^atcr in the heart of the mountain. And the wild ir- '^'
regularities of nature through all the Cabrock, the hi- '
deous and ftrange projeftion of rocks from the fides
of the hills, would feem to indicate fome vaft con-
vuUions which the eartll muft have fuffered in thefe
parts.

" The traces of ancient volcanoes (fays Mr Cor-
diner) are far from being unfrequent in Scotland.
The hill of Fmhavcn is one inftance-, and not only
abundant in this fpccies of lava, but with larras, or
the puhis puleolanus, an amalgama, as Condamine calls
it, of calcined llones mixed with fcorias and iron rull
reduced to powder. The hill of Beregonium, near
Dunftaffnage caftle, is another, yielding vail quantities
of pumice or fcoria of different kinds ; many of which
are of the fame fpecies with thofe of the volcanic Ice-
land. The noble afiemblage of bafaltic columns at
Staffa, thofe in the Ille of Sky, and the rock Humble,
are but fo many evidences of the ancient volcanoes of
this country. And finally, the immenfe ftratum of pu-
mex vitreus or Iceland agate, on the hill of Dun-fuin
in Arran, is the lall proof I Iball bring in fupport of
the queftion."

On this difpute ^ve can only obferve, that whatever
fide we embrace, the difficulties feem to be very great,
nay almoll infurmountable. When we conlider the
great thicknefs of the walls on the top of Noth, from
8 to I 2 feet, and the vail mound of ^^trified matter, no
Icls than 40 feet in breadth, mentioned by Mr Tytler,
we can fcarce conceive it poflible that lefs than a vol-
canic fire could be able to form them. We may eafily
allow, that, in the way this gentleman mentions, there
might be confiderable ^•itrifications formed ; but that
fuch immenfe mafles ihould be brought into perfetl fu-
fion by the i'raall quantity of fuel which could be put
round them in pallifades, or intermixed with the mate-
rials themlelves, \\\\\ be incredible to every one ac-
quainted with the extreme difficulty with which llones
of any magnitude are brought into complete fufion. We
fee even in the infides of furnaces, though fometimes
built of no more infufible materials than common
brick, no fuch e&cls follow. There is a ilight vitri-
fication indeed, but it fcarcely ever penetrates to the
depth of an inch or two, though very violent fires are
kept up for a much longer time than we could I'uppofc
the wood furrounding thofe \valls to require for its be-
ing confuraed. In conllagrations, where houfes arc
confumed, which are the only fimilar examples we
have, no fuch effect is perceived. Even in the great
fire at London in 1 666, where fo many buildings were
deltroyed, we do not hear of their walls being \'itri-
fied, though the materials of many of them were un-
doubtedly as fufible as the rocks and ftones of Craig
Phadrick, or the Top of Noth. If, on the other
hand, we reject this, and adhere to the volcanic hypo-
thefis, our difticulties are equally great. For where
fliall we find, in any other part of the world, an ex-
ample of volcanoes ejecting lava in the fomi of walls
enclofing a regular area ? This would be attributing
fuch a Angularity to the volcanoes of Scotland as the
molt extravagant imagination cannot admit. We mult
therefore conclude, that though thefe ruins are cer-
tainly the works of art, we have not yet fufficient data

Koits

FOR [24

to decide ti.e qucllion with rcfpeft to that conltruc- ft
tion, but that the fabject requires a farther iaveftiga- rt

FOR

l-ortefcue. "0»-

In the paper already quoted, Mr Tytler, obferves, that
" thefe ancient fortifications prefeni a more curious and
Literefling objeil of fpeculation, than thofe uncertain
and indeed fruitlefs conjiJiHures as to the mode in which
they have been reared." This, he juiUy obferves, muft
have been before the ufe of mortar was known ; for as
the country abounded in liraellone, and the build-
ers certainly would exert all their powers in giving
them a proper degree of llrength, it would undoubted-
ly have been ufed. Hence we are led to afcribe to
thefe a very coniiderable degree of antiquity j for as
the Britons were taught the ufe of mortar by the Ro-
mans, it is probable that we mud date the origin of
the ftruclures in queftion before the time of the inva-
fion of that people, or at lead foon after it -, fo that
we rnuil look, upon them to be more than 1650 years
old ; but hou' far beyond that period we are to fearch
for their origin, does not appear. " All that we can
conclude with certainty (fays our author) is, that they
belong to a period of extreme barbaritm. They muft
have been conftrufted by a people fcarcely removed
from the ftate of favages, who lived under no impref-
Con of fixed or regulated property in land ; whofe only
appropriated goods were their cattle •, and whofe fole
fecurity, in a life of conftant depredation, was the re-
treat to the fummits of thofe hills of difHcult accefs,
which they had fortified in the beft manner they could.
As the fpace enclofed was incapable of containing a
great number of men, efpecially if occupied in part by
cattle, it is prefumable, that thefe retreats were form-
ed chiefly for the fecurity of the women and children
of the canton, and of their herds. They could be de-
fended by a few men, ivhile the reft of the tribe were
engaged with their enemies in the field."

Our author concludes his differtation with a conjec-
ture, that the forts in quefrion were conftrufted, not only
before the Roman in^afion, but before the introduc-
tion of the rites of the Druids into Britain •, as " there
appears no probability that the inhabitants either liv-
ed under fuch a government as we know to have pre-
vailed under the influence of the Dniids, or had any
acquaintance with thofe arts which it is certain they cul-
tivated."

FORTALICE, in Scots Law, fignified anciently a
fraall place of ftrength, originally built for the defence
of the country ; and which on that account was for-
merly reckoned inur regalia, and did not go along with
the lands upon which it was fituated without a fpecial
grant from the crown. Now, fortalices are cajried by
a general grant of the lands ; and the word is become
fynonymoui v.ith manor-place, mefluage, &c.

FORTESCUE Sir Johx, lord chief juftice of
the King's Bench, and lord high chancellor of England,
in the reign of King Henry VI. was defccnded from
the ancient family of Fortefcue, in the county of De-
von. He ftfdied the municipal laws of England in
Lincoln's Ir.., of which he was made one of the go-
vernors in the fourth and feventh years of the reign of
King Her ry VI. In 1410 he was called to ihe degree
of a ferjeant at law, and V?. 14 41 was conftituted the
king's ferjeant. The following year he was made lord
chief juftice of the King's Bench j in which honourable
4

rion he continued till near th.e end 01 that king's Forth,
reign, who fliowed him many particular marks of his """Y'-'
favour, and advanced him to the poft of lord higli
chancellor of England. During the leign of King Ed-
ward IV. he followed the fortunes of the houfe of Lan-
cafter, and was many years in exile with Q^uten Mar-
garet and Prince Edward her fon. At length, tht-y
having a profpeft of retrieving their defperate for-
tunes, tlie queen and prince returned to England, aiKl
Sir John Fortefcue, with many others, accompanied
them : but foon after the deciuve battle of Tewkeft>ury,
he was thrown into prilon and attainted, with other
Lancaftrians ; but found means to prociu-e his pardon
from Edward IV. He vnote, i. A learned com-
mentary on the politic laws of England, for the ufe of
Prince Edv.ard ; to one edition of which Mr Selden
wrote notes. 2. The difleience between an abfolute
and b'mited monarchy, as it more particularly regard?
the Englilh conftitution (which was publilhcd, with
fome remarks, by John Fortefcue, aftenvards Lord
Fortefcue, in 8vo, in 1714 ; and a fecond edition was
publlihed, with amendments, in 1719) : And feveral
works, which ftill remain in manufcript. He died near
90 years of age ; and was biu'ied in the parilh church
of Ebburton, where a monument ^vas erefted to his
memory, in 1677, by one of his defcendants.

FORTH, one of the moft noble and commodious
rivers in Scotland. It takes its rife near the bottom
of Ben-Lomond J and running from weft to eaft, receives
in its palTage many confiderable ftreams, deriving their
waters from the eminences in the midland counties of
North Britain. Between Stirling and Alloa, the Forth
winds in a moft beautiful and furprifing manner ; fo
that, though it is but four miles by land, it is 24 by
water between thofe t^vo places. Below Alloa the
river expands itfelf to a great breadth between the
counties of Lothian and Fife, till at (Queens-ferry it
is contracted by promontories ftiooting into it from
both coafts ; fo that, from being four or five, there it
is not above two miles broad. In the middle of the
channel lies a fmall ifland called Inchgarvij, which has
a fpring of frefli water : upon the iiland there is an
ancient fort, which has been lately repaired ; and it
there were either forts or blockhoufes on the oppofite
promontories, that part of the river wliich lies between
Alloa and Q^iieen's-ferry would be as fecur* and conve-
nient a harbour as could be defired. A little below
this, near the north fliore, lies Inchcoim, on which
are the remains of an ancient monaftery of confiderable
extent ; and oppofite to Lcith ftands the ifland ol
Inchkeith, formerly fortified, but now in ruins. Be-
low Q^ueen's-ferry the north and fouth fliores receding,
the body of the water gradually enlarges till it be-
comes two or three leagues broad, aftordhig feveral
fafe harbours on both fides, and excellent roads through-
out, unembarrafled with latent rocks, flioals, or fands.j
and allo;ving fecure anchorage to the largeft ihips with-
in a league of the coaft In almoft any part of the
Frith, and to vclTels of a fmallcr fize u-ithin a mile or
lef». The Firth, or (as it is commonly written) tlie
Frith, of Forth, is, at the mouth of it, from North
Berwick to Fifenefs, full five leagues broad ; having the
little ifland of May (on which there is a lighthoufe,
and there might alfo be a fort) in the middle of it, and
to the weft of this the rocky ifland of Bafs ; notwiih-
ftanding

• Fictv of
tl: Britifi

■vol II.
p.Si3.

FOR [2

ftandlng ^vliich, the largeft fleet may enter and fail up
it many miles with the utmoft facility and in the great-
ell I'afety. In 1781, Admiral Parker's fleet lay fome
weeks oppofite to Edinburgh, accompanied by 500 fail
of merchantmen, the whole in full view of the city and
caftle.

The Forth was known to the ancients by the name
of Eodotria, or (as Ptolemy calls it Boderia, and has
been ever famous for the number of its havens : forae
of which are, indeed, in their prefent condition, fcarce
worthy of that name. It is navigable for merchantmen
as high as Alloa, 50 miles from the fea ; and for coaft-
ers as far as Stirling, 24 miles further by ^vater, though
only four by land in a direft line, as already obferved.
The tide flows only a full mile above Stirling to a
place called Craigforth, where the proprietor intercepts
the paflage of the falmon by a cruive or wear, very in-
jurious to the large traft of country which llretches
as far as Lomond weftward. The river from Stir-
ling to the bridge of Aberfoil, at the entrance into the
Weft Highlands, is only palTable for man or horfe at
few places, and thefe in dry fealons. It glides gently
through a dead flat, from Gartmore eaftward ; " and
on thefe accounts (fays Mr Knox*) it might be made
navigable for barges, at a trifling expence to the pro-
prietors of the lands, an improvement much wanted ia
a rich, extenfive, and populous valley, without market
towns, coal and lime. Suppofmg this work to be ex-
ecuted, of which there is fome probability, the whole
extent of navigation on the Forth, will, including all
its windings, exceed 200 miles, through a coall of
nearly 100 miles ; fertile, populous, indullrious ; and
from Stirling eaftward, almoft lined with towns, an-
ciently the feats of commerce and navigation, till they
were ruined by the Englilh depredations ; in which
miferable ftate fome of them ftill remain, while others
begin to refume the appearance of bufinefs. The prin-
cipal objefl of thefe towns was the nlheries ; wliicli

5 1 FOR

they profecuted with great vigour as far as Iceland,
till the time of the Union, from wliich period the eaft- '
em fiiheries gradually dwindled away ; and the poor
fiftiermen, unable to fubfift themfelvcs upon air and
water, took up the trade of fmuggling ; but fo foon
as the filhery laws ftiall be amentjed, the fait dutie*
aboliftied, and an adequate bounty extended to boats
as well as buiTes, thefe people will readily fall into the
track of their anceftors, live by honeft induftry, and
add new vigour to our naval ftrength. Many of the
ports are nearly choaked up, others want repairs,
which neither the individuals nor the corporations of
thofe decayed places can accomplifti. Though the
harbours on the Forth are in general fmall, the depth
of water might be made futhcient for veflels of 200
tons burden, which fully anfwers the purpofes of their
coafting and Bahic trade ; but to obtain this, or even
a lefs depth of water, an aid of 50,0001. would be re-
quifite."

By this river and the Clyde, Scotland is almoft di-
vided into two parts. The Forth falls into the eaft fea
below Edinburgh, and has an eafy communication with
the whole eaftem coaft of Great Britain ; with France,
Oftend, HoUand, Hamburgh, Pruflia, Dantzic, Rulfia,
Sweden, Denmark, Nor^vay, and Greenland. The Clyde
falls into the Atlantic ocean below Glafgow, and com-
municates with the weftern coaft of Great Britain ; with
Ireland, the fouth of France, Portugal, Spain, the Me-
diterranean, America, and the Well Indies. Thefe
ttvo rivers, thus falling in oppofite directions into the
two feas which environ our ifland, and the neck of
land between them amounting fcarcely to 24 miles,
gave rife to the idea of a junction, fo as to open a
communication acrofs the kingdom, and thereby cut
off the long dangerous navigation by the Land's End
and the Pentland Frith : an object of vaft utility, and
which has been happily accompUftied. See Cas.\l.

FORTIFICATION;

' I 'HE art of fortifying a town, or other place ; or
-*- of putting it in fuch a pofture of defence, that
every one of its parts defends, and is defended by,
forae other parts, by means of ramparts, parapet?,
moats, and other bulwarks ; to the end that a fmall
numbef of men within may be able to defend thera-
felves for a confiderable time againft the aflaults of a
numerous army without, fo that the enemy in attack-
ing them muft of neceflity fuffer great lofs.

The origin and rife of fortification is undoubtedly
owing to the degeneracy of mankind. In the firft ages
of the world, men were dilperfed up and down the
countries in feparate families, as we are told in the hi-
iluries of the Jews and Scvthians, who wandered from
one place to another, for the fake of finding palture
for their cattle. Thefe families became in time fo nu-
merous as to form large communities, which fettled all
tDi^ether in a place; from whence villages and to-.vns
had their origin and rife : but thty found it was ne-
cclTary, for the coramon fecurity, to furroimd thofe
toivns uith walls and ditches, to prevent all violences

Vol. IX. Pir? I.

from their neighbours, arid fud Jen furprijes. This way
fuiTicient for fome time, till ofienuve weapons were in-
vented, and conquering became a faftuon. Then walls
with loop holes were made at proper diftances, in or-
der to fcreen the defenders againft the arrows of the
afiallants : but finding that, as foon as the enemy got
once clofe to the walls, they could from no pnrt be
difcovered or repulfed ; for this reafon they added fquare
towers at proper diftances from each other, fo that
every part of the wall might be defended by the adja-
cent fides of the towers. This manner of enclofing
towns, liowever, was found to be imperfeft, becaufe
there remained ftill one of the faces of the towers
which fronted the field that could not be feen from an^
other point, and therefore could not be defended. To
remedy this, they made the towers round inftead of
fquare, imagining this figure to be the ftrongeft to re-
fift the battering engines, as likewife to be better de-
fended from the other parts of the wall.

Notwitliftanding the fuperiority of this method n-

bove the former, there remained yet a part of thcfc

D towers

25

Vanbin's towers unfeen and incapable of being defended ; which
Method, made them change the figure of the towers agaia ;
'"■ • thst is, they made them fquaie as before ; but, inftead
of prelenting a face to the field as formerly, they pre-
fented an angle ; by this means they effettiially found
out fuch a difpofitien of their works that no part could
be attacked without being feen or defended by fome
other part.

This laft method was in ufe a long while ; and would
in all probability have continued to this day, if gun-
po'.vder had not been found out ; but the violence of
the guns and mortars foon convinced the world, that
fuch toucrs and walls were but a weak defence againll
thefe thundering engines ; and befides, as the nature
of the attack was entirely changed, it was alfo necef-
fary to change that of fortifying, likewife.

From that time ramparts were added to the walls,
the towers enlarged into baftions, and all forts of out-
works have been added, fuch as ravelins, counter-
guards, horn and cro^vn works, and others of the like
nature, in order to render the defence in fome meafure
equivalent to the attack.

Notwithilanding all the improvements which have
been made in the art of fortifying fince the invention
of gunpowder, that of attacking is ftill fuperior to it ;
engineers have tried in vain to render the advantages of
a fortification equal to thofe of the attack ; the iupe-
riority of the beiiegers fire, together with the greater
number of men, obliges generally, fooner or later, the
befiegcd to fubmit.

The greateft improvement made in the art of at-
tacking happened in the year 1697, when M. Vauban
made firft ufe of ricochet firing at the fiege of Ath,
whereby the befieged placed behind the parapets were
as much expofed to the fire of the befiegers as if there
had been none ; whereas, before, they had been fe-
cure as long as the parapet was not demoliflied ; and
the worft is, that there can be no remedy found to
prevent this enfilading, without falling into inconve-
niences almoll as bad as thofe which we endeavour to
avoid.

Fortification is either regular or irregular. Re-
gular fortification, is that built in a regular polygon,
the fides and angles of which are all equal, being com-
monly about a mulket Ihot from each other. Irregular
fortification, on the contrary, is that where the fides
and angles are not uniform, equidiftant, or equal ;
wliich is owing torhe irregularity of the ground, valleys,
rivers, hills, and the like.

Sect. I. Of Regular Fortification.

ALTHOirGH authors agree as to the general form in
the prcfent manner of fortifying, yet they moftly differ
in particular conflruftions of the parts. As it would
be both needlefs and fuperfluous to treat of all the dif-
ferent methods hitherto propofed, we fliall content
ourfelves with explaining thofe only which are moft
efleemed by the beft judges, and have been moftly put
in practice.

ConJlruBion of M. Vavb Ail's Method.

'^his method is divided into little, mean, and great ;
the liitle is chiefly ufed in the coiiftru£Uon of ciiadfls,

FORTIFICATION. Sed. I.

the mean in that of all forts of towns, and the great in Vaubnn's
particular cafes only. Method.

We (hall give the conftruftion of the mean, as being ' *"""'
mofl ufeful ; and refer the reader to the table hereaf-
ter, for thofe dimenfions which are different in thefe fe-

veral fortifications. pj^^^

Infcribe in a circle a polygon of as many fides as the CCXXI,
fortification is deligned to have fronts ; let AB (fig. i.)
be one of the fides of half an hexagon, which bifeft by
the perpendicular CD j divide half AC of it into nine
equal parts, and one of thefe into ten others ; then
thefe divifions will ferve as a fcale to conihucl all the
parts of the fortification, and earh of them is fuppof-
ed to be a toife or fathom, that is, fix French feet ;
and therefore the whole fide AB is fuppofed to be 180
toifes.

As the dividing a line into fo many equal parts is
troublefome and tedious, it is more convenient to have
a fcale of equal parts by which the works may be con-
ftruaed.

If therefore, in this cafe, the radius is taken equal
to I 80 toifes, and the circle defcribed with that radius
being divided into fix equal parts, or the radius being
carried fix times round, you %\-ill have a hexagon in-
fcribed ; AB being bifecled by the perpendicular CD
as before, let off 30 toifes from C to D, and draw the
indefinite lines ADG, BDF ; in which take the parts
AE, BH, each equal to 50 toifes : from the cen-
tre E defcribe an arc through the point H, meeting
AD in G, and from the centre H defcribe an arc
through the point E, meeting BD in F ; or ^vhich is
the fame, make each of the lines EG, HF, equal to
the diftance EH ; then the lines joining the points
A, E, F, G, H, B, will be the principal or outline of
the front.

If the fame conftruClion be performed on the other
fides of the polygon, you will have the principal or
outline of the whole fortification.

If, with a radius of 20 toifes, there be defcribed
circular arcs, from the angular points B, A, M, T,
and lines are drawn from the oppofite angles, E, H,
&c. fo as to touch thefe arcs, their parts, a b, b c, ike.
together with thefe arcs, will reprefent the outline of
the ditch.

Definitions.

1. The part FEALN, is called the baftion.

2. AE, AL, the faces of the baflion.

3. EF, LN, the Hanks.

4. FG, the curtain.

5. FN, the gorge of the baflion.

6. AG, BF, the lines of defence.

7. AB, the exterior fide of the polygon.

8. CD, the perpendicular.

9. Any line which divides a work into tivo equal
parts, is called the capital of that work.

10. a be, the counterfcarp of the ditch.

11. A, M, the Hanked angles.

1 2. H, E, L, the angles of the fhoulder, or flioul-
der only.

13. G, F, N, the angles of the flank.

14. Any angle whofe point turns from the place is
called a falient angle^ fuch as A, M j and any angle

whofe

Sea. I. F O R T 1 F I

whofe point turns towards the place, a re-entering angle,
fuch as h, F, N. . _

15. If there be draivn two lines parallel to the prin-
cipal or outline, the one at 3 toifes diftance, and the
other at 8 from it ; then the fpace y .v included between
the principal one and that fartheft diftant, is called
the rampart.

And the fpace x x, contained by the principal line,
and that near to it, and which is generally ftained
black, is called the />flrfl/if/.

16. There is a fine line draivn within four feet of
the parapet, which exprefles a flep called banquette.

N. B. All ^rorks have a parapet of three toifes
thick, and a rampart of 8 to 10, befides their Hopes.
The rampart is elevated more or Icfs above the level
of the place from 10 to 20 feet, according to. the na-

CATION.

ture of the graund and the pajticular conftruiilions of
engineers.

The parapet is a part of the rampart elevated from
6 to 7i feet above the reft, in order to cover the troops
which are drawn up there from the fire of the enemy in
a liege ; and the banquette is two or three feet higher
than the rampart, or about four feet lower than the
parapet ; fo that when the troops fiand upon it they
may juft be able to fire over the parapet.

17, The body of the place, is all that which is con-
tained within this full rampart : for which reafon, it is
often faid to conunift the body of the place ; which
means properly, the conftrutlion of the baflions and
curtains.

1 8. All the works which are conftrudled beyond the
ditch before the body of the place are called outworks.

Forts

Littlc Fortff.

, Mean.

Great. |

Side of Polyg.

80

90

100

no

120

13 =

140 j 150

160 I 17c

;i8o

190

200 1 260

Perpendicul.

-

II

124

14

>5

16

20 2 1

.3h5

30

3'

25h.

Faces baft.

-

25

28

30

33

35

40 1 42

45 1 47

1 ^°

53

55 1 60

Cape of ravel.

^s

28

30

ss

38

■ 40

54 1 50 1 _,-o| 52

\s:

.5

1 60 1 50

In the firft vertical column are the numbers ex-
prefling the lengths of the exterior fides from 80 to 260.
In the fecond, the perpendiculars anfuering to thefe
fides. In the third, the lengths of the faces of ba-
ftions : and in the fourth, the lengths of the capitals of
the ravelins.

The forts are moftly, if not always, fquares : for
xvhich reafon, the perpendiculars are made one-eighth
of the exterior fides ; becaufe if they were more, the
gorges of the baftions would become too narro^v.

The little fortification is chiefly defigned for citadels,
and are commonly pentagons ; the perpendiculars are
made one-feventh of the exterior fide : the mean is
ufed in all kinds of fortifications from an hexagon up-
■nards to any number of fides ; and the great is feldom
ufed but in an irregular fortification, where there are
fome fides that cannot be made lefs without much ex-
pence or in a town which lies near a great river,
where the fide next the river is made from 200 to 260
toifes ; and as that fide is lefs expofed to be attacked
than any other, the perpendicular is made ftiorter,
which faves much expence.

The faces of the baftions are all 4ths of the exte-
rior fides, or nearly fo, becaufe the fraftions are ne-
gledled.

It may be obferved in general, that in all fquares the
perpendicular is ^th of the exterior fide, and all pentagons
^th, and in all the reft upward ^th.

I. ConJIruSIion ofOrUlons and retired Flanks.

Dcfcribe the front MPQ^RST as before, and di-
vide the flank into three equal parts, of which fuppofe
.S r to be one : from the oppofite flanked angle M draw
a line M r, in which take the part ct r of 5 toifes ; take
likewife R n in the line of defence MR, produced,
equal to 5 toifes, and join n m, upon which as a bafe
defcribe the equilateral triangle npm, and from the

angle />, oppofite to the bafe as centre, is defcribed the
circular flank n m.

And if S r be bifecled by the perpendicular 1 , 2, and
another be erected upon the face ST, at S ; the inter-
feclion 2 of thefe two perpendiculars will be the cen-
tre of the arc which forms the orillon.

The orillons are very ufeful in covering the retired
flanks, which cannot be feen but direilly in the front ;
and as thefe orillons are round, they cannot be fo eafily
deftroyed as they \vould be if they were of any other
figure.

2. Conjlrudion of Ravelinj or Half -moons'.

Fig. 2. Set ofiF ^%, toifes, from the re-entering
angle O of the counterfcarp, on the capital OL or
on the perpendicular produced, and from the point L
draw lines to the fhoulders AB ; whofe parts LM,
LN, terminated by the counterfcarp, will be the faces,
and MO, ON, the femi-gorges, of the ravelin requir-
ed.

This is M. Vauban's method of conftrufting ravelins,
according to fome authors : and others will have the
faces of the ravelin to terminate an thofe of the baftions
within 3 toifes of the flioulders ; which feems to be
the beft way, for thefe ravelins cover the flanks much
better than the others.

The ditch before the ravelin is 1 2 toifes, its counter-
fcarp parallel to the faces of the ravelins ; and is made
in a circular arc, before the faUent angle j as likewife
all ditches are in general.

When the ravelins are made with flanks, as in fig. 3.
the faces ftiould terminate on thofe of the baftions, at
lenrt 5 toifes from the ftioulders.

The flanks are made by fetting off ID toifes from the
extremities of the faces, from/ to /;, and from m to /;
and from the points /;, /, the flanks h, l\ /, />, are draivri
parallel to the capital LO of the ravelin.

D 2 There

FORTIFICATION

There arc fometiruf s redoubts made in the ravelin,
fuch as in fig. 2. «hich is done by fetting oft 16 toiies
from the extremities of the faces on the lenii-gorges
from N to h, and from M to a ; and from the points b,
c, tlie faces are drawTi parallel to thofe of the ravelin ;
the ditch before the redoubt is 6 toifes, and its coun-
terfcarp parallel to the faces.

3. Conf.runion of Tenail/es.

A tcnaille is a work made in the ditch before the
curtains, the parapet of which is only 2 or 3 feet
higher than the level ground of the ravelin. There
are three diJTcrent forts : the firft are thofe as in fig. 4.
which are made in the direftion of the lines of defence,
lea^'ing a pafiage of 3 toifes between their extremities
und the flunks of the baftions, as likeuil'e another of 2
in the middle for a bridge of communication to the ra-
velia.

The fecond fort are tliofe as in fig. 5. Their faces
are in the lines of defence, and 16 toifes long, befides
the paffage of 3 toifes between them and the flanks
of the bailions ; their flanks are found by defcribing
arcs from one flioulder of the tenaille as centre through
the other, on which are fet off 10 toifes for the flanks
defircd.

And the third fort are thofe as in fig. 6. Their faces
are 1 6 toifes, as in the fecond fort, and the flanks are
parallel to thofe of the baftions.

The ufe in general of tenailles is to defend the bot-
tom of the ditch by a grazing fire, as likewife the level
ground of the ravelin, and especially the ditch before
the redoubt within the ravelin, wliich can be defended
from nowhere elfe fo well as from them.

The firft fort do not defend the ditch fo well as the
others, as being too oblique a defence ; but as they are
not fubjeft to be enfiladed, M. Vauban has generally
preferred them in the fortifying of places, as may be
leen in the citadel of Lille, at Landau, New Brifac,
and in a great many other places.

The fecond fort defend the ditch much better than
the firft, and add a low flank to thofe of the baftion ;
but as thefe flanks are liable to be enfiladed, they have
not been much put in praflice. This defedl might
however be remedied, by making them fo as to be co-
vered by the extremities of the parapets of the oppofite
ravelins, or by forje other work.

As to the third fort, they have the fame advan-
t^ige as the fecond, and are likewife liable to the fame
(jbjeiSions ; for which reafon, they may be ufed with
the fame precautions which have been mentioned in the
lecond.

Tenailles are efteemed fo neceffary, that there is
hardly any place fortified without them : and it is not
■.sithout reafon. For when the ditch is dry, the part
behind the tenailles ferves as a place of arm.s, from
which the troops may fally, dcftroy the works of the
enemy in the ditch, oppofe their dcfcent, and retire
with fafety ; and the communication from the body of
the place to the ravelin becomes eafy and fecure :
which is a great advantage ■, for by that means the ra-
velin may be a much better defence, as it can be
fupplitd with troops and neceflaries at any time, rilnd
if the ditcli is wet, they ferve as harbours for boats,
■whicbt may carry out armed men to oppofe the paf-

Sea. I.

fage over the ditch whenever they plcafe ; and the Of
communication from the tenailles to the ravelin be- I-i;neuts,
comes likewife much eafier than it would be without ^
them. ' VWx.e

4. ConJlruBkn of Lunettes. tCXXI.

Fig. 7. Lunettes are placed on both fides of the ra-
velin, fuch as B, to increafe the ftrength of a place :
they are conftrufted, by bifeCling the faces of the ra-
velin with the perpendicular LN ; on which is fet off
30 toifes from the counterfcarp of the ditch, for one of
its faces ; the other face, PN, is found by making the
femi-gorge TP of 25 toifes; the ditch before the lu-
nettes is 1 2 toifes, the parapet 3, and the rampart 8,
as in the ravelin.

There is fometimes another work made to cover the
falient angle of the ravelin, fuch as A, called bor.net,
whofe faces are parallel to thofe of the ravelin, and
■svhen produced bifeft thofe of the lunettes j the ditch
before it is 10 toifes.

There are likewife lunettes, llich as D in, fig. 8.
whofe faces are dra^vn perpendicular to thofe of the ra-
velin, within a third part from the falient angle; and
their femi-gorges are only 20 toifes.

Thefe kinds of ivorks may make a good defence,
and coft no very great expence ; for as they are fo near
the ravelin, the communication with it is very eafy, and
one cannot well be maintained till they are all three
taken.

5. ConflruElionofTenoillons.

Fig. 9. Produce the faces of the ravelin beyond the
counterfcarp of the ditch, at a diftance MN of 30
toifes, and take on the counterfcarp of the great ditch
15 toifes from the re-entering angle /> to q, and draw
N^; then y NM/> will be the tenailles required; its
ditch is 1 2 toifes, that is, the fame as that of the rave-
lin. Sometimes there is made a retired battery in the
front of the tenaillons, as in B ; this battery is i o
toifes from the front to which it is parallel, and 15
toifes long.

There are commonly retrenchments made in the te-
naillons, fuch as O ; their parapets are parallel to the
fronts MN, and bifeft the fide q N ; the ditch before
this retrenchment is 3 toifes ; and there is a banquette
before the parapet next to the ditch of about 8 feet,
called herm ; ^vhich fer^-es to prevent the earth of the
parapet (which feldom has any revetment) frcm falling
into the ditch.

It is to be obferved, that the ravelin, before which,
tenaillons are conftrucled, muft have its falient angles
much greater tlian the former conftruflion makes them>
otherwife the falient angles of the tenaillons become
too acute ; for which reafon we made the capital of
this ravelin 45 toifes, and the faces terminate within 3.
toifes of the lliouldcrs.

6. ConflruBion of Counterguards.

Fig. 10, II. WTien the counterguard is placed be-
fore the ravelin, fet off 40 toifes on the capital of the.
ravelin from the falient angle A to the falieut angle B,
of the counterguard; and lo from C to D, on the.
counterfcarp of the ditch.

When the counterguard is before the bafilon, fuch ai

&a I.

Of in fig. 2. its falient angle F is 50 toifes from the fa-
Hcrn«- rk'.jjgnt ar.gle E of the baftion, and the breadth near the
, '^' , ditch of the ravelin 10 toifes as before.

Plate The ditch before the counterguards is 1 2. toifes, and

CCXXI. its counterfcarp parallel to the faces.

Counterguards are made before the ravelin on fome
particular occafions only •, but are frequently conftrud-
ed before the baftions, as covering the flanks wonder-
fully well. Some authors, as Mr Blondel and Mr
Coehorn, will have them much narrower than they are
here.

7. ConJIruciion af Horirx'oris,

Fig. 12. Produce the capital of the ravelin be-
yond the falient ar.gle A, at a diftance AB of about
80 toifes ; draw DEE at right angles to AB ; in
which take BD, BE, each equal to 55 toifes ; and
on the exterior fide DE, trace a front of a polygon
m the fame manner as that of the body of the place,
making the perpendicular BF 10 toifes, and the
feces 30.

The branches D tf, E^, of the horn work, when pro-
duced, terminate on the faces of the balUons, with-
in 5 toifes of the Ihoulder?. The ditch of the horn-
work is 1 2 toifes, and its counterfcarp parallel to the
branches ; and In the front terminates at the (boul-
ders, in the fame manner as the great ditch before the
baftions.

The capital of the ravelin before the front of the
homwork is 35 toifes, and the faces terminate on the
Ihoulders, or rather 2 or 3 toifes beyond them : and
the ditch before the ravelin is 8 toifes.

There are fometimes retrenchments made within the
homwork, fuch as S, S ; which are conftrufled by
erefting perpendiculars to the faces of the raveUns,
within 25 toifes of their extremities. This retrench-
ment, like all others, has a parapet turfed only with a
berm of 8 feet before it ; as likewife a ditch from 3 to
5 toifes broad.

Fig. 13. WTien a homwork is made before the ba-
ftion, the dlftance DL of the front from the falient
angle of the baftion is 100 toifes, and the branches
terminate on the faces of the adjacent ravelins within
5 toifes from their extremities ; all the reft is the fame
a-i before.

8. Co'ijlruciion of Crvwnworis.

''■■•• From the falient angle, A (fig. 14.) of the ravelin;

-'I as a centre, defcribe an arc of a circle with a radius of
about 123 toifes, cutting the capital of the ravelin
produced at C 5 from the point C, fet off the cords
CB, CF, each of them equal to 110 toifes; and on
lach of which, as an exterior fide, conftrucl a front of
1 polygon of the fame dimenfions as in the homivork ;
'hat is, the perpendicular ftiould be 1 8 toifes, the faces
^{0, and the branches terminate on the faces of the ba-
iiions ivithin 25 toifes of the llioulders.

The ditch is 12 toifes, the capital of the ravelin 35,
and its ditch 8 ; that is, the fame as in the horn-
-.vork.

Sometimes the crownwork is made before the ba-
iiion, as In fig. 15. The arc is defcribed from the fa-
lient angle A of the baftion, with a radius of 1 20 toifes,
*5 before ; and the branches terminate on the faces of
ihe adjacent ravelins v.ithin 23 toifes of their, estremi-

FORTIFICATION.

29^

ties ; the reft of the dimcnConj and conftruoUons are

the fame as before^ Coveit-

Homworks, as well as crownworks, are never made ^"'y^-^'^-
but when a large fpot of ground falls beyond the forti- phte
ficatlon, wliich might be advantageous to an enemy CCXXII.
in a fiege, or to cover forae gate or entrance into a
town.

9. ConJlruBion of Covert-ways and Glacis.

Although we have not hitherto mentioned the co-
vert-way, neverthelefs all fortifications whatfoever have
one ; for they are efteemed to be one of the moll effen-
tial parts of a modem fortification ; and it is certain,
the taking the covert-way, when it is in a good condi-
tion and well defended, is generally the moft bloody
aclion of the fiege.

After ha\-!ng coiiftrufled the body of the place, and
all the outworks which are thought neceffary, lines are
drawn patallel to the outmoft counterfcarp of the ditches,
at 6 toifes diftant from It; and the face ran, mn, in-
cluded bet-\veen that line and the counterfcarp, will be
the covert way required.

Fig. 1 6. There is in every re-entering angle of the
counteifcarp a place of arms «;; which is fourid by fet-.
ting oft 20 toi'es from the re-entering angle o, on both
fides from a to /', and from a to c ; and from the points
b,c, as centres, arcs are defcribed with a radius of 25
toifes, fo as to interledl each other in d ; then the lines
dra^vn from this interfecllon to the points b, c, v.ill be
the faces of the places of arms.

If lines are drawn parallel to the lines which termi-
nate the co\ert-way, and the places of arms, at 2"-
toifes diftant from them, the fpace .v, .v, x, between tlicle
lines and thofe which terminate the covert-way will be
the glacis.

At the extremities of the places of arms, are traverfes
made, fuch as % v, which ferve to enclofe them ; thefe
traverfes are 3 toifes thick, anrl as long as the covert-
way is broad ; and a paffage is cut in the glacis round
them, of about 6 or 8 feet, In order to have a free com-
munication mth the reft of the covert-^vay.

There are alfo traverfes of the fame dimenfions be--
fore every falient ar.gle of the baftion and outv.-orks,
and are in the fame direilion as the faces of thofe works
produced ; and the tliicknefs lies at the fame fide as the
parapets.

The paffages round thcfe Lift traverfes are likewife •
from 6 to 8 feet wide.

In each place of arras are two fally ports z z, which
are 10 or 1 2 feet wide, for the troops to fally out ;
in time of a fiege they are Ihut up with barriers or
gates.

10. ConJlruBion of ylrrows and Detached Reduuhts.
An arrow is a xvork made before the falient angles
of the glacis, fuch as A, fig. 16. It is compof.:d of a
parapet of 3 toifes thick, and 40 long ; and the ditch
before it 5 toifes, terminating in a (lope at both tnd.s.
The communication from the covert-way into thcfe
arro^vs is 4 or 5 foifcs wide ; and there is a travcrfe, r,
at the entrance, of 3 toifes thick, with a pafTage of c
or 8 feet round it.

• A detached redoubt is a kind of work much like „
ravelin, with Hanks placed beyond the glacis ; fjich ui
B: they are made in order to occupy fome fpct ,1

FORTIFICATION.

lea, I.

ground wliicli ni'iglit be advantageous to the befiegers ;
like\vife to oblige the enemy to open their trenches far-
ther oft" than tliey w ould do otherwile.

Tlieir diliance from the covert-way ought not to
exceed i 20 toifes, that it may be defended by muiket
ihot from thence.

The gorge a ^ Is 40 toifes ; the flanks a c, bf, vs-hich
are perpendicular to the gorge, 10 j and the faces c d,
fd, 30 : the ditch before it is 6 toifes, ending in Hopes
at ijoth ends ; the covert-way 4 ; the branches of the
coveit-way are 42 toifes long, or thereabouts ; the
faces of the places of arms tj, tj, whicli are perpendicu-
lar to the branches, 10 ; and the other, which is paral-
lel to them, 14.

The communication from the covert-way into the
redoubt, is 5 or 6 toifes wide ; and there is a traverfe
made juft at the entrance, and another in the middle
when it is pretty long. The parapets of this communi-
cation terminate in a flope or glacis.

If thefe redoubts are above 50 toifes diftant from
the covert-way, the befiegers carry their trenches round,
and enter through the gorge ; by which the troops
that are in them are made prifoners of ^var, if they do
not retire betimes ; to prevent which, fome otlier out-
works (hould be made to fopport them.

1 1 . Co:iJlruHion of Second Ditches and Covert-ways.

Fig. 17. When the ground is low, and water to be
found, there is often a ditch about 10 or 12 toifes
made round the glacis ; and oppofite to the places of
arms are conftrufted lunettes, beyond the ditch : fuch
as D, whofe breadth on the counterfcarp of the ditch
is 10 toifes, from b to a, and from c to d ; and the
faces a L, d'L, are parallel to thofe of the places of
arms-, the ditch before them is from 8 to 10 toifes
wide.

The fecond covert-ivay is 4 toifes, the femi-gsrges
of the places of arms, m, about i j, and the faces per-
pendicular to the counterfcarp ; the fecond glacis is
from 1 5 to 18 toifes broad.

This fecond covert-way has traverfes everywhere, in
the fame manner as the firft.

12. ConJlruBion of Profiles,

A profile is the reprefentation of a vertical feftion
of a work ; it ferves to flio\v thofe dimenfions which
cannot be reprefented in plans, and is neceflary in the
building of a fortification. Profiles are generally con-
ilruded upon a fcale of 30 feet to an inch. It would
be endlefs to defcribe all their particular dimenfions j
we fliall therefore lay down the principal rules only,
given by M. Vauban, on this fubject.

I. Every work ought to be at leaft 6* feet higher
than that before it, fo that it may command thafe be-
fore it ; that is, that the garrifon may fire from all the
works at the fame time, with great and fmall arms, at
the befiegers in their approaches. Notwithftanding
this fpecioas pretence, there are feveral authors who
objeft againft it. For, fay they, if you can difcover
the enemy from all the works, they can difcover, by
the fame reafon, all the works from their batteries ; fo
that they may deftroy them without being obliged to
change their fituation, and thereby difmount all the
juns of the place before they come near it.

But if all the works were of the fame height, thofe
3

within cannot be deftroyed, till fuch time as thofe be- Of
fore them are taken : guns might be placed in the co- Profiles.
vert-^vay and outworks to obftruft the enemy's ap- p]^,g
proach ; and \vhen they come rear the place, they CCXXII,
might be tranfported into the Inner works : and as the
body of the place would be much 'lower, the expence
would be confiderably diminiflied.

But when works are low, they are eafily enfiladed
by the ricochet batteries, wiiich is a kind of firing with
a fmall quantity of powder, by giving the gun an ele-
vation of 10 or 12 degrees: this might however be
partly prevented, by making the parapets near the fa-
lient angles, for the fpace of 8 toifes on each fide, 5 or
6 feet higher than the reft of the ^vorks.

2. The covert-way fhould be lower than the level
ground, otherwife the body of the place muft be raifed
very high, efpecially where there are feveral outworks :
this is to be underltood only when the works exceed
each other in height, otherwife it need not be below
the level.

3. The bafes of all inw-ard flopes of earth fliould be
at leafl equal to the height, if not more.

4. The bafes of all outward llopes of earth, two-
thirds of their heights.

5. Tlie flopes of all avails, or revetments, fliould be
one-fitth of their height ; or one-fixth might perhaps
be fufficient : the height of a wall is eflimated from
the bottom of the ditch, and not from the beginning
of its foundation.

6. The flopes of all parapets and traverfes are one-
fixth of their breadth ; that is, 3 feet towards the
field ; or the infide, where the banquettes fliould be 3
feet higher than the outfide.

7. When the revetment of a rampart goes quite up
to the top, 4 feet of the upper part is a vertical wall
of 3 feet thick, with a fquare ftone at the top of it
projeiEling 6 inches ; and a circular one below, or
where the flope begins, of 8 or 10 inches diameter :
they go quite round the rampart, and the circular pro-
jeftion is called the cordon.

Wliere the llraight part of the wall ends and the
flope begins, the wall is always made 5 feet thick ;
and the counterforts or buttrefles reach no higher than
that place.

8. When the rampart is partly availed and partly
turfed, then one-fifth of the height which is turfed
muft be added to 5 feet, to get the thicknefs of the
wall above.

And having the thicknefs of any wall above, by ad-
ding one-fifth of its height from the bottom of the
ditch, the fum will be the thicknefs of the wall at the
bottom •, but if a fixth part is only taken for the flope,
then a fixth part muft be added.

For inftance, fuppofe a rampart of 30 feet high from
the bottom of the ditch, and that 10 of which are to
be turfed ; then the fifth part of i o, which is 2, added
to 5, gives 7 for the wall above •, and as this wall is
20 feet high, the fifth of which is 4, and 4 added to
the thicknefs 7 above, gives 1 1 for the tliicknefs near
the foundation.

Fig. 1 8. Reprefents (in military perfpeftive) the pro- piat?
files of the body of a place, the ravelin, and covert-w.-iy ; CCXXin.
which gives a clear idea of what is meant by a profile,
and from wliich thofe of all other \vorks may be eafily
conceived.

Skct.

Sea. II.

Fur'-i
tion.

F O R T I F

Sect. II. 0/ Irregular Fortif cation.

The raofl effential principle in fortification confifts
Plate m making all the fronts of a place eciually ftrong, fo
] CCXXIII. that the enemy may find no advantage in attacking
I either of the fides. This can happen no otherwife in

a regular fortificatien fituated in a plain or even ground :
but as there are but few places which are not irregular
either in their works or fituations, and the nature of
the ground may be fuch as makes it imprafticable to
build them regular without too great expence ; it is fo
much the more neceffary to fliow in what coufills the
llrength or weaknefs of a town irregularly fortified, fo
that the weakelf part may be made flronger by addi-
tional outworks ; as likewife, if fuch a place is to be
attacked, to know ivhich is the ilrongell or wcakeft
part.

I. ConJruSion of an Irregular Place fituated in an open
country.

If the place to be fortified is an old town enclofed by
a wall or rampart, as it moft frequently happens, the
engineer is to confider well all the different circum-
llances of the figure, fituation, and nature of the ground ;
and to regulate his plan accordingly, fo as to avoid the
difadvantages, and gain all the advantages polTible ;
he ihould examine, whether by cutting off fome parts
of the old ivall or rampart, and taking in fome ground,
the place can be reduced into a regular figure, or
nearly fo ; for if that can be done without increafing
the expence confiderably, it (hould by no means be
omitted. Old towns have often towers placed from
dilfance to diftance, as Douay, Tournay, and many
other places, which are generally made ufe of, and
I mended when it may be done. If there is a rampart

without baftions or towers, it mulf be well confidered
whether baftions may not be added, or if it is not bet-
ter to make only fome outworks : if the ditch about
this rampart is not too wide and deep, it would be ad-
vantageous to make detached baftions ; otherwife rave-
lins and counterguards muft be conftrufted. Special
care muft be taken to make all the fides of the polygon
as nearly equal as poffible, and that the length of the
lines of defence do not exceed the reach of mulket-lhot ;
but if that cannot be done, thofe fides %vhich are on
the narroweft part ftiould be made the longeft.

If it fliould happen that fome of the fides are inac-
ceffible or of very difficult approach, either on account
of fome precipice, marfhy ground, or inundation, they
may be made much longer than the others which are
of eafy accefs, and the flanks need not be fo large as
the reft ; by doing fo, there will be fome expences fa-
ved, which may be ufed in making the other fides
flronger by adding more out\vorks.

There are few fituations but what are more advan-
tageous in fome parts than in others ; it is therefore
the bufinefs of an engineer to diftinguilh them, and to
render thofe fides ftrong by art which are not fo by
nature.

If the fituation is low and watery, lunettes or tcnail-
lons, and fuch other fmall outworks, Ihould be conftruc-
ted ; bccaufe they are not of any great expence, and
may make a very good defence. But if one fide of the
place only is low, and running water is to bt h;:d, a Ic-

I C A T I O N. 31

cond ditch and coveit-\vay with lunettes may be made. Of
by obferving, that if the firll glacis is made to flope, I't^E"'*''
fo as to become even with the level of the water in the "['0'^""
fecond ditch ; or if the water can be fuelled by means ■

^ of dikes or iluices, fo as to overHow the bell part of Plate
the firft glacis, it ftiould be done : for by fo doing CCXXIII.
thefe works ^vill be able to make a very good defence,
fince tlie befiegers will find it a difficult matter to lodge
themfelves upon this glacis ; which cannot be done but
witliin a few toifes of the firft covert-way, where the
befieged are ready to receive them, and to deltroy their
works ivith great advantage ; ^vhereas the enemy can-
not fupport their workmen but from the fecond covert-
^vay, Avhich is too for off to be of any great fervice to
them.

But if the fituation is of a dry nature, without any
water upon it, caponiers fhould be made in the great
ditch, from the curtains to the ravelin, and batteries
raifed in the entrance of the ditch before the ravelin,
whofe parapet muft flope off into a glacis fo as to af-
ford no cover for the enemy behind them. Arroivs and
detached redoubts are likewife very proper to be ufed
in fuch a cafe ; and foraetimes horn or crownworks, if
il ftiould be thought convenient; but thefe works
fhould never be conftrufled without an abfolute necef-
fity, either to occupy a fpot of ground ^vhich might
be advantageous to the enemy, or to cover fome gate
or entrance into the town ; for they are of great ex-
pence, and their defence feems not to be anAverable
to it.

Moft of the places in Flanders are fortified with
hornworks, fuch as Yprcs, Tournay, Lille, and o-
thers.

If the place to be fortified is new, and the fituation
will not admit of a regular contfruftion, particular
care mull be taken in choofing fuch a fpot of ground as
is moft advantageous, and leaft liable to any difadvan-
tages either in the building or in the maintaining of it.
All hills or rifing grounds fliould be avoided, which
might command any part of the works; marftiy grounds,
becaufe fuch fituations are univholefome •, or lakes and
ftanding waters for the fame reafon, excepting a lake
is or may be made navigable. Good water Ihould be
had either within the place or near it, for it is abfolute-
ly neceiTary for men and cattle : the air Ihould be
wlioleforae ; otherwife the continual ficknefs that may
reign in fuch a place might prevent people to come and
live in it, and the garrifbn would not be in a condition
to defend themfelves as they ought to do. In (hort, all
the ditierent circumftances attending fuch an undertak-
ing ihould be maturely confidered before a refolution is
taken to fortify any place.

When a fituation is fixed upon, the next thing to be
confidered is, the bignefs of the town and the number
of its outworks ; which iv.uft abfolutely depend upon
the confcquence fuch a place is of to a nation. If it is
only to guard a pafs or entrance into a country, it
need not be fo large : but if it is to be a place either to
promote or to proteft trade, it ftiould be large and com-
modious ; the ftreets ftiould be wide, and tlie buildings
regular and convenient. As to \vhat regards the forti-
fication, its conftruclion fliould depend on the nature
of the fituation, an<l the number of works, on the fiinds
or expence a prince or a nation will be at ; which,
hovever, ought to be according to th? benefit arifing

from ■■

Of
Irregular
-Fortifica-

Plate
CCXXIII.

F O R T I F I

horn fucli a place ; for as fuch undrttakings are of very
great expencc, an engineer cannot be too fparing in
his works ; on the contrary, the grcateft economy
fliould be ufed both in regard to the number of works
and to their conftruflion. The body of the place may
have (a) revetments quite up to the top, or only in
part and the reft turftd ; but as to the outworks, they
ihould have half revetments, or they may be made
with turf only ; as being not fo neceflary to prevent
the place from being furprifed, which may neverthelefs
make a good defence.

Fig. 19. is the plan of an oflagon, one half of which
is firailar and equal to the other half; it being fuppof-
ed, that the fituation would not admit of fortification
quite regular. The exterior fides are each 180 toifes,
and the works are conftruflcd according to our me-
thod : but becaufe the fides AB, EF, are weaker than
the reft, as has been proved before, we have added te-
nailles, redoubts in the ravelins, and lunettes, to ren-
der them nearly equal in ftrength with the others ; and
if counterguards were made before the baftions A and
B, it would effeflually feciire that front. Inftead of
lunettes, any other works mL;y be made, as may be
thought convenient and according to the nature of the
ground. If it ftiould be judged neceflary to add other
outworks to the ravelins all around the place, care muft
be taken to add likewife more to the fronts AB, F.F,
in order to render the advantages and difadvantages of
attacking on either fide equal.

2. ConJIruBion of an Irregular Place fititateil on a hill or
rod.

In the conflruclion of fuch places, care muft be ta-
ken that no neighbouring hill commands any part of
the works. The town ihould always be built on the
higheft part ; but if it fliould be thought more conve-
nient to place it lovver, then the upper part muft be for-
tified with a fort. The fituation fliould be made level
as near as pofttble, by removing the earth from fome
places to fill up others; and if it cannot well be level-
led without extraordinary expence, works muft be made
on the higheft part, fo as to command and proteft the
lower. The works ought to occupy all the upper part
of the hill ; but if it fhould be too extenfive to be all
enclpfcd, or fo irregular as not to be fortified without
great inconvenience, the parts which fall without fliould
be fortified with fome detached works, and a com-
munication with the place muft be made either above
or under ground. There Ihould be no cavity or hollow
roads within cannon fliol round about the place, where
the enemy might be able to approach under cover. If
there ftiould happen to be a fpring near the top of the
hill, it fhould be enclofcd in the fortification, or if that
cannot be done, by fome work or other ; for there is
nothing more neceflary, and at the fame time fcarcer,
in fuch fituations, than water ; for which reafon there
cannot be too much care in providing it : feveral cif-
tenis arc to be made to receive the rain water, and
to prefcrie it ; wells ftiould be dug likewife, though

CATION.

Sed. IL

ever fo deep, the water of which will ferve for com- Of
mon ufe. Irregular

Places built on hills or rocks fliould never be large ; °tion"*
for their ufe is generally to guard paffes or inlets into r

a country, and are feldom uleful in traffic ; and it is a Plate
difficult matter to provide for g large garrifon in fuch CCXXIIL
fituations : neither ftiould any fuch place be built with- .
out fome very material reafons ; but when it is abfo-
lutely neceflary, great care and precaution fliould be
taken to render the works as perfeft as the fituation
will admit of, and at the fame time to be as frugal in
the expence as pofllble.

3. Conjlruaion of Irregular Fortifications Jituated near
rivers, lakes, or the fea.

As the intent of building thefe kind of places is
chiefly to facilitate and proteft trade, they are of more
importance than any other kind, efpecially in mari-
time countries, where the nrincipal ftrength and poiver
depends on them : for which reafon, we fhall treat of
this conftruflion more largely than of any other.

The firft thing to be confidered is their fituation,
which ought to be fuch as to aff'ord a good harbour
for fhipping, or a fafe and eafy entrance in ftormy
weather ; but as it is hardly pofllble to find any where
ftiips may "o in and lie fecure with all winds, care
fliould be taken to make them fafe to enter with tliofe
winds which are moft dangerous: but it is not fufh-
cient that the harbour is fafe agalnft ftormy weather,
it fliould likewife be fo againft an enemy both by
land and water, for it often happens, that fliips are de-
ftroyed where it was imagined they were fecure, which
is of too great confequence not to be provided againft ;
for which reafon, forts or batteries muft be built in the
niofl convenient places, to prevent the enemy's fhips
from coming too near, fo as to be able to cannonade
tliofe in the harbour, or fling fliells amongft them; and
if there is any danger of an enemy's approach by land,
high ramparts and edifices muft be built, fo as to co-
ver them.

When a river is pretty large, and it is not convenient
for making a harbour without great expence, the fliips
may ride along the fliore; which for that reafon, muft
be made acceffihle for fliips of burden : this may be
done by advancing the quay into the river if the water
is too (hallow, or by digging the river fufficiently deep
for that purpofe.

And to prevent an enemy from coming up the river,
forts muft be built on both fides, efpecially when there
are any turnings or windings. Antwerp is fuch a
place; for the Scheldt is fufficiently deep to carry ftiips
of great burden which may come quite near the town-
wall ; and feveral forts are built below it on both fides,
fo that it would not be an eafy matter for an enemy to
come up the river.

When the river is but fmall, fo that no fhips of bur-
den can come through it, it is fufficient to make it run
through fome of the works, where proper landing-places
are confiived, from whence the goods may be carried

into

(a) Revetments arc chiefly made to prevent a place from being furprifed ; outworks do not want to be made
fo ; the taking thtm by furprifc is of no great confequence, excfpt in a ficgc, when other cautions are ufed to
prevent it.

r oiH. Tine ATI o^r

■ /./.s^/A y^r„. //.,/, <;y,^.,/.;,/.

FORTIFICATIOX

Plate f( AX II

r on r iric \ i i o \ -

Plnlf C C .V.Vli

F O R T I F I

uis, where a liornwork is
the gorge of wliich the

Sea. IT.

Of into the place ; as at Sarrelc
Irrcgxibr [^^^j beyond the Sarre, in
Fortihta- ^^^^^ ^^^ landed.

■ If the breadth of the river does not exceed 200
Plate yards, it coramoiily pafles through the middle of the
CCXXIII. town, and proper quays are made on each fide ; in
fuch a cafe, the fortification is fo contrived, as that
the river paiTes through the curtain, in order to have
a ballion on each fide to defend the coming in and go-
ing out.

When M> Vauban fortified near rivers, he made al-
ways the exterior fide near the water much longer than
nny of the others ; fuch as Hunninghcn on the Rhine,
and Sarrelouis on the Sarre ; but for what reafon he
fortified thefe places in that manner, has not been told
by any author.

But it is plain that the fides which terminate at the
river are the weakeft j becaule the befiegers trenches
being fecured by the river, they may draw moll of their
troops off, and aCl therefore with more vigour and
llrength on the other fide : befides, as the ftrength of
a fide increafes in proportion as the angle of the poly-
gon is greater, by making the fide next the river longer,
the angles at the extremities become wider, and con-
fequently the adjacent fides ftronger.

There are other advantages, befides thofe mention-
ed already, which arife from the lengthening that fide :
for if the river is pretty deep, fo as not to be fordable,
that fide is not liable to be attacked ; and by increaf-
ing its length, the capacity of the place increafes much
more in proportion to the expence, than if more fides
were made ; the centre of the place will be likewife
nearer the river, which makes it more convenient for
tranfporting the geods from the water fide to any part
of the town.
Fig- ■20. To illuflrate this method of M. Vauban 's, we (hall

give the plan of Hunninghen : this place was built for
the fake of having a bridge over the Rhine, for which
reafon, he made it only a pentagon ; the fide AB next
to the river is 200 toifes, and each of the others but
180.

About the fpace a b c, %vhich lies before the front

CATION.

AB, is a flone Tvall ; and the paflag

arc fill

with fluices, to retain the water in the ditches in dry It^?!'!?!
feafons : and to prevent an enemy from deftroying the '■'"!''''-^-
fluice near the point c, whereby the water would run --'""'
out and leave the ditches dry, the redoubt y was built Pljt<-
in the little iiland hard by, in order to cover that CC.X.\I!I
fluice ; without which precaution the place might be
infulted from the river fide, where the water is Ihallow
in dry feafons.

The hornwork K beyond the Rhine \vas built to co-
ver the bridge ; but as this work cannot be well de-
fended arofs the river, the hornwork H was made to
fupport the other.

Before finilliing the defcription of this plan, wc lliall
(liow how to find the long fide AB.

After having infcribed the two fides GE, GF, in a
circle, draw the diameter CD, (o as to be equally di-
llant from the line joining the points EF that is
parallel to it. On this diameter fet oft' 100 toifes on
each fide of the centre ; from thefe points draw two in-
definite perpendiculars to the diameter ; then if from
the points EF, as centres, two arcs are defcribed with
a radius of 180 toifes, their interfertions A and B,
with the faid perpendiculars, will determine the long
fide AB, as likewife the other two FB and EA. In
like manner may be found the; long or ibort fide of any
polygon whatfoever.

When a place near a river is to be fortified for the
fafety of commerce, particular care fliould be taken in
leaving a good Ipace between the houfes and the ^va-
ter fide, to have a quay or landing place for goods
brought by water •, it Ihould alfo be contrived to have
proper places for (liips and boats to lie fecure in flormy
weather, and in time of a fiege •, and as water-carriage
is very advantageous for tranfporting goods from one
place to another, as likewife for bringing the neceflary
materials, ,not only for building the fortifications, but
alfo the place itfelf, the expences will be lelTened con-
fiderably when this convenience can be had •, for which
reafon, places Hiould never be built anywhere elfe but
near rivers, lakes, or the fea ; excepting in extraordi-
nary cafes, where it cannot be avoided.

FOR

FORTIN, FoRTELER, or Field-fort, a fconce or
little fort, whofe flanked angles are generally 120 fa-
thoms diftant from one another.

The extent and figure of fortius are different, ac-
cording to the fituation and nature of the ground ; fome
of them having whole baftions, and others derai-ba-
nions. They are made life of oidy for a time, either to
defend the Unes of circumvallation, or to guard fome
[ affage or dangerous poll.

FORTISSIMO, in Mufic, fometimes denoted by
IFF, 01 fff, fignifies, to iing or play very loud or
itrong.

FORTITUDE, a virtue or quality of the mind,
generally confidered as the fame with Courage ; though
in a more accurate fenfe they feem to be dillinguiih-
kble. Courage may be a virtue or a vice, according

Vol. 1.x. Part I,

FOR

to circumftances ; fortitude is always a virtue : we fpeak Fortitude
of defperate courage, but not of defperate fortitude. ~— v— *"■
A contempt or neglect of danger, without regard to
confequences, may be called courage ; and this fome
brutes have as well as we : in them it is the cffeft
of natural inflindl chiefly ; in man it depends p.artly
on habit, partly on Urength of ncr\-es, and partly on
want of confideration. But fortitude is the virtue of
a rational and confiderate mind, and is founded in a
fenfe of honour and a regard to duty. There may be
courage in fighting a duel, though that folly is more
frequently the eft'eft of cowardice ; there may be cou-
rage in an aft of piracy or robbery : but there can be
no fortitude in perpetrating a crime. Fortitude implies
a love of equity and of public good ; for, as Plato and
Cicero obfervc, courage exerted for a felfifti purpofe, or
E without

FOR [ 34 ]

without a regard to jaflice, ought to be called audacity fpeft of another life.

FOR

ratlier than fortitude

This virtue takes dilFerent names, according as it
afls in oppofition to different forts of e\-il ; but feme
of thofe names are applied with confiderable latitude.
With refpetf to danger in general, fortitude may be
termed inlrepic'i'y ; with refpeft to the dangers of vyar,
valour ; with refjiefl to pain of body or dillrefs of mind,
patience ; with refpeft to labour, nffhinj ; with refpecl
to mjnry, forl/earance ; with refpett to our condition in
general, 7riagnaiiim!li/.

Fortitude is very becoming in both fexes ; but cou-
rage is not fo fuitable to the female character ; lor in
women, on ordinary occafions of danger, a certain de-
gree of timidity is not unfeemly, becaule it betokens
gentlenefs of difpofition. Yet from thofe of very high
rank, from a queen or an emprefs, courage in emer-
gencies of great public danger would be expefted, and
the want of it blamed ; we (hould overlook the fex,
and confidev the duties of the ftation. In gener?l,
however, mafculine boldnefs in a woman is difagree-
able ; the term virago conveys an ofienfive idea. The
female warriors of antiquity, whether real or fabulous,
Camilla, Thaleftris, and the whole community of AMA-
ZON'S, were unamiable perfonages. But female cou-
rage exerted in defence of a child, a hulband, or a near
relation, would be true fortitude, and delcrve the high-
eft encomiums.

The motives to fortitude are many and powerful.
This virtue tends greatly to the happinefs of the in-
dividual, by giving compofure and prefence of mind,
and keeping the other paillons in due iubordinalion.
To public good it is eflential ; for without it, the in-
dependence and liberty of nations would be impofllble.
It gives to a charaifter that elevation ivhich potts, ora-
tors, and hillorians, have in aU ages vied ^vith one an-
other to celebrate. Nothing fo effeftually infpires it
us rational piety ; the fear of God is the beft fccurity
againft every other fear. A true eftiraate of human
life ; its fliortnefs and uncertainty ■■, the numberlefs
evils and temptations to which by a long continuance
in this world we muft unavoidably be e.xpofed j ought
by no means to difcourage or to throw any gloom on
our future profpefts : they ihould teach us, that many
things are more formidable than death ; and that no-
thing is loft, but much gained, ^vhen, by the appoint-
ment of Providence, a well i'pent life is brought to a
conclufion.

Let it be confidered too, that pufillanimity and fear-
fulneis can never avail us any thing. On the contra-
ry, they debafe our nature, polfon all our comforts,
and make us defpicable in the eyes of others ; they
darken our reafon, difconcert our fchemes, enfeeble
cur efforts, extinguifli our hopes, and add tenfold
poignancy to all the evils of life. In battle, the br.ive
foldier is in lefs danger than the coward ; in lefs dan-
ger even of death and wounds, becaufe better prepared
to defend himfelf ; in far lefs danger of infelicity ; and
has before him the animating hope of viflory and ho-
nour. So in life, the man of true fortitude is in lefs
danger of dilappointment than others are, becaufe his
«iJiderftanding is clear, and his mind difencumbered ;
he is prepared to meet calamity without the fear of
(inking under it : and he has before h.im tlse near pro-

hich they who pioufly bear the Kortuna
evils of this will obtain a gloriou.s reward. 11

FORTUNA, a goddefs worftiipped with great de- ^^j^^
\otion by the ancient Greeks and Romans ; who be-
lieved her to prefide over human affairs, and to dillri-
bute wealth and honour at her pleafure. See Fou-

TL'NE.

FORTUNATE islands, in Ancient Geography,
certain iflands (concerning the fituation of which au-
thors are not agreed) famous for the golden apples of
the HlcsPERiDKS. — The common opinion is, that they
are the CAt.'AV.r Ijlands.

FORTUNE (Tv;jj>i), a name which among the an-
cients feems to have denoted a principle of fortuity,
whereby things cume to pafs, without being necelli-
tated thereto : but ivhat and whence that principle
is, they do not feem to have ever precifely thought.
Hence their philofophers are often intimating, that
men only framed the phantom Fortune to hide their ig-
norance ; and that they call Fortune whatever befals a
man without his knowing for what purpofe. Hence
Juvenal (fat. x. ver. 366.) affirms, tliey were men who
made a deity of fortune.

'Nullum numen ahejl,ftjit prudentia ;fed te
Nos/acimus, For tuna, deam, caloque locainus.

The ingenious Mr Spence gives another reading of this
paffage :

Nullum numen 7iahes,JiJit prudentia ;fed te
Nosfncimus, Fortuna, deam, cahque locanius.

This reading, he thinks agrees beft with the context :
Juvenal lays, ver. 356, that the two things we ftiouKI
pray for are good health and good fenfe 5 that we
might be the authors of our ow n happinefs if we plea-
fed, ver. -i^d^. ; that virtue is the only way to true hap-
pinefs, ver. 364 ; that if we ourfelves are prudent, For-
tune has no power over us ; and that, in truth, Ihe i>
no goddefs at all, and has only ufurped a feat in heaven
from the folly of mankind, ver. 366. Fortime was not
confidercd as a deity by the old Romans, bu: was made
fo by the devotion and folly of the vulgar ; and Mr
Spence fays, that he has feen an ancient gem, in which
Cybele, the mother of the gods, is reprefented as turn-
ing away her head from Fortune, in an attitude of
difo^^^ling and rejecling her; (Polymetis, p. 150, 154,
&c.)

According to the opinion of the heathens, therefore,
fortune in reality w3« only the arrival of things in a
fudden and uuexpeiled manner, ^vithout any apparent
caafe or reafon : fo that the philolophical fenfe of the
^vord coincides with what is \ailgarly called chance.

But in religion it had a farther force ; altars and
temples in great numbers were coufecrated to this For-
tune, as a deity. This intimates, that the heathens
had perfonified, and even deified, their chance ; and
conceived her as a fort of goddefs, who difpofed of the
fate of men at her pleafure. Hence that invocation
of Horace, 0 dna, gratum qux regis jintium, in tlic
35th ode of the tirft book, where he recommends
'Auguflus, then preparing for a vifit to Britain, to her
protection. From thefe different fentimcnts it may
be inferred, that the ancients at one time tock For-
tune for a peremptory caufe, bent upon doing good to

fomc.

FOR

[ 35

fome, and perfecuting others ; arid fomclimcs for a
hliiid inconrtant caufc, without any view or determina-
tion at all.

If then the word fortune had no certain idea in the
raoiith of tliofe ^vho erecled altars to her, much lefs
can it be alcertamed what it denotes in the mir.d of
tliolc who now ute the word in their writings. They
who would fubllitute the name Proviiience in lieu of
that ot Fortune, cannot give any tolerable fenfe to half
the phrafe* whetein the word occurs.

Horace paints the goddefs, preceded by NecefTity,
balding nails and wedges in her hands, with a cramp-
iron, and melted lead to fallen it j rarely accQ»npanied
with Fidelity, unlels when ftie abandons a family ; for
in that cafe Fidelity never fails to depart with her, as
well as friends.

She is difrefpeiSlfully fpoken of by moft of the Ro-
man writers, and reprefented as blind, inconftant, un-
jurt, and delighting in mifchief, {OviiL ad Liv. ver. 52,
vcr. 374. Hor. llb.i. od. 34. ver. 26. lib. iii. od. 29.
ver. 15. 5'/'fl/;W, Thcb. xii. ver. 505.) However they
had a good as well as a bad Fortune, a conflant and
inconftant Fortune ; the latter of which was reprefent-
ed with wings, and a ^rheel by her, (//or. lib. iii. od.
29. v-er. 56.) Juvenal alludes to a itatue of Fortune,
which exhibited her under a very good charafter, as
the patronefs of the poor infants that were expol'ed by
their parents in the ftreets, {^Sat. vi. ver. 605.

The painters reprefent her in a woman's habit, with
a bandage befoie her eyes, to (how that flie atls with-
out difcernment •, and ftanding on a wheel, to expreis
her inrtability. The Romans, fays Laftantius, repre-
fented her with a cornucopia, and the helm of a fliir,
to fhow that fhe diftributes riches, and directs the af-
fairs of the world. In effeft, it is with fuch charafters
that v>-e fee her reprefented on fo many medals, \vith
the infcription, fortvna avg. fortuna RF.DVX, fok-
TVN^ AVG. or REDVCIS, &c. Sometimes (lie is feen
pointing at a globe before her feet, with a fceptre in
one hand, and holding the cornucopia in the other.

The Romans had a virile as well as a muliebrian
Fortune, for the objefts of their adoration : the For-
tuna viriUs was honoured bv the men, and the Fortuna
mu/iebris by the v.omen. They honoured Fortune alfo
under a variety of other appellations.

The Romans derived the worlliip of Fortune from
the Greeks, under the reign of Servius Tullius, who
dedicated the firll temple to her in the public market.
Nero alfo built a temple to Fortune. The Fortune
ivorfliipped at Antium was probably of the moll ex-
alted char^fter of any among the Romans ■, if we may
judge by the account which Horace gives us of the
great folenrn procelTions that were made to her, (Hor.
lib. i. od. 35. ver. 22. But the mo(f celebrated tem-
ple of Fortune was at Prsenede. Statins fpeaks of Ic-
veral Fortunes there, and calls them the Trxneflineefo-
rores, (lib. i. Sylv. iii. ver. 80.)

FoKTUNB-Tellers. Perlons pretending to tell fortunes
are to be punilhed with a year's impri('onment, and
tlanding four times on the pillory. Stat. ix. Geo. II.
o. 5.

FORTY DAYS Court, the court of attachment or
■woodmote, held before the verderors of the foreft once
every forty days, to inquire concerning all olTcnders
againll vert and venifon. See Attach.ment.

.. ] FOR

FORUM, in Roman anliciuity, a public Aanding Toru

place within the city of Rome, where caufes were ju- ' '•"

dicially tried, and orations delivcrce! to the people.

FoKUM was alfo ufed for a place of tralKc, anfwcr-
ing to our market-place. Thcfe were generally called
fora venalia ; in contradLlinclion to the former, which
were called _/i;-a chilia.

The yiro civilia were public courts of juftice, very
magmficcnt in themfelves, and furroundcd with porti-
coes and ftately edifices; of thefe there were fix very
remarkable : I. Forum Romanum. 2. "Julianum. 3. Au-
gujiutn. 4. Palladwm. 5. Forum Trajoni. 6. Forum Sa-
lujiii. The Forum Romanum was the moft noted, and
is often called fimply Forum, by way of eminence.
Here was the pleading place called Rojlra, the Cpmi-
tium, the fanituary ot Saturn, temple of Cajlor, &c.
See Rostra, Comitium, &c.

The yira I'enalio, or market-places, were very nume-
rous. The chief of them -were, the forum hoarium for
oxen or beef; fuarmm for fwine •, pijlorium for bread ;
cupedmarium for dainties ; o/itorium for garden (luff.

The Grecian A.^tfxi exaftly correfpond with the Ko-
man fora, being places where courts and markets were
held. At Athens they had msny fora, but the chief
of them ivere the o/d and the new.

Forum lnd:cere, was the aft of the praetor appointing
the plice in Rome where caufes were to be tried.
Agere forum denoted the bringing on caufes out of
Rome, in a Roman province (Cicero, Suetonius) ; the
fame with agere convenlum (Florus).

The term forum added to a proper name, denoted
fome market town or borough ; as.

Forum yj/lieni, a place mentioned only by Tacitus ;
and, from what he fays o( it, thought to be Ferrara,
capital of the duchy of that name in Italy. E. Long.
12. 5. N. Lat. 44. 46.

FoRVM Appii (Cicero, Luke) ; a tov^^l of the Volfoi,
in Latium, on the Via Appia, a little beyond the Tres
Tabcna; ; fet down in the Jerufalem Itinerary as fi-
tuated near the river Nymphseus : now entirely ex-
tinft.

FoRVU Corne/ii, a town of the Cifpadana, built
by Sylla : Now ■Imola, a city in Romagna, and
territory of the Pope. E. Long. 12. 12. N. Lat. 44.

Forum Domitii, a town of Gallia Narbonenfis : pro-
bably built by Domitius Ahenobarbus, ivho command-
ed in tho(e parts : Now Frontignan, or Frontigniac, in
Languedoc, near the Mediterranean. E. Long. 3. 30.
N. Lat. 43. 30,

Forum Fulvii, a toivn of LIguria, furnamcd Vclen-
tinum : from which it is conjeftured that it is now
Valeima, in the duchy of Milan; which is con.*irm-
ed by Peutinger's diftances. E. Long. 9". N. Lat.

45°-

FoRVM Gallorum, a fmall town ot the Cifpadana, ob
the Via jEmilia, eight miles from Mutina, beyond the
river Scultenna. Here Antony defeated Panfa, and
ivas in his turn defeated by Hirtius : Now Cajlelfranco,
in the territory of Bologna. — Another Forum Gallorum,
a town of the Vafcones in the Hither Spain ; Now
Gurrea, a fmall town of Arragon.

Forum Ju/ium. 'I'hcrc are feveral towns of this

name ; as a Forum Ju/ium of Gallia Narbonenfis ; or

Foroju/ium : Now Frejus, or Freju/es, in Provence, at

E 2 the

F O S

the mouth of the Argens. Forum jiuiiui
to the north of Aquileia, in the Ti-anfpadana; Now Ci-
'__ viJal di Fr-iili, fornlcrly Gividal d" Aujlria^ in the ter-
ritory of Venice.

Forum Jiilunlorum, a to^vn of the Infubrcs, in the
Tranfpadana : Now Creiim, capital of the Cremafco,
in the territory- of Venice. E. Long. lo. 15. N. Lat.
45. 20.

Forum Livii, a town of the Semnones, in the Cif-
padana : Now Forli, in Romagna. E. Long. I 2. 45.
N. Lat. 44. 25.

Forum Segujianortim, Ctuated on the eaft fide of the
Liger, in Gallia Celtica : now Feurs, on the Loire,
in the Lyonnois, capital of the territory of Forez. ' E.
Long. 4. 15. N. Lat. 45. 44.

Forum Tiberii, a town of the Pagus Tigurinus, in
Eelgica, on the left or fouth fide of the Rhine : Now
KmiferJIuU ; literally the tribunal of Tiberius, which he
held there when commander in the Rhetian war.

FoRi'M Volcani (Strabo) ; the Campt Pldcgrcti of
Pliny : a place in Campania encompafled with rocky
eminences, near Puteoli, and dl'.laut from it two miles
towards Naples, emitting fraoke, and in fome places
flame, like a large extenfive furnace, and yielding ful-
phur : Now called Solfatara, in the Terra di Lavoro.

Forum is alfo ufed, among cafuilh, &.c. for jurif-
diftion ; thus they fay, In foro /egis, &c.

FOSS, or Fosse, in Fortification, &c. a ditch or
moat. The word is French, formed of the Latin ^-kx-
i\c\'p\& fnffhm, of the vexhfodio, " I dig."

Foss, Fojfa, in jinalomy, a kind of cavity in a bone,
with a large aperture, but no exit or perforation.
When the aperture is very narrow, it is called ?ifinus.

Foss is particularly ufed for the cavity or denture
in the back part of the neck.

FOSSA MAGNA, or XAVicui.ARis, Is an oblong ca-
vity, forming the infide of the pudendum muliebre, and
which prefents Itfelf upon opening the labia ; and in
the middle whereof are the caruncuLe myrtiformes. See

ASATO-VIV.

Fossa, in our ancient cuftoms, was a ditch full of
ivater, where ^vomen committing felony w-ere dro^vTied ;
as men were hanged : Nam et ipji in omnibus tenementis
fuis omnem ah antiquo legalem habuere jujHtiam, njidelicet
ft'rrum,fqlfam,furcas, etfimilia. In another fen fe it is
taken for a grave, as appears by thefe old verfes :

Hicjaccnt infojja Bedie venerabi/is ojpi :
Hie ejl fojfahn, qui bis erat hie cathedratus.

Foss IVaij was anciently one of the four great Ro-
man highways of England : fo called, according to
Camden, bccaufe it was ditched on both fides, which
was the Roman method of making highways.

FOSSARII, in antiquity, a kind of officers in
the eaftern church, whofe bufinefs was to inter the
dead.

Ciaconius relates, that Conftantine created 950 fof-
faries, whom he took out of the divers colleges or com-
panies of tradefmen : he adds, that they were exempted
from ta.xes, fervices, burdenfome offices, &c.

F. Goar, in his notes on the Greek Euchologion,
ir.finuatcs that the foffarii were ellabliflied in the times
of the apolUes; and that the young men, who carried
off the body of .^Vnanias, and thofo pcrfons full of the

36 ] F O S

fear of God who interred St Stephen, were of the
number.

St Jerome affures us, that the rank of foffarii held the
firlt place among the clerks ; but he is to be underllood
of thofe clerks only who had the direction and intend-
ance of the interment of the devout.

FOSSE, the Roman military way in South Britain,
begins at Totnefs, and pailes through Exeter, Ivel-
cherter, Shepton Mallet, B.-ith, Cirencefter, Leicelter,.
the Vale ot Beivoir, Newark, Lincoln, to Barton up-
on the Humber, being Hill vifible in feveral parts,
though of 1400 years ftanding. It had the name from
the folTcs or ditches made by the fides of it.

FOSSIL, in Natural Hifiori/, denotes, in genera!,
every thing dug out of the earth, whether it be a na-
tive thereof, as metals. Hones, falts, earths, and other
minerals ; or extraneous, repofited in the bowels of the
earth by iome extraordinary means, as earthquakes, the
deluge, &.C.

Native foffils are fubfl:?.nces found in the earth, or on
its furface, of a fimple ftruclure, exhibiting no appear-
ances of organization •, and thefe are included under the
general names of fimple and compound, earthy or me-
tallic minerals. See MlNERALOGl'.

Extraneous foffils are bodies of the vegetable or ani-
mal kingdoms accidentally buried in the earth. Of the
vegetable kingdom, there are principally three kinds;
trees or parts of them, herbaceous plants, and corals :
and of the animal kingdom there are four kinds ; fea
fhells, the teeth or bony palates and bones of fifhes,
complete fifties, and the bones of land animals. See
Geology.

Thefe adventitious or extraneous foffils, thus found
buried in great abundance in divers parts of the earth,
have employed the curiofity of feveral of our latelt
naturaliils, who have each their feveral fyftera to account
for the furprifing appearances of petrified fea fiffies,
in places far remote from the fea, and on the tops
of mountains ■, ffiells in the middle of quarries of fione ;
and of elephants teeth, and bones of divers animal.%
peculiar to the fouthern climates, and plants only
growing in the eafi, found foffil in our northern and
weftern parts.

Some will have thefe fhells, &c. to be real ftones,
and llone plants, formed after the ufual manner of
other figured ftones ; of which opinion is the learned
Dr Lifter.

Another opinion is, that thefe foflil fliells, with all
the foreign bodies found within the earth, as bones,
trees, plants, &c. were buried therein at the time of
the univerfal deluge ; and that, having been penetrat-
ed either by the bituminous matter abounding chiefly
in watery places, or by the falts of the earth, they have
been preferved entire, and fometimes petrified.

Others think, that thofe fticlls, found at the tops of
the highcft mountains, could never have been carried
thither by the %vaters, even of the deluge ; inafmuch as
moft of thefe aquatic animals, on account of the weight
of their ftiells, always remain at the bottom of the wa-
ter, and never move but clofe along the ground. They
imagine, that a year's continuance of the waters of the
deluge, intermixed with the fait waters of the fea, up-
on the furface of the earth, might well give occaficn
to the produdion of fliells of divers kinds in different
climates;

F O S [ ,

climates; anJ that the imiverfal faltnefs of the water
"* was the real caufe of their refemblance to the fea lliells,
as the lakes formed daily by the retention of rain or
fpring water produce different kinds.

Others think, that the waters of the fea, and the
rivers, with thofe which fell /rom heaven, turned the
ivhole furface of the earth uplide down ; after the fame
manner as the waters of the Loire, and other rivers,
which roll on a fandy bottom, overturn all their fands,
and even the earth itfelf, in their fwellings and inun-
dations ; and that in this general fubverlion, the iliells
came to be interred here, fiflies there, trees there, &c.
Sec Deli-ge.

Dr Woodward, in his Natural Hillory of the Earth,
purfuing and improving the hypothefis of Dr Burnet,
maintains the whole mafs of earth, with every thing
belonging thereto, to have been lb broken and diffolv-
ed at tlie time of the deluge, that a new earth was
then formed on the bofom of the water, confifting of
different ftrata or beds of terrellrial matter, ranged
over each other ufually according to the order of their
fpecific gravities. By this means, plants, animals, and
efpecially filhes and ihells, not yet diilbived among the
reft, remained mixed and blended among the mineral
and foiTil matters ; which preferved them, or at Icaft
aflumed and retained their figures and impreffions ei-
ther indentedly or in relievo. Sec Gkology.

Fossil Pitch. See Petrojleum, Mineralogy In-
dex.

FOSTER James, a nonconformift divine, very high-
ly celebrated for his pulpit eloquence and erudition,
■was born at Exeter in the year 1697. At the age of
five years he was put to the free fchool of that city,
where his progrefs in the acquiiition of grammar was lo
rapid, that his mailer boafted of him as the moll emi-
nent genius in his fchool. From this feminary he went
to the academy wliere young men deligned for clergy-
men in the dilVenting intereft were educated, where his
progrefs and applaufe were equally great. His appre-
henfion was remarkably quick, his judgment Iblid, me-
mory retentive, eloquence commanding, and his talents
for argumentation were truly admirable ; but above all,
his piety was genuine, and fev.- men poffeffed candour,
inodefty, liberality, integrity, tendemefs and benevo-
lence, in fuch a remarkable degree. He commenced
preacher at the age of 2 1, and was much admired where
he occafionaliy otnciated. About this time the doftrine
of the trinity was much agitated in the weft of England,
i?-!iich was not confonant to the notions of Mr Fofter,
and the honelly and opennei's of his heait v,-culd not al-
loiv him to conceal thefe, which brought fo much odium
upon him from the orthodox party, that he retired to
another fcene of atlion. He became pallor of a con-
gregation at Milbome-port, in Soraerfetllure ; but as
foon as his hearers became zealouliy attached to what
was deemed the orthodox opinion, he retired to Afhwick
under the hills of Mendip, in the fame county. In this
afylum he preached to two congregations at a little dil-
tance from each other, as poor as they were plain, the
united contributions of which did not amount to 15I.
per annum. In this humble poverty and obfcurity he
lived for fome years, honourable, however, as it was
occafioned by his determined uprightnefs and fmcerity.
In the year 1720, he gave the world his " Eflay on

57] F O S

Fundamcnl;iis, with a particular regard to the doc-
trine of the ever-bleflcd Trinity," &c. The defign of
this work was to check an uncharitable and intolerant
fljirit, at that time extremely jirevalent, by (howing
that the truiitarian notion is not a fundamental article
of Chrillianity, or made an exprefs condition of falvation
in the facred fcripturcs. A fermon accompanied this
elT.ty, entitled " The refurreilion of Chrift proved, and
vindicated againll the mcft important objections of the
ancient Jews, or modern Deiffs, and his difciples fliowii
to be futhcient witnelles of the fafl." From Afliwick
he removed to Trowbridge in Wiltlhire, where his con-
gregation did not ufually exceed 20 or 30 people.

By reading Dr Gale's treatlfe on infant baptifm, he
became a convert to the doctrine, that immerfion is
the true fcriptura! rite, and was accordingly foon after
baptifcd in London in conformity to that mode. This
unreferved manner of adopting whatever his confcience
believed to be truth, excluded him from almoft every
religious party among whom he might otherwife have
expected preferment. But while he deliberated with
himfelf whether he iliould abandon the miniftry, and
acquire the knowledge of fome mechanical employ-
ment, Robert Houltlon, Efq. took him to his houfe in
the capacity of chaplain, where his cirtx of acquaint-
ances became \sider and more refpeclabie. In 1724,
he was appointed to fucceed Dr Gale in the baptiil
congregation in Barbican, London. In the year 1728
he commenced a Sunday evening leiflure in the Old
.Jewry, which he continued till within a fliort time ot his
death, with fuch a degree of popularity as few diffent-
ers at that time experienced. In 1 73 1 appeared his
valuable work, entitled " The ufefulnefs, truth, and
excellency of the Chrillian revelation, defended againft
the objeftions contained in a late book, called Chrif-
tianity as old as the Creation," &c. In this reply Mr
Fofter exhibited no ordinary ihare of talents and inge-
nuity, and it was admired by the candid and judicious
of every defcription. Dr Tindal, againft whom it wa^
written, is faid to have fpoken of it always with great
refped. He publillied a volume of fermons in the year
J 734, followed by other three volumes, the laft of which
appeared in 1744. At this time he was appointed fuc-
ceflbr to Dr Jeremiah Hunt, in the proteftant congre-
gation at Pinner's-haU. In 1 746, he attcndedthe earl
of Kilmarnock when under fentence of death for high-
treafon, after which he publillied an oflavo pamphlet,
with the title of " An accoimt of the behaviour of the
late earl of Kilmarnock after his fentence, and on the
day of his execution." '

He received from the Marifchal college of Aberdeen
the degree of doclor in divinity, accompanied with
handfome letters from the principal and Profcffor For-
dyce, the latter of ^vhom thus addrcffed him. " We
beg that you will be fo good as to accept of the diplo-
ma, as a fmall mark of the fincere veneration wc have
for you, and of the ftnfe we entertain of the eminent
fcrvices you have done to the caufe of liberty, religiorr,
and virtue, by your writings as well as public inftnic-
tions." The tirft volume in quarto of his ' Difcourfes
on all the Principal Branches of Natural Religion and
Social Virtue,' was publillied in the year i 749, and the
fecond appeared in 1 75 2. They were pubUlhcd by
fubfcription; and to evince the high cllimation in niiich

F O T

Foftcr his talents a.id virtue were held, 2020 names were con-
II . tained in the lift, many of them diftinguilhed by their
■-otherRi. -: ,^;g,^-,fig j r_,j,li a„j literary abilities.

In the month of April 1750, he was feized with a
violent dilltmper, from the effeels of which he never
thoroughly recovered^ yet while at all able to officiate,
he continued to preach till the beginning of i 752, when
he had another attack, which feems to h.ave been of a
paralytic nature. After declining for fome time, he
expired like a genuine Chrillian on the 5th of Novem ■
ber, in the 55th year of his age. His private and pub-
lic life were alike irreproachable. Such vvas the won-
derful extent of his beneficence, that he muft have died
in indigent circumftances, had it not been for the nu-
merous fubfcriptions to his difcourfes. on natural reli-
gion. Mr Rider gives him the following eulogium.
" His voice was naturally fweet, ftrong, diftinft, har-
monious, always adapted to his matter, always varied
as his method changed ; as expreffive of the fenfe as the
mofl judicious recitative. Monotony was a fault he
was never guilty of. His aclion, the foul of eloquence,
was grave, expreflive, free from diflortions, animated
without being theatrical; in fhort, fuch as became the
pulpit. He reminded us of Paul at Athens, arrefting
the attention of his auditors." It was no doubt fuch
rare accompliftiments which induced Mr Pope to be an
occafional hearer, and to pay him the following compli-
ment :

Let modeft Fofter, if he will, excel
Ten metropolitans in preaching well.

In a poem defcribing the refpeftive merits of diffeTiting
minifters at that period, and fuppofed to have been the
work of Mr Savage, U-e find the following lines upon
Dr Fofter.

But fee th'' accomplifli'd orator appear,
Renn'd his language, and his reafoning clear ;
Thou only, Foller, haft the pleafing art.
At once to charm the ear, and mend the heart.

Befides the works formerly taken notice of, Dr Fof-
ter pubhtlied three funeral fermons, one of which was
intended for that celebrated confeflbr Mr Emlyn ; to-
gether with a number of cfTays in the Old Whig.

FosTKR, Smniic/, an ingenious Englilh mathematician
of the lait century, and aftronomical profeffor in Grefliam
college, was one of that learned affociation ivhich met
for cultivating the new philofophy during the political
confufions, and which Charles II. ellablilhed into the
Royal Society. Mr Fofter, however, died in 1652,
before this incorporatioii took place -, but ivrote a number
of mathematical and aftronomical treatifes, too many
to particularize. There ^verc two other mathematical
fcudents of this name ; WiiUam Fofter, a difciple of Mr
Oughtred, who taught in London j and Mark Fofter,
author of a treatife on trigonometry, who Uved later
than the former two.

FOTHER, or Fodder, is a weight of lead, con-
taining eight pigs, and every pig one and twenty ftone
and a half; fo that it is about a ton or common cart
load. Among the plumbers in London, it is nineteen
hundred and a half; and at the mines it is two and
twenty hundred and a half. The word is of Teutonic
origin, irom fudcr.

FOTHEKGILL, Dr George, was bom in \Yeft-

S ] F O T

morland in 1 705, where his family had been long I- other

feated on a competent eftate that had defcended regu- •'

larly for feveral generations. After an academical
education in Queen's college, Oxford, of which he be-
came a fellow, he was, in 1751, elefted principal of St
Edmund's hall, and prefanted to the vicarage of Brum-
ley in Haraplhire. Having been long atHicled with
an aflhma, he died in 1760. He was the author of acol-
ledion of much efteemed fermons, in 2 vols, 8vo. The
firft volume conflfts of occafional difcourfes, publiftied by
himfelf ; the fecond printed from his M3S.

FOTHERGII.L, Dr John, a late eminent phyScian,
fon of John and Margaret, Q^iiakers, was born in 1712,
at Carr End in Yorkihire, where his father, who had
been a brewer at Knareihorough (after having travelled
from one end of America to the other), lived retired
on a fmall eftate which • he cultivated. The Doftor
was the fecond of five children (four fons and a daugh-
ter), and received his education under the care of his
grandfather Thomas Hough, a perfon of fortune in
Cheftiire, which gave him a predileclion for that county),
and at Sedbergh in Yorkihire. He afterwards ferved
his time to one Mr Bartlett an apothecary at Bradford.
From thence he removed to London, and became a
pupil of Dr (afterwards Sir Edward) Wilmot, at St
Thomas's Hofpital. He then went to the univerfity of
Edinburgh to ftudy phyfic, and took hiv doiftor's degree
there. From Edinburgh he went to Leyden ; whence,
after a Ihort ftay, he returned to London, and began to
praifife about the year I 740, in a houfe in White-hart
Court, Lombard-rtreet, where he refided during the
greateft part of his life, and acquired moll of hi.'S
fortune. In 1 746, he was admitted a licentiate of
the College of Phyficians in London; and in 1754
a fello^v of that of Edinburgli, to which he was a
confiderable benefaflor. He afterwards became a
member of the Royal Medical Society at Paris, and a
member both of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies.
He continued his praftice with uninterrupted fuccefs
till \vithin the laft two years of his life, when the ilhicfs
which he had brought on himfelf by unremitted at-
tention, obliged him to give up a confiderable part of
it. Befides his application to medical fcience, he had
imbibed an early tafte for natural hiftory, improved by
his friend Peter Colllnfon, and employed himfelf on
coquillage and fmaller objefts of botany. He was for
many years a valuable contributor to the Gentleman's
Magazine ; where his obfervations on the weather and
difeafes were begun in April 175 1, and difcontinued in
the beginning of 1756, being difappointed in his vrew^
of exciting other experienced phyficians in different
parts to imitate the example. He had very extenfive
praftice, but he did not add to his art any great or va-
rious improvements. His pamphlet on the ulcerous fore
throat is, on every account, the he'ik of his pubUcations ;
but owes much of its merit to the information of the
late Dr Letherland. It was firft printed in i 748, on the
re-appearance of that fatal diforder which in 1 739 had
carried off the two only fons of Mr Pelham. In 1762
Dr FothergiU purchafed an eftate at Upton in Effex ;
and formed a botanic garden there, the fecond in Eu-
rope; Kew is the firft. In 1766 he began regularly

to withdraw, from Midfummer to Michaelmas, from
the exceffive fatigue of his profeffion, to Lee-Hall, near
Middlewich, in Cheftiire 5 which, though he only rent-
ed

F O T

Fotleroi;!. ed it by the year, he had fpared

' *■ ' He took no fees duri:ig this recefs, but attended to
prefcribe gratis at an inn at Middlewich once a v.eek.
In 1767, after he found himfelt obliged to relax his
attention to buiinefs, he removed from his houfe in tlie
citv, to refide in Harpur-ftreet, Red- Lion Square.
Some time before his death he had been induftrious to
contrive a method of generating and preferving ice in
the Weft Indies. He was the patron of Sidney Par-
kmfon, and drew up the preface prefixed to his account
of the voyage to the South Seas. At his expence
aifo was made and printed an entire new tranflation of
the whole Bible, from the Hebrew and Greek originals,
by Anthony Purver, a (Quaker, in two volumes,
1764, folio, and alfo, in 1780, an edition of Bilhop
Percy's " Key to the Neu' Tsilament," adapted to the
ufe of a feminary of young Quakers, at Acworth, near
Leeds in Yorkihire, founded in 1778 by the Society,
who purchafed, by a fubfcription in which Dr Fother-
gill flood foremoft, the houfe and an ellate of thirty
acres which the Foundling Hofpital held there, but
which they found inconvenient for their purpofe on
account of dillance. The Doflor himfelf firtl project-
ed this on the plan of a fmaller inftitution of the lame
kind at Gilderfomes. He alfo endowed it handforaelv
by his will. It now contains above 300 children of
both fexes, who are clothed and inftrufted. Among
the other beneficent fchemes fuggefted by Dr Fother-
gill were thofe of bringing fiih to London by land car-
riage, ivhich, though it did not in every refpccl; fucceed,
tended to deftroy a fuppofed combination : and of
rendering bread much cheaper, though equally ivhole-
fjme, to the poor, by making it with one piirt of po-
tatoes and three parts of houfehold ilour. But his
public benefactions, his encouragemejils of fcience, the
inllances of liis attention to the health, the police, the
convenience of the metropolis, &c. we cannot pretend
to fpecify. The fortune ^vhich Dr Fothergill had ac-
quired w^is inunenfc ; and, taking all things together,
the houfe and moveables in Harpur-ftreet, the property
in Effex, and the eftate in Chelhire (which he held on
a leafe), and his ready money, amounted to 8o,oool.
His bufinefs vhen he was in full practice was cal-
culated at n^ar 700CI. per annum. In the influenza
of 1775 and 1776, he is faid to have had 60 patients
on hJs lift daily, and his profit ^vas eftimated at Soool.
per annum.

'I'h^ diforder which liaftened his death was a fcirr
rhus of the proftata, and an obftruciion in the bladder
, iu which were found after liis death two quarts of
yiater), which had been gradually coming on him for
fix years paft, occafioned by a delicacy, which made
him unwilling to alight from his carriage, fiiid when,
after his temporary recovery from it the year before he
died, he fubmitted to ufe relief in his carriage, it was
too late. He died at his houfe in Harpur-ftreet, De-
cember 26. 1780 ; and his remains were interred, Ja-
nuary 5. in the (Quakers burying-ground at VVincli-
more-hiU, whither they were accoinjianlcd by more
than 70 coaches and puft^haifes, notwithftanding the
iiitcntion of the executors to have the fmieral private.
'J'lic Doftor by his will appointed, that his ihells and
other pieces of uaturjl hiftoiy fliould be offered to the
late Dr Hunter at i;ool. under the valua'.ion he or-

[ 39]

expence to improve, dercd to be taken

O T

-'Vccordingly Dr HunterFutV

bouglit th.em for l20ol. The dra»vings and collec- II .
tions in natural hiftory were alfo to be oftered to Mr ^^''__""-
(novv Sir Jofeph) Bankcs at a valuation. His Englifh i_i^l__
portraits and prints, whicli liad been collcclcd by Mr
John NickoUs of Ware, and purchafed by liim for 80
guineas, ^vere bought for 200 gumeas by Mr Thane.
His books were fold by auction, April 30. 1781, and
the eight following days. His houfe and garden at
Upton, in w hich 1 5 men were conftantly employed,.
were valued at lo,oool. He .fpared no expence to
augment this as well as his other collections. He had
an- ingenious artift qualified to collect for him at th;
Cape of Good Hope, and another on the Alps, and
employed for fevcral years before his death a painter in
natural hiftory at Leeds.

Dr Fothergill's charafler was excellent. A tranf-
action, indeed, vmh regard to one Dr Leeds, gave oc-
cafion to fome of his enemies to blame him ; but how
unjuftly, has been abunda.vay (hown by his biogra-
phers Dr Elliott and Dr Lettfome. BcfiJcS the pam-
phlet already mentioiiea, Dr Fothergill wrote a tonfi-
derable number of Tracts, whicl; are now collected
into one voluc^e 8vo, by Dr Elliott. He fometimes
wrote in the ne\vfpapers, and is faid to h.ave been the
author of more than 100 letters in the Gazetteer, con-
cerninjj the Neu- Pavement.

FOTHERGILL A, a genus of plants, belonging to
the polyandria clafs. See BoTANY /«//«.

FOTHERING, a peculiar method of endeavouring
to ftop a leak in the bottom of a ftiip while flie is aftoat,
either under fail or at anchor. It is ufually performed
in the following manner : A balket is filled with alhes,
cinders, and chopped rope yarns, and loofely covered
with a piece of canvas ; to this is faftened a long pole,
by which it is plunged repeatedly in the water, -as clofe
as poftible to the place where the leak is conjeftured to
lie. The oakum or chopped rope yarns being thus
gradually fliaken through the twigs, or over the top of
the balket, are frequently fucked into the hole along
with the water, fo tiiat the leak becomes immediately
choked ; and the future entrance of the water is there-
by prevented.

FOTHERING AY, a town of Northamptond.irc,
about four nfiles from Stancford, fituated on the river
Avon or Nen, and confifting of one ftrcet. Edward
duke of York in the reign of Henry V. founded and
endowed a fine collegiate church iiere, in which he \vas
interred. At the diflblution, the college ?nd the choir
were pulled down, and the bodies of the founder and
his family left expofed till (^ueen Elizabeth's tjmc, who
ordered them to be interred, and the prcfcnt monu-
ments to be ereded. On the north fide of the ciiurch
is a free fchool, founded by Henry Yll. or Edward VI. .
endowed ivith 20I. per annum for a mafter, payable out
of the exchequer by the receiver of the coynty. The
bridge over the river here was firft built by (^uccn
Elizabeth, 1573, of timber, with three pilhrs upon tlic
foundation. Daniel, firft earl of Nottiughara, -and the
other truftees for William Savilk-, marquis of Halifax,
lebuilt it, in J 7 22, of freeftonc from King's C.ifle. Oii
the fouth-caft fide of the clifie ftood the caftle ; which
was of great antiquity and confiderable ftrtngth. Mary
queen of Scots, who had been in the cuftody of Sir

F O U

[ 40 ]

F O U

Tow- Amias Pou'let here, was tried and btlitadeJ in the lull;
^'^'j'^°" and her fon afterwards, forgiving and even taking into
Fi'iilahs. favour licr greateft enemy Cecil, only took the childilh
l— -,, — L revenge of beating down the caftle ; which he fo com-
pletely demoliihed, that no more than the earthworks
now remain. Within the firfl work is a fann-hoiife
with feme carved ftones ^vrought into it, and at the
fouth-weft corner of the inner trench are fome mafles of
ftone walls. Sir Robert Cotton carried the wainfcot of
the hall to Connington.

FOU-TCHEOU, a city of China, in the province of
Fo-KIES. It carries on a confiderable trade; but is
chiefly remarkable for the magnificence of its principal
bridge, which has more than 100 arches, conilrufted
of white ftone, and ornamented with a double baluf-
trade throughout. This city is the relidence of a
viceroy, and has under its jurifdiflion nine cities of the
tliird clafs.

FOUGADE, or FoTiGASSE, in the art of war, a
little mine, about 8 or 10 feet wide, and 10 or I 2 deep,
dug under fome work or port, which is in danger of
falling into the enemy's hands ; and charged with facks
of powder, covered with ftones, earth, and whatever
eife can make great deftruftion. It is let on fire like
other mines, with a faucifli:. See Mine.

FOUL, or FoULE, in the fea language, is ufed
\\hen a lliip has been long untrimmed, fo that the
grafs weeds, or barnacles, grow to her fides under
water. A rope is alfo foul when it is either tangled
in itfelf, or hindered by another, fo that it cannot run
or be overhauled.

Foul imports, alfo, the running of one fhip againft
another. This happens fometimes by the violence of
the wind, and fometimes by the carelefsnefs of the
people on board, to ftiips in the fame convoy, and to
ftiips iti port by means of others coming in. The damages
occafioned by running foul, are of the nature of thofe
in which both parties muft bear a fliare. They are
ufually made half to fall upon the fiifferer, and half
upon the veffel which did the injury ; but in cafes
where it is evidently the fault of the mafler of the
veffel, he alone is to bear the damage.

FovL-Water, A ftiip is faid to make foul water,
when, being under fail, (he comes into fuch ftioal
water, that though her keel do not touch the ground,
yet it comes fo near it, that the motion of the water
under her raifes the mud from the bottom.

Foul is alfo a difeafe in cattle, proceeding from
blood, and a waterifti rheum that falls down into the
legs, and makes them fwell.

Fovt or Pimpled Face. See Gutta Rofacea.

FOULA, or Foul Ijlantl, one of the Shetland ifles,
lying between fix and feven leagues weft from the
main land. It is about three miles long, narrow, and
full of rough, fteep, and bare rocks ; one of which is
fo large, and runs up to fuch a height, that it may
be clearly feen from Orkney. This, it is probable, is
the Thule of Tacitus. It has fcarcely any pafturage,
and but little arable land. The oidy commodities ex-
ported are ftock filh, train oil, and feathers.

FOULAHS, a neo! !e of Africa, which inhabit the
confines of the great defi.rt Sahara. The principal of the
Foulah rtates is that %\i.''.in Sierra Leona, and of which
Teembo is the capital. See Sierr.\ Leona.

FOUIMART, ;; fpecles of Mustela. See Mam- F
MAl.lA Index.

FOUNDATION, in ArchkeEiure, is that part of a J_
building which is under ground. See ARCHriECTUKE,
N» 104.

Palladio allows a fixth part of the height of the
whole building for the hollowing or under-digging ;
unlefs there be cellars under ground, in which cafe he
would have it fomewhat lower.

Foundation', denotes alfo a donation or legacy,
either in money or lands, for the maintenance and
fupport of fome community, hofpital, fchool, &c.

The king only can found a college, but there may 'J<
be a college in reputation founded by others. If it •'^'
cannot appear by inqulfition who it was that founded
a church or college, it ihall be intended that it was the
king, who has power to found a new church, &c.
The king may found and ereit an hofpital, and give a
name to the houfe upon the inheritance of another, or
licenfe another pcrlon to do it upon his own lands ; and
the words fiindo, creo, &c. are not neceffary in every
foundation, either of a college or hofpital, made by the
king ; but it is fufficient if there be ivords equivalent ;
the incorporation of a college or hofpital is the very
foundation ; but he ^vho endows it with lands is the
founder ; and to the ereftion of an hofpital, nothing
more is requifite but the incorporation and foundation.
Perfons feifed of eftates in fee fimplc, may ereft and
found hofpitals for the poor by deed enrolled in chan-
cery, &c. which ftiall be incorporated, and fubjeft to
fuch vifitors as the fovmder lliall appoint, &c. ftat. 39.
Eliz. c, 5.

FOUNDER, in a general fcnfe, the perfon who
lays a foundation, or endows a church, Ichool, religi-
ous houfe, or other charitable inftitution. See Foun-
dation.

Founder, alfo implies an artift who cafts metals, in
various forms, for different vifes, as guns, bells, ftatues,
printing characters, candlefticks, buckles, &c. whence
they are denominated gun-founders, bell-founders, fi-
gure-founders, letter-founders, founders of Imall works,
&c. See FOUNDERY.

Founder, in the fea language : A fliip is faid to
founder, when by an extraordinary leak, or by a great
fea breaking in upon her, ftie is fo filled with water,
that fhe cannot be freed of it ; fo that ftie can neither
veer nor fteer, but lie like a log ; and not being able
to fwim long, will at laft fink.

FOUNDERED, in FarrUn/. See there, § xll,

FOUNDERY, or Foundry, the art of calling all
forts of metals into different forms. It likewife fignifies
the workhoufe or fmelting hut wherein thefe opera-
tions are performed.

FovNDERr of Small Works, or cajlitig in Sand. The
fand ufed for cafting fmall works is at firft of a pretty
foft, yellowifli, and clammy nature ; but it being ne-
ceffary to ftrew charcoal duft in the mould, it at length
becomes of a quite black colour. This fand i-; worked
over and over, on a board, Avith 3 roller, and a fort of
knife ; being placed over a trough to receive it, after
it is by thefe means fufhciently prepared.

This done, they take a worden board of a length

and breadth proportional t j the things to he caft, and

putting a ledge round it ihey till it with land, a little

moiftcncd.

F O U [

Founder)-, mjillcncd, to make it duly cohere. Then they take
'~~*v""~~ either wood or metal models of wliat they intend to
cart, and apply them i'o to the mould, and prefs them
into the faiid, as to leave their impreflion there. Along
the middle ot the mould is laid half a fmall brafs cy-
linder, as the chief canal for the metal to run through,
when melted, into the models or patterns ; and from
this chief canal are placed feveral others, which extend
to each model or pattern placed iu the frame. After
this frame is finilhed, they take out the patterns, by
firil loofening thtm all round, that the fand may not
give uay.

Then they proceed to work the other half of the
mould with the fame patterns in juft fuch another
frame ; only that it has pins, which, entering into holes
that correfpond to it in the other, make the two cavi-
ties of the pattern fall exadlly on each other.

The frame, thus moulded, is carried to the melter ;
who, after extending the chief canal of the counter-
part, and adding the crofs canals to the feveral models
in both, and Ifreiving mill dulf over them, dries them
in a kind of oven for that purpofe.

Both parts of the mould being dry, they are joined
together by means of the pins : and to prevent them
giving way, by reafon of the melted metal palTmg through
the chief cylindrical canal, they are fcrewed or wedged
up like a kind of prefs.

While the moulds are thus preparing, the metal is
fiifing in a crucible of a fize proportionate to the quan-
tity of metal intended to be caft.

AWien the moulds are coolifli, the frames are un-
fcrewed or unwedged, and the caft work taken out of
the fand, which fand is worked over again for other
cafting.

FouNDERY of Statues. The cafting of flatues de-
pends on the due preparation of the pit, the core, the
wax, the outer mould, the inferior furnace to melt off
the v/ax, and the upper to fufe the metal. The pit is a
hole dug in a dty place fomething deeper than the in-
tended figure, and made according to the prominence
of certain parts thereof. The infide of the pit is com-
monly lined with ftone or brick ; or when the figure
is very large, they fometimes work on the ground, and
raife a proper fence to refift the impulfion of the melt-
ed metal.

The inner mould, or core, is a rude mafs to which
is given the intended attitude and contours. It is raif-
ed on an iron grate, ftrong enough to fuftain it, and
is ftrengthened within by feveral bars of iron. It is
generally made either of potters clay, mixed with hair
and horfe dung ; or of plafter of Paris mixed with brick
duft. The ufe of the core is to fupport the wax, the
.liell, and leffen the weight of the metal. The iron bars
and the core are taken out of the brafs figure through
an aperture left in it for that purpofe, which is fol-
dered up afterwards. It is necelTary to leave forae
of the iron bar* of the core, that contribute to the
fteadinefs of the projefting part, within the brafs fi-
gure.

The wa.x is a reprefentation of the intended ftatue.
If it be a piece of fculpture, the wax ftiould be all of
the fculptor's own hand, who ufually forms it on the
core : Though it may be wrought (eparatcly in cavities,
moulded on a model, and afterwards arranged on the

Vol. IX. Part I.

41 ] F O U

ribs of iion over the grate ; filling the vacant fp.tce in F.<-in,1t
the middle with liquid plafter and brick duft, whereby ^~
the inner core is proportioned as the fculptor carries on
the wax.

When the wax, which is the Intended thicknefs ot
the metal, is finilhed, they fill Imall waxen tubes per-
pendicular to it from top to bottom, to fcrve both as
canals for the conveyance of the metal to all parts of
the woik ; and as ^ent holes, to give paffage to the air,
which ^vould otherwife occafion great diforder when the
hot metal came to encompafs it.

ITie work being brought thus far, muft be covered
with Its fl.iell, which is a kind of cruft laid over the
wax, and ivhich being of a foit matter, ealily receives
the impreflion of every part, ^vh^ch is after^vards com-
municated to the metal upon its taking the place of
the wax, between the ihell and the mould. The mat-
ter of this outer mould is varied according as diScreiit
layers are applied. The finl is generally a compofition
of clay, and old white crucibles well ground and fift-
ed, and mixed up with water to the confiftence of a.
colour fit for painting : accordingly they apply it with
a pencil, laying it feven or eight times over, and let-
ting it dry between whiles. For the fecond impreirion
they add horfe dung and natural earth to the former
compofition. The third impreflion is only horfe dung
and earth, Laftly, The fliell is finiftied by laying on
feveral more Impreflions of this laft matter, made very
thick with the hand.

The fliell, thus finilhed. Is fecured by feveral Iron
girths, bound round it, at about i;ilf a foot diilance
from each other, and faftencd at the bottom to the
grate under the ftatue, and at top to a circle of iron
where they all terminate.

If the Itatue be fo big that it would not be eafy to
move the moulds with fafety, they muft be wrought
on the fpot where it is to be call. This is performed
two ways : In the firft, a fquare hole is dug under
ground, much bigger than the mould to be made
therein, and its inlide lined with walls of free-ftone or
brick. At the bottom is made a hole of the lame
materials, with a kind of furnace, having its aperture
outwards: in this Is a fire made to dry the mould,
and afterwards melt the wax. Over this furnace is
placed the grate, and upon this the mould, &c. formed
as above. Laftly, At one of the edges of the fquare
pit, is made another large furnace to melt the metal.
In the other way, it is fufficient to work the moiiki
above ground, but with the like precaution of a fur-
nace and grate underneath. When finilhed, four
walls are to be run around it, and by the fide thereof
a mafl!ive made for a melting furnace. For the rcit,
the method is the fame in both. The mould lierng fi-
nilhed, and enclofed as defcribed, whether under ground
or above It, a mo;!erate fire is lighted in the furnace
under it, and the whole covered with planks, that the
wax may melt gently down, and run out at pipes con-
trived for that purpofe, at the foot of the mould,
which are afterwards exaftly clofed with earth, fo foon
as the wax is carried oft". This done, the hole is filled
up with bricks thrown in at random, and the fire in
the furnace augmented, till fuch time as both the
bricks and mould become red hot. After this, the
fire being extinguiftied, and every thing cold again,
F they

F O U f 42

roimdery. they take out the bricks, ar.J CI! up their place with
' * earth moiilened, and a little beaten to the top of the

mould, in order to make it the more firm and Iteady.
Thefe preparatory meafures being duly taken, there
remains nothing but to melt the metal, and run it into
the mould. This is the office of the furnace above
defcribed, ^vhich is commonly made in the form of an
oven with three, apertures, one to put in the wood,
another for a vent, and a third to run the metal out at.
From this laft aperture, which is kept very clofe while
the metal is in fufion, a fmall tube is laid, whereby the
melted metal is conveyed into a large earthen bafon,
over th^ mould, into the bottom of which all the big
branches of the jets, or cafts, ^vhich are to con-
vey the metal into all the parts of the mould, arc in-
ferted.

Thefe cafts or jets are all terminated with a kind of
plugs, ^vhich are kept clofe, that, upon opening the
furnace, the brafs, which guihes out with violence,
may not enter any of them, till the bafon be full enough
of matter to run into them all at once. Upon which
occafion they pull out the plugs, which are long iron
rods with a head at one end, capable of filling the
v.hole diameter of each tube. The whole of the fur-
nace is opened with a long piece of iron fitted at the end
of each pole, and the mould filled in an inftant. This
completes the work in relation to the carting part ;- the
rcfl being the fculptor's or carver's bufinefs, who, tak-
ing the figure out of the mould and earth wherewith
it is eucompaiTed, faws off the jets with which it ap-
pears covered over, fend repairs it with chiffels, gravers,
puncheons, &c.

FouKDEsr of Bells. The metal, it is to be ob-
ferved, is different for bells from what it is for
ftatues ; there being no tin in the ftatue metal ; but
there is a fifth, and fometimes more, in the bell
metal.

The dimenfions of the core and the wax for bells,
if a chime of bells efpecially, are not left to chance, but
inuft be meafured on a fcale, or diapafon, which gives
the height, aperture, and thicknefs, neceffary for the
ieveral tones required.

It is on the wax that the feveral mouldings and other
ornaments and infcriptions, to be reprefented in re-
lievo on the outfide of the bell, are formed. The
clapper or tongue is not properly a part of the bell,
but is fumifhed from other hands. In Europe, it is
ufually of iron, with a large knob at the extreme ; and
is fufpended in the middle of the bell. In China, it is
only a huge wooden mallet, ft ruck by force of arm
againft the bell ; ivhence they can have but little of that
confonancy fo much admired in fome of our diimes of
bells. The Chinefe have an extraordinary way of in-
creafing the found of their bells, viz. by leaving a hole
under the cannon ; which our bell-founders would reckon
a defea.

The proportions of our bells differ very much from
thofe of the Chinefe. In ours, the modem propor-
tions are, to make the diameter 15 times the thicknefs
of the brim, and the height t2 times. The parts of a
bell are, I. The founding bow, terminated by an in-
ferior circle, which grows thinner and thinner. 2. The
brim or that part of a bell whereon the clapper ftrikes,
a«d which is thicker than the reft. 3. The outv.ard

J F O U

finking of the middle of the bell, or the point under Founder
which it groTvs wider to the brim. 4. The waift or ' — ~^f~'
furniture, and the part that grows wider and thicker
quite to the brim. 5. The upper vafe, or that part
which is above the waift . 6. The pallet which fup-
ports the ftaple of the clapper within. 7. The bent
and hollowed branches of metal uniting with the can-
nons, to receive the iron keys, whereby rfie bell is hung
up to the beam, which is its fupport and counterpoife
when rung out.

The bufinefs of bell foundery is reducible to three
particulars. I. The proportion of a bell. 2. The
forming of the mould. And, 3. The melting of
the metal. There are two kinds of proportions,
viz. the fimple and the relative ; the former are
thof; proportions only that are between the feveral
parts of a bell to render it fonorous ; the relative
proportions eftablifti a requifite harmony between feve-
ral bells.

The method of forming the profile of a bell, pre-
vious to its being caft, in wliich the proportion of the
feveral parts may be feen, is as follows : the thicknefs
of the brim, C 1 (Plate CCXXIII.) is the foundation
of every other meafurc, and is divided into three equal
parts. Firft, draw the line HD, wliich reprefents the
diameter of the bell ; bifeft it in F and ereft the per-
pendicular F/; let DF and HF be alfo bifeded in
E and G, and two other perpendiculars E f , Go, be
erefted at E and G : GE uill be the diameter of the
top or upper vafe, i. e. the diameter of the top will be
half that of the bell ; and it will, therefore, be the dia-
meter of a bell which ^\ill found an oftave to the
other. Divide the diameter of the bell or the line
HD into 15 equal parts, and one of thefe will give
C I the thicknefs of the brim ; diside again each of
thefe 15 equal parts into three other equal parts, and
then form a fcale. From this fcale take I 2 of the lar-
ger divifions or iV of the whole fcale in the compafs,
and fetting one leg in D defcrihe an arc to cut the line
E f in N; draw ND, and divide this line into 12
equal parts ; at the point 1 ereft the perpendicular
I Crr I o, and C I « ill be the thicknefs of the brim =-i-V
of the diameter : draiv the line CD ; bifeft DN ; and
at the point of bifcftion 6 ei'eft the perpendicular
6 K=.l4 of the larger divifions on the fcale. With an
opening of the compafs equal to twice the length of
the fcale or 30 brims, fetting one leg in N, defcribe an
arc of a circle, and with the fame leg in K and the
fame opening defcribe another arc to interfeil the for-
mer : on this point of interfeftion as a centre, and
with a radius equal to 30 brims, defcribe the arc NK ;
in 6 K produced take KB^y of the larger meafure
of the fcale or \ of the brim, and on the fame centre
with the radius 30} brims defcribe an arc AB parallel
to NK. For the arc EC, take 1 2 divifions of the
fcale or 1 2 brims in the compafs ; find a centre, and
from that centre, with this opening, defcribe the arc
BC, in the fame manner as NK or AB were defcri-
bed. There are various ways of defcribing the arc
K /> ; fome defcribe it on a centre at the diftance of
nine brims from the points p and K j others, as it is
done in the figure, on a' centre at the diftance only of
feven brims from thofe points. But it is neceffary firft
to find the point [>, and to determine the rounding 01

F O U [4

. tlie bell/> I. For this puqiofe, on tlie point C as a
- centre, and with the radius C I, defcribe the arc \p n;
biled the part i, 2 of the line D «, and ersding the
perpendicular/)///, tliis perpendicular will cut the arc
I ji n in m, ^vhich terminates the rounding I [>. Some
founders make the bendings K a third of a brim loAver
tlian the middle of the line DN ; others make the part
C I D more acute, and.inftcad of making C 1 perpendi-
cular to DN at I, draw it ith of a brim higher, making
it Itill equal to one brim ; io that the line i D is longer
than the brim C I. In order to trace out the top part
N a, take in the compafs eight divilions of the fcale or
eight brims, and on the points N and D as centres,
defcribe arcs to interfecl each other in 8 : on this point
8, with a radius of eight brims, defcribe the arc N /> ;
this arc will be the exterior curve of the top or crown :
on the fame point 8 as a centre, and with a radius
equal to 7 1 brims, defcribe the arc Ae, and this will
be the interior curve of the crown, and its whole
thicknefs will be one third of the brim. As the point 8
does not fall in the axis of the bell, a centre M may
be found in the axis by defcribing, with the interval
of eight brims on the centres D and H, arcs which
will interfed in M ; and this point may be made the
centre of the inner and outer curves of the crown as
before. The thicknefs of tlie cap which ftrengthens
the crown at Q^ is about one-third of the th.icknefs of
the brim ; and the hoUow branches or ears about one
iixth of the diameter of the bell. The height of the
bell is in proportion to its diameter as 1 2 to i j, or in
the proportion of the fundamental found to its third
major ; wlience it follows, that the found of a bell is
principally compofed of the found of its extremity or
brim as a fundamental, of the found ot the crown
ivhich is an odave to it, and of that of the height
which is a third.

The particulars neceflary for making the mould of
a bell are, i . The earth : the moll cohefive is the beft j
it mufl be w ell ground and lifted, to prevent any chinl'.s.
2. Brick llonc ; which muft be ufed for the mine,
mould, or core, and for the furnace. 3. Horfe dang,
hair, and hemp, mixed with the earth, to render the
cement more binding. 4. The wax for infcriptions,
coats of arms, &c. 5. The tallow equally mixed with
the wax, in order to put a flight lay of it upon the
outer mould, before any letters are applied to it. 6. The
coals to dry the mould.

For making the mould, they have a fcaffbld con-
fiding of four boards ranged upon treffels. Upon
this they carry the earth, grofsly diluted, to mix it
^vith horfe dung, beating the whole with a large fpa-
tula.

The compaflTes of conftrudion is the chief inflru-
ment for making the mould, which confift of two dif-
ferent legs joined by a third piece. And, lall of all
the founders llielves, on which are the engravings of
the letters, cartridges, coats of arras, &c.

They fidl dig a hole of a fufficient depth to contain
the mould of the bell, together with the cafe or can-
non under ground ; and about fix inches lower than
the terreplain, ivhere the work is performed. The
liole muft be wide enough for a free paflage between
the mould and wails of the hole, or between one mould
and another, when feveral bells are to be caft. At

3 ] F O U

the centre of the hole is a Hake ercdcd, that is ftroRgly r.n-.nkry.

laftened in the ground. This fupports an iron peg, •— v ■

on which the pivot of the fecond bianch of the com-
pafles turns. The ftake is encompaffed with a foliii
brick-work, perfedly round, about lialf a foot high,
and of the propofed bell's diameter. This they call a
milljlone. The parts of tlie mould are, the cote, the
model of the bell, and the fl>ell. WTien the outer fur-
face of the core is formed, they begin to raife the core,
which is made of bricks that are laid in courfes of equal
helglit upon a lay of plain earth. At the laying of
each brick, they bring near it the branch of the com-
jjaffes, on which the curve of the core is iliaped, fo as
that there may remain between it and the curve the
dirtance of a hne, to be afterwards filled up with layers
of cement. The work is continued to the top, only
leaving an opening for the coals to bake the core. Tliis
work is covered with a layer of cement, made of earth
and horfe dung ; on which they move the compaflea
of conllrudion, to make it of an even fmoothneis every-
where.

The firft layer being finlilied, they put the fire to
the core, by filling it half with coals, through an open-
ing that is kept fhut, during tlie baking, with a cake
of earth that lias been ieparately baked. The Srft
fire confumes the ftake, and the fire is left in the core
half or fometimes a whole day : the firil layer being
thoroughly dry, they cover it with a fecond, third,
and fourth ; each being fmoothed by the board of the
compafles, and thoroughly dried before they proceed to
another.

The core being completed, they take the compafTes
to pieces, with intent to cut oif the thicknefs of the
model, and the compalTeS are immediately put in their
place to begin a fecond piece of the mould. It con-
fills of a mixture of earth and hair, applied with the
liand on the core, in feveral cakes that clofe together.
This work is finifiied by feveral layers of a thinner
cement of the fame matter, fmoothed by the compaffes,
and thoroughly dried before another is laid on. The
firll layer ot the model is a mixture of wax and greafa
fpread over the ^vhole. After which are applied the
infcriptions, coats of arms, &cc. befmeared with a pen-
cil dipped in a veffel of wax in a chafing dilh : this is
done for every letter. Before the ihell is begun, the
compafles are taken to pieces, to cut ofiT all the wood
that fills the place of the thicknefs to be given to the
fliell.

The firft layer is the fame earth witli the reft, fifted
very fine : while it is tempering in water, it is mixed
with cows hair to make it cohere. The whole being
a thin cullis, is gently poured on the model, that fills
exadly all the finuofities of the figures, &c. and this
is repeated till the whole is two lines thick over the
model. WTien tliis layer is thoroughly dried, they
cover it ivith a fecond of the fame matter, but fome-
what thicker ; when this fecond layer becomes of fome
confiftence, they apply the compafles again, and light
a fire in the core, fo as to melt oflFthe wax of the in-
fcriptions, &c.

After this, they go on with other layers of the (hell,

by means of the compaffes. Here they add to the

co-vs hair a quantity of hemp, fpread upon the layers,

and afterwards fmootlied by the board of the com-

F 2 iKifTc:.

F O U

[ 44 ]

>■ . .-A.-ty. paTcs. Tr.e tliicknefs of the (heJl comes to four or five

.— — incbes lower than the millllone before obierved, and

iurrounds it quite clofc, which prevents the extfavata-

tion of th^ metal. Tlie wax lliould be taken out before

the melting of the metal.

The ear of the bell requires a feparate work, which
is done during the drying of the feveral incruftations
of the cement. It has feven rings : the feventh is cal-
led the bridge, and unites the others, being a perpen-
dicular fuppcrt to ftrengthen the cur\-es. It has an
aperture at the top, to admit a large iron peg, bent at
the bottom ; and this is introduced into two holes in
the beam, fallened with two ilrong iron keys. There
are models made of the rings, ^vith maiVes of beaten
earth, that are dried in the fire in order to have the
hollow of them. Thefe rings are geiit]y prefled upon
:--. layer of earth and cows hair, one half of its depth ;
and then taken out, without breaking the mould.
This operation is repeated 1 2 times for i 2 half moulds,
that Xvio and two united may make the hollows of the
;"i.\ rings : the fame they do for the hollow of the bridge,
iiid bake them all to luiite them together.

Upon the open place left for the coals to be put in
are i)laced the rings that conftitute the ear. They firit
put into this open place the iron ring to fupport the
clapper of the bell ; then they make a round cake of
clay, to fill up the diameter of the thicknefs of tiie
core. This cake, after baking, is clapt ij^ion the
opening, and foldered with a thin mortar fpread over
it, which binds the cover clofe to the core.

The hollow of tlie model is filled with an earth,
fufficiently moiil; to fix on the place, which is ilrewed
at feveral times upon the cover of the core ; and they
beat it gently with a peftle, to a proper height ; and a
workman fmooths the earth at top with a wooden
trowel dipped in water.

Upon this cover, to be taken oS" afterwards, they
affemble the hollows of the rings. When every thing
is in its proper place, they ftrengthen the outfide of the
hollows with mortar, in order to bind them with the
bridge, and keep them fteady at the bottom, by means
of a cake of the fame mortar, which fills up the whole
aperture of the Ihell. This they let dry, that it may
be removed without breaking. To make room for the
metal, they pull off the hollo^vs of the rings, through
which the metal is to pafs, before it enters into the va-
cuity of the mould. The Ihell being unloaded of its
f-ar, they range under the millflone five or fix pieces
of wood, about two feet long, and thick enough to
Tifach almoft the lower part of the (hell ; between thefe
and the mould, they drive in wooden wedges with a
mallet, to fhake the ihell of the model whereon it refts,
fo as to be pulled up and got out of the pit.

When this and the wax are removed, they break
th» model and the layer of earth, through ^vhich the
metal mud run, from the hollow of the rings, between
the Ihell and the core. They fmoke the infide of the
fhell, by burning llravv under it, that helps to fmooth
the furface of the bell. Then they put the fliell in
ti'.e place, fo as to leave the fame interval between that
and the core ; and before the hollows of the rings or
the cap are put on again, they add two vents, that are
■jnited to the rings, and to each other, by a mafs of
haksd cement. After which they put on this mafs of

F O U

the cap, the rings, and the vent, over the (hell, and Four.dery.
folder it with thin cement, which is dried gradually by ~~~v— ^
covering it with burning coals. Then tliey fill up the
pit ^vith earth, beating it ftrongly all the time roimd
the mould.

The furnace has a place for' the fire, and another for
the metal. The fire-place has a large chimney with a
fpacious alh-hole. The furnace which contains the '

metal is vaulted, whofe bottom is made of earth,
rammed down ; the reft is built with brick. It has
four apertures ; the firft, through which the flame re-
vibrates ; the fecond is clofed with a ftopple that is
opened for the metal to run ; the others are to fepa-
rate the drofs or fcoriae of the metal by w ooden rakes :
through thefe laft apertures paffes the thick fmoke.
The ground of the furnace is built floping, for the me-
tal to run down.

FovKDERj of Great Guns and Mortar Pieces. The
method of calling thefe pieces is little different from
that of bells ; they are run maffy, without any core,
being determined by the hollow of the ihell ; and they
are afterwards bored with a Heel trepan, that is worked
either by horfes or a w-ater mill.

For the metal, parts, proportions, &c. of thefe pieces,
fee GuN-NKRY.

Letter Foundert, or Cajiing of Printim; Letters.

In the bufinefs of cutting, cafting, &.c. letters for
printing, the letter-cutter mult be provided with a vice,
hand-vice, hammers, and files of all forts for watch-
makers ufe ; as alfo gravers and fculpters of all forts,
and an oil ftone, &c. fuitable and fizeable to the feve-
ral letters to be cut : a flat gage made of box to hold
a rod of fteel, or the body of a mould. Sic. exaftly per-
pendicular to the flat of the ufing file : a Hiding gage,
whofe ufe is to meafure and let off diftances between
the ftioulder and the tooth, and to mark it off from the
end, or from the edge of the work ; a face gage,
which is a fquare notch cut with a file into the edge
of a thin plate of fteel, iron, or brafs, of the thicknefs
of a piece of common tin, whofe ufe is to proportion
the face of each fort of letter, \'iz. long letters, af-
cending letters, and fliort letters. So there muft be
three gages ; and thfe gage for the long letters is the
length of the whole body fuppofed to be divided into
42 equal parts. The gage for the afcending letters
Roman and Italic are 4. or 30 parts of 42, and 33 parts
for the Englilh face. The gage for the fhort letters
is 4> or 1 8 parts of 42 of the whole body for the Ro-
man and Italic, and 22 parts for the Engliih face.

The Italic and other ftanding gages are to meafure
the fcope of the Italic ftems, by applying the top and
bottom of the gage to the top and bottom lines of the
letters, and the other fide of the gage to the ftem ; for
when the letter complies with thefe three fides of the
gage, that letter has its true fhape.

The next care of the letter-cutter is to prepare good
fteel punches, ^vcll tempered, and quite free from all
veins of iron ; on the face of which he draws or marks
the exaft fliape of the letter with pen and ink if the
letter be large, or with a fmooth blunted point of a
needle if it be fmall ; and then mth fizeable and pro-
per Ihaped and pointed gravers and fculpters, digs or
(culps out the fteel between the ftrokcs or marks he
mpdc en the face of the punch, and leaves the marl^s
Handing

F O U [

>"ou. dery. fiandiiig on the face. Having well fliaped tne inf.de
^—\,—— flrokes of his letter, he deepens the hollows with the
fame tools ; for if a letter be not deep in proportion
to its wdth, it will, when ufed at prefs, print black,
and be good for nothing. This work is generally re-
gulated by the depth of the counter-punch. Then he
works the outfide with proper files till it be fit for the
matrice.

But before we proceed to the finking and juftifying
of the matrices, we mail provide a mould to jitftify
them by, of which there is a draught in Plate CCXXIII.
fig. 1. 2.

Every mould is compofed of an upper and an under
part. The under part is delineated in fig. i. The
upper part is marked fig. 2. and is in all refpefts made
like the under part, excepting the ftool behind, and the
bow or fpring alio behind ; and excepting a fmall
roundifh wire between the body and carriage, near the
break, where the under part hath a fmall rounding
groove made in the body. This wire, or rather half
wire, in the upper part makes the nick in the Ihank of
the letter, when part of it is received into the groove
in the under part. Thefe two parts are ib exactly fit-
ted and gaged into one another (viz. the male gage
marked c in fig. 2. into the female marked g in fig. i.),
that when the upper part of the mould is properly pla-
ced on, and in the under part of the mould, both toge-
ther make the entire mould, and may be flld backwards
for ule fo far, tiU the edge of either of the bodies on the
middle of either carriage comes juft to the edge of the
female gages cut in each carriage ; ajid they may be
Aid forward fo far, till the bodies on either carriage
touch each other : and the Aiding of thefe two parts
of the mould backwards makes the fhank of the letter
thicker, becaufe the bodies on each part lland wider
alunder ; and the Aiding them fonvards makes the
fhank of the letter thinner, becaufe the bodies on each
part of the mould ftand clofer together. The parts of
the mould are as follow : viz. a, The carriage, b. The
body, c, The male gage. d e. The mouth-piece,
f i. The regirter. g, The female gage, h, The hag,
a a a a. The bottom-plate, b b /', The wood on v.'hich
the bottom-plate lies, c c c. The mouth, d d. The
throat, edd. The pallat. _/", The nick, g g, The
flool. h h. The fpring or bow.

Then the mould muft be juftified : and firft the
founder juflifies the body, by cafting about 20 proofs
or famples of letters ; which are fet up in a compofing
ftick, with all their nicks towards the right hand ;
and then by comparing thefe with the pattern letters,
fet up in the fame manner, he finds the exact raeafure
of the body to be caft. He alfo tries if the two (ides of
the body are parallel, or that the body be no bigger
at the head than at the foot, by taking half the num-
ber of his proofs and turning them uith their heads to
the feet of the other half; and if then the heads and
the feet be found exactly even upon each other, and
neither to drive out nor get in, the two fides may be
pronounced parallel. He farther tries whether the
two fides of the thicknefs of the letter be parallel, by
firft fetting his proofs in the compofing Itick with their
nicks upwards, and then turning one-half with their
heads to the feet of the other half; and if the heads
and feet lie exactly upon each other, and neither drive

45 1

F O U

two fides of the thickncfs arc pr.ral- Fj-;ti!

out nor get
lei.

The mould thus juftified, the next bufinefs is to pre-
pare the matrices. A matrice is a piece of brafs or
copper of about an inch and a half long, ar.d of a thick-
nefs in proportion to the fize of the letter it is to con-
tain. In this metal is funk the face of the letter in-
tended to be caft, by ftriking the letter punch about
the depth of an n. After this the fides and face of
the matrice muft be juftified and cleared with files of
all bunchings made by finking the punch.

Every thing thus- prepared, it is brought to the fur-
nace ; which is built of brick upright, with four fquare
fides, and a ftone on the top, in which ftone is a wide
round hole for the pan to ftand in. A foundery of any
confcquence has feveral of thefe furnaces in it.

As to the metal of which the types are to be caft,
this, in extenfive founderies, is always prepared m
large quantities ; but calt into fmall bars, of about 20
pounds weight, to be delivered out to the workmen as
occafion requires. In the letter foundery wliich has
been long carried on with reputation under the direc-
tion of Mefl". Wilfon and Sons at Glafgow, we are
informed, that a flock of metal is made up at t\vo dif-
ferent times of the year, fufficient to fer\'e the cutlers at
the furnace for fix months each time. For this purpofe,
a large furnace is built under a fliade, furniftied with 5
wheel vent, in order the more equally to heat the fides
of a ftrong pot of caft iron, which holds when full
15 hundred weight of the metal. The fire being
kindled belo^v, the bars of lead are let foftly down in-
to the not, and their fufion promoted by throwing in
fome pitch and tallow, which foon inflame. An ojtcr
chimney, which is built fo as to project about a foot
over the fartheft lip of the pot, catches hold of the
flame by a ftrong draught, and makes it aft very power-
fully in melting lead ; whlllt it ferves at the fame time
to convey away all the fumes, &c. from the workmen,
to whom this laborious part of the bufinefs is commit-
ted. When the lead is thoroughly melted, a due pro-
portion of the regulus of antimony and other ingredi-
ents are put in, and fome more tallow is inflamed to
make the whole incorporate fooner. The workmen
now having mixed the contents of the pot very tho-
roughly by ftlrring long with a large iron ladle, next
proceed to draw the metal off into the fmall troughs
of caft iron, which are ranged to the number of four-
fcore upon a level platform faced with ftone, built to-
wards the right hand. In the courfe of a day 15 hun-
dred weight of metal can be eafily prepared in this
manner ; and the operation is continued for as many
days as are nece.Tary to prepare a ftock of metal of all
the various degrees of hardnefs. After this, the whole
is difpofed into prelTes according to its quality, to be
delivered out occafionally to the workmen.

The founder muft now be proWded with a ladle,
which differs nothing from other iron ladles bat in its
fize ; and he is provided always with ladles of feveral
fizes, which he ufes according to the fize of the letters
he is to calt. Before the caitcr begins to caft, he mull
kindle his fire in the furnace to melt the metal in the
pan. 'I'hercfore he takes the pan out of the hole n\
the ftone, and there lays in coals and kindles th'rn ;
and, when they are well kindled, he fcts the p;.n in

F O U [4

again, ami pulbiu mcLil into it to melt : if it be a linall-
boJied letter he calls, or a thin letter of great bodies,
his Ictlcr imift be very hot, nay fometimes red-hot,
to tnaLe the letter come. Then liaviiig chofen a ladle
that will hold about fo much as the letter and break
is, he lays it at the iloking hole, T.here the flame
Imrfts out, to heat. Then he tics a thin leather, cut
Avith its narrow end againft the face to the leather
groove of the matrice, by wliipping a brown thread
twice about the leather groove, and fattening the
thread inth a knot. Then he puts both halves of the
mould together, and puts the matrice into the matrice-
cheek, and places the foot of the matrice on the llool
of the mould, and the broad end of the leather upon
the wood of the upper half of the mould, but not tight
up, left it might hinder the foot of the matrice from
linking clofe dotvn upon the ftool in a train of work.
Then laying a little rofin on the upper wood of the
mould, and having his calling ladle hot, he with the
boiling fide of it melts the rcfin : and, when it is yet
melted, prcfies the broad end of the leather hard down
on the wood, and fo fallens it to the wood ; all this is
the preparation.

Now he comes to calling. Wlierefore, placing the
under half of the mould in his left hand, with the
hook or hag forward, he clutches the ends of its wood
betv.een the lower part of the ball of his thumb and
his three liind fingers ; then he lays the upper half of
the mould upon the under half, fo that the male gages
may fall into the female gages, and at the fame time
the foot of the matrice places itfelf upon the ftool ;
and, clafping his left hand thumb ftrong over the up-
per half of the mould, he nimbly catches hold oC the
bow or fpring with his right hand fingers at the top
of it, and his thumb under it, and places the point
of it againft the middle of the notch in the backfide
of the matrice, preffing it as well forwards towards
the mould, as downwards by the fhoulder of the notch
clofe upon the ftool, while at the fame time ivith his
hinder fingers, as aforefaid, he draws the under half
of the mould towards the ball of his thumb, and thrufts
by the ball of his thumb the upper part towards his
fingers, that both the regifters of the mould may prefs
againft both fides of the matrice, and his thumb and
fingers prefs both halves of the mould clofe together.

Then he takes the handle of his ladle in his right
hand, and ^vilh the boll of it gives a ftroke, two or
three, outwards upon the furface of the melted metal,
to fcum or clear it from the film or duft that may fwim
upon it ; then takes up the ladle full of metal, and
ha\-ing his mould, as aforefaid, in his left hand, he a
little twifts the left fide of his body from the funiace,
and brings the gcat of his ladle (full of metal) to the
mouth of the mould, and twifts the upper part of his
right hand towards him to turn the metal into it, while
at the fame moment of time he jilts the mould in his
left hand forwards, to receive the metal ivith a ftrong
ftiake (as it is called), not oidy into the body of the
mould, but while the metal is yet hot running, fwift
and ftrongly, into the very face of the matrice, to re-
ceive its perfeft form there, as well as in the ftiank.

Then he takes the upper half of the mould off the
under half, by placing his riglit hand thumb, on the
end of the wood next his left hand thumb, and his

6 ]

F O U

two middle fir.gcrs at the other end of tlie w-ood ; and Founcii

finding the letter and break lie in the under half of .r-

the mould (as moft commonly by reafon of its weight
it does), he throws or tofles the letter, break and all,
upon a fltect of wafte paper laid for that purpofe on
the bench, juft a little beyond his left hand, and is
then ready to caft another letter as before ; and alfo,
the whole number that is to be caft with that matrice.
A workman will ordinarily caft about 3000 of thefe let-
ters in a day.

When the cafters at the furnace have got a fufficient
number of types upon the tables, a fet of boys come
and nimbly break away the, jets from them: the jets
are thrown into the pots, and the types are carried
away in parcels to other boys, ivho pals them Aviftly
under their fingers, defended by leather, upon fmooth
flat ftones, in order to poliih their broadfides. This
is a very dexterous operation, and is a remarkable in-
ftance of what may be effecled by the power of habit
and long pradice ; for thele boys, in tuming up the
other fide of the type, do it fo quickly by a mere toucli
of the fingers of the left hand, as not to require the
leaft perceptible intermiflion in the motion of the right
hand upon the ftone. The types, thus finely fmooth-
ed and flattened on the broad fides, are next carried
to another fet of boys, who fit at a fquare table, two
on each fide, and there are ranged upon long rulers
or fticks, fitted with a Imall projeclion, to hinder them
from Hiding olT backwards. When thefe fticks are fo
filled, they are placed, two and two, upon a fet of
wooden pins fixed into the wall, near the drelTer, fome-
times to the amount of an hundred, in order to under-
go the finiftiing operations. This workman, who is
always the moft expert and fliilful in all the different
branches carried on at the foundery, begins by takin t
one of thefe fticks, and, with a peculiar addrefs, llide«
the whole column of types off upon the drefling-ftick :
this is made of well-feafoned mahogany, and furnilhed
with t^vo end-pieces of fteel, a little lower than the
body of the types, one of which is moveable, fo as to
approach the other by means of a long fcrew-pin, in-
ferted in the end of the ftick. The types are put in-
to the ftick with their faces next to the back or pro-
jeflion •, and after they are adjufte<l to one another lo
as to ftand even, they are then bound up, by fcrewing
home the moveable end-piece. It is here ivhere the
great and requifite accuracy of the moulds comes to
be perceix-ed ; for in this cafe tl-.e ivhole column, fo
bound up, lies flat and true upon the ftick, the two
extreme types being quite parallel, and the whole has
the appearance of one folid continuous plate of metal.
The leaft inaccuracy in the exaft parallelilm of the in-
dividual type, when multiplied fo many times, would
render it impofiible to bind them up in this manner,
by difpofing them to rife or fpring from the ftick by
the fmallcft preflure from the fcrew. Now, when lying
fo conveniently with the narrow edges upperraoft, which
cannot poffibly be fmoothed in the manner before men-
tioned by the ftones, the workman does this more t f-
feftually by fcraping the furface of the column v.ith a
thick-edged but ftiarp razor, which at every ftroke
brings on a very fine fmooth IkJn, like to polilhed filver ;
and thus he proceeds till in about half a minute li
comes to the farther end of the ftick. The other edge -

F O U

[ 47 1

F O U

Founderr, of the types are next turned upwards, and poliftied in
Fount, the fame mMner. It is whilll the types thus lie in tlic
*'^^'i~~^ dreffiug-ftick. that the operation of bearding or barb-
ing is performed, which is eSfecled by running a plane,
faced with fteel, along the flioulder of the body next
to the face, ^vhich takes more or lefs off the corner,
as occafion may requii-e. Whilll in the dreiTing-ftick,
they are alfo grooved, wliich is a very material opera-
tion. In order to underftand this, it mult be remem-
bered, t'lat when the types are (irft broken off from
the jets, lome fuperiluous metal always remains, which
would make them, bear very unequally againft the pa-
per whilft under the printing prefs, and effectually mar
the impreffion. That all thefe inequalities may, there-
fore, be taken away, and that the bearings of every
type may be regulated by the Thoulders imparted to
thera all alike from the mould, the workman or dref-
ler proceeds in the foUoiving manner : The types be-
ing fcrewcd up in the ftick, as before mentioned, with
the jet end o'jtermoll, and projecting beyond the wood
about one-eighth of an inch, the ftick is put into an
open prefs, fo as to prefent the jet end uppermoft, and
then every thing is made faft by driving a long wedge,
which bears upon a flip of wood, which lies clofe to
the types the whole length : then a plough or plane
is applied, which is fo conftruifled as to embrace the
projefting part of the types betinxt its long fides,
which are made of poliflied iron. When the plane is
thus applied, the Heel cutter bearing upon that part
between the flioulders of the types, where the inequa-
lities lie, the dreffer desteroufly glides it along, and by
this means ftrips off every irregular part that comes in
the way, and fo makes an uniform groove the whole
length, and leaves the two fliouklers (landing ; by
which means every type becomes precifely like to ano-
ther, as to the height againft p.iper. The types be-
ing now finillied, the ftick is taken out of the prefs,
and the ;vhole column replaced upon the other ftick ;
and after the whole are fo dreffed, he proceeds to pick
out the bad letters, previous to putting them up into
pages and papers. In doing this he takes the ftick
into liis left hand, and turning the faces near to the
light, he examines them careftiUy, and whenever an
imperfeft or damaged letter occurs, he nimbly plucks
it out with a ftiarp bodkin, which he holds in the right
hand for that purpofe. Thoie letters nhich, from their
form, project over the body of the type, and which
cannot on this account be rubbed on the ftones, are
fcraped on the broadfides with a knife or file, and fome
of the metal next the face pared away with a pen-
knife, in order to allow the type to come clofe to any
other. This operation is called kerning.

The excellency of printing types confifts not only
in the due performance of all the operations above de-
fcribed, but alfo in the hardnefs of the metal, form,
and fine proportion of the chara<5ler, and in the exaft
bearing and ranging of the letters 'v.\ relation to one
another.

FOUNT, or FosT, among printers, &c. a fet or
quantity of charafters or letters of each kit.d, caft
by a letter-founder, and forted. — We fay, a founder
has caft a fount ^f pica, of englifli, of pearl, &c.
meaaing that he has caft a fet of charafters of thefe
kinds.

A complete fount not on'y includes the running

letters, but alfo large and fmall capitals, fingle let- f"
ters, double letters, points, commas, lines, and numeral '^"'"
charafters. ' \

Founts are large or fmall, according to the demand
of the printer, who orders them by the hundred weight,
or by Ihcets. When the printer orders a fount of 500,
he means that the fount ftiould weigh joolb. When
he demands a fount of 10 fliects, it is underftood, that
^vith that fount he ftiall be able to compofe lo flieets,
or 20 forms, without being obliged to diftribute. The
founder takes his meafures accordingly ; he reckons
1 20 pounds for a flreet, including the quadrates, &c.
or 60 pounds for a form, which is half a (heet : not
that the ftieet always weighs l 20 pounds, or the form
60 pounds ; on the contrary, it varies according to the
fize of the form ; befides, it is always fuppofed that
there are letters left in the cafes.

The letter-founders have a kind of hft, or tariff,
whereby they regulate their founts : the occafion there-
of b, that fome letters being in much more ufe, and
oftener repeated than others, their cells or cafes Ihould
be better filled and ftored than thofe of the letter*
^vhich do not return fo frequently. Thus the 0 and /,
for inftance, are always in greater quantity than the k

This difference vnW be beft perceived from a propor-
tional comparifon of thofe letters \sith therafelves, or
fome others. Suppofe a fount of 100,000 charaiters,
whicli is a common fount ; here the a (liould have
5000, thee 3000, the e 11,000, the i 6000, the ni
3000, the k only 30, and the x, y and «, not many
more. But this is only to be underftood of the let-
ters of the lower cafe ; thofe of the upper having other
proportions, which it \vould be, here, too long to infift
on.

FOUNTAIN, a fpring or fource of water rifing
out of the earth. Among the ancients, fountains
^vere generally efteemed as facrcd ; but fome were held
to be fo in a m.ore particular manner. The good ef-
fects received from cold baths gave fprings and rivers
this high reputation ; for their falutary influence uas
fuppofed to proceed from fome prcfiding deity. Par-
ticular reafons might occafion fome to be held in greater
veneration than others. It was cuilomary to throv/
little pieces of money into thofe fprings, lakes, or
rivers, which were efteemed (acred, to render the prc-
fiding divinities propitious ; as the touch of a naked bo-
dy was fuppofed to pollute their hallon'ed waters. For
the phenomena, theory, and origin of fountains or
fprings, fee SPRING.

Artificial FovNTAiu, called alfo ■\jel ifeaii, is a con-
trivance by which water is violently fpouted upwards.
See Hydraultcs.

Boiling Fountain. See Icf.i,.\nd.

Founlain-TREE, a very extraordlnar)' vegetable grow-
ing in one of the Canary illands, and likewife laid to
exift'in fome other places, which dillils water from its
leaves in fuch plenty as to anfwer ail the purpofes of
the inhabitants who live near it. Of this tree we have
the following account in Glaffc's hiftory of the Cana-
ry ilkinds. — " There are only three fountains of w.-!ter
in the whole illand of Hierro, wherein the fountain-
tree grows. One of thefe fountains is called yicof,
which, in the language of the ancient inhabitants, fig-
nilies river ; a name, however, wliich does not fccm

F O U

[ 48 ]

F O U

to have been given it on account of its yielding much
water, for in that rcfpeft it hardly deferves the name
of a fountain. More to the northward is another call-
ed Hapio ; and in the middle of the iiland is a fprlng,
yieldhig a flream about the thicknefs of a man's finger.
This laft was difcovered in the year 1565, and is call-
^•d the fountain of yinton. Hcrnadez. On account of
the fcarcity of water, the fheep, goats, and fwine,
here do not driak in the fummer, but are taught to dig
up the roots of fern, and cheiv them lo quench their
thiril. The great cattle are watered at thofe fountains,
and at a place where «'ater dillills from the leaves of a
tree. Many writers have made mention of this fa-
mous tree, fome in fuch a manner as to make it ap-
pear miraculous : others again deny the exiflence of
any fuch tree : among ^vhora is Father Feyjoo, a mo-
dern Spanilh author, in his Theatro Critico. But he,
and thofe who agree with him in this matter, are as
much millaken as thofe who would make it appear to
be miraculous. This is the only ifland of all the Ca-
naries which I have not been in ; but I have failed with
natives of Hierro, who, when queftioned about the ex-
illence of this tree, anfwered in the affirmative.

" The author of the Hifionj of the eiifcotiery andcon-
quf/l has given us a particular account of it, which I
iliall here relate at large.

" The dilfricl in which this tree flands is called Tz'-
gulalie ; near to which, and in the cliff or fleep rocky
afcent that furrounds the whole ifland, is a narroiv gut-
ter or gully, which commences at the fea, and conti-
nues to the fummit of the cliff, where it joins or co-
incides with a valley, which is terminated by the fteep
front of a rock. On the top cf this rock grows a tree,
called in the language of the ancient inhabitants, Garfe,
" Sacred or Holy Tree," which for many years has
been preferved found, entire, and frelli. Its leaves con-
flantly diftil fuch a quantity of water as is fuf^icient to
furnilh drink to every living creature in Hierro ; na-
ture having provided this remedy for the drought of
the ifland. It is fituated about a league and a half from
the fea. It is not certainly known of what fpecies it is,
only that it is called Til. It is diftinft from other trees,
and ftands by itfelf ; the circumference of the trunk
is about 1 2 fpans, the diameter four, and in height,
from tlie ground to the top of the highert branch, 40
fpans : the circumference of all the branches together
is 1 20 feet. The branches are thick and extended ;
the lowcfl commence about the height of an ell from
the ground. Its fruit refembles the acorn, and tafles
fomething like the kernel of a pine apple, but is fofter
and more aromatic. The leaves of this tree refemble
thofe of the laurel, but are larger, wider, and more
curved ; they come forth, in a perpetual fucceflion, fo
that the tree always remains green. Near to it grows
a thorn which it faftens on many of its branches, and in-
ter^veaves with them 5 and at a fmall diftance from the
garfe are fome beech trees, brtfcs, and tnoms. On the
north fide of the trunk are two large tanks or cifterns,
of rough Hone, or rather one ciflern divided, each half
being 20 feet fquare, and 16 fpans in depth. One of
thefe contains water for the drinking of the inhabi-
tants ; and the other that which they ufe for their
Cattle, wafliing, and fuch like purpofes. Every morn-
ing, near this part of the iiland, a cloud or mill arifes
from the fea, which the fouth and calterly winds force
4

againft tlie fore -mentioned fteep cliff; fo th.it the cloud 1
having no vent but by the gutter, gradually afcends ,it, '
and from thence advances ilowly to the extremity of
the valley, where it is flopped and checked by the
front of the rock which terminates the valley, and tlien
refts upon the thick leaves and wide-fpreading branches
of tne tree, from whence it diftils in drops during the
remainder of the day, until it is at length e.xhaufted,
in the fame manner that we fee water drip from the
leaves of trees after a heavy fhower of rain. This
dilHUation is not peculiar to the garfe or til ■■, for the
brefos, which grow 'near it, likewife drop water ; but
their leaves being but few and narrow, the quantity is
fo trifling, that though the natives fave fome of it,
yet they make little or no account of any but what di-
ftils from the til, ivhich, together with the water of
fome fountains, and what is faved in the winter feafon,
is fufficient to ferve them and their flocks. This tree
yields moft water in thofe years \vhen the Levant or
eafterlv winds have prevailed for a continuance j for,
by thefe winds only the clouds or mifts are drawn hi-
ther from the fea. A perfon lives on the fpot near
which this tree grows, who is appointed by the council
to take care of it and its water ; and is allowed a houfe
to live in, with a certain falary. He every day diftri-
butes to each family of the diftrift feven pots or veffels
full of water, befides ivhat he gives to the principal
people of the ifland."

" Whether the tree which yields water at this pre-
fent time be the fame as that mentioned in the above
defcription, I cannot pretend to determine : but it is
probable there has been a fuccelTion of them ; for Pli-
ny, defcribing the Fortunate illands, fays, " In the
mountains of Ombrion are trees refembling the plant
ferula, from which water may be procured by preffure.
What comes from the black kind is bitter, but that
which the white yields is fweet and potable."

Trees yielding water are not peculiar to the ifland
of Hierro ; for travellers inform us of one of the fame
kind in the iiland of St Thomas, in the bight or gulf
of Guinea. In Cockburn's voyages we find the follow-
ing account of a dropping tree, near the mountains of
Vera Paz, in America.

" On the morning of the fourth day, we came out
on a large plain, where were great numbers of fine
deer, and in the middle flood a tree of unufual fize,
fpreading its branches over a vaft compafs of ground.
Curiofity led us up to it. We had perceived, at fome
diftance off, the ground about it to be wet ; at which
we began to be fomewhat furprifed, as well knowing
there had no rain fallen for near fix months paft, ac-
cording to the certain courfe of the feafon in that lati-
tude : that it was impolTible to be occafioned by the
fall of dew on the tree, we %vere convinced, by the
fun's having power to exhale away all moifture of that
nature a few minutes after its rifing. At laft, to our
great amazement as well as joy, we favv water drop-
ping, or as it were dift illing, faft from the end of every
leaf of this wonderful (nor had it been amifs if I had
faid miracu/ous) tree ; at leaft it was fo with refpeft to
us, who had been labouring four days through extreme
heat, without receiving the leaft moilure, and were now
almoft expiring for want of it.

" We could not help looking on this as liquor fcnt
from heaven to comfort us under great extremity. We

catched

F O U

[ 49 1

F O U

catched wliat we could of it in our hands, and drank
very plentifully of it ; and liked it fo well, that we
could hardly prevail with ourfelves to give over. A
matter of this nature could not but incite us to make
the ftrifteft obfervations concerning it ; and according-
ly we rtaid under the tree near three hours, and found
we could not fathom its body in five times. We ob-
ferved the foil where it grew to be very llrong ; and
upon the niceft inquiry we could afterwards make,
both of the natives of the country and the Spanifli in-
habitants, we could not learn there ^vas any fuch tree
known throughout New Spain, nor perhaps all Ame-
rica over : but I do not relate this as a prodigy in na-
ture, becaufe I am not a philofopher enough to defcribe
any natural caufe for it •, the learned may perhaps give
fubftantial reafons in nature for what appeared to us a
great and marvellous fecret."

FOUQ^UIERES, James, an eminent painter, was
born at Antwerp in 1580, and received his chief in-
ilruclions from Velvet Breughel. He applied himfelf
to the lludy of landfcapes, and went to Italy to im-
prove himfelf in colouring. He fucceeded fo happily,
that his works are faid to be nearly equal to thofe of
Titian. — He was engaged and much careQ'ed at the
court of the eledor Palatine, and aftenvards fpent fe-
veral years of his life in France ; where his works met
with imiverfal approbation. By fomc mlfconduft, how-
f^ver, he funk into poverty, and died in 1659 in the
houfe of an inconfiderable painter. He had refided for
feveral years at Rome and Venice, where he acquired
that excellent ftyle of colouring and de'ign for which
his works have been defervedly diftinguilhed.

FOURCHEE, or Fourchy, in Heraldrif, an ap-
pellation given to ^ crofs forked at the end. See
Hkraldry.

FOURMONT, Stefhev, profelTor of the Arabic
and Chinefe languages, and one of the moil learned
men of his time, was born at Herbelai, a village four
leagues from Paris, in 1683. He ftudied in Mazarine
college, and afterwards in the Seminary of Thirty-
three. He was at length profeflbr of Arabic in the
Royal College, and was made a member of the Aca-
demy of Infcriptions. In 1738 he was chofen a
member of the Roynl Society of London, and of that
of Berlin in 1 74 1. He was often confulted by the
duke of Orleans, firft prince of the blood ; who had a
particular efteem for him, and made him one of his fe-
cretaries. He wrote a great number of books ; the
moft confiderable of thofe which have been printed are,
I. The Roots of the Latin Tongue, in verie. 2. Cri-
tical Reflexions on the Hillories of ancient Nations,
2 vols. 410. ^. MeJuatwnes Sinicie, folio. 4. A Chinefe
Grammar, in Latin, folio. 5. Several dlffertations print-
ed in the Memoirs of the Academy of Infcriptions, &c.
He died at Paris in 1744.

He ought not to be confounded with Michael Four-
rmnt, his youngeft brother j who took orders, was
prcfeffor of the Syriac language in the Royal College,
and a member of the Academy of Infcriptions, He
died in 1746.

FOURNESS, in Loynfdale, Lancan.ire, is a traX,
between the Kent, Leven, and Dudden-fai.ds, which
Dins north parallel willi the weft fides of Cumberland
and Wellmorland ; and on the fouth runs out into

Vol. IX. Part I.

the lea as a promontory. Here, as Mr Camden e.V- rourtli.
prefles it, " the Tea, as if enraged at it, lalhes it more *""■>""■
iurioufly, and in high tides has even devoured the (hore,
and made three large bays ; viz. Kcntfmd, into which
the river Ken empties itfelf j Lcvenfand and Dudden-
fand, between which the land projeiSls in fuch a man-
ner that it has its name hence ; Forenefs and Foreland,
fignifying the fame with us as promotitorium anurius in
Latin." Bifhop Gibfon, however, derives the name
of Fournefs or Furnefs, from the numerous furnaces
that were there anciently, the rents and fervices of
which (called B!c/omJhiilhy rents') are ftill paid. This
whole traft, except on the coaft, rifes in high hills and
vaft piles of rocks called Forncfs-Fells ; among which
the Britons found a fecure retreat, trufting to thefe
natural fortreflTes, though nothing was inacceffible to
the vidlorious Saxons ■, for we find the Britons fet-
tled here 228 years after the arrival of the Saxons :
becaufe at that time Egfrid king of Northumberland
gave St Cuthbert the land called t^arthmell, and all the
Britons in it, as is related in his life. In thefe moun-
tainous parts are found quarries of a fine durable blue
Hate to cover buildings wth, which are made ufe of
in many other parts of the kingdom. Here are feveral
cotton mills lately ereded ; and if f^iel for fire were
more plentiful, the trade of this country would much
increafe : but there being no coals nearer than Wigan
or Whitehaven, and the coaft duties high, firing is ra-
ther fcarce, the country people ufing only turf or peat,
and that begins to be more fcarce than formerly. In
the moffcs of Fournefs much fir is found, but more
oak : the trunks in general lie with their heads to the
eaft, the high winds having been from the weft. High
Furnefs has ever had great quantities of ftieep, which
browfe upon the hollies left in great numbers for them ;
and produces charcoal for melting iron ore, and oak
bark for tanners ufe, in great abundance. The forcfts
abound with deer and wild boars, and the /egh or
fcofi, or large flags, whofe horns are frequently found
underground here. The low or plain part of Fournefs,
which is fo called to diftinguirti it from the woody or
mountainous part, produces all forts of grain,^ but prin-
cipally oats, whereof the bread eaten in this country
is generally made ; and there are found here veins of a
very rich iron ore, ^vhich is not only melted and
wrought here, but great quantities are exported to
other parts to mix with poorer ores. The three lauds
above mentioned are very dangerous to travellers, by
the tides and the many quickfands. There is a guide
on hoifeback appointed to Kent or Lancafter funds at
lol. per ann. to Leven at 61. per ann. out of the pub-
lic revenue ; but to Duddcn, which are moft danger-
ous, none ; and it is no uncommon thing for perfons
to pafs over in parties of 100 at a time like caravans,
under the direftion of the carriers, who go to or fro
every day. The fands are lefs dangerous than former-
ly, being more ufed and better known, and travellers
never going without the carriers or guides. " Furnis
abbey up in the mountains," was begun at Tulket in
Amoundernefs 1124, by Stephen carl of Boulogne,
afterwards king of England, for the monks of Savigni
in France, and three years after removed to this val-
ley, then called Bekangefiill, or, " the vale of night-
lliade." It was of the Ciftertian order, endowed with
G nbove

F O W [ :

above Scol. p-"r aim. Out of the monks of this abbey,
Mr Camden informs us, the bifliops of the Ifle of Alan,
which lies over againft it, ufed to be chofen by ancient
cuftom ; it being as it were the mother of many mo-
nafteries in Man and Ireland. Some ruins, and part
of the foiTe which furrounded the monaftery, are iHU
to be feen at Tulket. The remains at Foumeis brcatlie
that plain iimplicity of the Cillertian abbeys ; the
chaptsr-houfe was the only piece of elegant Gothic
about it, and its roof has lately fallen in. Part of the
painted glafs from tlie eaft window, reprefervting the
crucifixion, &c. is preferved at Windermere church in
Bowlnefs, Wellmorland. The church (except the north
tide of the nave), the chapter-houfe, refeftory, &c. re-
main, only unroofed.

FOURTH RKDUNDAXT, in Mujic. See Interval.

FOWEY, or FoY, a town of Cornwall in England,
X^O miles from London, with a commodious haven on
the Channel. , It is a populous place, extending above
one mile on the eaft Hde of a river of its own nime ;
and has a great Ihare in the filhing trade, efpecially
pilchards. It rofe fo much formerly by naval wars and
piracies, that in the reign of Edward III. its (hips re-
fufing to ftrike ;vhen required as they failed by Rye and
Winchelfea, were attacked by the ihips ot thole ports,
but defeated them ; whereupon they bore their arms
mixed with the arms of thofe two cinque-ports, which
gave rife to the name of the " Gallants of Fowey."
And we leani from Camden, that this toivn quartered
a part of the arms of every one of the cinque ports
ivith their own ; intimating, that they had at times
triumijhed over them all : and iudeed once they were
fo powerfiil, that they took feveral of the French men
of war. In the reign of Edward III. they refcued
certain ihips of Rye from diftrefs, for which this town
was made a member of the cinque-ports. Eduard IV.
favoured Fowey fo much, that when the French
tiireatened to come up the river to burn it, he caufed
two towers, ihe ruins of which are yet viiible, to be
built at the public charge for its fecurity : but he was
afterwards fo difgufted %vith the inhabitants for attack-
ing the French after a truce proclnimed with Louis XI.
that he tooR away all their (hips and naval ftores, to-
gether with a chain drawn acrofs the river between the
two forts above mentioned, which was carried to Dart-
mouth. It is faid they «-ere fo infolent, that they cut
off the ears of the king's purfuivants; for whicli iome
li\-es were forfeited as \^e\\ as eftates. The corporation
confifts of a mayor, recorder, 8 aldermen, a town clerk,
and 2 aiTiftants. The market is on Saturday, the fairs
May-day and Sept. lo. Here are a fine old church,
2. free fchool, aiul an hofpital. The toll of the market
and fairs, and keyage of the harbour, were vefted in
the coj-poration on the payment of a fee-farm rent of
about 40s. It does not appear to have fent members
to parliament before the 13th of Oueen Elizabeth.
Here is a coinage for the tin ; of which a great quan-
tity is dug in the country to the north and weft of it.
The river Foy, or Foath, is very broad and deep here,
and was formerly navigable as high as Leftwithiel.
W. Long. 5°. N. Lat. 50. 27.

FOWL, among zoologifts, denotes the larger forts
tA birds, whether domeftic or wild ; fuch as gecfe,
phtafants, partridges, turkeys, ducks, &c.

;o ] F O X

Tame fowl make a neceffary part of the Hock of a
country farm. See Poultry.

Fowls are again diftinguifhed into two kinds, viz.
land and water fowl, thefe laft being fo called from
their living much in and about water : alfo into thofe
which are accounted game, and thofe which are not.
See Game.

FOWLING, the art of catching birds by means
of bird-lime, decoys, and other devices, or the killing
of them by the gun. See Bird-Ccic/i/ii^, BiKti-Lime,
Decoy, S.hooting, and the names of the diflferent
birds in the order of the alphabet,

FowLlKG, is alfo ufed for the purfuing and taking
birds irith hawks, more properly called falconry or
HAVVKIKG. See thefe articles.

FoiriiKG Piece, a light gun for (hooting birds.
That piece is always reckoned beft which has the long,
ell barrel, from ji to 6 feet, with a moderate bore ;
though every fowler lliould have them of difterent fizes,
fuitable to the game he deiigns to kill. The barrei
(hould be ivell polilhed and fmooth within, and the
bore of an equal bignefs from one end to the other ;
which may be proved, by putting in a piece of palle-
board, cut of the exaft roundnefs of the top : for if
this goes down without ftops 'or flipping, you may con-
elude the bore good. The bridge-pan mull be fome-
what above the touch-hole, and ought to have a notch-
to let douti a little powder : this will prevent the piece
from recoiling, which it would otherwiie be apt to do.
As to the locks, choule fuch as are well filled with tme
work, whofe fprings mult be neither too ftrong nor too
weak. The hammer ought to be well hardened, and
pliable to go down to,the pan with a quick motion.

FOX, in Zoologij. See Canis, Mammalia Index.

The fox is a great nuifance to the hulhandman, by-
taking away and deftroying his lambs, gcefe, poultry,
&c. The common way to catch him is by gins ;
which being baited, and a train made by drawing raiv
fiefti acrofs in his ufual paths or haunts to the gin, it
proves an inducement to bring him to the place of de-
ftrudion.

The fox is alfo a beaft of chafe, and is taken witli
greyhounds, terriers, &c. See Ht'KTrNG.

Fox, "John, the martyrologift, was bom at BoSon in
Lincohi(hire in the year 1517. At the age of 16 he
was entered a ftudent of Brazen-Nofe college in Oxford ;
and in 1543 he proceeded mailer of arts, a-- d was chofen
fellow of Magdalen college. He difcovered an early
genius for poetry, and wrote feveral Latin comedies,
the fubjcfls taken from Scripture, which his fon affures
us were written in an elegant ftyle. Forfaking the
mufes, he now applied himfelf with uncommon aiTi-
duity to the ftudy of divinity, particularly church-hi-
ftory ; and, difcovering a prcm.ature propenfity to the
dodrine of reformation, he was expelled the college as
an heretic. His diftrefs on this occafion was very great y
but it was not long before he found an alylum in the
houfe of Sir Tliomas Lucy of Warwickiliire, who em-
ployed him as a tutor to his children. Here he mar-
ried the daughter of a citizen of Coventry. • Sir Tho-
mas's children being now grown up, after refiding a
(liort time with his wife's father, he came to London j
where finding no immediate means of fubfiftence, he
was reduced to the utmoft degree of want j but \vas at

length.

FOX

r 5

Vox, Icngt'i (as liis fori relates) miraculoufly relieved i;i the
Tox-glove. following manner : As he ivas one day fitting in St
^r~'^'~~' Paul's church, emaciated with hunger, a ftranger ac-
cofted him familiarly, and, bidding him be of good
cheer, put a fura of money into his hand ; telling him
at the fame time, that in a few days new hopes were
at hand. He was foon after taken into the family of
the duchefs of Richmond, as tutor to the ear! of Sur-
rey's children, who, when their father was fent to the
Tower, were committed to her care. In this family he
lived, at Ryegate in Surrey, during the latter part of
the reign of Henry VHI. the entire reign of Ed-
ward VI. and part of that of Q^ueen Mary : but at
length, perfecuted by his iraplacRble enemy Biiliop
Gardiner, he was obliged to k-ek refuge abroad. Bafil
in Switzerland ^vas the place of his retreat, ivhere he
fubfilled by ccrretting for the prefs. On the death of
Q_ueen Mary he returned to England -, where he ivas
graciobfly received by his former pupil the duke of
Norfolk, ivho retained him in his family as long as
he lived, and bequeathed him a penfiou at his death.
Tvlr Secretary Cecil alfo obtained for him the recl:ory
of Shipton near Saliltury •, and we are atVured that he
might have had confiderable church preferment, had
it not been for his unwillingnefs to fubfcribe to the
canons. He died in the year 1587, in the 70th year
c^' his age ; and ^vas buried in the chancel of St Giles's,
Crinplegate. He was a man of great induitry, and
conliderable learning •, a zealous, but not a violent re-
former-, a noncoi.formiil, but not an enemy to the
church of England. He left two fons j one of whom
was bred a divine, the other a phyfician. He wrote
many pieces ; but his principal ^vork is, the Acts and
Monuments of the Church, &c. commonly called
Fox''s Book of Martyrs. His facts are not ahvays to
be depended on, and he- often lofes his temper ; which,
confidering the fubjecl, is not much to be wondered
at.

Fox, George, the founder of the feft of Englifli
Quakers, was a ihoemaker in Nottingham. The ac-
counts of thofe times tell us, that as he wrought at
his trade, he ufed to meditate much on the Scriptures -,
which, with his folitary courfe of life, improving his
natural melancholy, he began at length to fancy him-
felf infpired 5 and in confequence thereof let up for a
preacher.

He propofed but few articles of faith ; infilling
cliietly on moral virtue, mutual charity, the love of
God, and a deep attention to the inward motions and
fecret operations of the Spirit •, he required a plain
fimple worlhip, and a religion without ceremonies,
making it a prirxipal point to wait in profound filence
the direfiions of the Holy Spirit. Fox met with much
rough treatment for his zeal, was often imprifoned, and
fcveral times in danger of being knocked on the head.
But all difcouragcments notwithflanding, his feft pre-
vailed much, and many confiderable men were drawn
over to them; among whom were Barclay and Pks.v.
He died in 1 68 1. His followers were called ^takers,
in derifion of fome unufual Ihakings and convulfions
^vith which they were feized at their firft meetings.

See Q<JAKF.KS.

Fox-Glove. See DiciTALis, Botany and Mate-
ria MitDICA Imlcv.

I ] FOX

Fot-lf.ar.diy the; name of a group of illmJ^, 16 in Vo.t-ifl.i-.l!.

number, fituated between the eaftem coaft of Kamt- 'T-^

fchatka and the weflern coaft of the continent of
America. Each illand has a particular name ; but the
general name Fox-Ijlands is given to the whole group,
on account of the great number of black, gray, and red
foxes with which they abound. The drcfs of the in-
habitants confifts of a cap, and a fur coat which reaches
down to the knee. Some of them wear common caps
of a party-coloured bird fidn, upon which they Isave

part

of the

\^••.ngs

tail. On the fore part of their

hunting and fifhing caps, they place a fmall board like
a fkreen, adorned with the jaw bones of fea bears, and
ornamented with glafs beads, %vhich they receive in
barter from the RulFians. At their fellivals and dan-
cing parties they ufe :i much more (ho^vy fort of caps.
They feed upon the tlefli of all forts of fea animals,
and generally eat it raw. But if at any time they
choofe to drefs their vidluals, they make ufe of a
hollow ftone; having placed the fiili or flelh therein,
they cover it %vitli another, and clofe the iuterftices
with lime or clay. They then lay it horizontally
upon two Hones, and light a fire under it. The
provition intended for keeping is dried without fait
in the open air. Their weapons confilt of bows, ar-
rows, and darts ; and for defence they ufe wooden
fliields. The moil perfect equality reigns among
thefe iilanders. They have neither chiefs nor fupe-
riors, neither laws nor punilhments. They live toge-
ther in families, and focieties of feveral families united,
which form what they call a race, who, in cafe of an
attack or defence, mutually help and fupport each
other. The inhabitants of the fame ifland always
pretend to be of the lame race ; and every perfoa
looks upon his ifland as a pofleffion, the property of
which is common to all the individuals of the fame
fociety. Feafts are very common among them, and
more particularly when the inhabitants of one illand
are vifited by thofe of the others. The men of the
village meet their guefls beating drums, and preceded
by the women, who fing and dance. At the conclu-
fion of the dance, the hofts ferve up their bell provi-
fions, and invite their guefts to partake of the ftall.
They feed their children when very young with the
coarteft tlelh, and for the moft part raw. If an infant
cries, the mother immediately carries it to the fea-
fide, and wliether it be fummer or winter, holds it
naked in the water until it is quiet. This cullom is
fo far from doing the children any harm, that it
hardens them ag;unll the cold, and they accordingly
go barefooted through the winter without the leall
inconvenience. They feldom heat their dwellings ;
but when they are defirous of warming themfelves,
they light a bundle of hay, and ftand over it ; or elfe
they fet fire to train-oil, which they pour into a hollow
ftone. They have a good (hare of plain natural fenfe,
but are rather llow of underftanding. They feem
cold and indifferent in moft of their acflions ; but let
an injury, or even a fufpicion only, roufe them from
this phlegmatic ftate, and they become inflexible and
furious, taking the moft violent revenge without any
regard to the confequences. The Icaft affliflioii
prompts them to fuicide ; the apprehenfion of even
an uncertain evil often leads them to dcfpair j and
G 2 thev

F R A [5

Frarador tiiey put an end to their days 'vvltn great apparent in-
j.^J\; ^ fenfibility.

' '•'y""-, FRACASTOR, Jerome, an eminent Italian poet
and phyfician, was born at Verona in the year 14.82.
Two fingularities are related of him in his infancy :
one is, that his lips adhered fo clofcly to t-ach other
when he came into the vcorld, that a furgeon was obliged
to divide them with his inciiion knife ; the other, that
his mother was killed with lightning, while he, though
in her arms at the very moment, efcaped unhurt. Fra-
caftor was of parts !o exquiiite, and made fuch progrefs
in every thing he undertook, that he became eminently
Ikilled not only in the belles lettres, but in all arts and
fciences. He was a poet, a philofopher, a phyfician, an
aftrononier, and a mathematician. He was a man of
vaft confequence in his time; as appears from Pope
Paul Ill's making ufe of his authority to remove the
council of Trent to Boulogne, under the pretext of a
contagious diftemper, which, as Fracaftor depofed, made
it no longer fafe to continue at Trent. He was inti-
mately acquainted with Cardinal Bembus, Julius Scali-
ger, and all the great men of his time. He died of an
apoplexy at Cafi near Verona, in 1553 : and in 1559,
the town of Verona erecVed a ftatue in honour of him.

He was the author of many performances, both as
a poet and as a phyfician : yet never man was more
difinterefted in both thefe capacities than he : evi-
dently fo as a phyfician, for he praftifed without fees ;
and as a poet, whofe ufual reward is glory, nothing
could be more indifferent. It is owing to this indiffer-
ence, that we have fo little of his poetry, in compari-
fon of what he wrote ; and that, among other compo-
fitions, his Odes and Epigrams, which were read in
manufcript with infinite admiration, yet, never paffing
the prefs, were loft. What we have now of his, are
the three books of " Siphilis, or of the French difeafe ;"
a book of Mifcellaneous Poems ; and two books of his
poem, entitled, J'^c/i/i, which he began at the latter
end of his life, but did not live to finilh. And thefe
works, it is faid, would have periflied with the reft, if
Lis friends had not taken care to preferve and commu-
nicate copies of them : For Fracaftor, writing merely
for amufement, never troubled himfelf in the leaft
about what became of his works after they once got
out of his hands. Fracaftor compofcd alfo a poem,
called Alcon, five de cura canum venatkorum. His
poems as well as his other works are all WTitten in
Latin. His medical pieces are, De Si/mpathia ct yJn-
tipalli-a, — De contagione et comagiojis morbis, — De can lis
crhicorum dierum, — De vini temperalura, &c. His
works have been printed feparately and colleftivcly.
♦ The beft edition of them is that of Padua 1735, in 2

vols, 4to.

FRACHES, in the glafs trade, are the flat iron
pans into which the glafs veffels already formed are
put when in the tower over the working furnace, and
by means of which they are drawn out through the
leers, that they may be taken gradually from the fire,
and cool by degrees.

FRACTION, in jiriihmetic and Algebra, a part or
divifion of an unit or integer; or a number which ftands
to an unit in the relation of a part to its whole. The
word literally imports a broken number.

Fractions are ufually divided into decimal, fexa-

2 ] F R A

gefimal, and vulgar. See Algebra and ARlTliME-

TIC.

FRACTURE, in Surgery, a rupture of a bone or
a folution of continuity in a bone when it is cruflied
or broken by fome external caufe. See Surgery

FR^NUM, or Frenum, Bridle, in Anatomy, %
name given to divers ligaments, from their office in
retaining and curbing the motions of the parts they
are fitted to.

Frsnvm Linguae, or Bridle of the Tongue; a mem-
branous ligament, which ties the tongue to the os
hyoides, larynx, fauces, and lower parts of the mouth.
In fome fubjecls the fr^enum runs the whole length of
the tongue to the very tip ; in which cafes, if it were
not cut, it would take away all poflibility of fpeech.
See ToNGVE-Tied.

Frmnvm Penis, a {lender ligament, whereby the
prepuce is tied to the lower part of the glans of the
penis. Nature varies in the make of this part ; it be-
ing fo fhort in fome, that unlefs divided it would not
admit of perfecl: eredion. There is alfo a kind of little
frcenum, faftened to the lower part of the clitoris.

FRAGA, a ftrong town with a handfome caftle, in
the kingdom of Arragon in Spain. It is ftrong by
fituation among the mountains ; having the river Cinca
before it, whofe high banks are difficult of accefs ;
and at its back a hill, which cannot eafily be ap-
proached with large cannon. Alphonfo VII. king of
Arragon, and the firft of that name of Caftile, was
killed by the Moors in 1 134, when he befieged this
town. E. Long. o. 23. N. Lat. 41. 28.

FRAGARIA, the Strawberry, a genus of
plants belonging to the icofandria clafs ; and in the
natural method ranking under the 35th order, Senticofce.
See Botany Index, and for an account of the varieties
and culture, fee Gardening Index.

FRAIL, a baOiet made of rufhes or the like, in
which are packed up figs, raifins, &c. It fignifies alfo
a certain quantity of raifins, about 75 pounds.

FRAISE, in Fortification, a kind of defence con-
fiftlng of pointed ftakes, fix or feven feet long, driven
parallel to the horizon into the retrenchments of a
camp, a half m.oon, or the like, to prevent any ap-
proach or fcalade.

Fraifes differ from pallifades chiefly in this, that the
latter ftand perpendicular to the horizon, and the
former jet out parallel to the horizon, or nearly fo,
being ufually made a little Hoping, or with the points
hanging downi. Fraifes are chiedy ufed in retrenchments
and other works thrown up of earth ; fometimes they
are found under the parapet of a rampart, ferving in-
Itead of the cordon of ftone ufed in ftone works-

To Fr41sr a Battalion, is to line the mufqueteers
round with pikes, that in cafe they ftiould be charged
ivilh a body of horfe, the pikes being prefented, may
cover the mufqueteers from the fliock, and ferve as a
barricade.

FRAME, in "joinery, a kind of cafe, wherein athing^
is fet or encloled, or even fupported ; as a window
frame, a pidure frame, &cc.

Frame is alfo a machine ufed in divers arts ; as.

Frame, among printers, is the ftand which fupports
the cafes. See C.isE.

Frame,

F R

Firil fub.
dued by
Julias Cx

Invaded li
the Frank;

Frame, among founders,
a board ; which, being filled with wetted fand, ienes
£S a mould to caft their works in. See FousDKRV.

Frame is more particularly ufed for a fort of loom,
whereon artiticevs ftretch their linens, filks, fluffs, &c.
to be embroidered, quilted, or the like.

Frame, among painters, a kind of fquare, confifting
of four long flips of wood joined together, whofe in-
termediate fpace is divided by threads into feveral little
fquares like a net -, and hence fometimes called reticu-
la. It ferves to reduce figures from great to fmall ;
or, on the contrary, to augment their ilze from fmall
to great.

FRAMLINGHAM, a to^ii of SufTex, 88 miles
from London. It is a large old place, with a callle,
fuppofed to have been built by fome of the firft kings
of the Eafl Angles ; the walls, yet Handing, are 44
feet high, 8 thick, with 13 towers 14 feet above them,
2 of which are watch-towers. To this caftle the prin-
cefs, afterwards Queen Mary I- retired, when the Lady
Jane Grey was her competitor for the crown. The
town is pleafantly fituated, though but indifferently
built, upon a clay hill, in a fruitful foil and healthy
air, near the fource of the river Ore, by fome called
IVmcknel, which runs through it to Orford. It has a
fpacious place for the market ^vhich is held on Sa-
turday ; and a large ftately church built all of black
flint, with a fteeple loo feet high ; two good alms-
houfes ; and a free-fchool.

FRANC. See Fraxk.

FRANCE, a large kingdom of Europe, fituated
between 5° W. and 7° E. Long, and between 43° and
51° N. Lat. being bounded by the Engliih channel
and the Auftrian Netherlands on the north ; by Ger-
many, Switzerland, Savoy, and Piedmont, in Italy, on
the eaft ; by the Mediterranean fea, and the Pyrenean
mountains, which feparate it from Spain, on the fouth ;
and by the bay of Biicay on the well.

The kingdom of France was originally poffefTed by
the Cel:es or Gauls. They were a very warlike peo-
■ pie, and often checked the progrefs of the Roman
arms : nor did they yield till the time of Julius Ca;far,
who totally fubdued their country, and reduced it to
.'.the form of a Roman province*. The Romans con-
tinued in quiet poflefllon of Gaul, as long as their em-
pire retained its flrength, and they were in a- condition
to reprefs the incurfions of the German nations, whom
even in the zenith of their power they had not been
able to fubdue. But in the reign of the emperor Va-
lerian, the ancient Roman valour and difcipline had
begun to decline, and the fame care \vas not taken to
defend the provinces as formerly. The barbarous na-
tions, therefore, began to make much more frequent
; incurfions ; and among the reft the Franks, a Ger-
' man nation, inhabiting the banks of the Rhine, proved
particularly troublefome. Their origin is varioufly ac-
counted for •, but the moft probable fuppofition is, that
about the time of the emperor Gordian, the peo-
ple inhabiting the banks of the Lower Rhine, entered
into a confederacy with thofe who dwe)t on the Wcfer,
and both together affumed the name of Franks or
Freemen. Their firft irruption, we are told by Vale-
fius, happened in the year 254, the fecond of Valerian's
reign. At this time they were but few in number ;
and were repulfed by Aurelian, afterwards emperor.

A ^ [ 53 ] F

kind of kd^-e cncloCn^ Not difcoUtagcd by th:-

Pt A

ck, they returned two Frnr.pf.

years after in far greater numbers ; but were again ' •

defeated by Gallienus, whom Valerian had chofen
for his partner in the empire. Others, however,
continued to pour in from their native country in fuch
multitudes, that Gallienus, no longer able to drive them
out by force of arms, made advantageous propofals to
one of their chiefs, whom he engaged to defend the
frontiers againft his countrymen as well as other in-
vaders.

This expedient did not long anfwer the purpofe.-
In 260 the Franks, taking advantage of the defeat
and captivity of Valetian in Perfia, broke into Gaul,
and afterwards into Italy, committing everywhere
dreadful ravages. Five years afterwards they invaded
Spain ; which they poffelTed, or rather plundered, for
the fpace of 1 2 years : nor could they be driven out
of Gaul till the jear 275, when the emperor Probus
not only gave them a total overthrow in that country,
but purfued them into their ovrn, where he built feve-
ral forts to keep them in awe. This intimidated them
fo much, that nine of their kings fubmitted to the em-
peror and promifed an annual tribute. — They conti-
nued quiet till the year 287 ; when, in conjunction
with the Saxon pirates, they plundered the coafts of
Gaul, carrying off an immenfe booty. To revenge this
infult, the emperor Maximian entered the country of
the Franks the following year, where he committed
fuch ravages that two of their kings fubmitted to him j
and to many of the common people who chofe to re-
main in Gaul, he allowed lands in the neighbourhood
of Treves and Cambray.

The reftlefj difpofition of the Franks, however, di-i
not allow them to remain long in quiet. About the
year 293, they made themfelves mafters of Batavia
and part of Flanders ; but were entirely defeated, and
forced to furrender at dixrcticn, by Conftantius the
father of Conftantine the Great, who tranfplanted them
into Gaul. Their countrymen in Germany continued
quiet till the year 306, when they rene\ved their de-
predations ; but being overtaken by Conftantine the
Great, two of their kings were taken priloners, and
thrown to the wild beafts in the fhows exhibited on
that occafion.

All thefe vI6lories, however, as well as tsany others
faid to have been gained by the Romans, ^vere not fuf-
ficient to prevent the incurfions of this relllefs and tur-
bulent nation : infomuch that, in the year ^^^, they
had made themfelves mafters of 40 cities in the pro-
vince of Gaul. Soon after, they were totally defeated
by the emperor Julian, and again by Count Thcodo-
fius, father to the emperor of that name •, but in the
year 388, they ravaged the province with more fiiry
than ever, and cut oft" a whole Roman army that was
fent againft them. As the weftern empire was ar
this time in a verj- low ftatc, they for fome time found
more interruption from other barbarians than from
the Romans, till their progrefs was checked by Ae-
tius. 3

When the war with Aetius broke out, the Franks Pharamond
ivcre governed by one Pfiaramond, the firft of their''?' ^^^
kings of whom we have any diftinft account. He is "^^'
fuppofed to have reigned from the year 417 or 418,
to 4 28 ; and is thought by Archbifhop Uflier to have
been killed in the war with Aetius. By fome he is
fuppofed

•French mo.
narchy efta-
blidied by
Qovis.

F R A [5

fuppofcd to li-ive compiled the Salic laws, inth the
allillance of four fages named IVifega/I, LqfegaJ}, IViJe-
ga/?, and Solega/}. But Valefius is of opinion that the
Franks had no uiitten laws till the time of Clovis.

Fharamond was fucceeded by his fon Clodio, who
llkcvvife carried on a war againrt the Romans. He is -
faid to have received a terrible overthrow from Aetius
near tlie city of Lens ; notwithilanding which, he ad-
vanced to Cambray, and made himfelf mafter of that
city, where for fome time he took up his refidence.
After this he extended his conqueils as far as the river
Somme, and deflroyed the cities of Treves and Co-
logne, Tournay and Amiens. 'He died in the year
448, and was fucceeded by Rlerovxus.

Authors are not agreed whether the new king was
brother, or fon, or any relation at all, to Clodio. It
feems probable indeed, that he was of a different fa-
mily ; as from him the firft race of French kings were
•ftyfed Merovitigian. He ivas honoiu-ed and reipecled
by Lis people, but did not greatly enlarge the bounda-
ries of his kingdom. He died in 458.

Merovceus was fucceeded by his fon Childeric ; who
being no longer kept in awe by Aetius, made <var on
the Romans, and extended his conquefls as far as the
river Loire. He is faid to have taken the city of Pa-
ris after a fiege of five years, according to fome, and
of ten, according to oth.ers. The Roman power was
now totally deftroyed in Italy ■, and therefore Clcdo-
I'itus, C/ovis, or Louis, for his name is differently writ-
ten, who fucceeded Childeric, fet himfelf about making
an entire ccnqueft of Gaul. Part of the province was
flill retained by a Roman named Stjagrius, who proba-
bly had become fovereign of the country on the down-
fall of the weflern empire in 476. He was defeated
and taken prifoner by Clo^as, who afterwards caufcd
him to be beheaded, and foon after totally reduced his
dominions.

Thus Avas the French monarchy eftabliflied by Clo-
vis in the year 487. He now poffeffed all the coun-
try lying between the Rhine and the Loire ; which,
though a very e.\teniive dominion, was yet confider-
ably inferior to what it is at prefent.

Clovis had been educated in the Pagan religion,
and continued in that profeflion till the 30th year of
his age; notwilhllandhig which, he allowed his fubjefls
full liberty of confcience. Having married, however,
Clotilda, daughter of the duke of Burgundy ; this
princefs, who was a zealous Chrillian, ufed all her in-
fluence with her hufhand to perfuade him to embrace
her religion. For fome time he continued to waver :
but happening to gain a battle, where, being in great
danger, he had invoked the god of Clotilda and the
Chrillians, iic afterwards gave fuch a favourable ear
to the difcourfes of Rcmigius biihop of Rheims, that
he foon declared himfelf a convert, and was baptized
in the year 496. His acknowledgment of the truths
of the gofpel was not followed by any amendment of
life ; on the contrary, he employed the remainder of
his life in the aggrandizement of himfelf and extenfion
of his dominions by the mod abominable treachery,
fraud, and violence. In his attacki on Armorica he
proved unfuccefsful. The inhabitants of this country,
which comprehended the maritime part of ancient Gaul
lying bet\veen the rivers Seine and Loire, had united
ior their defence j and though abandoned by the Ro-

\ ]

F Pi A

mans, made a powerful defence agaiufl the barbarians fn
who aiTaulted them on all fides. Clovis, finding them
too powerful to be fubdued by force, propofed an union
with his people, ivhich they readily accepted, and this
tlie more eafily on account of his profenTing the Chri-
llian religion. Thus the Chiillianity of Clovis in feve-
ral inftances proved fubfervient to the purpofes of his
ambition, and his po\ver became gradually very for-
midable. The Eurguiidinns at this time poffeffed all
the country from the forcfl of Vofges to the fea of
Marfeilles, under Gondebaud the uncle of Clotilda j
who to fecure his own authority, had put to death
two of his brothers, one of vvliom u-as the father of
the French queen. The third brother, Collage/;!, whom
he had fpared and allowed to poffefs the principality of
Geneva, confpired with Clovis to drive him from his
dominions. A war having rommcnctd between the
Frencll and Burgundian monarchs, tlie latter was de-
ferted in a battle by Godagefil, and obliged to fly to
Avignon, leaving his antagonift mailer of the cities of
Lyons and Vienne. The victor next laid fiege to
Avignon ; but it was defended with fuch vigour, that
Clovis at lail thought proper to accept of a fum of
money and an annual tribute from Gondebaud ; who
was likewife obliged to cede to Godagefil the city of
Vienne, and feveral other places taken during the
war.

Gondebaud no fooner found himfelf at liberty from
his enemies, than he affembled a powerful army ; with
which he advanced towards Vienne, where Godagefil
himfelf refided at that time. The place was garriisn-
ed by 5000 Franks, and might have made confiderable
refinance ; but Gondebaud being admitted through
the fubterraneous paffage of an aqueduil, maflacred
moll of the Franks, fent the reft prifoners to the king
of the Vifigoths, and put Godagefil to death. This
was quickly followed by the fubmifiion of all the other
places which had o^med the authority of Godagefil :
and Gondebaud, now thinking himfelf able to refifl:
the power of Clovis, fent a meffiige to inform him,
that he niuft no longer cxpeift the promifed tribute ;
and though Clovis ^vas very much mortified with this
defeftion, he found himfelf obliged for the prefent to
put up with the injury, and accept of the alliance and
military fervice of the king of Burgundy.

His next expedition was againft the Vifigoths, ^vho
poffeffed confiderable territories on both fides of the
Pyrenean mountains. His motives for this underta-
kiiig were expreffed in the following fpeech to his no-
bility when affembled in the city of Paris, which he
confidered as the capital of his dominions. " It is
with concern (faid the religious monarch) that I fuffev
the Arians to poffefs the moll fertile part of Gaul :
let us, with the aid of God, march againft them ; and
having conquered them, annex their kingdom to our
dominions." The nobility approved of tlie fcheme ;
and Clovis marched againll a prince for whom he had
but lately profelVed the greateft regard, vowing to
erecl a church in honour of the holy apofllcs, if he fuc-
ceeded in his enterprife. Alaric the king of the Vi-
figoths was a young man delHtutc of miUtary expe-
rience, though perfonally brave. He did not there-
fore hefitate at engaging his antngonift ; but unable
to contend with the veteran troops of Clovis, his army
was utterly defeated on the banks of the Clain, 10

miles

Is honour-
ed with the
title ol\ffo-
man ccnful.

ded among
his chil-
dren.

F R A [

miles fouth of Poicliers, in the year 507. _ Alaiic, per-
ceiving the ruin of his troops, rudied againlt Clevis in
perfon, by whom he ivas killed, and the remainder
of the army purfued for fome time with great flaugh-
ter. After this vidory the province of Aquitaine fub-
piitted, and Clovis ellablilhed his winter quarters at
Bourdeaux. Thouloufe furrendered next fpring ; and
the royal treafures of the Viligoths Were tranfportcd
to Paris. Angoulerae was next reduced, and the city
of Aries inverted. But here the viilorious career of
Clovis was Hopped by 'Jlieodoric king of the Ollro-
goths, who had overturned the dominion of Odoacer
in Italy. He had married AboldeJa the filler of Clo-
vif, biit had alfo given his o^vn daughter in marriage
to the king of the Vifigoths, and had endeavoured, as
much as was jn his power, to preferve a good undcr-
flanding between the two fovereigns. Finding this
irapoflibte however, and that no bounds could be let
to the a.-nbition ot Clo\-is, he fent one of his generals
with a powerful army againft him ; by ^vhom the
French monarch was defeated v.'itk the lols of 30,000
men. By this misfortune Clovis was obliged to raile
the fiege of Aries with precipitation : however, the
Franks ftill retained the greateft part of their con-
quefts, and the province of Aquitaine was indiffolubly
annexed to their empire.

Fn 509, Clovis had the title of Roman conful ; by
which means the people of Rome ivere infenlibly led
to pay a peculiar regard to the French monarchs : and
Clovis was now fuppofed to be inverted ivith a juft
title to all his conquerts in \vhatever m^anner they liad
been acquired. He uas folemnly inverted ivith his new-
dignity in the church of St Martin in the city of
Tours 5 after which he entered the cathedral clothed
in a purple tunic and mantle, the badges of his office.

Clovis now ;)roceeded to augment his power by the
murder of his kinfmen the princes of the Merovingian
race. Among thofe ivho periflied on this occalion
ivere Sigebert king of Cologne, with his fon Cloderic ;
Cararic, another prince ivhole dominions have not been
accuratelv pointed out by hiftorians ; Ranacaire, v.ho
governed the prefent diocefe of Cambray ; and Reno-
mer, king of the territory of Maine. AH thefe mur-
ders, however, were expiated, according to the views
of the clergy of thofe tin»es, by the great zeal he ex-
prelTed in the caufe of Chriftianity, and his liberality
to the church.

Clovi* died.in the year 511, after having reformed
and publilhed the Salic laws : a few lines of wliich,
debarring women from inheriting any part of the Sa-
lic lands, have been extended fo far as to deprive the
females of the royal family of France of their right of
fuccefiion to the throne of that kingdom.

Clovis was buried in the church of St Peter and
St Paul, now Genevieve, in the city of Paris, where
his tomb is ftill to be feen. His dominions were di-
vided among his four fons. 'J'hieri, or Theodoric, the
eldert, had the eaftcrn part of the empire : and, from
his making the city of Metz his capital, is commonly
called ihe iing of Melii. Clodomir, the eldeft fon by
Clotilda, had the kingdom of Orleans •, ChilJebert,

55 ]

about the year 520,

and Clotair

vho

both infants

id tlie kinp

doms of Paris and Soiffcns, under the tutelage of their
mother. The prudence of Clotilda kept nvatlers qjiet
in all the pails of the cropir? for eight years ; but

F R A

numerous fleet of Danes arrived J
at the mouth of the Meufe ; and their king Cochiliac, ■"
having landed his forces, began to deftroy the country
with (ire and fword. Againft him Thieri fent his fon
Theodobert, who defeated the Danifti army and navy,
and killed their king, forcing the reft to retire with
precipitation.

In 52 a, Hermanfroi king of Thuiingia, having de-
ftroyed one of his brethren named Berl/toirc, and ieized
on his dominion';, applied to Thieri for alurtance
againft his ether brother Balderic, whom he intended
to treat in the fame manner. In this infamous enter-
prife Thieri embarked, on condition that he (hould
have one half of B:'lderic's dominions j but after the
unhappy prince was overcome and killed in battle,
Hermanfroi feized all bis dominions. Thieri had no
opportunity of revenging himfelf till the year 531 ;
when perceiving the power of the Oftrogoths, whom
he much dreaded, to be confiderably kflened by the
death of King Theodoric, he engaged his brother Clo-
talre to aflift him : and they accordingly entered Thu-
ringia with two po^verful armies. They joined their
forces as ioon as they had palTed the Rhine, and were
quickly after reinforced by a conilderaole body of
troops under the command of Theodobeit. The al-
lies attacked the army of Hermanfroi, which was ad-
vantageoully ported ; and having totally defeated it, he
was forced to fly fiora place to place in difgulfe. Sjon
after this the capital was taken, and Hermanfroi him-
felf being invited to a conference by Thieri, was trea-
cherourty murdered ; after which his extenfive domi-
nions became feudatory to Thieri.

In the mean time, Clotilda had excited her children
to make war on the Burgundlans, in order to revenge
the death of her father Chllperic, whom Gondebaud
king of Burgundy had caufed to be murdered. Gon-
debaud was now dead, and had left his dominions to
his fons Sigifmund and Godemar. Sigifmund's forces
were quickly defeated ; and he himfelf was foon after
delivered up by his own fubjecls to Clodomir, who
caufed him to be thrown into a pit where he pcrifticd
miferably. By his death Godemar became fole mafter
of Burgundy. Clodomir marched againft him, and
defeated him; but purfuing his viftory too eagerly, ^vas
furrounded by his enemies and flain. After tlie reduc-
tion of Thuringia, however, Childebert and Clotaire
entered the kingdom of Burgundy at the head of a
powerful army, and in 534 completed the conqueit of
it ; in which, according to (ome, Godemar was killed ;
according to others, he retired into Spain, ani from
thence into Africa.

In 560 Clotaire became Ible monarch of France. He Clo
had murdered the fons of Clodomir, who was killed in *""'
Burgundy as above related. Thieri and his children
were dead, as was alfo Childebert ; fo that Clotaire was
fole heir to all the dominions of Clovis. He had five
fons; and the eldclt of them, named Chramnes, had fome
time before rebelled againft his father in Auvergnc.
As long as Childebert lived, he fupported tiie young
prince ; but on his death, Chramnes was obliged to
implore his father's clemency. He was at this time
pardoned ; but he foon began to cabal afrelfi, and en-
gaged the count of Brctagne to artift liira in another
rebellion. The Bretons, however, were defeated, and
Chramnes determined to make hi? tfcape ; but percciv-

The emp
again di-

-Infamous
conduft of
Chilperic.

. . . . '^ ^ ^ ^ .^

ing that his uife and children ivere Turrounded by his

father's troops, he attempted to refcue them. In this
attempt he \vas taken priloner, and with his family was
thrult into a thatched cottage near the field of battle ;
of which the king was no fooner informed, than he
commanded the cottage to be fet on fire, and all that
were in it perilhed in the tlames.

= Clotaire did not long furvive this cruel execution
of his fon, but died in 562; and after liis death the
French empire was divided among his four remaining
fons, Caribert, Gontran, Sigebert, and Chilptric. —
The old king made no diviiion of his dominions before
he died, which perhaps caufed the young princes to
fall out fooner than they would otherwife have done.
After his death, however, they divided the kingdom
by lot ; when Caribert, the eldeft, had the kingdom of
Paris ; Gontran, the fecond, had Orleans ; Sigebert,
had RIetz (or the kingdom of Auftrafia} ; and Chil-
-peric had SeilTons. Provence and Aquitaine were pof-
fefled by all of them in common. The peace of the em-
pire was firft difturbed in 563 by an invafion of the
Abares; a barbarous nation, (aid to be the remains of
the Hunns. They entered Thuringia, which belonged
to the dominions of Sigebert ; but by liim they were
totally defeated, and obliged to repafs the Elbe with
precipitation. Sigebert purfued them clofe, but readi-
ly concluded a peace with them on their firlf propofals.
To this he was induced, by hearing that his brother
Chilperic had invaded his dominions, and taken
ilheims and feme other places in the neighbourhood.
Againft him, therefore, Sigebert marched with his \ic-
torious army, made himfelf mailer of Soiffons his ca-
pital, and of the perfon of his eldell fon Theodobert.
He then defeated Chilperic in battle ; and not only re-
covered the places which he had feized, but conquered
the greater part of his dominions : neverthelefs, on the
mediation of the other tivo brothers, Sigebert abandon-
ed all his conquefts, fet Theodobert at liberty, and thus
reftored peace to the empire.

Soon after this, Sigebert married Brunehaut daugh-
ter to Athanagilde king of the Vifigoths in Spain ; and
in a little time after the marriage, died Caribert king of
Paris, vvhofe dominions were divided among his three
brethren. In 567 Chilperic married Galfwintha, Brune-
haut's eldeft fifter, ^vliom he did not obtain %vithout
fome difficulty. Before her arrival, he difmiifed his
miflrefs called Fredegonde, a ^voman of great abiUties
and firmnefs of mind, but ambitious to the highelf de-
gree, and capable of committing the blackeft crimes
in or^^tr to gratify her ambition. The queen, who
brought with her immenfe treafures from Spain, and
made it her whole ftudy to pleafe the king, was for
fome time entirely acceptable. By degrees, however,
Chilperic fuffered Fredegonde to appear again at court,
and was Aafpefted of having rene^ved his intercourfe
^vith her ; which gave fuch umbrage to the queen,
that flie defired leave to return to her own country,
promifing to leave behind her all the wealth fhe had
brought: The king, knowing that this woi.ld render
him extremely odious, found rae^ns to diffipate his
wife's fufpicions, and foon after caufed her to be pri-
vately ftrangled, upon which he publicly married Fre-
degonde.

Such an atrocious aiEllon could not fall of exciting
the greateft indignation againft Chilperic, His domi-

^ ]

F R A

'3

nions were mimediately invaded by Sigebert and Gon-
tran, who conquered the grealeft part of them ; after *"
which, they fuddenly made peace, Chilperic confenting
that B'anehaut ftiould enjoy thofe places which on his
marrist ir he had beftowcd upon Galfwintha, viz. Bour-
deau.\, Limoges, Cahors, Bigorre, and the town of
Beam, now called Lefcar.

The French princes, however, did not long conti-
nue at peace among themfelves. A war quickly en-
fued, in which Gontran and Chilperic allied themfelves
againft Sigebert. The latter prevailed ; and having
forced Gontran to a feparatc peace, feemed detennined
to make Chilperic pay dear for his repeated perfidy and
Infamous conducl ; when he was affaftinated by a con-S\£el>'rt aC.
trivance of Fredegonde, who thus faved herfelf and^*''^^*^'^'
Chilperic from themoft imminent danger. Immediate-
ly on his death, Brunehaut fell into tiie hands of Chil-
peric ; but Gondebaud, one of Sigebert's beft gene-
rals, made his efcape into Auftrafia with Childebert,
the only fon of Sigebert, an infant of about five years
of age, who was immediately proclaimed king in room
of his father. In a ftiort time, how ever, Meroveus, eld-
eft fon to Chilperic, fell in love with Brunehaut, and
married her without acquainting his father. Chilperic,
on this news, immediately went to Rouen, where Me-
roveus and his conibrt were \ and having feized them,
fent Bnniehaut and her two daughters to Metz, and
carried Meroveus to Soifluns. Soon after, one of his
generals being defeated by Gontran, who efpoufed
Brunehaut's caufe, Chilperic, In a fit of rage, caufed
Meroveus to be ftiaved and confined in a monaftery.
From hence he found means to make his efcape, and
^vith great difficulty arrived In Auftrafia, where Brune-
haut would glady have protefled him ; but the jealou-
fy of the nobles was fo ftrong, that he was forced to
leave that country ; and being betrayed into the hands
of his father's forces, was murdered at the Inftigatiou
of Fredegonde, as was generally believed.

The French empire was at this lime divided between
Gontran king of Orleans, called alfo king of Burgun-
dy, Chilperic king of SoilTons, and Childebert king of
Auftrafia. Chilperic found his affairs in a %-ery dlfagree-
able fituation. In 579, he had a difpute with Varoc
count of Bretagne, who refufed to do him homage.
Chilperic difpatched a body of troops againft him j
^\ho were defeated, and he %vas then forced to fubmit
to a diftionourable peace. His brother and nephew
lived in ftrift union, and had no reafon to be very well
pleafed with him. His own fubjects, being oppreffed
with heavy ta:^es, were niiferably poor and difcontented.
His fon Clovis, by a former queen named Andovera,
hated Fredegonde, and made no fecret of his averfion.
To add to iris embarraflraent, the feafons were for a
long time fo unfavourable, that the country was threat-
ened with famine and peftilence at the fame time. The
king and queen were both attacked by an epidemic
difeafe which then raged. They recovered ; but their
three fons Clodobert, Samfon, and Dagobert, died j
after which, the fight of Clovis became fo difagreeable
to Fredegonde, that ftie c;nifcd him to be murdered,
and likewife his mother Aodovera, left Chilperlc's af-
feftion for her Ihould retiura after the tragical death of
her fon. ,^

In 583 Chilperic himfelf was murdered by fome un-and like-
knoivn aflaflins, when his dominions were on the point w'fe iljl-

ofP«"«-

F R A

[ 57 1

F R A

of bting conquered by Gontran and Cbildebcrt, who
had entered into a league for that purpofe. After his
death Fredegonde implored the proteftion of Gontran
for herfelf and her infant fon Clotaire ; which he very
readily granted, snd obliged Cliildebert to put an end
to the war. He found himfelf, hoivever, greatly dif-
ficulted to keep Fredegonde and Brunehaut in awe ;
for thefe two princeffes having been long rivals and im-
placable enemies, we*-e continually plotting the de-
ilruciion of each other. This, however, he accom-
plilhed, by favoirring fometimes Brunehaut and lome-
times Fredegonde ; fo that, during his life, neither of
them durft undertake any thing againll the other.

On the 28th of March 593, died Gontran, having
lived upwards of 60, and reigned 3 2 years. Childebert
fucceeded to the kingdom without oppofition, but did
not long enjoy it ; he himfelf dying in the year 596,
and his queen (hortly after. His dominions were di-
vided between his two fons Theodobert and Thierri ;
the firft of whom was declared king of Auftrafia, and
the latter king of Burgundy. As Theodobert was
only in the nth year of his age, and Thierri in his
loth, Brunehaut governed both kingdoms with an ab-
folute fway. Fredegonde, however, took care not to
let flip fuch a favourable opportunity as was offered her
by the death of Childebert, and therefore made her-
felf miftrefs of Paris and fome other places on the Seine.
Upon this Brunehaut fent againft her the beft part of
the forces in Auftrafia, who were totally defeated ; but
Fredegonde died before (he had time to improve her
victory, leaving her fon Clotaire heir to all her domi-
nions.

For fome time Brunehaut preferved her kingdom in
peace ; but in the end her own ambition proved her
ruin. Inrtead of inftrufting Theodobert in what was
necelTary for a prince to know, fhe took care rather to
keep him in ignorance, and even fuffered him to marry
a young and handforae flave of his father's. The new
queen was poffeffed of a great deal of affability and
good nature ; by which means fhe in a fliort time gain-
ed the affection of her hufband fo much, that he readily
confented to the banilhment of Brunehaut. Upon this
difgrace llie tied to Thierri king of Burgundy, in the
year 599. By him fhe was very kindly received ; and
inftead of exciting jealoufies or mifunderllandings be-
tween the two brothers, flie engaged Thierri to at-
tempt the recovery of Pans and the other places which
had been wrefted from their family by Fredegonde,
procuring at the fame time a confiderable body of auxi-
liaries from the Vifigoths. This meafure xvas fo ac-
ceptable to Theodobert, that he likewife raifed a nu-
merous army, and invaded Clotaire's dominions in con-
junflion with his brother. A battle enfued, in which
the forces of Clotaire were totally defeated, and him-
felf obliged foon after to i'ue for peace : which was not
granted, but on condition of his yielding up the befl
part of his dominions.

This treaty was concluded in the year 600 ; but
three years afterwards, it was broken by Clotaire. He
was again attacked by the two brothers, and the war
carried on with great vigour till the next fpring. At
this time Thierri having forced Landri, Clotaire's ge-
neral, to a battle, gave him a total overthrow, in which
the king's infant fon Meroveus, whom he had fent a-
iong with Landri, was maffacred ; to gratifv, as Clo-

VoL. IX. Part J.

taire pretet^ded, the malice of Bnmehaut. 'Afttr this Fr.inr^

vidory, Thierri marched direftly to Paris ; fully bent ' " —

on the dellruftion of his coufm, which now feemed ine-
vitable. This, however, was prKvented by Theodo-
bert ; who no fooner heard of the vidory gained bv
Thierri, than he became jealous of his fuocefs, and of-
fered Clotaire fuch terras of peace as he gladly accept-
ed. The latter having then nothing to fear on the
fide of Auftrafia, quickly compelled Thierri to liften to
terms of accommodation alfo.

This behaviour of Theodobert greatly provoked his
brother ; and his refentment was highly inriamed by
Brunehaut, who never forgot her difgrace in being ba-
nilhed from his court. A war was therefore commen-
ced between the t^vo brothers in 605 ; but it ^vas fo
highly difapproved of by the nobility, that Thierri
found himfelf obliged to put an end to it. The tran-
quillity which now took place was again difturbed in
607, by Theodobert's fending an erabaffy to demand
fome part of Childebert's dominions, which had been
added, by the will of that monarch, to thofe of Bur-
gundy. The nobility of both kingdoms were fo much
averfe to war, that they conftrained their kings to con-
fent to a conference, attended by an equal number of
troops ; but Theodobert, by a fcandalous breach of his
faith, brought double the number, and compelled his
brother to fubmit to what terms he pleafed. This piece
of treachery inftantly brought on a war ; for Thierri
was bent on revenge, and his nobility no longer oppo-
fed him. It was neceffary, however, to fecure Clotaire
by a negotiation ; and accordingly a promife was made
of refloring thofe parts of his dominions which had
formerly been taken from him, provided he would re-
main quiet. This treaty being finifhed, Thierri en-
tered Theodobert's dominions, defeated him in two
battles, took him prifoner, ufed him with the utmofl
indignity ; and having caufed an infant fon of his to
be put to death, fent him to his grandmother Brune-
haut. By her orders he was firft fliaved and confined
in a monaftery ; but afterwards, fearing left he fhould
make his efcape, fhe caufed him to be put to death. —
Clotaire, in the mean jime, thought that the beft me-
thod of making Thierri keep his word was to feize on
thofe places which he had promifed to reftore to him,
before his return from the war with Theodobert. This
he accordingly did ; and Thierri no fooner heard of his
having done fo, than he fent him a melTage requiring
him to withdraw his forces, and, in cafe of his refufal,
declared war. Clotaire was prepared for this ; and
accordingly affembled all the forces in his dominions,
in order to give him a proper reception. But before ,5
Thierri could reach his enemies, he was feized with a Death 01
dyfentery ; of which he died in the year 612, having Thierri.
lived 26 years, and reigned 17.

On the death of Thierri, Brunehaut immediately
caufed his cldeft fon, named Sigi/bcrt, then in the loth
year of his age, to be proclaimed king. It is probable
that fhe intended to have governed in his name with
an abfolute fway ; but Clotaire did not give her time
to difcover her intentions. Having great intelligence
in Auftrafia and Burgundy, and knowing that the no-
bility in both kingdoms were difaffeded to Brunehaut,
he declared war againft her ; and flie being betrayed
by her generals, fell into the hands of her enemies.
Clotaire gave her up to the nobles ; who generally
H hated

F R A [5

hated her, and who ufed her in the niofl cruel manner.
After having led her about the camp, expofcd to the
iniults of all who had the meannefs to inlult her, flie
was tied by the leg and arm to the tail of an untamed
horfe, wliich, fetting off at full fpeed, quickly daflted
out her brains. After this her mangled body was re-
duced to allies, which were afterwards interred in the
abbey of St Martin at Autun.

Thus in the year 613, Clotaire became fole monarch
of France ; and quietly enjoyed his kingdom till his
death, which happened in 62S. He was lucceeded by
Dagobert ; who proved a great and powerful prince,
and raifed the kingdom of France to a high degree of
fpleiidour. Dagobert was fucceeded by his fons Sige-
bert and Clovis ; the former of whom had the kingdom
of Auftrafia, and the latter that of Burgundy. Both
the kings were minors at the time of their acceflion to
the throne, v.hich gave an opportunity to the maycrs
of the palace (the higheft officers under the crown) to
ufurp the whole authority. Sigebert died in 640, af-
ter a (hort reign of one year ; leaving behind him an
infant fon named Dagobert^ whom he ftrongly recom-
mended to the care of Grimoalde his mayor of the pa-
lace. The miniller caufed Dagobert to be immediate-
ly proclaimed king, but did not long fuifer him to en-
joy that honour. He had not the cruelty, however,
to put him to death ; but lent him to a monallery in
one of the Weilern illands of Scotland ; and then, giv-
ing out that he was dead, advanced his own fon Chil-
debert to the throne, Childebert was expelled by Clo-
\'is king of Burgundy ; who placed on the throne
Childeric, the fecond fon of Sigebert. Clo\'is died
foon after the revolution, and was fucceeded in his
dominions by his fon Clotaire ; who died in a fliort
time, without iffiie. He was fucceeded by his brother
Childeric ; who, after a ihort reign, was murdered with
■liis queen, at that time big with child, and an infant
fon named Das^okerl ; though another, named Daniel,
20 had the good luck to efcape.
M.ferable The aifairs of the French were now in the moft de-
fituation cf plorable fituation. The princes of the Merovingian
'*""■ race had been for fome time entirely deprived of their
power by their officers called mayors of the palace. In
Auftrafia the adrainiftration had been totally engroffed
by Pepin and his ion Grimaulde ; while Archambaud
and Ebroin did the fame in Neuftria and Burgundy.
On the reunion of Neullria and Burgundy to the reft
of the French dominions, this miniller nUed with fuch
■i defpotic fway, that the nobility of Auftrafia were
provoked to a revolt ; elefting for their dukes tn-o
chiefs named Martin and Pefiin. The forces of the con-
federates, however, were defeated by Ebroin ; and
Martin having furrendered on a proniife of fafety, was
treacherouily put to death. Pepin loil no time in le-
f ruiting his (haltered forces •, but before he had any
occafion to try his fortune a fecond time in the field of
battle, the alTaiTination of Ebroin delivered him from all
apprehenCons from that quarter. After his death, Pe-
^'in carried every thing before him, overthreiv the royal
iirmy under the command of the new niinifter Bertaire ;
and, having got pofleiiion of the capital, caufed him-
felf to be declared mayor of the palace ; in which ila-
tion he continued to govern with an abfolute fway dur-
ing the remainder of his life.

Pepin (who liad got the furname of HeriJJal from

ixpio

8 ] F R A

his palace on the Meufe) died in the year 714, having
enjoyed unlimited power for 26 years. He appohited '
his grandfon Theudobalde, then only fix years of age,
to fucceed him in his poft of mayor of the palace. Ibis
happened during the reign of Dagobert already men-
tioned J but this prince had too much fpirit to fuffer
himfelf to be deprived of lus authority by an infant.
The adherents of the young mayor were defeated in
battle, and this defeat ^vas foon foUo^ved by his death.
Charles, however, the illegitimate fon of Pepin, we
now raifed to the dignity of duke by the Aullrafians, Charles'
and by his great qualities feemed every way worthy of M^rtel.
that honour. The murder of Dagobert freed him
from a powerful opponent ; and the yoimg king Chil-
peric, who after Dagobert's death was brought from a
cloirter to the throne, could by no means cope with
fuch an experienced antagonill. On the 1 9th of March
717, Charles liad the good fortune to furprife the
royal camp as he paffed througli the foreft of Arden •,
and foon after a battle enfued, in which the king's for-
ces were entirely defeated. On this Chilpcric entered
into an alliance with Eudes duke of Aquitain, whofe
friendlliip he purchafed by the final ceffion of all the
country which Eudes had feized for himfelf. Charles,
however, having placed on the throne another of the
royal family named Clotaire, advanced againft Chilperic
and his affociate, whom he entirely defeated near Soif-
fons. After this difafter, Eudes, defpairiiig of fuccefs,
delivered up Chilperic into the hands of his antagonift ;
after having ftipulated for himfelf the fame terms wliich
had been formerly granted him by the captive mo-
narch.

Charles now advanced to the fummit of power, treat-
ed Chilperic ^vith great refpeft ; and, on the death of
Clotaire, caufed him to be proclaimed king of Auftra-
fia ; by which, however, his ow^l power was not in the
leaft diminiihed ; and from this time the authority of
the kings of France became merely nominal ; and fo
inactive and indolent were they accounted, that hifto-
rians have bellowed upon them the epithet oi faiiieans,
i. e. " lazy or idle." Charles, however, had ftill one
competitor to contend with. This was Rainfroy, who
had been appointed mayor of the palace ; and who
made fuch a vigorous relillance, that Charles was obli-
ged to allow him the peaceable pofleiTion of the country
of Anjou. No fooner, however, had Charles thus fet
himfelf at liberty from domeftic enemies, than he was
threatened with deftruflion from foreign nations. The
Suevians, Frifons, and Alemanni, were fucceffively en-
countered and defeated. Eudes alfo, who had pei-fidi-
oufly broken the treaties to which he had bound him-
felf, was twice repuHed ; after which Charles invaded
Aquitain, and obliged the treacherous duke to heark-
en to reafon. This was fcarce accomplilhed, when he
found himfelf engaged with a more formidable enemy
than any he had yet encountered. The Saracens hav-
ing overrun great part of Afia, now turned their vido-
rious arms wellward, and threatened Europe w-ith total
fubjeilion. Spain had already received the yoke ; and
having pafTed the Pyrenees, they next invaded France,
appearing in vaft numbers under the walls of Thouloufe.
Here they were encountered and defeated by Eudes ;
but this proved only a partial check. The barbarians
once more palling the Pyrenees, entered France with
fuch a powerful army, that £udes was no longer able

F R A r 59 ] F R A

to refift. He encountered tlicm indeed with his accuf- torious army, Hunalde found himfelt obliged to fe-
tomed valour ; bitt being forced to yield to fui)eriov treat : and even this availed him but little : for the
power, he folicited the protcftion and aflillance of Franks entering the dachy of Aquitain, committed
Charles. On this occalion the latter, on account of his iuch devailations, that Hunalde in defpair refigned his
valour and perfonal llrength, acquired the name oi M/ir- dominions to his fon, and retired into a convent. This

event was foon followed by a limilar refignation of Car-
lomai'', notwithftanding the uninterrupted fuccefs he had

te/, i. e. " tiie hammer," alluding to the violence of the
,. iirokes he beiloived on his enemies +. Three liundrcd and
feventy-five thoufand of the Infidels, among xvhom ^vas
the commander Abdelrahman himfelf, are f.iid to have
perilhed in the battle ; notwithftanding which they Toon
made another irruption : but in this they were attend-
ed with ' no better fuccefs, being again defeated by
Charles ; w-ho by fo many viiSories eilabliihed his power
on the moft folid foundation. Having again defeated
the Frifons, and with his own hand killed their duke,
he affumed' the fovereignty of the dominions of Eudes
after his deceafe, referving to himfelf the claim of ho-
mage, which he ought to have yielded to Thierri his
la^vful fovereign. At laft his fame grew fo great, that
he was chofen by Pope Gregory HI. for his proteClor.
He offered to (liake off the yoke of the Greek empe-
ror, and to invert Charles with the dignity of Roman
conful ; fending him at the fame time the keys of the
tomb of St Peter ; but while this negotiation was going
on fuccefsfully, the pope, the emperor, and Charles
Martel himfelf, died. After his death, which happen-
ed in the year 741, his dominions were divided among
his three fons, Carloman, Pepin, and Grippon, accord-
ing to the difpofitions he had made in his lifetime. By
this Carloman, the eldeft, had Auftrafia ; Pepin, the fe-
cond, Neuftria and Burgundy ; while Grippon, the
tlu'rd, had only fome lands alTigned him in France ; by
which he was fo much difpleafed, that the tranquillity
of the empire was foon dirturbed. With the affiilance
ef his mother Sonnechilde he feized on the city of
LahoTi, ivhere he endured a violent fiege. In the end,
however, he was obliged to fubmit ; Sonnechilde \vas
put into a monaftery, and Grippon imprifoned in a
caftle at Arden. The two brothers, having thus freed
themfelves from their domeftic enemy, continued to go-
vern the empire with uninterrupted harmony ; but
their tranquillity was foon difturbed by the intrigues of
Sonnechilde. That enterpriiing and ambitious woman
had negotiated a marriage between Odilon duke of
Bavaria and Hiltrude the fifter of the two ])rinres.
'J'his was no fooner accompliftied than Odilon, infiigat-
ed by Sonnechilde, and alarmed at the growing power
of the two princes, entered into an alliance with Theo-
dobald duke of the Alemanni and Theodoric duke of
the Saxons ; who having aflfembled a formidable army,
advanced direftly againft the princes. They polled
themfelves in an advantageous manner, with the river
Lech in their front ; but Carloman and Pepin, palling
t l-.e river at different fords in the niglit time, attacked
the camp of the allies with great vigour. 'J'he engage-
ment continued doubtftil for five hours ; but at lall the
i'.itrenchraents were forced on all fides, the Bavarians
and Saxons entirely routed, and the vanquillied dukes
obliged to fubmit to the clemency of the viftors. Du-
ring their abfence on this expedition, Hunalde, whom
Charles Martel had appointed duke of Ac|uitain, hav-
ing likewife entered into a confederacy with Odilon,
paffed the Loire, ravaged the open country, and burnt
the magnificent cathedral of the city of Chartres. The
Hvo princes, however, having returned with tUeir vic-

met with. He fuddenly took the refolution of retiring
into a coiv.'ent, and pevfifted in his defign notwithftand-
ing the entreaties of Pepin, who, to appearance at leaft,
did all he could to diiTuade him.

By the refignation of Carloman, which happened in Pp^in'be-
the year 746, Pepin was left fole mafter of France ■, fomes f.>>.
and in this exalted ftation he acquitted himfelf in fuch ™^''" of
a manner as has juftly rendered his name famous to po-jol. "^^"
fterity. One of the firft acls of his new adminiftration
was to releafe his brother Grippon from prifon : but
that treacherous prince had no looner regained his li-
berty, than he again excited the Saxons to take up anns.
His enterprife, however, proved unfuccefsful : the
Saxons were defeated, their duke Theodoric taken,
and his fubjedls obtigcdto fubmit to the will of the
conqueror ; who upon this occafion caufed them make
a profeflion of the Chriftian religion. Grippon then
tied to Hiltrude, his half fifter, whofc hulband OdUoti
was now dead, and had left an infant ion named TaJJi-
lon. He met vnth a favourable reception from her \
but, with his ufual treacher)', feized both her and her
fon by the aftiftance of an army of malecontent Franks,
whom he had perfuaded to join him. His next ftep
^vas to affume the foverelgnty and title of duke of Ba-
varia ; but being driven from the throne by Pepin, he
was obliged to implore his clemency, which was once
more granted. All thefe misfortunes, however, were
not yet fufficient to cure Grippon of his turbulence
and ambition : He once more endeavoured to excite dif-
turbances in the court of Pepin ; but being finally
deteited and baffled, he was obliged to take refuge in
Aquitain. 24

Pepin having now fubdued all his foes both foreign ^^"'."" .
and domeftic, began to think of affuming the title of|^:^„' **
iing, after lia^ang fo long enjoyed the regal po^ver. His "
inliies in this refpett were quite agreeable to thofe of
the nation in general. The nobility, however, were
bound by an oath of allegiance to Childeric the nomi-
nal monarch at that time : and this oath could not be
difpenfed with but by the authority of the pofe. Am-
baffadors for this purpofe were tlierefore defpatched
both from Pepin and the nobility to Pope Zachary, the
reigning pontiff. His holinefs replied, that it was law-
ful to transfer the regal dignity from hands incapable
of maintaining it to thofe who had fo fuccefsfully pre-
ferved it ; ajid that the nation might unite in the fame
perfon the authority and title of /'///f. On this the
unfortunate Childeric was degraded from liis dignity,
ftiaved, and confined in a monaftery for life •, Pepin af-
fumed the title of itng of France, and the line of Clovis
was finally let afidc.

This revolution took place in the year 751. The
attention of the new monarch was firit claimed by a
revolt of the Saxons j but they were foon reduced to
fubjeftion, and obliged to pay an additional tribute :
and durhig his expedition againft them, the king had
the fatisfadion of getting rid of his reftlefs and trea-
dierous competitor Grippon. This turbident prince,
H 2 bavin;'

F R A l: 60

having foon become weary of refiding at the court of
Aquitain, deten-ained to efcape from thence, and put
himfelf ur.dcr the protection of Aftolphus king of the
Lombard? ; but he was killed in attempting to force-
a pafs on the confines of Italy. Pepin in the mean tiiue
continued to pufh his good fortune. The fubniidion
of the Saxons was foon followed by the reduflion of
Britanny ; and that by the recovery of Narboi'.ne from
the Infideis. His next exploit was the protection of
Pope Stephen III. againft Aftolphus the king of the
Lombards, \vho had feized o;i the exarchate of Ra-
venna, and infirted on being acknowledged king of
Rome. The pope unable to contend with fuch a
powerful rival, hafted to crofs the Alps and implore
tl.e protedion of Pepin, who received him with all
the refpeft due to his charafter. He was lodged in the
abbey of St Dennis, and attended by the king in per-
fon during a dangerous ficknefs with ivhich he was
feized. On his recovery, Stephen folemnly placed the
diadem on the head of his benefactor, bellowed the
regal unftion on his fons Charles and Carloman, and
conferred on the three princes the title ol patrician of
Rome. In return for thefe honours, Pepin accompa-
nied the pontiff into Italy at the head of a powerful
army. Aftolphus, unable to \dthftand fuch a po^ver-
fiil antagonift, fhut himfelf up in Pa\'ia, where he was
clofely befieged by the Franks, and obliged to renounce
allpretenfions to the fovereignty of Rome, as well as
to reftore the city and exarchate of Ravenna, and
l\vear to the obfervance of the treaty. No fooner was
Pepin gone, however, than Aftolphus broke the treaty
he had juft ratified ivith fuch folemnity. The pope
xvas again reduced to diftrefs, and again applied to Pe-
pin. He now fent him a pompous epiftle in the ftyle
and charafter of St Peter himfelf ; which fo much in-
flamed the zeal of Pepin, that he inftantly fet out for
Italy and compelled Aftolphus a fecond time to fub-
niit to his terms, which were now rendered more fevere
by the impolition of an annual tribute. Pepin next
made a tour to Rome ; but finding tliat his prefence
there gave great uneafinefs both to the Greeks and to
the pope himfelf, he thought proper to finilh his vifit
i.T a fliort time. Soon after his return Aftolphus died,
and his dominions were ufurped by his general Didier ;
who, hovv-ever, obtained the papal fan6tion for what
he had done, and \ras recognized as lawful fovereign
of the Lombards in the year 756.

Pepin returned to France in triumph ; but the peace
of his dominions was foon difturbed by the revolt of
the Saxons, who always bore the French yoke with
the utmoft impatience. Their prefent attempts, how-
ever, proved equally unfuccefsfiil with ihofe they had
formerly made ; being obliged to fubmit and purchafe
their pardon not only by a renewal of their tribute, but
by an additional fupply of 300 horfe. But while the
king was abfent on this expedition, Vaifar duke of
Aquitain took the opportunity of ravaging Burgundy,
where he carried his devaftations as far as Chalons.
Pepin foon returned, and entering the dominions of
Vaifar, comn-.itted fimilar devaftations, and Avould
probably have reduced the whole territory of Aqui-
tain, had he not been interrupted by the hoftile pre-
parations of his nephew Taflilon the duke of Bavaria.
The king, however, contented himfelf at prefent ^vith
fecuring his frontiers by a chain of pofts, againft any

] F R A

invafion •, after which he refumed his enterprife on the France.

jiominions of Vaifar. The latter at firft attempted to *"""

impede the progrefs of his antagonift by burning and
laving wafte the country j but finding this to no pur-
pofe, he determined to try his fortune in an engage-
ment. Viftory declared in favour of Pepin ; but he
reftifed to grant a peace upon any terms. The French
monarch advanced to the banks of the Garonne ; while
Vaifar was abandoned by his ally the duke of Bavaria,
and even by his own fubjefts. In this diftrefs he re-
tired with a band of faithful followers into the country
of Saintonge, where he defended himfelf as long zs pof-
fible, but was at laft deprived both of his crown and
life by the \iftor.

Thus the duchy of Aquitain was once' more annex-
ed to the crown of France ; but Pepin had fcarce time
to indulge himfelf with a view of his new conqueft
when he ^vas feized with a flow fever, which put an
end to his life in the year 768, the 54th of his figCipp^'tf, o»
and 17th of his reign. He was of a ftiort ftature, p^^jp
whence he had the funiame of Le Bref, or the Short ;
but his great actions jidfly entitled him to the charaCler
of a hero ; though under the fucceeding reign his own
fame feemed to have been entirely forgot, and on his
tomb was only infcribed, " Here lies the father of
Charlemagne."

Pepin was fucceeded in his authority by his t"0 5^,^j,"j.'jj,^ ,
fons Charles and Carloman ; to whom with his dying by liis tn j
breatli he bequeathed his dominions. They continued fon*.
to reign jointly for iome time ; but the aftive and en-
terprifing fpirit of Charles gave fuch umbrage to the
weak and jealous Carloman, that he regarded him with
envy, and was on the point of coming to an open rup-
ture with him, when he himfelf was taken off by
death, and thus the tranquillity of the empire ^vas
preierved.

The firft military enterprife of Charles was againft
Hunalde, the old duke of Aquitain •, who leaving the
monaftery where he had refided upwards of 20 years,
affumed the royal title, and \vas joyfully received by
his fubjefts, already weary of the French yoke. —
Qiarles took the field with the utmoft expedition, and
Avith difficulty prevailed upon his brother Carloman,
who was then alive, to join him with his forces. But
the junftion was fcarce effefled, when Carloman with-
drew his forces again, and left his brother to carry on
the war in the beft manner he could. Charles, though
thus deferted, did not hefitate at engaging the enemy ;
and having overthrb^vn them in a great battle, Hu-
nalde was obliged to fly to the territories of Lupus
duke of Gafcpny. Charles quickly lent an erabaily de-
manding the fugitive prince ; and Lupus, not daring
to difobey the orders of fuch a powerful monarch,
yielded up the unfortunate Hunalde, who was inftantly
caft into prifon, from which, however, he afterwards
made his efcape. j^

'J'he death of Carloman, which happened in the year Reign oi
771, left Charles fole mafter of France, but the revolt '^'i'"'''* '■
of the Saxons involved him in a feries of wars from '^*''
which he did not extricate himfelf for 33 years. Thefe
had long been tributaries to the French, but frequently
revolted ; and now, when freed from the terror of Pe-
pin's arms, thought they had a right to ftiake off the
yoke altogether. Charles entered their country with
a po^vcrful army ) aud havbg defeated them in a nimu

bci

K 11 A 16

ber of fmall engagements, advanced towards Eicilxjurg
' near Paderboni, where they haH their capital poft, and
where was the ireage of their god Irminful, reprelented
as a man completely armed, and Handing on a co-
lumn. The Saxons made an obftinate defence, bnt
were at lail obliged to fubmit ; and Charles employed
his army three days in demoliiliing the monuments of
idolatry in this place ; which fo much dilheartened the
whole nation, that for the prefent they fubmltted to
fuch terms as. he pleafed to impofe ; and Avhich ^vere
rendered eafier than they probably would have been,
by the news which Charles now received from Italy. —
He had concluded a marriage with the daughter of
Didier king of the Lombards ; but this had been dif-
folved by the pope, who reproached the Lombards
with the firft ftain of the Icprofy. Thus all friendfnip
was dilToIved betwixt Didier and Charles j and as the
Lombard monarchs leem to have had. a kind of natural
enmity towards the popes, it is not furprifing that it
Ihould now break out with uncommon fury. Didier
having feized and frighted to death Pope Stephen IV.
ufed bis utmoll endeavours to reduce his fucctiTor
Adrian I. to a ilate of entire dependence on himfelf
Adrian applied to the French monarch, the ufual re-
fource of the pontiffs in thofe days. Charles %vas very
ivilling to grant the necefiary alTillance, but the nobi-
lity were averCe to an Italian war ; fo that he ivas obli-
ged to acl with great circumfpeclion. Several embaf-
iles were therefore fent to Didier, entreating him to re-
fiore to the Pope thofe places which he had taken from
him, and at laft even offering him a large fum of money
if he would do fo ; but this propofal being rejefted,
he obtained the confent of his nobility to make war
on the Lombards. Didier difpoled his troops in fuch
a manner, that the officers of Charles arc faid to have
been unanimoufly of opinion that it would be impof-
ftble to force a paflage. This, however, was accom-
plilhed, either through the fuperior fkill of Charles,
according to fome hillorians, or a panic which feized
the Lombard foldiers, according to others ; after which,
Didier, with the old duke of Aquitain, who had efca-
ped from his prifon, and taken refiige at his court,
Jhut themfelves up in Pavia. Adalgife, the only fon
of the Lombard monarch, with the widow and children
of Carloman. fled to Verona. That city was im-
mediately inveiled by the conqueror, and in a iliort
time obliged to fubmit. Adalgife had the good luck
to efcape to Conftantinople, but we are not informed
what became of Carloman's widow and children. —
Charles, a!"ier paying a Ihort vifit to Rome, returned
to the fiege of Pavia. The place was vigoroufly de-
fended, until famiiie and pelfilence obliged the inhabi-
tants to implore the clemency of Charles. Hunalde
fell a facrifice to his oivn obllinacy in oppofing the
intention of the people ; Didier was taken prifoner and
carried into P'rance ; but we are not informed of his
fate afterwf.rds. His kingdom, however, was totally
dilTolved, and Charles was crowned king of Lombardy
at Milan in ihe year 774.

Having received the oaths of allegiance from his
new fubjecls, Charles fet out for Saxony, the inhabi-
tants of which had again revolted, and recovered Eref-
bourg,their capital. The king foon recovered this im-
portant poll ; but a detachment of his army being cut
off, and new troubles suifing in Italy, he was obliged

I ]

F K A

to accept of the propofals of tlie Saxons, though
their iincerity was very doubtful- Having therefore ^
only lUciigthened the fortifications of Erefbourg, and
left a fufhcieut garrilon in the place, he fet out for
Italy, which was all in commotion through the in-
trigues of the emperor of the Eall, and Adalgife thi'
fon of Didier. The prefence of Charles rcftored tran-
quillity in that quarter ; but in the mean time, the
Saxons having taken Erelhourg and deftroyed the for-
tifications,, threatened to annihilate the French power
in that quarter. On the king's return, he found them
employed in the fiege of Sigebourg. His fudden ar-
rival Ifruck the barbarians with fuch terror, that they
inifantly fued for peace ; which the king once more
granted, but took care to fecure their obedience by a
chain of forts along the river Lippe, and repairing the
fortifications of Erelhnurg. An aflferably of the Saxon
chiefs was held at Padcrborn; and a promife was made,
that the nation Ihould embrace the Chriftian religion ;
after which the king fet out on an expedition to Spaia
in the year 778.

This new enterprife was undertaken at the requeft
of Ibunala, the Moorifh fovereign of Saragofla, who
had been driven from his territory. He was rellored
ho^vever, by the proivefs of Charles, who reduced the
cities of Parapeluna and Saragoffa. He reduced alfo
the city of Barcelona, and the kingdoms of Navarre
and Arragon ; but, on his return, he met with a fe-
^•ere check from the Gafcons, who attacked and de-
feated the rear-guard of his army with great llaughter
as they paffed the Pyrenean mountains. This engage-
ment, which feems to imply fome defeCl in the prudence
or military ikill of Cliailes, has been much celebrated
among romance writers, on account of the death of Ro-
land a famous warrior.

Next year, 779, he paid a vifit to Italy with his two
fons Carloman and Louis. Ha^^ng pafled the winter
at Pa^aa, he entered Rome ne.xt fpring amidlt the ac-
clamations of the inhabitants. Here, in the 39th year
of his age, he divided his dominions in prefence of the
pope betwixt his two fons Carloman and Louis. The
former, who now took the name of Pepin, had Lom-
bardy •, the latter Aquitain. Having then received
the fubmiilion of Taflilon duke of Bavaria, he fet out
for Saxony, where he took a moll fcvere revenge
on the people of that country for the many treacheries
they had been guilty of. The prefent revolt was
chiefly owing to a chief named Witikind, who had
twice before fled from the viclorious arms of Charles,
and taken refuge at the court of Denmark. Retuni-
ing from thence, in the king's abfence, he roufed his
coimtrymen to aclion, while the generals of Charles,
difagreeing among themfelves, neglefled to take the
proper methods for repelling the enemy. In confe-
quence of this, tliey were entirely defeated on the
banks of the Wefer'in the year 782. Charles arrived
in time to prevent the total de:;;uftion of his people,
and directly penetrated into the heart of the country.
Witikind unable to refill his antagonift, once more
fled into Denmark ; but 4500 of his followers perilhed
at once by the hands of the executioner. An univer-
fal infurreiflion \vas the confequence of this unheard of
ci-utlty ; and though during three )ears the French
monarch was conftantly fuccefsful in the field, he found
it impolTiblc by any force whate\er to fubduc the

r R A [62

;nfe. fpirit of the people. At lad therefore he was obliged
'*' to have recourfe to negotiation. Witikind and feve-

ral other chiefs were invited to an interview ; where
Charles reprefentcd to them in fuch llrong colours the
uain >vh:ch mull necelTarily enfae to their country by
periifting obftinately in oppofition to him, that they
were induced not only to ptvfuadc their countrymen
finally to fubmit, but to embrace the Chrillian reli-
gion.

Charles having thus brought his affairs in Saxony
to a happy conclufion, turned his arras againil: Tafli-
lon duke lof Bavaria, who had underhand iupported
the Saxons in their revolt. Having entered his coun-
try with a powerful army in the year 1787, he made
fuch rapid advances, that the total deftrutlion of Taf-
filon feemed inevitable. Charles had advanced as far
as the river Lech, when Taflilon privately entered his
camp, and threw himlelf at his feet. The king had
compaffion on his faithlefs kinfman on feeing him in
this abjeft pofture ; but no fooner did the traitor find
himfeli at liberty, than he ftirred up the Hunns, the
Greek emperor, and the fugitive Adalgife, againil the
king. He fomented alfo the difcontents of the fac-
tious nobles of Aqiiitain and Lombardy ; but his fub-
jefts, fearing left thefe intrigues Ihould involve them
in deftrudlion, made a difcovery of the whole to
Charles. Talfilon, ignorant of this, entered the diet
at Ingelheim, not lulpefting any danger, but was in-
ftantly arreiled by order of the French monarch. Be-
ing brought to a trial, the proofs of his guilt were fo
apparent, that he was condemned to lofe his head :
the punilhment, however, was afterwards mitigated to
perpetual confinement in a monaflery, and the duchy
of Bavaria was annexed to the dominions of Charles.

The Hunns and other enemies of the French mo-
narch continued to proiecute their enterprifes without
regarding the fate of their afl'ociate Talhlon. Their
attempts, however, only ferved to enhance the fame
of Charles. He defeated the Hunns in Bavaria,
and the Greek emperor in Italy ; obliging the latter
to renounce for ever tlie fortune of Adalgife. The
Hunns, not dilheartened by their defeat, continuing to
infeft the French dominions, Charles entered their
country at the head of a formidable army ; and having
forced their intrenchmcnts, penetrated as far as Raab
on the Danube, but was compelled by an epidemic
dillempcr to retire before he had finiined his conqueil.
He was no tooner returned to his own dominions, than
he had the mortification to be infornaed, that his eldell
fon Pepin had confpired againil his fovereignty and
life. Tile plot was difcovered by a prieft who had
accidentally fallen afleep in a church where the con-
fpirators were aflfembled. Being awrkened by their
voices, he overheard them confulting on the proper
meafures for completing their purpofe ; on ivhich he
inllantly fet out for the palace, and fummoned the mo-
.-iurch from his bed to inform him of the guilt of his
fon. Pepin was fcized, but had his life fpared, though
condemned to expiate his offences by fpendlng the re-
mainder of his days in a monailery.

Charles ivas no fooner freed from this danger than
he was again called to arms by a revolt of the Saxons
on the one hand, while a formidable invafion of the
Moors dillreffcd him on the other ; the Hunns at the
fame yme renewing their depredations on his domi-

F R A

nions. The king did not at prefent make war againft France,
tlie Moors •, probably forefeeing that they would be ^~~v—
called off by their Chrillian enemies in Spain. This
accordingly happened ; the viftories of Alonfo the
Chaile obliged them to leave France ; after which
Charles marched in perfon to attack the Saxons and
Hunns. The former confented again to receive tlie
Chrillian religion, but were likewife obliged to deliver
up a third part of their army to be difpofed of at t'tc
king's pleafure ; but the Hunns defended themfelves
with incredible vigour. Ihough often defeated, thtir
love of liberty was altogether invincible ; fo that the
war was not terminated but by the death of the king,
and an almoll total deftruftion of the people : only one
tribe could be induced to acknowledge the authority
of the French monarch.

Thefe exploits were finilhed betwixt the years 793
and 798 : after which Charles invaded and fubdued the
illandt of Majorca and Minorca ; which the diffenfioiss
of the Mooriih chiefs gave him an opportunity of
doing. The fatisfadion he felt from this new "con-
quell, however, was foon damped by the troubles which
broke out in Italy. After the death of Pope Adrian,
his nephew afpired to the papal dignity j but a prielt
named Leo being preferred, the difappointed candi-
date determined on revenge. He managed matters (o
well, that his defigns were concealed for four years.
At laft, on the day of a proceffion, a furious aflault was
made on the perfon of Leo. The unfortunate pontiff
was left for dead on the ground ; but having with
difficulty recovered, and made his efcape to the Vati-
can, he was proteiled by the duke of Spoleto, at that
time general of the French forces. His caufe was
warmly efpoufed by Charles, who invited him to his
camp at Paderborn in Wtflphaha ; whence he difpatch-
ed him with a numerous guard to Rome, promifing
foon after to vifit that metropolis, and redrefs all griev-
ances. His attention for the prefent, however, was
called by the defcents of the Normans on the maritime
provinces of liis dominions •, fo that he was obhged to
defer the promiled alTillance for fome time longer.
Having conllrufled forts at the mouths of moll of the
navigable rivers, and further provided for the defence
of his territories, by inllituting a regular militia, and
appointing proper fquadrons to cruilc againil the in-
vaders, he fet out for the fourth and laft time on a
journey to Rome. Here he was received v.ith the
highell poflible honours. ~Lco was allowed to clear
himfelf by oath of the crimes laid to his charge by his
enemies, while his accufcrs were fent into e.xilc. On
the fellival of Chriftmas, in the year 800, after Charles
had made his appearance in the cathedral of St Peter,
and affilled devoutly at mafs, the pope fuddenly put a ,3
crown on his head ; and the place inlh.ntly refoundtd He is
with acclamations of " Long life to Charles the Au- crowned
guft, crowned by the hand of God I Lrmg life and «J^^P^^'°^ <
vidlory to the great and pacific emperor of the Ro-
m.ansl" His body was then confecrated and anointed
with royal undion ; and after being condutled to a
throne, he was treated with all the refpetl ul'ually paid
to the anc'ent Caefars ; from this time alfo being ho-
noured with the title of Charlemagne, or Charles the
Crcnt. In private converfation, however, he ufually
proteiled, that he was ignorant of the pope's intention
at this time j and that, had he known it, he would have
difappointed

49
Death of
Charles the
Great.

Ettent c
his ten it

F R A [6

difappointed liim by his abfence : but liicle proteila-
lioiis were not generally believed ; and the care he
took to have his new title acknowledged by the eaftem
emperors, evidently Ihowed how fond he was of it.

Charles, now raifed to the fupreme dignity in the
\vel\, propofed to unite in himfelf the whole power of
the iirll Roman emperors, by marrying Irene the em-
prels of the eaft. But in this he v;as difappointed by
the marriage of that princefs by Nicephorus ;. however,
the latter acknowledged his new dignity of Auguftus,
and the boundaries of the two empires were amicably
fettled. Charles was further gratiried by the refpeft
paid him by the great Haroun Al-Raliiid, caliph of
the Saracens, who yielded to him the Gicred city of
Jerufalem, and holy fepulchre there. But in the mean
time his empire was threatened with the invafion of a
very formidable enemy, whom even the power of Charles
ivould have found it hard to refill. Thefe were the
Norman?, at this time under the government o^ God-
trey a celebrated warrior, and who by their adventurous
fpirit, and Ikill in maritime affairs, threatened all the
weltem coarts of Europe with defolation. From
motives of mutunl convenience a tranfitory peace was
ellabliihed, and Charles made ufe of this interval to
fettle the final diftribution of his dominions. Aqui-
tain and Gafcony, with, the Spanilh Marche, were alTign-
ed to his fon Louis ; Pepin had Italy confirmed to
him •, and to this was added the greateft part of Ba-
varia, with the country now poffefl'ed by the Grifons.
Charles the eldeft had Neuttria, AulUafia, and Thu-
ringia. The donation was fuppofed to be rendered
more authentic by the fanftion of the pope. This di-
vilion, however, had fcarce taken place, wlien the
princes \»ere all obliged to defend their dominions by
force of arms. Louis and Pepin were a .tacked by the
Saracens, and Charles by the Sclavoniaris. All thefe
enemies v.ere defeated ; but while Charles hoped to
fpend the (hort remainder of bis life in tranquiUity, he
v.-as once more called forth to martial exertions by the
hoftile behaviour of Godfrey the- Norman leader.
Charles lent him a meftag^e of defiance, which was re-
turned in the fame ftyle by Godfrey ; but the former,
by artfully fomenting di^-ifions among the northern
powers, prevented for a while the threatened danger ;
but, thefe diuurbances being quelled, the Normans re-
newed thtir depredations, and Charles was obliged to
face them in the field. An engagement, however, was
prevented by the death of Godfrey, who was affaflinated
by a private foldier ; on which the Nonnan army re-
treated, and the dominions of the empire ftill remain-
ed free from thefe invaders. Still the latter days of
Charles 'were embittered by doniellic misfortunes. His
favourite daughter Rotrude died, as did alfo Pepin
king of Italy ; and thefe misfortunes were foon followed
by the death of his eldell fon Charles. The emperor
then thought proper to afibciate his only furviving fon
Louis \vith him in the government ; ivhich was formally
done at Aix-la Chapelle. Charles himfelf futvived this
tranfaftion only a few months : his death happened on
tlie 27th of January 814, in the 71ft year of his age,
and 47lh of his reign.

By the martial achievements of this hero, the French
monarchy was raiftd to its utmoft pitch of fplen-
dour. He had added the province of Aquitain to the
tcrriteries of his anceftors 5 he bad confined the inha-

3 ] F R A

bitants of Brittany to the fliorcs of the ocer.n, and ob-
liged them to fubmit to a difgraceful tribute. He '
had reduced under his dominion all that part of Spain
which extends from the Pyrenees to the river Ebro,
and includes the kingdoms of Rouflillon, Navarre, Ar-
ragon, and Catalonia. He poiTefled Italy from the
Alps to the borders of Calabria •, but the duchy of Be-
neveutum, including moft of the prefent kingdom of
Naples, efcaped the yoke after a tranfitory fubraillion.
Befides thefe extei-.five countries, Charles added to his
territories the whole of Germany and Pannonia -, fo
that the French now had the jurlfdiflion of all the^
country from eatl to well, from the Ebro in Spaii-^
to the Villula ; and from north to fouth, from the
duchy of Bencventum to the river Eyder, the boun-
dary between Germany and the dominions of Denmark-
In acquiring thefe extenfive dominions Charles had been
guilty of horrid and repeated maifacres, for which,
however, he had been in fome meafure excufable by the
barbarity and rebellious difpolition of the people with
whom he had to deal, upon whom no mild meafures
would probably have had any eftcL^. His eftablilhing
of fchools throughout the conquered provinces, ihowed
alfo his inclination to govern his fubjecls in peace,
and to take proper ileps for their civilization ; though
indeed many parts of his private conduft fhowed no
fmall inclination to cruelty ; particularly the fate of
the Ions of Carloraan, of whom no account could ever
be obtained. His advice to his fon Louis indeed was
excellent ; exhorting him to confider his people as his
children ; to be very mild and gentle in his admini-
flration, but firm in the execution of jullice ; to re-
ward merit •, promote his nobles gradually ; choofe mi-
nillers deliberately, but not remove them capricioully
or without fufficient reaforu All thefe prudent maxims,
however, were not fufficient to enable Louis to govern
dominions fo extenfive, and people fo turbulent as he
had to deal with. At the time of the deccafe of his
father this prince was about 36 years of age, and had
married Ermengarde, daughter of the count of Hef-
bai of the diocele of Liegt, by whom he had three
fons, Lothaire, Pepin, and Louis. Lothaire, the eldeft,
was affociated with himfelf in the empire, and the two
youngeft were intrufted with the governments of Aqui-
tain and Bavaria. Every one of the princes proved un-
laithful to their father, as well as enemies to one an-
other. The death of Ermengarde, and the marriage of
the emperor with Judith a princefs of Ba\'aria, artful
but accomplilhed, proTcd the firft foiirce of calamity to
the empire. Ir» the year 823, Cliarles, the emperor's
youngeft fon, was born •, and his pretenfions became in
time more fatal to the public tranquillity than the am-
bition and difobedience of all the reft. Various parts
of the Imperial dominions were likewife affaultcd by
foreign enemies. The inhabitants of Brittany and Na-
varre revolted ; the Moors invaded C.italonia ; while
the ambition of Judith produced a war amongll the
brotliers themfelves. ci l"'"

Charles at firll had been appointed fovereign of that among th
part of Germany bounded by the rivers Danube, the ions of
Maine, the Neckar, and the Rhine ; the country of I^"'' '•'^
the Grifons and Burgundy, comprehending Geneva*^'"' '
and the Swifs cantons ; but this was oppofcd by tlie
three elder fons. Pepin and Louis advanced with the
united forces of Aquitain and Bavaria, while the Im-
perial

Decline of
his empire..

IRA

periul forces deferted their ftandard and joined the
■^ malcontents. The emperor was taken prifoncr, and
the emprefs retired to a monaftery. Lothaire, the
eldell of the young princes, to whom the relt found
themfelves obliged to fubmit, was the perfon ^vho re-
tained the emperor in his polVeffion-, but, notvvithftand-
ing his breach of duty, liis heart was touched with re-
morfe on accomit of the crimes he had committed.
Dreading the reproach of the world at large, and be-
ing threatened with the cenfures of the church, he
threw himfelf at his father's feet, and begged par-
don for his guilt, confenting to relinquirti the autho-
tity he had unjulUy ufui-ped. Thus Louis was re-
eftablilhed in his authority by the diet of the empire
which had met to depofe him. His firft ftep was to
recal his emprefs from the monaftery to which Ibe had
reared ; but this princefs, implacable in her refent-
ment, now perfecuted Lothaire to fuch a degree, that
he was obliged to join his two brothers Pepin and
Louis in a confederacy againft their father. The old
emperor thought to check this rebellious difpofition
by revoking his grant of Aquitain to Pepin, and con-
ferring it on his youngeft fon Charles, then only
nine years of age ; but Pope Gregory IV. conferred
the Imperial dignity itfelf on Lothaire, depofing the
unhappy monarch, and again fending the emprefs to a
nunnery in the foreft of Arden. The unnatural beha-
viour of his fon, ho^vever, once more excited the
compaffion of his fubjeiSls. Dreux, the billiop of
Mentz, ufed his intereft ivith Louis king of Bavaria
to arm his fubjefls in defence of his father and fove-
reign. In this enterprife the Bavarian monarch was
joined by the French and Saxons; fo that the aged
emperor was once more reftored, the emprefs releafed
from her mmnery, and Charles from his prifon, in the
year 833.

The ambition of Judith now fet matters once more
in a flame. Taking advantage of the affedHon her
huftand bore her, (he perfuaded him to inveft her fon
Charles with the fovereignty of Neuftria as well as
the dominions formerly afligned him. This was pro-
duftive of great difcontent on the part of Lothaire
and Pepin ; but their power ^vas now too much broken
to be able to accomplilh any thing by force of arms.
The death of Pepin, which happened foon after, pro-
duced a new divifion of the empire. The claims of
young Pepin and Charles, fons of the deceafed prince,
were entirely difregarded, and his French dominions
divided between the two brothers Charles and Lothaire,
die latter being named guardian to his infant nephew.
This enraged Louis of Bavaria, whofe interelf was
entirely neglected in the partition, to fuch a degree,
that he again revolted ; but the unexpefted appearance,
with the hoftile preparations of the Saxons, obliged
him to fubmit and afk pardon for his offences. Still,
however, the ambition of the emprefs kept matters in
a continual ferment, and the empire was again threat-
ened with all the calamities of civil war ; but before
thefe took place, the emperor died, in 841, after a moft
unfortunate reign of 27 years.

Louis was eminent for the mildnefs of his manners
and peaceful virtues, which procured him the title of
Le Debonnaire, or, " the gentle:" but fuch was the tur-
bulence and exceflive barbarity of the age in which he
lived, that all his virtues, Initead of procuring him

64 ] F R A

refpeft and efteem, were produflive only of contempt Tran'e.
and rebellion from thofe whom both duty and nature '—— v— ^
ought to have rendered the moft fubmifiive and obe-
dient.

The dcceale of the enipercr was followed bv a civil
war among his fons. The united forces of Lothaire
and his nephew Pepin were defeated by thofe of
Charles and Louis in a very bloody battle in the plains
of Fontenoy, where ico,0CO Franks periihed, in the
year 843. This viclory, however, bloody as it was,
did not decide the fortune of the war. The conquerors
having, through m.otivcs of intereft or jealoufy, retired
each into their own dominions, Lothaire found means
not only to recruit his fliattered forces, but prelTed the
other two princes fo vigoroufly, that they were glad
to confent to a new partition of the empire. By this
Lothaire ^vas allowed to poflefs the whole of Italy,
with the whole tracl of country between the rivers
Rhone and Rhine, as well as that between the INIeufe
and Scheldt. Charles had Aquitaine, with the country
lying between the Loire and the Menle ; while Lotus
had Bavaria, with the reft of Germany, from whence
he was diftinguiftied by the appellation of Lc/uis the
German. ^^

By this partition, Germany and France were dif- I>'V'fion of
joined in fuch a manner as never after^vards to be miit-^"* ""P''^"
ed under one head. That part of France which was
allowed to Lothaire, was from him called Lotharingia ,
and now Lorrain, by the gradual corruption of the
word. The fovereignty, however, which that prince
had purfued at the expence of every filial duty, and
purchafed with fo much blood, afforded him now but , .
little fatisfaftion. Difgufted with the cares and anxie-L .thaire
ties of his fituation, he fought relief in a monaftery in religns.
the year 855. On his retreat from the throne, he al-
lotted to his eldeft fon Louis II. the fovereignty of
Italy ; to his fecond fon Lothaire the territory of
Lorrain, with the title of king ; and to his youngeft ^j
fon Charles, fumamed the Bald, Provence, Dauphiny, Reign of
and part of the kingdom of Burgundy; fo that heChai'es<be
may be confidered as properly the king of France. ^*'^"
From the year 845 to 857 the provinces fubjefted to
his jurildlclion had been infefted by the annual de-
predations of the Normans, from whom Charles was
at lart fain to purchale peace at a greater expence than
might have carried on a fucceisful war. The people
of Brittany had alfo revolted ; a!id though obliged by
the appearance of Charles himfelf, at the head of a
powerful army, to return to their allegiance, they no
fooner perceived him again emba;:rafl"cd by the incur-
fions of the Normans, than they thre'.v off the yoke,
and under the condudl of their duke Louis fubdued
the neighbouring diocefc of Rennes ; after which ex-
ploit Louis affumed the title of king, which he tranf-
mitted to his fon Herifpee. By him Charles was to-
tally defeated ; and his fubjefts, perceiving the weak-
nefs of their monarch, put themfelves under tlie pro-
tedion of Louis the German. His ambition prompt-
ed him to give a ready ear to the propofal ; and there-
fore, taking tlie opportunity of Charles's abfence in
repelling an invafion of the Danes, he marched with a
formidable army into France, and was folemnly crown-
ed by the archbilhop of Sens in the year 857. Being
too confident of fuccels, however, and fancying him-
felf already eftabliftied on the throne, he was perfuade<l

F R A [

Tis'-e. to dirraifb liL German forces; whicli he had no focner
-~\~^ done, than Charles marched againft him with an army,
and Louis abandoned his new kingdom as eafily as he
had obtained it.

Notwithftanding this fuccefs, the kingdom of Cliarlcs
continued ftill in a very tottering fituation. The Nor-
mans baraifed him in one quarter, and the king of
Brittany in another. He marched againft the latter
in the year 860 ; but had the misfortune to receive a
total defeat, after an engagement which lafted two days.
The victory was chietiy O'.ving to a noted warrior na-
med Robert le Fort, or the Strong, who commanded
the Bretons ; but Charles found means to gain him
over to his party, by inverting him with the title of
duke of France, including the country which lies be-
tween the rivers Seine and Loire.

For fonie time the abilities of Robert continued to
fupport the tottering throne of Charles ; but the diffi-
culties returned on the death of that hero, who was
killed in repelling an invafion of the Danes. Some
amends was indeed made for his lofs by the death of the
king of Lorrain in the year 869 ; by which event the
territories of Charles were augmented by the cities of
Lyons, Vienne, Toul, Befancon, Verdun, Cambray,
Viviers and Urez, together with the territories of
Hainault, Zealand, and Holland. Cologne, Utrecht,
Treves, I\Ientz, Straihurg, with the reft of the ter-
ritories of Lothaire, were alhgned to Louis the German.

All this time the Normans ftill continued their in-
curiions to fuch a degree, that Solomon king of Brit-
tany was perfuaded to ioin his forces to thofe of Charles,
in order to rec-l the common enemy. The event
proved unfortunate to the Normans ; for their principal
kaders were befieged in Anglers, and obliged to pur-
chafe leave to .ispart by relinquiihing all the fpoil they
had taken. Charles thus freed from a formidable ene-
my, began to afpire to the Imperial cro^vn, which
about this time became vr; unt by the death of Louis.
TTiis belonged of right •. Louis the German ; but
Charles, having inftanu/ aiTembled a powerful army,
marched with it into Italy before Louis could be ap-
prifed of his defigns ; and being favourably received at
Rome, the Imperial crc«%-n was put on his head with-
out any helitation by the pope, in the year 873. Louis,
enraged at his difappointment, difcharged his fury on
the defencelefs country of Champagne ; and though
the approach of Charles obliged him for the preient
to retire, yet he continued his preparations with fuch
vigour, that Charles would in all probability have found
him a very formidable adverfary, had he not been taken
off by death in the year 877. Charles was no fooner
informed of his brother's deceafe, than he invaded the
dominions of his fon Louis, who poffeffed Franconia,
I'huringia, the Lower Lorrain, with fome other terri-
tories in that quarter. The enterprife, however, prov-
ed unfuccefsful. Charles, though fuperior in num-
bers, was defeated with great flaughter, and had fcarcely
lime to reunite his fcattered forces, when he was in-
formed that the Normans had invaded his territories,
laid "arte part of that country, and taken poffeflion of
the city of Rouen. So many difafters affecled him in
fuch a manner that he fell dangeroufly il), and was
fcarcely recovered of his ficknefs when he found himlelf
(ailed into Italy to the afliftance of the rope againft

Vol. IX. Part I.

d5 ] F R A

the Saracef.s, whofe invafions were encouraged by the Kr.in r

dukes of Bcneventum and the Greek emperor. Charles " v — -

pafled into Italy with only a few followers ; but when
he came to Pavia, at which place the pontiff had ap-
pointed to meet him, he was informed that Carloman
king of Bavaria, and fon of Louis the German, was
already in Italy with a powerful army, and laid claim
to the imperial title in virtue of his father's right.
Charles prepared to oppofe him by force of ajms ; but •
his generals confpired againft him, and the foldiers de-'
clared their refolation not to pafs the Alps. On this
he was obliged to retire to France, at the very moment
that Carloman, dreading his power, prepared to return
to Germany. This was the laft of Charles's enterprifes.
His journey brought on a return of his indifpolition,
which was rendered fatal through the treachery of a
Jewiih phyGcIan named Zedechius, who adminlftered
poifon to him under pretence of curing his malady. He i/uoi-
He expired in a mlferable cottage upon Mount Cenis, I'oneu.
in the 54th year of his age, and 38th of his reign over
the kingdom of France.

The ambition of Charles had been produftive ofR=ignof
much diftrefs both to himfelf and to his fubjefts. HisLumMue
fon Louis, fumamed, from a defeA in his fpeech, ^/,^^tanimtrtr
Stammerer,^ was of a quite different difpofition ; but his
feeble adminiftration was ill calculated to retrieve mat-
ters in their prefent fituation. He died on the loth
of April 879, while on a march to fupprefs fome in-
hirreclions in Burgundy. He left his queen Adelaide
pregnant ; who fome time after his deceafe was deliver-
ed of a fon, named Charles. After his death followed
an interregnum ; during which a faclion was formed
for letting afide the children of Louis the Stammerer,
in favour of the German princes, fons to Louis the
brother of Charles the Bald. This fcheme, however,
proved abortive ; and the two fons of the late king,
Louis and Carloman, were crowned kings of France.
Another kingdom was at that time erected by an al-
fembly of the ftates, namely, the kingdom of Provence,
which confifted of the countries noiv called Lifomiois,
Sazwij, Dauphiny, Franche Com/tie, and part of the duchy
of Burgundy ; and the kingdom was given to Duke
Bofon, brother-in-law to Charles the Bald. In 88 1,
both kings of France died ; Louis, as was fufpedled,
by poifon; and Carloman of a wound he received ac-
cidentally while hunting. 'J'his produced a let ond in-
terregnum ; which ended with the calling in of Charles
the Grofs, emperor of Germany. His reign was more
unfortunate than that of any of his predeceffors. 'I'he
Normans, to whom he had given leave to fettle in
Friefland, failed up the Seine with a fleet of 700 fhips,
and laid fiege to Paris. Charles, unable to force them
to abandon their undertaking, prevailed on them to
depart by a large fum of money. But as the king
could not advance the money at once, he allowed them
to remain in the neighbourhood of Paris during the
winter ; and they in return plundered the country,
thus amaffmg vaft wealth befides the fum which Charles
had proraifed. After this ignominious tranfaiftion
Charles returned to Germany, in a very declining ftate
of health both as to body and mind. Here he quar-
relled with his emprefs ; ^nd being abandoned by all
his friends, he was dcpofed, and reduced to fuch
diftrefs, that he would not even have had bread to eat,
1 had

Family of
Charles the
Great fup-
planted by
Hugh Ca.
pet.

F R A [ 66 ]

had Vie not been fupplied by the arclibifhop of McTitz, on the throne,
' out of the principle of charity.

On the dcpofition of Charles the Grofs, Eudes count
of Paris was chofen king by the nobility during the
minoriiy of Charles the fon of Adelaide, afterwards
named Chories the Simple. He defeated the Normans,
and repreffed the power of the nobility ; on which ac-
count a faction was formed in favour of Charles, who
was fent for, with his mother, from England. Eudes
did not enter into a civil ivar ; but peaceably refigned
the greatcft part of the kingdom to him, and confent-
ed to do homage for the reft. He diedToon after this
agreement, in the year 898.

During the reign of Charles the Simple, the French
government declined. By the introduftion of fiefs,
thofe noblemen who had got into the poiTeflion of ge-
vernments, having thefe confirmed to them and their
heirs for ever, became in a manner independent fove-
reigns : and as thefe great lords had others under them,
and they in like manner had others under them, and
even thefe again had their vaflals ; inflead of the eafy
and equal government which prevailed before, a vaft
number of infupportable little tyrannies was erefled.
The Normans, too, ravaged the country in the moll
terrible manner, and defolated fome of the fineil pro-
vinces in France. At laft Charles ceded to Rollo, the
king or captain of thefe barbarians, the duchy of Neu-
If ria ; who thereupon became a Chriftian, changed his
own name to Robert, and that of his principality to
Normandy.

During the remainder of the reign of Charles the
Simple, and the entire reign of Louis IV. futnamed
the S/rangcr, Lothaire, and Louis V. the power of the
Carlo\'ingian race continually declined ; till at laft they
\vere fupplanted by Hugh Capet, who had been creat-
ed duke of France by Lothaire. This revolution hap-
pened in the year 987, and was brought about much
m the fame manner as the former one had been by Pe-
pin. He proved an active and prudent monarch, and
poiTefTed fuch other qualities as were reqiufite for keep-
ing his tumultuous fubjcfts in awe. He died on the
24th of Oflober 997, leaving his dominions in perfefl
quiet to his fon Robert.

The new king inherited the good qualities of his fa-
ther. In his reign the kingdom was enlarged by the
death of Henry duke of Burgundy, the king's uncle,
to whom he fell heir. This new aeceflion of territory,
however, was not obtained without a war of feveral
years continuance on account of fome pretenders to
the fovereignty of that duchy ; and had it not been for
[he aftiftance of the duke of Normandy, it is doubtful
v/hether the king would ha%'e fucceeded. — As Robert was
of opinion, that peace and tranquillity were preferable to
wide extended dominions with a precarious tenure, he re-
fufed the kingdom of Italy and imperial crown of Ger-
many, both uliich were offered him. He died on the 20th
of July 1030^ having reigned 33 years, and lived 60.

Robert was fucceeded by his eldeft fon Henry I.
v<Ho in the beginning of his reign met with great op-
pofition from his mother. She had always hated him ;
and preferred his younger brother Robert, in whofe fa-
vour (he now raifed an infurre61ion. By the alhftance
of Robert duke of Normandy, however, Henry over-
came all his enemies, and eftablilhed hirafelf firmly up-

f R A

In return for this, he fupported Wil- France,
liam, Robert's natural ion, and afterwards king of~~~v-~~'
England, in the poffeffion of the duchy of Normandy.
Afterwards, however, growing jealous of his power,
he not only fupported the pretenders to the duchy of
Normandy fecretly, but invaded that country himfelf in
their favour. This enterprife proved unfuccefsful, and
Henry was obliged to make peace : but no Cncere re-
conciliation ever followed ; for the king retained a deep
fenfe of the difgrace he had met with, and the duke ne-
ver forgave him for invading his domhilons. The trea-
ty between them, therefore, was quickly broken ; and
Henry once more invaded Normandy with two armies,
one commanded by himfelf, and the other by his bro-
ther. The firft was haraffed by continual fkirmifties,
and the laft totally defeated ; after which Henry was
obliged to agree to fuch terms as the duke thought
proper : but the rancour between them never cealed,
and was in reality the caufe of that implacable averfioii
which for a long feries of years produced perpetual
quarrels between the kings of France and thofe of the
Norman race in England.

Henry died in 1059, not without a fufpicion of be- p, j ■*'
ing poifoned ; and was fucceeded by his eldeft fon Phi-
lip, at that time in the eighth year of his age. Bald-
win earl of Flanders %vas appointed his guardian ; and
died in the year 1 066, about the time that William of
Normandy became king of England. After the death
of his tutor, Philip began to ftiow a very jnfincere,
haughty, and oppreffive dilpofition. He engaged in a
war with William the Conqueror, and fupported his
fon Robert in his rebellion againll him J , But after { See Eng^
the death of William, he affifted Robert's brothers '"'"'. N°8s*i-
againlf him ; by ivhich means he was forced to confent
to a partition of his dominions.

In 1092, King Philip being wearied of his queen
Bertha, procured a divorce from her under pretence of
confanguinity, and afterwards demanded in marriage
Emma daughter to Roger count of Calabria. The
treaty of marriage was concluded ; and the princefs was
fent over, richly adorned with jewels, and with a large
portion in ready money : but the king, inftead of
efpoufing her, retained her fortune, and difmifled the
princefs herfelf, carrying off from her hulhand the coun-
tefs of Anjou, who was efteemed the handfomell wo-
man in France. With her he was fo deeply enamour-
ed, that not fatisfied with the illegal poflefllon of lier
perfon, he procured a divorce between her and her hui-
band, and prevailed upon fome Norman bilhops to fo-
lemnize his own marriage with her. The ^vhole of
thefe tranfadions, however, were fo fcandalous, that
the pope having caufed them to be revifed in a coun-
cil at Autun, in the year 1094, pronounced fentence
of excommunication againft Philip in cafe he_did not
part with the countefs. On his repentance, the cen-
fure was taken off; but as the king p.aid no regard to
his promifes, he was, in IC95, excommunicated a fe-
cond time. He again profeffed repentance, and was
abfolved ; but foon after, living with the counte(s»of
Anjou as formerly, he was excommunicated a third
time. This conduft, fo unworthy of a prince, expof-
ed hira to the contempt of tlie people. Too many of
the nobility follo^\ed his example, and at the fame
time defpiftd his authority ; not only making war up-

F R A

Ftarrff. on each otlier, but fpoiling and robbing his fubjeifls
"""V""^ with impunity.

In the year mo, Philip prevailed on the court of
Rome to have his affair reviewed in an aOTembly at
Poicliers ; ivhere, notwithftanding his utmort efforts,
fentence of excommunication was a fourth time pro-
nounced againll him. Yet, in fpite of all thcfe fen-
tences, as Oueen Bertha \vas dead, and the count of
Anjou offered, for a large fum of money, to give
wluitover alTiftance was requillte for procuring a dif-
penfation, Philip at lad prevailed, and the countefs
was proclaimed queen of France. But though the
king's domeftic affairs were now in fome meafure quiet-
ed, his negligence in government had thrown the af-
fairs of the nation into the greateft diforder. He there-
fore alfociated with him in the government his eldert
fon Louis. This prince was the very reverfe of his fa-
thei ; and by his adlivity and refolution, keeping con-
ftantly in the field with a confiderable body of forces,
he reduced the rebellious nobility to fubjeftion, and,
according to the bell hiftorians, at this time faved the
(late from being utterly fubverted.

For thefe ferrices the queen looked upon the younjj
prince with fo jealous an eye, and gave him fo much
dillurbance, that he found it neceflary to retire for fome
time into England ; where he was received by King
Henry I. with the greateft kindnefs. He had not been
long at court, before Henry received by an exprefs a
letter from Philip ; telling him, that, for certain im-
portant reafons, he Ihould be glad if he clofely confined
his fon, or even defpatched him altogether. The King
of England, however, inftead of complying with this
infamous requeft, Ihowed the letter to Louis, and fent
him home with all imaginable marts of refpeft. Im-
mediately on his return, he demanded juftice ; but
the queen procured poifon to be given him, which
operated fo violently that his life was defpaired pf. A
ftranger, however, undertook the cure, and fucceeded ;
only a palenefs remained in the prince's face ever af-
tenvards, though he grew fo fat that he was fumamed
f/ie Gro/s.

On his recovery, the prince w-as on the point of re-
venging his quarrel by force of arms ; but his father
having caufed the queen to make the moft humble fub-
miffions to him, his refentment was at; length appeafed,
and a perfect reconciliation took place,
ouis the Nothing memorable happened in the reign of King

irors. Philip after this reconciliation. He died in the year

1 1 08, and was fucceeded by lus fon Louis the Grofs.
The firft years of his reign were difturbed by infur-
reflions of his lords in different places of the king-
dom ; and thefe infurredlions were the more trouble-
fome, as they were fecretly fomented by Henry I. of
England, that by weakening the power of France
his duchy of Normandy might be the more fecure.
This quickly brought on a war ; in which Henry
was defeated, and his fon William obliged to do ho-
mage to Louis for the duchy of Normandy. As tlie
kings of England and France, however, were rivals,
and exceedingly jealous of each other, the latter
efpou'isd the caufe of WilHam the ion of Robert duke
of Normandy, whom Henry had unjuftly deprived of
that duchy. This brought on a new war ; in which
Louis, receiving a great defeat from Henry, was obliged
to make peace upon fuch terms as his antagonift thought

[ C" J F R A

Tlic tranquillity, however, was but of (liort rrance.
Louis rencived his intrigues in favour of'-^'V—

proper
duration.

William, and endeavoured to form a confedera.
againlt Henry; but the latter found means not only
to dilhpate this confederacy, but to prevail upon Hen-
ry \\ emperor of Germany to invade France with the
whole llrength of the empire on one fide, while he
prepared to attack it on the other. But Louis hav-
ing coilefted an army of 200,000 men, both of them
thought proper to defilt. Upon this the king ot
France would have marched into Normandy, in order
to put William in poirefhon of that duchy. His great
vaffals, however, told him they would do no fuch
thing ; that they had aifembled in order to defend the
territories of France from the invafion of a foreign
prince, and not to enlarge his power by dellroyint;
that balance which arofe from the king of England'^-
polfefTion of Normandy, and which they reckoned ne-
ceifary for their own fafety. This was followed by s
peace with Henry ; ^vhich, as both monarchs had now
feen the extent of each other's power, was made on
pretty equal terms, and kept during the life of Louis,
who died m 113 7, leaving the kingdom to his fon
Louis VII.

The young king was not endowed «-ith any of thofe LouisVlf .
qualities which conftitute a great monarch. From a weak
the fuperllition common to the age in which he lived, I"''"'^"^
he undertook an expedition into the Holy Land, from
whence he returned without glory. In this expedition
he took his queen Eleanor along with him ; but was
fo much offended with her gallantries during her ftay
there, as well as her behaviour aftenvards, that he di-
vorced her, and returned the uuchy of Guienne which
he received with her as a portion. Six weeks after
this (he married Henry duke of Normandy, count of
Anjou and Maine, and heir apparent to the cro^vn of
England. This marriage was a very great mortifica-
tion to Louis ; and procured him the furname of tie
7'oung, on account of the folly of his conduft. When
Henry afcended the throne of England, fome wars
Were carried on between liim and Louis, with little
advantage on either fide : at lail, however, a perfeft
reconeiliation took place ; and Louis took a voyage to
England, in order to vifit the Ihrine of St Thomas of
Canterbury. On his return he was ftruck with an
apoplexy ; and though he recovered for that time, yet
he continued ever after paralytic on the right fide.
After ha\'ing languilhed for about a year under this
malady, he died on the i8th of September IlSo, leav-
ing the kingdom to his fon Philip. ,,

This prince, furnamed The Gift of God, The il/flfna- Philip ihe
n-mous, and The Conqueror, during his lifetime ; and, asGre.it.
if all thefe titles had fallen fliort of his merit, ftyled
^uguflus after his death, — is reckoned one of the
greateft princes that ever fat on the throne of France,
or any other. — It doth not, however, appear that thefe
titles were altogether v.cll founded. In the beginning
of his reign he was oppofed by a ftrong faciHon excited
by his mother. This uidced he fuppreffed with a vi-
gour and fpirit which did him honour ; but his taking
part with the children of Henry II. of England in
their unnatural contefts with their father, and his
treacherous combination with John to feize his bro-
ther's kingdom when he was detained in prifon by tiie
emperor of Germany, muft be indelible ftains in hi»
I 2 characlei,

F R A [ 6i

France. cViarafter, and for ever exclude him from the title of
^~^' Alagnanimous. As to military ikill and perfonal va-
lour, he ^vas evidently inferior to Richard I. of Eng-
land ; nor can his recovering of the pro\'inces held by
the Englilh in France, from fuch a mean and daftardly
prince as King John, entitle him with any juflice to
the furnarae of Conqueror. In politics he was exadently
the dupe of the pope, ^vho made ufe of him to intimi-
date John into a fubminioiV, by promiiing him the king-
dom of England, which he never meant that Tie fhould
enjoy. An account of thefe tranfaclions, which are
the principal ones of this reign, is given under the ar-
ticle England, N° 121 — 141.
.45 . Philip died in 1223, and was fucceeded by his fon

T ,'5"[\- I'Ouis VIII. and he, in 1226, by Louis IX. aftenvards
■"_ " ' ifyled iV Lam's. This prince was certainly poiTcfled
of many good qualities, but deeply tinftured with the
fuperftition of the times. This induced him to en-
gage in t'.vo eroifades. The firrt was againll the
Saracens in Egypt : in which he was taken prifoner
by the Infidels, and treated with great cruelty •, but
at laft obtained his ranfom, on condition of paving a
million of pieces of gold, and furrendering the city
of Damietta. He no fooner regained his liberty, than
he entered Syria with a view of doing fomething wor-
thy of his rank and character. From this expedition
he was obliged to return fooner tlian he intended, by
the news of the deceafe of his mother Q^ueen Blanch,
•,vhom he had appointed regent in his abfence, and
'.vho had managed the national affairs with the greateft
prudence. The king, however, found many dilorders
in llie kingdom upon his return ; and thefe he fet
himfelf to reform with the utmoit diligence. Hav-
ing lucceeded in this, he yielded to Henry III. of
England, the Limoufin, Q^uerci, Perigord, and fome
other places ; in confideratlon of Henry and his fon
Prince Edward their renouncing, in the fuUeft manner,
all pretenfions to Normandy and the other provinces of
France which the Englilh had formerly poflefTed.

The reputation of this monarch for candour and
juftice was fo great, that the barons of England, as
well as King Henry III. confented to make him um-
-pire of the differences which fublilled between them.
But though he decided this matter very julfly, his
decifion was not produdllve of any good effeiil. At
lall the king, having fettled every thing relating to his
kingdom in a proper manner, let out on another croi-
fade for Africa ; where he died of the plague, on the
25th of Auguft 1720.
jj Notuithllanding the misfortunes of Louis, his fuc-

Philij the ceffor Philip, furnamed r/ie Hardy, continued the war
Hard)-. againft the Infidels with great vigour. Being rein-
forced by his uncle Charles king of Sicily, he brought
the war to a more fortunate conclufion than his prede-
ceffor had been likely to do. The Saracens were de-
feated in two engagements, and the king of Tunis
obliged to fue for peace ; offering at the fame time to
double the tribute he formerly paid to the cro^vn of
Sicily ; to reimburfe the expences of the war j and to
permit the Chriftian religion to be freely propagated
throughout his dominions. Having accomplilhed this,
the two princes fet fail for Europe ; but the feeds of
the diftemper which had infeded the army in Africa
not being eradicated, broke forth on their arrival in
Sicily, and raged for fome time with great violence..

] F R A

Befides a vafl number of common people, the king's Fr.ir.ce.
brother John, his queen Ifabella, with his brother and " '
fifter-in-law the king and queen of Navarre, and his
uncle and aunt the count and countefs of Poicf iers, pe-
ridied by this dreadful malady.

On his return to France, Philip took poffeffion of the
counties of Provence and Thoidoufe ; married his fe-
cond fon, though then very young, ta the only daugh-
ter of the king of Navarre ; while he himfelf efpoufed
Mary the daughter of the duke of Brabant, reckoned
one of the mort beautiful princeflcs of the age. He
Iteadily enforced the regulations of his predeceflbr,
xvho had prohibited the barons from making private
ivars upon one another ; procured the friendlhip of
Edward I. of England by ceding to him the county
of Agenois •, and entered into a war with Spain in or-
der to fupport the pretenfions of his nephews, the In-
fants de la Cerda, to the throne of Caftile.

The e\ents of this war were of no great import-
ance ; and the king's attention was quickly called off
from them by the death of his eldeft fon Louis at the
age of twelve years. This difaftrous event happened
in the year 1275, "o' without a fufpicion of poifon ;
and the yomig queen, Mary, was accufed by a fur-
geon named La Brofl'e as guilty of his death. Philip
gave fome credit to the accufation : but having applied
to a nun, who pretended to be infpired, for full fatis-
faftion, her anfwer proved fatal to La Broffe. The
queen being cleared by this pretended prophetefs. La
Broffe was accufed of a treafonable correfpondence with
the king of Caftile, and condemned to death. The
manner of his trial and execution, hoivever, were fuch,
that the tide of popular favour was turned ; La Broffe
was by the voice of the people declared to be innocent,
and the king and queen themfelves loudly condemned.
During thefe unfavourable circumftances, the Sicilians,
over whom Charles of Anjou had eftablilhed his au-
thority, inftigated by John of Procida, a noble exile,
came to a refolution of freeing themfelves at once from 47
the French yoke by a general maffacre. This cruel ^■'^^^^^''^^j
refolution was accordingly put in execution j and thej^ siciiji
French, to the number of 8000, murdered in one
night ; after which Peter of Arragon, failed to the
illand, where he was received by the inhabitants as
their king and faviour. Charles was fenfibly affefled
by this misfortune : and having laid fiege to Mellma,
failed direftly to Marfeilles, where he obtained a power-
ful reinforcement. But during his abfence on this
occafion, his fon, to whom he had intrufted the care of
the liege, having ralhly ventured an engagement w4th
the Spanilh tleet, was entirely defeated and taken pri-
foner ; which fo much affeded the father that he died.
of grief, and Sicily was infeparably attached to the
houfe of Arragon.

The misfortunes of Charles ivere followed by others
equally great to Philip himfelf. Pope Martin IV. in
the warmth of his zeal for the caufe of the duke of
Anjou, had excommunicated Pedro king of Arragon,
and bellowed his kingdom on Charles of Valois, a
younger fon of the king of France. In attempting
to defend himfelf againft the execution of this unjuil
fentence, Pedro was mortally wounded ; but, foon af-
ter, the French fleet being defeated by that of Arra-
gon, the king was fo much afferted by the misfortune
that he fell lick. His difeafe was sugmented by the,

heat.

F R A

he2t of the climate and the fatigues of war ; fo that,
- quite worn out with grief and infirmities, he expired
at Perpignan in the 41ft year of his age, and 1 6th of
his reign.

By the death of Philip the Hardy the French crown
. devolved on his fecond fon, called alio Philip, and from
the beauty of his perlbn furnanied ihe Fair ; who had
efpoufed the princefs of Navarre, and at the time of
hi5 acceffion was in his 17th year. Ey the marriage
wiih this princefs he had obtained the counties of
Champagne and Brie ; yet with all this increafe of
power he found hirafelf unable to fupport the war in
which his predeceflbr had engaged. For this reafon
he thought proper to abandon the intereft of the In-
fants de la Cerda, and fettle the differences with Caf-
tile. The treaty was concluded by the rcediation of
Edward I. of England ; at whofe intercelTion Charles
the Lame, fon to the duke of Anjou already men-
tioned, was releafed from his captivity ; Edward him-
felf paying part of his ranfom. On this Charles con-
fented to renounce his claim on Sicily ; and Philip him-
felf promifed that his kinfman Philip of Valois ihould
renounce all pretenfions to the crown of Arragon. . In
return for this generofity, the latter obtained the eldeft
daughter of Charles, with the territories of Anjou and
Maine as a dowry.

The tranquillity procured by this treaty, however,
was foon interrupted by differences ivith Edward the
promoter of it; Pope Bonifice VIII. and Guy de
Dampier, count of Flanders. The difference with
England took place by a mere accident. A Norman
and an Englifli veifel having met off the coalf of Bay-
onne, and having both occafion for water, the crews
met and quarrelled at the fame fpring. A Norman
was killed in the f|uabble by his oisTi weapon, with
which he alTaulted an Englilhman, as the latter pre-
tended : but however the matter was, complaints were
made by the Normans to Philip ; who, %vithout giving
himfelf much trouble to inquire into the merits of the
caufe, inftantly allowed them to redrefs their fuppofed
injuries. Oa this a kind of pir,atical war commenced
between the two nations, in which the two fovereigns
for fome time took no active part ; though other na-
tions interfered •, the Irijh and Dutch feamen fiding
with the Englilh, and thofe of Flanders and Genoa
with the French. Thus the powers on both fides were
gradually augmented, till at laft the affriir became fo
ferioas, that in one engagement 15,000 French are
faid to have perilhed. Philip, alarmed at fuch a car-
nage, fummoned the king of England as his vafTal to
attend ; and, oa his refufal, declared his elfates in
France to be forfeited. After a number of negotia-
tions, Philip declared that he would be fatisfied with
the nominal celTion of the province of Guienne, which
he engaged intlantly to reilore to the king of England
as foon as it lliould be put into his hands. Edward
complied with his demand j but no fooner had the
French monarch obtained pofTefTion of that country,
than he perfilled in the forfeiture of the Englifh pof-
felTions in France j which treacherous proceeding in-
Hantly produced a war betwixt the two nation;. Ed-
ward, that he might defend himfelf the better againlt
fuch a formidable adverfary, concluded a treaty with
the emperor Adolphus, together v.ith the counts of
Brittany, Holland, Bar, Juliers, Gaeldres, and Flan-

[ 69 }

F R A

ders ; while Philip flrengthencd fumftlf by an alliance Fiance

with John Baliol of Scotland ; and thus laid the foun-' v — =-

dation of that ftrici union which took place between
France and Scotland for two centuries. During this
war the French made a defccnt on the ccall of Eng-
land, and deftroyed the town of Dover ; while Ed-
ward, in revenge, landed in Gafrony with an army of
50,cco men. No great exploits, however, wete per-
formed with this mighty armament j and both parties
finding themfelves pretty equally matched, confented
to a fufpenfion of arms for two years ; during which a
peace was finally concluded by the mediation of Pope jo
Boniface VIII. Guienne was reftored ; Edward Peace con.
efpoufed Margaret the fifter of Philip j while his"=''"i^''-
daughter Ifabella was given in marriage to tke prince
of Wales.

Both Philip and Edward behaved to the allies whom
they had engaged in their caufe with equal perfidy.
Baliol was abandoned by Philip to the refentment of
Edivard ; ivhile Guy, earl of Flanders, was left equal-
ly expofed to the refentment of Philip. ,j

The reconciliation betwixt the French and Englifh 'Dlflerf nee
monarchs was foon followed by a difference wnth Pope^^'''^ Pope
Boniface, whom they had appointed mediator between ^o"''^":^-
them. Senfible of his afliiming difpofition, how-
ever, they had inferted in the reference made to him,
that he was chofen as a private man, and not as
the fuccelFor of St Peter. The haughty pontiff,
however, foon fhowed, that he was not by any means
to be treated as a private perfon, and a con tell with
Philip quickly enfued. Boniface began with forbidding
the clergy to grant the king any fubfidies without
firft obtaining the confent of the Holy See, under the
pain of excommunication. Philip revenged himfelf by
prohibiting any ecclefiaflics from fending money out
of the kingdom mthout his leave •, and by protecling
the Colonnas, who were the implacable enemies of Bo-
niface. By this his holinefs was fo much irritated that
he fent a mofl abufive letter to Philip ; after which he
fummoned the clergy of France to a council at Rome ;
which Philip retaliated, by feiziiig the temporalities
of thofe who obeyed the fummons, and recalling his
brother Charles of Valois, who had the title of the
Pope's General. Senfible, hov.-ever, of the danger that
attended this contell, he delpatched two eraiffaries, un-
der pretence of conciliating the differences, to levy
fuch a body of troops as might execute his hoftile pur-
ppfes againfl the holy father. With thefe he fuddenly
inverted the pope in his native city of Anegnia ; and
while the bull was preparing for the excommunication
of Philip, and releafing his fiibjefls from their obe-
dience, the pope himfelf was obliged to furrender pri-
foner to the troops of the prince whom he defigned to ■
anathematize.

Though Boniface had been at this time delivered
up to the troops of Philip through the treachery of the
people of Anegnia, yet he was no fooner taken pri-
foner and brought to diilrtf*:, than they refcued him
from his guards and conveyed him to Rome, where he' ,,
foon after died of grief and Ihame. His fuccefTor Be-Deaihof
nedifl revoked the excommunication of Boniface, and Bomtacf,
attempted to regain the allegiance of Philip by gentle
means ; but, before this could be effeiited, he himfelf
was cut off by death, not without llrong fufpicions of
poifon. After his deceafe Philip oGered to procure

«lir

54
Jixpeditio:
of Philip
agatnll th
earl of
rianders.

•F R A [7

tlie papsl chair for Bertrand ardibiiliop of Bourdeaux,

' provided he would condemn the memory of Boniface,
reftore the hoi-.ours and eftates of the Colonnas which
had been forfeited, allow him, for five years, the tenths

. of the clergy of France, and comply with a requeft
which at that time it was not proper to divulge.

Bertrand having complied ^vith the terms propofed
bv the king, afceiided the papal throne by the name
of Charles V. but narrowly efcaped being killed on bis
return from the cathedral of Lyons, by the falling of a
wall ^vhich had been - overloaded by the number of
people who came to fee the proceffion ; by \vhich acci-
dent the duke of Brittany was killed, and the king
and count of Valois coniiderably bruifed. The neiv
pope fixed his refidence at Avignon, where he punc-
tually complied with all the conditions of the treaty,
except that of condemning the conduct of Boniface,
which he abfolutely refufed to do ; and, inlfead of
doing fo, vindicated it with much lolemnity, after hav-
ing inquired into the matter, or pretended to do fo.
The other condition, which Philip had at firft con-
cealed, was difcovered by the death of the emperor
Albert of Auftria -, after which event he defired Cle-
ment to alTift him in placing hij brother Charles of
Valois on the Imperial throne. But his holinels, ap-
prehenfive of the danger which might accrue to himfelf
from being furrounded with the po^verful relations of
Philip, urged the diet to proceed inftantly to an elec-
tion ; recommending to them Henry of Luxemburg
as a proper perfon to fill the Imperial throne. In this
fcheme he fucceeded fo well, that the eleflion was over
before Philip could arrive at Avignon ; and the only
confolation the French monarch could obtain for his
difappointment was the pofl'elTion of the city of Lyons,
which had Wtherto maintained an independency under
its archbiihop ; but was now perfuaded to fubmit- to
the authority of Philip.

I In the mean time Guy, earl of Flanders, being
abandoned by his ally Edward king of England, was

■ obliged to throw^ himfelf on the mercy of the French
monarch, who had fent his brother, Charles of Va-
lois, with a powerful army to invade his dominions.
From the latter indeed he had obtained a promife, that
if he could not, within a year, compofe the differences
fubCfting between hira and Philip, he (hould be at li-
berty to retire, and purfue what meafures he pleafed.
But Philip, in order to gratify the refentment ivhich
his queen entertained againft the captive prince, de-
tained him, with two of his fons, in clofe confinement,
while he himfelf entering Flanders in triumph, was
everywhere received as fovereign of the country ; and
at his departure appointed John de Chatillon, a re-
lation of the queen, to govern thofe newly acquired
territories.

The new governor took care to repair the fortifica-
tions which had been fufFered to decay by reafon of the
afliduous application of the Flemings to trade \ but be-
ing of a very haughty and tyrannical difpofition, and
the poverty of the times not allowing his mafter to
keep regular garrifons, an infurrcftion quickly took
place. This would have been effeftually quelled by
the diligence of the magiftrates, had not Chatillon un-
luckily entered Bruges, and publicly difplaycd two
hogflieads of ropes, which he threatened to employ

in the execution of the inhabitants. On this they flew
3

F R A

£d«ardIII.
iJigland.

o 1

to arms, and malfacred 13:0 French ; Chatillon himfelf Fr.irr-.
being obliged to efcape their fury by fwimming over '~~v— -
the town ditch. The infurgents, now daily gathering
ftrength, foon amounted to an army of 6o,coo men,
who laid fiege to Courtray. Here they were ralhly
attacked in their trenches by the count d'Artois, who
met ^vith the reward of his temerity, being cut off
with 20, coo of his troops Phihp determined on re-
venge ; though the raifing another annv obliged him
to debafe the coin of the kingdom. Thus, however,
he was enabled to enter Flanders with inch a force as 55
would probably have fubdued the whole country, had queV°f '
not Edward artfully communicated to the queen of the coun.
France, as a fecret, a leigned corrcipondence between try pre.
the French nobility and the court of Rome ; by which ^ff^ntetl by
falfe intelhgence the king was induced to abandon the
enterprife without performing any thing worthy of the
armament he had fitted out. The war was continued
for fome time longer ; but the attempts of PhOip were
conftantly defeated by the fteady \-alour of the Fle-
mmgs ; and the onlv recompenle Philip obtained for
all his trouble and expence was the city of Courtray. 5-

The other remarkabk tranfaclions of this reign were Espulfion
the expulfion and confifcation of the eftates of the°'!''^
Templars, who at that time enjoyed itnmenfe poffef- -j-p'^ J' j.
fions in France. The confifcations took place without '*

any form of trial, and upwards of 50 of them were put
to death in a cruel manner. The grand mailer, vvith
three of his principal orhcers, were burnt by a flow fire
in the prefence of the king himfelf The whole body
of thefe unfortunate knights had been accufed of the
moft grofs ar.d abominable fenfualities. The particu-
lars were revealed, or pretended to be fo, by two cri-
minals who received their pardon for the dilcoveries
they made ; and thefe difcoveries were confirmed by
the confeflion of the Templars themfelves. But this
confeflion was after\vards retracted, as being extorted
from them by the fear of abfolute deftruftion ; and
thofe who fuffered, maintained their purity to the laft :
and on the whole, it was believed that Philip confulted
his avarice rather than his juftice by this cruel execu-
tion. The latter part of his life was embittered by
domeflic misfortunes. His three daughters-in-law,
Margaret daughter of the duke, and Jean and Blanch
" "~ rgundy, ^vho had married his thr

of the

fons, Louis, Philip, and Charles, ivere accufed of infi-
dehty to their hufbands. After a fevere examination,
Margaret and Blanch were condemned to perpetual im-
prifonment ; in which fituation Margaret was after'
wards flrangled by order of her huihand Louis. Their
paramours, Philip and Walter de Launay, two bro-
thers, were flayed alive, and aftersvards hung upon a
gibbet, with an uflier of the chamber, who had been
their confidant. The uneafinefs of mind which Phi-
lip fuffered on this account is luppofed to have impair-
ed his health, and he died of a confumption in the year
1395, the 4 ;th of his age, and 30th of his reign.

On the accefllon of Louis, furnamed the B-->//?fro:/j-,R.eigDoi
on account of his violent temper, he found his treafury Louis thr
fo much exhaufted, that he was obliged to delay for ^-"^IteryuS.
fome time the ceremony of his coronation %vith his new
queen Clemence, daughter of the king of Htmgary.
Finding the kingdom other^vife in a very diftrafted
ftate, he applied himfelf very diligently to appeafe the
difcontents of his fubjei?ls, and conciliate their afFeftion

F R A [7

by every means in liis power. In this he was alTuled
' by his uncle Charles of Valois, on whom he at length
entirely devolved the government of the kingdom.
This regent, however, behaved with fuch cruelty as is
fuppofed to have proved fatal to the king himfelf ; for
having put to death a nobleman named Enguerrand de
Pailier de Marignl, who enjoyed the confidence of the
late king, this cruelty was fo much relented, that his
friends were thought to have adminillered poifon to
the king ; who expired fuddenly after drinking a glafs
of cold wat«r, in the 26th year of his age, ^nd fecond
of his reign. Immediately after his death, Charles
prepared to difpute the fovereignty with the brothers
of the late fovereign. Philip cojnt of Poiftou, the
eldeft brother, was at that time at Rome afliiling in
the eleclion of a new pope •, and it was not until a
month after the death of his brother that he was able
to put an end to the intrigu&s ivhich took place on that
occanon : but on his arrival in France, the throne was
afTigned to him by the unanimous voice of the people.
His profpeds, however, were for a Ihort time clouded
by the queen dowager Clemence being delivered of a
fon, who has been enrolled among the kings of France
under the name of John I. His death in three weeks
fecured the throne to Philip ; ^vho, on account of the
tallhefs of his llature, was furnamed the Long. His
conduct proved fuperior to that of his predecelTor, who
had unfuccefsfully attempted to fubdue the Flemings,
and had even fuffered himfelf to be duped by their
count ; but Philip, by his vigorous behaviour, fo reduced
them, that they compelled their fovereign to confent
to a peace upon honourable terms. He furamoned
Ed.vard II. of England to do homage for his polTef-
lions in France ; but that monarch, finding himfelf in-
v^lved in diSculties, which rendered the \'irit inconve-
nient, lent excufes to Philip, which he was pleafed to
accept. As the French monarch had formerly taken
the crofs during the lifetime of his father, he now pro-
pofed to put his vow in execution ; but vvas diffuaded
from this by the pope himfelf, at whofe inflance he
fent an army iato Italy to put an end to the contend-,
ing fadions of the Guelphs and Gibbelines, who for fo
long time fiUed the countiy with blood and llaughter.
The event proved unfortunate ; and the difgrace was
rendered more mortifying by a contagious diftemper,
which fivept off many thoufands of French fubjects.
This was fuppofed by the fuperftitious people of tkoie
time^ to be occafioned by the Jews, who had confpired
with the Saracens to poifon the fprings ; and that the
execution of the projecl was committed to fome le-
pers who lived by themfelves in holpitals richly endow-
ed. On this a perfecution was inftantly commenced
againft thefe unfortunate men, and great numbers of
them were burnt alive ; while the Jews in general %vere
abandoned to the rage of the populace, who iniulted
their perfons, and plimdered their houfes without rc-
morfe.

The remaining part of the reign of Philip was fpcnt
in attempting to regulate the internal concerns of his
kingdom. A defign had been formed by his prede-
cefTors of ellablilhing a certain ftandard for the coin,
weights, and meifures, throughout France : and this
was adopted by Philip ; who, in order to carry it more
effeclually into execution, purchafcd from the counts
of Valois, Clermont, and Bourbon, their right of

I ] F R A

coinage within their own dominions. But notwith- France.

Handing all his endeavours for this purpofc, he never """"v— ^

could bring the fcheme to bear : nor indeed could he

in any degree conciliate the affedion of his fubjeds.

He died of a fever and dyfentery in the year 1322, the

28th year of his age, and 6th of his reign. ,3

By the death of Philip, the crown of France de- Reign df
volved on his brother Charles IV. who had obtained -h^rles the
the fumame of Fair. After fettling fome difputes with ^*"'
the duke of Burgundy, his next Hep was to dilTolve
iris marriage with Blanch, -(vlio llill continued in pri-
fon, and to efpoufe Mary the daughter of Henry em-
peror of Germany. This marriage was contraded
with a view to the Imperial crown itfelf, which had
been fo long feparated from that of France ; and in
1325 an opportunity offered for Charles to gratify his
ambition. At that time the Imperial dignity was dif-
puted between Louis of Bavaria and Frederic of Au-
ilria ; the latter of whom had been taken prifoner in a
battle with Louis. But Pope John, who entertained
an implacable hatred againrt Louis, fulminated the fen-
tence of excommunication againft him, intrufting the
execution of it to Leopold the brother of Ferdinand.
The king of France was induced to embark in the fame
caufe, by a promife of the fpoils of Bavaria ; while
Frederic himfelf confented to relinquilh his pretenfions
to the empire which he had fo unfuccelsfiully main-
tained. Louis, however, by inftantly releafing his pri-
foner, and difmilling him in an honourable manner,
engaged his friendftiip, and difarraed his moft formid-
able antagonift. But the pope was not to be fo dif-
appointed. A confiderable fum of money induced
Leopold to perfevere in his hoftilities, while it was
determined that a new council of eledors fliould be
held in order to transfer the Imperial crown to Charles.
In purfuit of this vifionary fcheme, the king of France
let out for the frontiers of Germany with a fplendid
army ; but foon found that there was no polTibility of
accomplilhing his wilhes. Leopold alone, from mo-
tives of intereft, remained his friend ; the reft Ihewed
the greateft indifference ; and even his brother-in-law
the king of Bohemia abicnted himfelf from the diet j
while in a (liort time the death of the queen put an end
to all connexions with that crou-n.

On the deceafe of Mary, Charles efpoufed Joanna
daughter to the count of Evreux ; and iu order to
avert the calamities to be feared from an infant fuccef-
fion, he entered into an alhance with Robert king of
Scotland ; by which it was provided, that ihould ei-
ther of the fovereigns die without an htir apparent, the
rtates of the kingdom lliould fill the v.acant throne, and
thefurvivor of the two kings (hould with his whole force
fupport the legality of the nomination againft any other
competitor i though even this proved infufticient to avert
the danger which now threatened the kingdom, as lliall
be explained in the fequcl. cp

Charles died in the year 1328, in tho>'34th year of Caml:dites
his age, leaving his queen pregnant ; and as the fuc- '""^ "^
ceftion depended on the fruit of the queen's pregnancy, ^[^gjg„ o„
a regent in the mean time was ncceffary ; and two can- ,hc death
didates inftantly appeared for this important poft, of Cli.irles.
urging at the fame time their right to the crown as
well as to the regency. Thcfe were, Philip de Valois,
coufin-german to the deceafcd king ; the other, Ed-
ward 111, king of England, »ho afpircd to the throne

F 11 A

[

6a
Dn-p>,tcs
with £rf.
ward III.
of Eng.
land.

Edward's
lirft expc
aition.

in right of his mother, auj the nephew of Charles the
' Fair. His pretenlions, however, ivere eafily fet afide,
and Philip was confirmed in the regency : from which
he foon after ftepped into the throne, on the queen
being delivered of a daughter ; from which circum-
itance he acquired the furname of Fortunate. But
though the pretemioiis of Edward, both to tlie regen-
cy and crown, \<-ere unaniraoufly rejected by the peo-
ple, it was Hill irapolVible for Philip to think of the
claims of fuch a formidable rival without uneafmefs.
He therefore fummoned ths Eiiglilh monarch to do
homage tor his poiTeflions in France ; and, upon his
not anfvvering his fummons, forfeited them, and feized
his revenues. This at lall; induced Edward to crofs
the fea and pay his homage ; i\hich Philip confented
to receive in any form, upon condition of a proper ex-
planation being afterwards given : but as this was ftu-
dioully delayed after the return of the khig of Eng-
land, the province of Gulenne was again feized by the
French monarch. Edward, unwilling to lofe his con-
tinental dominions, or involve himfelf In a war for the
fake of a mere ceremony, fent over a formal deed, by
which he acknowledged that he owed liege homage to
Faance. Thus the flame was fmothered for the pre-
ient ; and would pernaps have been entirely extin-
guilhed, had it not been for the intrigues of Robert of
Artois, brother-in-law to the king of France himfelf,
■who had been expelled his country, and had taken re-
fuge in England. By him he was perfuaded to renew
his pretenfions to the crown of France, which of necef-
fity produced a war.

For fome time, indeed, neither party made any
open declaration of hoftility ; but as both monarchs
were poflefled of great prudence and fagacity, they
foon penetrated each other's defigns. Philip, under
pretence of taking the crofs, began to make prodigious
armaments, llrengthening himfelf at the fame time by
alliances on every fide ; while Edivard, determining to
renew his claim to the crown of France, projefted the
conqueft of Scotland. This, however, he could not
accomplifli ; and in the mean time Philip, in order to
favour the Scots, with whom he was in alliance, fuffer-
ed his fubjefts to make irruptions into Guienne.

In 1337, the war broke out openly. Philip having
detached a fquadron of his fleet againft the Infidels,
employed the rell, confiding chiefly of Genoefe veffels,
againft the Enghlli. As in this war it was of great
importance which fide was taken by the Flemings,
thele people were courted by both parties. Louis
count of Flanders declared for Philip, but his fubjefls
were more inclined to King Edward. James Arteville
■i brewer, the moft able and artful mah in the country,
governed them at that time as much as if he had been
their- prince ; and the advantages arifing from the
Englidi commerce determining him in favour of Ed-
ward, that prince, at his requeft, embarked for Sluys
with a numerous army. Here he arrived in 1338; and
en his firft landing, it was refolvtd that the German
]jrinces in alliance with him Ihould a£l againft France.
But for this a pretence was wanting. The vaflals of
the empire could not aft by Edward's orders, or even
as his allies, without direftions from the emperor, and
he was in league with France. This difficulty, how-
ever was foon overcome : the French had made them-
felves maflers of Cambray, and the emperor refolved
' 4

72 ] F R A

that it fliould be retaken. With this view he created t'rnncr.
Edward Vicar Genera/ of the Empire ; an empty title, ^— v— *
but which feemed to give him a right of commanding
the fervices of the princes of Germany. The Fleming-,
who were vaflals of France, llkewife pretended fcruples
at invading the territories of their liege lord. To quiet
thefe, Edward, by the advice of Arteville, alTumed the
title of King of Prance ; and by virtue of this riglit
challenged their afliftance for dethroning Philip de Va-
lois, the ufurper of his kingdom. This ftep, which
he feared would beget endlefu animofities and jealoufies,
he did not take without hefitation ; and, according to
Mr Hume, from this time we may date the commence-
ment of tlrat great animofity which the Englith have al-
ways born to the French.

Edward's firft attempt was upon the city of Cam-
bray, to which he laid fiege ; but in a (hort time he
was prevailed upon by Robert d'Artois to raife the
fiege and march into Picardy. This country he enter-
ed with an army of near 50,000 men, compofed moftly
of foreigners. Philip came within fight of him with
an army of near 100,000, compofed chiefly of native
fubjefts ; and it was daily expefted tVat a battle would
enfue. But the Englifti monarch was averfe to engage
againft fo great a fuperiority : and Philip thought it
fufficient if he eluded the attacks of his enemy, without
running any unneceffary hazard. The two armies faced
each other for feveral days ; mutual defiances were fent ;
and Edward at laft retired into Flanders, and difperfed
his army.

Such was the frultlefs, and almoft ridiculous conclu-
fion of Edward's firft expedition, which had plunged
him into the greateft difficulties. He had contrafted
near 300,0001. of debt ; he had anticipated all his
revenue ; he had pawned every thing of value which
belonged either to himfelf or his queen ; nay, he was
obliged in fome meafure even to pawn himfelf to his
creditors, by defiring their permiffion to go over to
England in order to procure fupply, and by promifing
on his word of honour to return in perfon if he did not
remit their money. On his arrival in England, how-
ever, he procured a large Ikpply, fuihcient to enable
him to make all the neceffary preparations for a new
invafion ; and fo certain ivere the Englifti that France
would now be conquered, that the parliament, before
Edward's departure, protefted that they owed him no
obedience as king of France, but that the two kingdoms
murt remain for ever diftinft and independent. gj

The king of England let out on his fccond expedi-Hisfec.
tion with a fleet of 240 veflek. Phihp had prepared '•''pedit.-
a fleet of 4CO veffels, manned with 40,000 men ; which
he ftationed oflF Sluys, in order to intercept him in his *
paflage. The two fleets met on the 13th of June
1340 ; but the Englifti, either by the fuperior abilities -pj^j, p^'^^^t
of Edward, or the greater dexterity of his feamen, entirely dt
gained the wind of the enemy, and had the fun infeated a:
their backs ; and with thefe advantages began the ac-'^"-
tion. The battle was fierce and bloody : The Englifti
archers, whofe force and addrefs were now much cele-
brated, galled the French on their approach ; and
when the ftiips grappled together, the example of the
king and the nobility who were with him fo animated
the feamen and foldiers, that they maintained every-
where a fuperiority over the enemy. The Fleming -
obferving the battle, hurried out of their ports, aij
brouglr.

F R A [

brought a reinforcement to the Englilli ; which coming
■^ luie.vpeftedly, had a greater eft'eft than in proportion
to its po^ver and numbers. Two hundred and thirty
fhips were taken : and 30,000 Frenchmen were killed,
with two of their admirals : the lofs of the Englilh was
inconiiderable, compared to the greatncfs and import-
ance of the \'iclory. None of Philip's courtiers, it is
faid, dared to inform him of the event ; till his fool or
jcflcr gave him a hint, by which he difcovered the lofs
he had fullaincd.

After this great viclory, Edward landed his forces
and laid fiege to Touinay. Philip marched to its re-
lief with a very numerous army : but afted with lb
much caution, that Edward found himfelf in a manner
blocked up in his camp : and the countefs dowager of
Hainault, lifter to PhiUp, mother-in-law to Edward,
and Cfter-in-law to Robert d'Artois, coming out of a
convent, to which Ihe had retired, interpofed with fo
much fpirit and addrefs, that fhe engaged all parties to
agree to a truce for a year, and might perhaps have
brought about a peace if llie had furvived.
I- In 1 341, however, 'Edward's ambition was once
more excited by the in^^tation of the count de Mount-
fort, who had pofleffed himfelf of the province of
Brittany, and applied to Edward to fecond his claims.
An offer of this kind entirely coincided with Edward's
moft fanguine defires. He was happy in the proraifed
alTiftance of IVIountfort, an active and valiant prince,
clofely united to him by intereft, and thus opening to
him an entrance into the heart of France. Thefe flat-
tering profpefts, however, were for a while damped
by the imprifonment of Mountfort ; whofe aims being
diicovered, he W'as befleged in the city of Nantz and ta-
ken. But Jane of Flanders his wife foon made up for
the lofs of her hulhand. This lady courageouily under-
took to fupport the falling fortunes of her family. She
affembled the inhabitants of Rennes, where Ihe then
relided ; and carrying her infant fon in her arms, de-
jilored her misfortunes, and attempted to infpire the
citizens with an afFeftion for her caufc. The inhabi-
tants of Nantz inllantly efpoufed her interefts, and ail
the other fortreiTes of Brittany embraced the fame re-
/bJution. The king of England was apprifed of her ef-
forts ; and was entreated to fend lier fuccours with all
polhble expedition to the town of Hennebone, in which
place fhe refolved to fullain the attacks of the enemy.
Charles de Blois, Philip's general, anxious to make
himfelf mailer of io important a fortrefs as Hennebone,
and flill more to take the countefs a prifoner, fat down
before the place with a large army, and conducted the
iiege with indefatigable induftry. The defence was no
lefs vigorous : feveral fallies were made by the garri-
I'on, in which the countefs herfelf wa? llill the moft ac-
tive, and led on the aflault. Obferving one day that
their whole army had quitted the camp to join in a
general ftorm, fhe fallied out by a pofteni at the head
of 300 horfe, fet fire to the enemies tents and baggage,
put their futtlers and fervants to the fword, and occa-
sioned fuch an alarm, that the French defilled from the
aflault, in order to cut off her communication with the
town. Thus intercepted, fhe retired to Auray, where
flie continued five or fix days , then returning at the
head of 500 horfe, flie fought her way through one
qu.rter of the French camp, and returned to her faith-
ful citizens in triumph. But the befiegers had at
Vol.. IX. Part I.

13 1 F R A

length made fcveral breaches in the walls j and It i\lis Fraa-
appreliended that a general aflault, which was hourly *"~'^""
expected, would be fatal. A capitulation was there-
fore propofed, and a conference was already begun,
^vhen the countefs, who had mounted on a high tower,
and was looking towards the fea with great impatience,
defcried fome fliips at a ditlance. She immediately
exclaimed that fuccours were arrived, and forbade any
further capitulation. She was not dilappointed in her
wfhes ; the licet ihe dilccmed carried a body of Eng-
lifh gentlemen, with 6000 archers, whom Eiward had
prepared for the relief of Hennebone, but who had
been long detained by contrary winds. Tliey entered the
harbour under the conduit of Sir Waller Manny, one
of the moft valiant commanders of his time. This re-
lief ferved to keep up the declining fpirits of the Bre-
tons until the time appointed by the late truce witii
Edward ^vas expired, on which he was at liberty to rc-
neiv the war in greater form.

The fuccours under Sir Walter Manny were quickly
folloived by a more confiderable reinforcement com-
manded by Robert of Artois, who made himfelf ma-
iler of the city of Vannes foon after his arrival : but
the French foon recovered the city, and Robert was
compelled to relinquifh his prize after receiving a mor-
tal wound. Edward himfelf, eager to revenge the
death of his ally, foon landed at Morbian near Vannes
with an army of i 2,coo men. With this fmall num-
ber he undertook at once the fiege of Vannes, Nantz,
and Rennes : but by dividing his forces, he failed in
every enterprife, and gave an opportunity to John duke
of Normandy, the king of France's eldelt fbn, to invell:
him in his camp. In this iituation his provilions foon
began to fall ; and Edward, notwithllanding all his
valour, would have been obliged to furrender, had he
not, by a train of artful negociations, induced Piiilip
to relinquilh the advantage he had obtained, and con-
fen.- to a truce of three years. This was accompUlhed
by the mediation of the court of Rome ; and the French
monarch was foon made fenfible of the partiality of
that court, and the imprudence of the llcp he himfelf
had taken. Edward foon found a pretence to renew
the war, from the execution of fome nobles of Brittany,
'who, he faid, were partifans of Mountfort, and chole
to look upon their piuiilhment as an infraction of the
treaty.

Philip now endeavoured to fecure himfelf againft the
po^ver of his rival by alliances, and by purchafing the
city of Montpelier from the king of iVIajorca : but in
the mean time, the Englifh, under the command of the
earl of Derby, had invaded Guienne, twice defeated
the French army commanded by the Count de Lille,
and made themfelves maftcrs of a great number of
towns. Philip, by reafon of the exhaufted ftate of his
treafury, was for fome time incapable of making any
oppofition. To recruit Ixis finances, he was obliged
to lay a duty on- fait; which gave fuch offence to his
fubjccts as had almoft excited a rebellion. W^hcn thefe
difcontents were aiTuaged, however, he foon raifed an
army of io'),coo men, whofe courage was further
raifed by the prefence of the dukes of Normandy and
Burgundy. The Englifh general was therefore com-
pelled to Itand upon the defenlive. One fortrefs after
another was furrcndcred to the French ; till at length
nothing appeared but a total extinftion of the power

F R A

[ 74 ]

F R A

roy in Nor
aiardj.

of England upon the continent. In this fituation,
Edward rd'olxed to bring relief in perfon to his diftref-
fed fubjetls and allies ; and accordingly embarked in
1346 at Southampton, on board a fleet of near looo
fail, of all dimeniions. He carried uith him, befidcs
all the chief nobility of England, his eldeit fon the
prince of Wales (afterv.ards fumamed iheB/aci Prince'),
a youth of abcut 15 years old, and already remarkable
both for underllsnding and valour above his age. His
army confdled of 40CO men at arms, 10,000 archers,
"10,000 Welih infantry, and 6000 Irilh ; all which he
landed fafely at La Hogue, a port in Normandy,
which coimtry he determined to make the feat of the
war.

The intelligence of Edward's landing, and the deva-
ftation caufed by his troops, who difperfed themfelves
over the \vhole face of the country, foon fpread univer-
fal confternation through the French court. The rich
city of Caen was taken and plundered by the Englilh
without mercy ; the villages and towns, even up to
Paris, fliared the fame fate ; and the French had no
other rcfource but by breaking down their bridges, to
attempt putting a ftop to the invader's career. In the
mean time, Philip was not idle in making preparations
to reprefs the enemy. He had ftationed one of his
generals, Goderaar de Faye, with an army on the op-
polite fide of the river Somme, over which Edward
was to pafs ; while he himfelf, at the head of i 23, coo
fighting men, advanced to give the EngHlh battle.
Edward, thus unexpeftedly expofed to the danger of
being enclofed and llarved in an enemy's country, pub-
liflied a reward to any that thould bring him intelli-
gence of a paflage over the river Somme. This was dif-
covered by a peafant of the country, named Gobin
Agace : and Edward haft juft time to get his whole ar-
my over the river, when Philip appeared in his rear. Of
the battle that enfued, in ^vhich the Frejich were over-
thro^vn with great flaughter, an account is given ' un-
der the article Crkssy.

Ed^vard next laid fiege to Calais, which ivas then
defended by John de Vienne, an experienced command-
er, and fupplied with every thing neceffary for defence.
It was at length taken, after a twelvemonth's fiege,
the defendants ha\'ing been reduced to the laft extre-
mity by famine and fatigue ; for the confequences of
which, fee the article Calais.

From the very beginning of this Unfortunate war,
Philip had invariably fl.owed himfelf defirous of peace,
and the viftory of CrelTy rendered him flill more fo. Ed-
ward alto notv.ithAanding liis fucceffcs, was unable to
fupport the expenccs of the war any longer. The me-
diation of the court of Rome was therefore readily ac-
cepted, and a truc"e for three years concluded. At the
feme time, Philip met with fome recompenfe for the
loffes he had fuftained, by the acquifition of Dauphiny,
wliich has ever lince given the title of Dauphin to tb.e
eldeft fon of the king of France. It ws obtained by the
refignation of Hubert prince of Dauphiny ; who, be-
ing difappointed in his hopes of marrying Joan, daugh-
ter of the duke of Bourbon, gave up his territories to
Charles the grandfon of Philip, who had married that
lady j himfelf retiring into a convent. Soon after this
event, the king himielf, %vho had been fome time a wi-
dower, was married to Blanch, the daughter of Pliilip
count of Evrcux, and Jane queen of Navarre ; aiid Lis

fon John to the countefs of Boulogne. But the hap- France.
pinefs occafioned by thefe marriages was foon interrupt- ""^"v— ^
ed by the death of the king ; who expired in the year ^^^y^^i
1350, the 57th of his age, and 23d of his reign. King Phi-

On the death of Philip his eldeil fjn John took pof- lip.
feflion of the kingdom ; but fcarcely was he feated on
the throne, when he difguiled his nobility by an un-
(eafonable act of feverity. Robert de Brienne, count
of Eu and Guifnes, had been taken prifoner by the
king of England at Caen ; and under pretence of ne-
gotiating his ranfom, had palled feveral times between
France and England ; but being accufed of a treafon-
able correfpondence with Edward, he was by order of
his fovereign fuddenly arrelted, condemned, and be-
headed, without any form of trial. At his death, it
is faid that he confefled his treafonable pratlices 5 but
that has not been authenticated by any hiftorian of
credit. Ha\nng been conftable of Frar.ce, the fword,
the badge of his office, Avas delivered to Charles de la
Carda : but his fate was equally unfortunate with that
of his predecelTor, being foon after afTafllnated by Charles gj
king of Navarre, fumamed 77.' ff/f/W. This prince, Infamous
celebrated for his perfonal qualifications, but detefted conduct of
for his crimes, was the fon-in-law of John himfelf. He'''^ king of
had demanderl the duchy of Angoideme o£ the king : "*'*"*• ._
but as the latter had thought proper to beftoiv it upon
Carda, he had taken the etreflual method of revenging
himfelf, by afralTmating his rival. John did not fail to
fliow a proper relentraent •, but luch was the weaknels
of his government, that the king of Navarre fet him
at defiance, and would not even condefcend to the ce-
remony of aiking pardon until John had fent him his
fecond fon as an hoftage for his perfonal fecurity. To
thefe offences the king of Navarre added another ftill
more atrocious, viz. that of afpiring to the crown of
France itfelf j to which he pretended a right derived
from his mother, being grandfon by the female fide to
Louis the Boifterous. But his more imm.ediate de-
mands were the countries of Champagne and Brie. To
obviate all difficulties on this head, Iwivever, John be-
ftowed the cucliy of Nomiandy on his eldell fen
Charles •, and commanded him to feize the eflates of
the king of Navarre. On this the latter foon made
his appearance at Paris 5 but John found himfelf obli-
ged to appeafe his murmurs at the cxpence of no lefs
than ioo,oco crowns.

All this time the truce with England had been very
ill obfeived on both fides ; the French had poITeffed
themfelves of the port of St Jean d'Angeli ; and the
Englifh had furprifcd the town of Guifnes. The rival
houfes of Mount fort and Blcis ftill continued their
animofities ; while Ed-(vard continued to threaten war.
The king of Navarre went on with his intrigues ; and
even the dauphin was drawn into a confederacy againfl
his father. John, however, being informed of their
machinations, found means to defeat them effecliially.
The dauphin was reclaimed by pointing out to him
the impropriety of his condutt, and the difadvan-
tage which niuft unavoidably accrue to himfelf from
the connexions which he had foi-med. The king of
Navarre was invited, with his principal adherents, to g
an entertainment, nhcre they were unexpeftedly ar- He is taken
relied : the former being tent prifoner to Chateau and cod-
Gaillard, and feveral of the moft obnoxious of the''"''^-
lutttr put to death, The reft of the confpirators, I

inftead

F R A

inllcrid of being difmiyed by this check, immediately
ihoived themfeb.es ni open rebellion ; and finding
themfelves unable, without farther affillance, to gain
their point, they without delay invited over Edward
from England.

That warlike and enterprifing monarch had never
- loft fight of the obje£l he had originally embraced ;
and on the expiration of the truce had fent his fon,
the prince of Wales, from the colour of his armour
fumamed the Black Prince, with a lleet towards the
coaft of France. Young Edwaid had with this fleet
entered the mouth of the river Garonne, burnt the
towiis and villages of Languedoc, and retired ^vith the
plunder into the country of Guienne. Edward hini-
ielf, who had likewife parted over to the ccmtinent,
wafted the country as far as St Oaier ; but the French
king, notwithi^anding all thele provocations, deter-
mined to avoid a battle, and therefore prohibited his
general, the conftable of Bourbon, from coming to an
engagement, though his army was much fuperior to
that of the prince of Wales. With the flower of his
troops, however, he purfued Edward from St Omer to
Hefdin, where he defied him to a pitched battle ; but
the latter, without minding his bravadoes, continued
his march to Calais, from whence he embarked for
England. After his departure, .lohn called an afiem-
bly of the ftates at Paris, where he explained the dif-
trclTed fitiiation of his finances, and fliowed fo fully the
neceflity of alMing him in the defence of the kingdom,
that they confented to maintaui an army of 30,000
men during the ^var. To fupply the other exigencies
of government, they re\nved the duty on fait, and
added a variety of other impofts ; but at the fame
time appointed a committee of their own number to
take care that the money was folely appropriated to the
public fervice.

The fatisfaftion which John received from thefe
grants, and the fuppreffion of fome difturbances which
happened about this time, Avas foon overcaft by tlic
news that the prince of Wales had marched ivith an
array of i2,oco men from Bourdeaux j and, after ra-
vaging the Agenois, Q^uercy, and the Limoufin, had
entered the province of Berry. The young warrior
had penetrated into the heart of France with this trif-
ling body of forces, in hopes of joining the duke of
Lancafter in Guienne. But he foon found that his
icheme was impracticable : the country before him
was too well guarded to permit his advancing fiir-
tiier ; and all the bridges behind weie broken down,
\vhich effectually barred a retreat. In this embarraf-
fing fituation, his perplexity was increafed, by being
informed, that the king of France was aAually march-
ing .at the head of 60,000 men to intercept him. He
at firft thought of retreating : but foon finding it im-
polTible, he determined calmly to wait the approach
of the enemy •, and, 'uotwithftanding the difparity of
forces, to commit all to the hazard of a battle.

It Tvas at a place called Maiiperlui;, near Poiftiers,
that both armies came in fight of each other. The
French king might very eafily have ftarved the Englilh
into any terms he thought proper to inipofe ; but (iich
was the impatient valour of the French nobility, and
fuch their certainty of fuccefs, that it might have been
equally fatal to attempt repreffing their ardour to en-
gage. In the mean time, v.-hilc both armies were

5 ] F K A

drawn out, and expecling the fignal to begin, they were Trancf.

flopped by the appearance of tlic cardinal of Perigord, r—^

who attempted to be a mediator between them. How-
ever, John, who made himfelf fure of victory, would
Men to no other terms than the rtftitution of Calais ;
with which the Black Prince refufing to comply, the
OTifet was deferred till the next morning, for which
both fides waited in anxious fufpenfe.

During this interval, the young prince ftrengthen-
ed his poll by new intrenchments ; and placed 500
men in ambulh, with as many archers, who were com-
manded to attack the enemy in flank during the heat
of the engagement. Having taken thefe precautions,
he ranged his array in three divifions ; the van was com-
manded by the earl of Wanvick, the rear by the earls
of Saliftjury and Suffolk, and the main body by him-
felf. In like manner, the king of France arranged his
forces in three divifions ; the firft commanded by the
duke of Orleans •, the fecond by the dauphin, attend-
ed by his younger brothers ; while he himfelf led up
the .Tiain body, feconded by his youngeft and favourite
fon, then about 14 years of age. As the Englilh were
to be attacked only by marching up a long narrow ■
lane, the French fuffered greatly from their archers,
who were polled on each fide behind the hedges. Nor
were they in a better fituation upon emerging from
this danger, being met by the Black Prince himfelf,
at the head of a chofen body of troops, who made a
fiirious onfet upon their forces, already in great difor- _j
der. A dreadful overthrow enfued : thofe who were French de.
as yet in the lane recoiled upon their own forces ; feattd.
while the Englilli troops ivho had been placed in am-
bulh, took that opportunity to increafe the confufion,
and confii-m the victory. The dauphin and the duke
of Orleans were among the firft that fled. Tlie king
of France himfelf made the utmoft efforts to retrieve
by his valour what his rafhnefs had forfeited ; but
his fingle courage was unable to ilop that conftema-
tion which had now become general through his army ;
and his cavalry foon flying, he found himfelf expofed
to the enemy's fury. At length, fpent with fatigue,
and defpairing of f.iccefs, he thought of yielding him-
felf a priloner ; and frequently cried cut, that he wa';
ready to deliver himfelf to his coufin the prince of 7,
Wales. The honour of taking him, however, was re- King "John
ferved for a much more ignoble hand ; he ^vas feized by '^''"' P^'"
Dennis de Morbec, a knight of Arras, who had been '""'•'''■
obliged to fly his country for murder.

In April following, the prince conduced his royal
prifoner through London, attended by an infinite con-
courfe of people of all ranks and rtations. His modefty
upon this occafion was very remarkable : the king of
France was clad in royal apparel, and mounted on a
white fteed diftinguilhed by its fize and beauty ; while
the prince himfelf rode by his fide upon a mean little
horle, and in very plain attire. «.

This dreadful defeat, which happened in the year Miferabie
1356, almoft entirely rained the French affairs; and ''"'"'°" °^
the raiferics which enfued from this caufe were greatly *'

augmented by internal commotions. The dauphin,
who had now affuraed the government, was altogether
unable to govern a turbulent and feditious people at
fuch a crilis. An affcmbly of the Hates, which he
called, took the opportunity to limit the power of the
prince, Impeach the former minifters, and demand the
K 2 liberty

F R A

[ 7(5 ]

F R A

The k'lng
of Navairi
rfcapes
ironi pri-
fon.

tumults of
the pea-
iant?.

dauphin
and king
Kavarrc.

Jibe; ty of tlie king of Navarre ; the treafurer of the
( lo^vn was murdered by one Marcel, a partizan of
that wortlilefs prince Who had filled the city of Paris
V ith confufion by his intrigues. The aflafiin whom
i\Iarcel employed was dragged, by order of the dau-
phin, from an altar where he had taken refuge, and
inrtantly put to death. The billiop of Paris refented
the indigmty done to the church •, and Marcel avenged
tlie fate of his adherent, by murdering bolh the mare-
i'chals who h^d feized him in the prefence of the dau-
phin ; and fo near him, that his clothes were flained
with their blood. The prince indignantly afked him,
if he was to be involved in the iame deftruftion ? when
Marcel affeiled to provide for his fafety by putting
upon him a blue hood, the badge of the adherents of
Navarre. The public diforders were now alfo augmented
by tiie efcape of the king of Navarre from confinement ;
and though the dauphin w^s even affured that he had
adminirtered a dofe of poifon to him, he was obliged
flill to pay him fome appearance of regard. A fcheme
was even formed by the chiefs of the fedition to change
the government, to veft all the power in the commons,
and leave the king no more than an empty title ; but
though this was favourably received by the city of Pa-
ris, it was entirely rejected by the other cities of the
kingdom. The daupliin was likei-ife recognized as re-
gent by the ftates general, and the inhabitants of Pi-
cardy and Champagne took up arms in his caufe.

In this difaftrous ftate of affairs, the miferies of the
people were heightened by a ne^v and uncxpefted ev;l.
The peafants, who had been all along oppreffed by
the nobles, were noiv treated in fuch a manner, that
they rofe in great numbers to revenge themfelves ;
the caftles of the nobility were rafed to the ground,
their wives and daughters ravilhed, and themfelves put
to the raoft cruel torments. At lart they were obliged
to arm in their own defence. The duke of Orleans
cut off ic,ooo of them in the neighbourhood of Pa-
ris ; I 2,000 '.vere malTacred by the king of Navarre •,
9C00, vvho had laid fiege to the town of Meaux,
where the dauphinefs and three other ladies of the firft
rank refided, were routed and purfued with dreadfid
daughter by an ofiicer in the" fervice of Edward. A-
midil thefe confufions. Marcel, the feditious leader al-
ready mentioned, periflied in a tumult of his owm raif-
ing ; and the moll virtuous and prudent people of the
nation fupported the pretenfions of the dauphin. His
mofl dangerous enemy was the king of Navarre, who
had allured to his flandard numbers of thofe Norman
and Englifh adventurers who had followed Edward in-
to France, and there been left to feek their fortunes ;
where they affociated themfelves under the name of the
Companions. By fuch a formidable competitor the
dauphin was reduced almoft to the kit extreniity, when
his hopes were revived by an unexpefted propofal from
'^ his rival, of peace upon equitable and moderate terms.
Hiftorians in general have afcribed this to the natural
levity of the king of Navarre ; but fome ha\e been of
opinion that he acted from prudential motives, and
that he juftly fuppofed it would be more eafy to deal
with the dauphin uho ^vas his own kinfman, and
humbled by fo many misfortunes, than with a haugh-
ty and imperious conqueror like Edward.

On the expiration of the truce in 1359, Edward
again fet lail for France, and anchored before Calais

with a fleet of iioo fail, affumed the title of h'li^ of France.
France, and augmented his anny to 1 00,000 men. •j~-^
The dauphin, finding himfelf unable to withlland fo , ' .
great a power, was obliged to aft on the defenfive ; vallon of '
choofing the city of Paris for his ftation, and allowing Frnnce by
the Englilh to ravage all the open country. ThusE'.warJ.
they were aUowed to penetrate through Picardy into
Champagne j but the city of Rlieims, ■where Edward
deGgned to have been crowned king of France, baffled
their utmoll efforts. From Champagne, therefore,
w-hich ^\as already laid watte, the Engliih monarch
marched into Burgundy ; pillaging Tonnere, Gaillon,
and Avalon. Burgundy was faved by the payment
of 100,000 merks, and a like.fum was paid for Ni-
vernois. At laft, after a long and deftruftive march,
Edward arrived at the gates of Paris ; but the pru-
dence of the dauphin and citizens of that metropolis
had rendered it impregnable to the attacks of famine
as well as the affaults of an army. Thus the war went jjp (.„'.
on till the year 1360, when the king of England wascUideia
inclined to peace, as is faid, by a dreadful tempelf,peace.
to ivhich his army was expofed while encamped in the
fields round Chartres. His conduct, however, may-
more reafonably be derived from other motives. Not-
«-ithlf anding all the victories he had gained, the French
nation fhowed not the leall; favour to his claim of fuc-
ceffion ; the king of Navarre was a dangerous rival,
and the caurion of the dauphin in avoiding an engage-
ment deprived him of the advantages he might expecl
from his valour and military Ikill. Thus conferences
for a peace were opened at Bretigny in the Chartraine;
and it was at laft concluded on the following condi-
tions, viz. That King John fliould pay for his ranfora,
at different periods, three millions of crowns of gold
(about a million and a half of our money) : Edward '
(liould for ever renounce all claim to the kingdom of
France ; and Ihould remain poffell'ed of the territories
of Poictou, Xaintonge, I'Agcnois, Perigord, the Li-
moufin, Q^uercy, Rouvergne, I'Angoum.ois, and other
dillricls in that quarter, together with Calais, Guifnes,
Montreuil, and the county of Ponthieu on the other
fide of France. Some other ftipulations were made in
favour of the allies of England, as a fecurity for the
execution of thefe conditions.

Upon John's return to his dominions, he found him-
felf very ill able to ratify thofe terms of peace that had
been juft concluded. He was without finances, at the
head of an exhaufted ftate j his foldiers without difci-
pline, and his peafants without fubordination. Thefe,
had rifen in great numbers; and one of the chiefs of
the banditti affumed the title of The Friend of God
and the terror of Man. A citizen of Sens, named
"John Gouge, alfo got himfelf, by means of his robbe-
ries, to be acknowledged king •, and he foon caufed r«
many calamities by his devallations, as the real king
had brought on by his misfortunes. Such was the
llate of that wretched kingdom upon the return of its
captive monarch : and yet fuch was his abfurdity,
that he immediately prepared for a croilade into the
Holy Land, before he was well replaced on the throne. jj.
Had his exhaufted fubjefts been able to equip him for Jr)hn ur.a ■
this chimerical projedl, it is probable he would have^le to pt-
gone through with it; but their miferies were fuch,"'" '^■^''' '■•'
that they were even too poor to pay his ranfom. Ihisg^ ^^j'
^vas a breach of treaty that John would not fubmit to ;

and

Dies, anil i
fucceeded
bv Charles
the Wife.

F R A [7

France, and he v.as lieard to exprcfs himfelf in a very noble
— f"-" manner upon the occafion : " Though (lays he) good
faith (hould be banilheJ from the rell of the earth, yet
flie ought ftill to retain her habitation in the brcail of
kings." In confefluence of this declaration, he ac-
tually, returned to England once more ; and yielded
himfelf a prifoner, iince he could not be honourably
free. It is faid by fome, that his paOlon for the coun-
tefs of Saliihuiy was the real caul'e of his journey : but
3i we want at this time the found ulons for fuch an injuri-
ous report. He was lodged in the Savoy, the palace
where he had readed during his captivity ; and foon
after he doled a long and unfortunate reign, by his
death, which happened in the year 1384, about the
56th year of his age,

Charles, fumamed t/ie Wife, fucceeJed his father on
the throne of France ; and this monarch, merely by Vne
force of a finely condufted policy, and even though
iuffering fome defeats, rellored his country once more
to tranquillity and power. He quelled and diflipated
a fet of banditti, who had aflbciated themfelves under
the name of Companions, and who had long been a ter-
ror to the peaceable inhabitants. He had them enrol-
led Into a body, and led them into the kingdom of Caf-
tile againll Peter, lurnaraed t/ie Cruel, ivhom his fub-
jecT:s had dethroned, and w'ho, by means of an alliance
with the Engli{h, endeavoured to get himfelf re-in Hat-
ed upon the throne. In confequence of thefe alliances,
the Eugliih and French again came to an engagement 4
their armies on the one iide commanded by the Black
Prince ; on the other, by Henry of Tranftaraarre, and
Eertrand du Guefclin, one of the moil confummate ge-
nerals and accoraplilhed characters of the age in which
he lived. However, the ufual good fortune of the
Englifh prince prevailed ; the French loft above 20,000
men, while only four knights and 40 private men on
\, j^ the fide of the Englifh were flaiu.

fl Bad fuccefs Neverthelefs, thefe victories were attended with very
' ofthe Eng- few good effefts. The Engl:fli, by their frequent le-
Irfh. vies, had been quite exhauiled, and were unable to

continue an army -in the field. Charles, on the other
hand, cautioufiy forbore coming to any decifive en-
gagement ; but was contented to let his enemies wafte
their ftrength in attempts to plunder a fortified coun-
try. When they v.'ere retired, he then was fure to
fally forth, and poflefs himfelf of fuch places as thiy
v.ere not rtrong enough to defend. He firft fell upon
Ponthieu j the citizens of Abbeville opened their gates
to him ; thofe of St Valols, Rue, and Crotoy, imitat-
ed the example ; and the whole country was in a little
time, reduced to total fubmllhon. The fouthern pro-
vinces v.ere, in the fame manner, invaded by his gene-
rals with equal fuccefs ; while the Elack Prince, deili-
tute of fupplies from England, and walled by a cruel
and confumptive diforder, was obliged to return to his
native country, leaving his affairs in the fouth of France
in a defperate condition.

In this exigence, the refcntraent of the king of
England was excited to the utmoil pitch ; and he leem-.
ed rclolved to take iignal vengeance on his enemies ot
the continent. But the fortunate occafion was now
elapfed ; and all his fuccecding defigns were marked
with ill fuccefs. The earl of Pembroke and his whole
army were intercepted at fea, and taken prifoners by
Henry king of Callile. Sir Robert Knollcs, one of

7 ]

F R A

his generals ou the continent, at the head of 30,000 Ki.ii.-'.

men, was defeated by Eertrand du Guefclin ; while ' » '

the duke of Laucailer, at the head of 25,000 men,
had the mortification of feeing his troops diminiflied
one half by flying parties, without ever coming to a
battle.

At laft, the Englilh affairs were totally ruined by the
death of the Black Prince and King Edward. On re-
ceiving this news, the armies of Charles attacked the
Englilh on all fides. One, under the command of the
duke of Burgundy, entered Artois ; another entered
Auvcrgne, under the command of the duke of Berry ;
that which afted in Guienne ivas commanded by the
duke ol Anjou ; and the forces in Eretagne were un-
der the confiable Guefclin : the king himielf had a
powerful body of troops, that he might be able to re-
pair any accident which fliould happen through the
chance of war. The conlfable joined the duke of
Burgundy, who found it difficult to oppofe Sir Tho-
mas Felton and the fenelchal of Eourdeaux. Soon
after his arrival, the conllable attacked and defeated
lliem, making both the commanders prifoners of war.
This viiSory was fo well purfued, that, at the clofe of
the campaign 1377, Bayonne and Bourdeaux, with
the diftricls about them, and the fortrefs of Calais
with its dependencies, were all the places left to Eng-
land on the continent. 83

Thus Charles eftablillied once more the houfe of Va- Death of
lois on the throne of France, but did not long live to Charles;
enjoy his good fortune. He died in the year 1379, at
the age of 44, of the conlequences of poifon formerly
given him by the king of Navarre, as has already been
mentioned. The immediate operation of this poilon
had been fufpended by the ikill of a phyficlan fent by
the emperor Charles IV. He opened an ifl'ue in his
arm, the running of which preferved his life j but the
phyfician declared, that whenever it Ihould dry up, the
confequence would be fatal. Not long before his
death, Charles had commenced a procels againll the
king of Navarre for this crime. Several ot the affe-
ciates of the latter fullered on this occafion, and the
king himfelf was deprived of his poflellions hi Nor-
mandy, as well as his lordiliip of Montpelier, which
had been given him in lieu of the counties of Cham-
pagne and Brie, and the duchy of Burgundy which S4
he had claimed. He did not long furvive the death of 'T"! of the
the French monarch whom he dellroycd. His death ^'"8 °' ^■''•
was fingular and very terrible ; for having been afllifl-
cd with the leprofy, he had been obliged to make ufe
of fome bandages dipped in fulphur, and afterwards
fteeped in brandy. Thefe took tire by the carelelfnefs
of a page, and the unfortunate prince was burnt to
death. Sj

Charles V. was fuccccdcd by his fon Charles VI. fur- Reign of
named the Wcll-beto'cfd, who at the time of his acccflion f^i'a'''* Vf
to the throne was only 1 2 years of age. The duke of
Anjou, cldeft brother to the late king, had been ap-
pointed guardian during the minority ot the prince ;
but he being totally unfit for the oilice, and dillin-
guiditd only for his rapacity and ambition, readily re-
iigned his charge to the dukes of Burgundy and Bour-
bon, the former uncle to the king by his father's (ide,
the latter by his mother's. None of thefe tutors, how-
ever, proved faithful to the trull repofed in them. The
duke of Anjou feizcd the plate and treafures of the

l.-.te .

F R A

[ 78 ]

F H A

•66
invaded.

late king, ;ii order to fupport his ambitious enter-
' prifes. At that time Joan, infamous foi her profli-
gacy, reigned in Naples.

She

Tvlarries
Ifabella
daughter to
ihe duke of
Bavaria.

had appointed one
Charles Durazzo, who was her relation, to fucceed her
in the throne ; but the inhuman wretch murdered his
bcr.efacTrefs, who with her laft breath revoked her
grant of the kingdom to him, and beftowcd it upon
the duke of Anjou. His in'duence at the French
court enabled him to wafte the treafures of the king-
dom in liipport of his pretenlions ; tliough he proved
ultimately unfuccefsful, his forces being conflantly de-
feated, and his dellgns frulirated by the fuperior (kill
of his adverfary. The duke of Burgundy, inltead of
inftrufting his pupil in the ways of virtue, indulged
him in every kind of vicious pleafure, hoping thereby
to gain his favour afterwards. The citizens of Paris,
oppreffed by taxes, broke out into tumults, and were
quelled ^vith ditficulty ; while the mal-adminiftratlon of
Philip the duke of Burgundy foon involved the nation
in hollilities with the Flemings. PhiHp invaded their
country at the head of an army of 8o,OCO men, along
~»vith whom was the young king, accompanied by the
principal nobility of France. The firft operations of
war were favourable to the Remings ; but they were at
length totally defeated on the banks of the river Lis,
where their leader, with 25,000 of his followers, perifti-
ed. This viftory was foliou-ed by the lubmiiTion of
the whole country ; but the fatisfaclion of the king at
this event was difturbed by new feditions and revolts
in the city of Paris, and other great towns of the
kingdom. His return, however, at the head of a vic-
torious army, foon reduced them to their duty, and fe-
veral of the revolted cities %vere feverely puniflied ; at
the fame time that the death of the duke of Anjou hav-
ing freed him from the immediate dependence on liis
tutors, he aflumed the reins of government into his own
hands in the year 1384.

The genius which Charles began to difplay in his
early years, raifed the hopes of the nation ; but thefe
were foon overcaft, and greater misfortunes than ever
were now about to enfue. The young king, whole
marriage began to be a fubjeft of attention to the
council, refufcd to comply with the forms in ufe
among his predecefibrs, -and infifted upon feeing the
perfon defigned for his confort. An interview was
accordingly contrived betwixt him and Ifabella daugh-
ter to the duke of Bavaria ; where he fell in love ^vith
that princefs, and afterwards married her. His admi-
niilration ivas for fome time prudent and ^ngorous.
He conciUated the affeclions of his j^eople by reftoring
their pri%-ileges, punifhing their oppreflbrs, and reliev-
ing them from the taxes which had been impofed in
his minority. Jic reduced the Flemings to fubmit to
the authority of his unde the duke of Burgundy ; de-
tached 15,000 archers and 1500 men at arms to aflift
the Scots in their incurfions into England ; and in
1385 fitted out a prodigious armament againft Eng-
land. A vaft fleet was affembled in the harbour of
Sluys, and a very numerous array in the neighbour-
hood. According to fome writers, the armament con-
fifted of 1 200 Ihips, 20,coo foot dift'erently armed,
20,000 cavalry, and 2c,ooo crofs-bow-mefl. There
i\;is bcfides a vail wooden edifice or floating town,
which was contrived for the protection of the foldiers
when landed : but all thefe preparations were at lalt

brouglit to nothing through the obllinacy of the duke
of Berry ; who, having been originally agaiiilt this -
meafure, carried on his part of the armament fo llow-
ly, that he did not arrive at Sluys till the middJe of
September, when the feaibn was fo far advanced, that
no invafion was pracficable. A Itorm that happened
foon after, drove the greateit part of the fleet on
Ihore, and beat the wooden edifice all to pieces ; th'?
remains of which the king bellowed on the duke of
Burgundy, to ivhom he gave alfo the port of Sluys,
which WES then verj- commodious, and of the utmoll
importance.

The deftmclion of the French fleet was only a pre-
lude to calamities of a more extraordinary nature. The
Sieur de Craon, a profligate nobleman, had been in-
trufted by the court of France with a conliderable fum
of money for the fupport of the duke of Anjou, at
the lime he was reduced to dillrefs by his Italian ex-
pedition. This money he had difilpated at Venice ;
but, by the credit of the duke of Orleans, the king's
brother, he had obtained his pardon, and returned to
court. Here he attempted to gratify his private re-
fentment by the allaflrnation of Oliver Ciliron the con-
ftable, whom he fufpedled of having promoted his dll-
grace. This veteran hero was attacked, on his retuiii
from the hotel de St Pol, by a band of 20 ruffians,
againft whom he defended himfelf with wonderful in-
trepidity, when at laft he fell, after receiving more
than 50 wounds. Happily, however, he recovered
notwithllandlng his being mangled in this manner ;
^vhile the aflaffin, to fcreen himfelf from vengeance,
fled for proteClion to the duke of Britanny. The king
demanded the aifaffin to be given up to lilm in chains ;
but the duke anfwered, that he knew nothing of him :
to which the king giving no credit, marched with all
his forces into his territories. When the array arrived
at Mans, the king was feized inth a llow fever j butj,
could not be prevailed upon to reft or take phyfic. On w
the 5th of Augufl; 1391, having marched all day inti
the heat of the fun, a mlferable, ragged, wild-looking
fellow darted from behind a tree, and laying hold of
the bridle of his horfe, cried out, " Stop ! where
are you going, king ? You are betrayed :" and imme-
diately withdrew again into the ivood. The king
paiTed on not a little difturbed ; and foon after one of
the pages, who rode behind and carried his lance,
overcome with heat, fell alleep, and let it fall upon the
helmet which was carried by the other. The king,
hearing the nolle, looked about ; and perceiving the
page lifting the lance, killed him immediately : then
riding furioully with his fword drawn, he ftruck on
every fide of him, and at every perfon, till he broke
his fword ; upon ivhich one of his gentlemen leaped ui>
behind him and held his arm. He fell foon after, an<i
lay as if he had been dead ; fo that being taken up and
bound in a waggon, he was carried back to Mans,
where he lay two days in a lethargy, after which he
came a little to himfelf, and exprelled great concern at
the blood he had ftied in his delirium. 'I'he people
who had expreffed the greateft concern for his diftem-
per, were equally rejoiced at the news of his recove-
ry ; but unfortunately it was foon difcovered, that he
no longer poffefled that ftrcngth of judgment and un-
derrtanding for which he had formerly been remark-
able. Hence a regency became indifpenfably necelTary,

and

S3
feized
[th lun»-'

89

c«s about ,
regency.

Anaccide
occafions
lelapfe in
the king.

F R A [ 79 ] F R A

and Ae competition for it brought to liglit tVie cha- a l.'.nguid manner, the French monarch, In one of Fi.nnce.

raclers of the queen and duke of Orleans, which had tliel'e lurid intervals, had an ;:itervieu' with Richard """^

not hitherto been difplayed to public view. The for- king of Enjjland, in order to put an end to hollilities,j ','•
mer of thefe was a moft beautiful and accompiifiied of which both were equally weary. Stilly however, betwixt the
princefs ; but vindictive, violent, and intriguing: in- their claims ivere fo diihcult to be adjcrted, that they ki";* of
fenlible to natural affection, but eaiUy acceffible to could do no more than conclude a truce for 25 years'; ^'''■'"'^'^ '""^

during which fpace it was hoped that a lading' peace ^''•''"'''
might take place. Richard gave up Cherburg to
Charles, and Breft to the duke of Brittany : a mar-
riage was alfo concluded betwixt the king of Ens(land
and Ifabella the daughter of Charles, though the Vatter
was then only feven years of age ; but by reafon of
the tender age of the princefs, this marriage was never
confummated.

During this unfortunate reign, France was ftill far- Unhappy
thtr weakened by the fuccours fent to the Hungarians f^*'= o' the
againft the Turk":. On this fatal expedition up-f"""""^.
wards of looo of the bravell and moft experienced ji„n„a.
knights ^vere fent under the conduct of John count of rians!
Nevers, eldeft fon of the duke of Burgundy ; the
count of Eu, conftable of France ; John de Vienne,
admiral of France ; and the count of Marche, a prince
of the blood royal ; logetlicr with De Coi\rcy, one of
the bell and muft experienced captains in Chriftendom.
The prudent counfeis of this veteran, however, ivere
not obeyed by the youthful warriors by whom he was
accompanied. Attacking the eneany therefore rallily,
and while heated with wine, they were all either killed
or taken prifoners. Notwithftanding this difafter, how-
ever, alTillance was fent in the year 1400 to Waticef-
laus emperor of Germany ; and the duke of Orlean5,
who commanded the army on this occafion, acquitted
himfelf fo well that he acquired the duchy of Luxem-
burg for himfelf, and left his ally fatlsfied : but while
the friendlLip of France was thus courted by foreign
powers, the kingdom itfelf was in the moft miferable
fituation. The king's diftemper feemed daily to gain Vloleiit
groimd-; while the difcordant interefts of the contend- commo.
ing parties kept the v.hole nation in a ferment. The "°"* '^
moft violent aniraofity took place betwixt the dukes of ■'^"^"'
Orleans and Burgimdy. The former, by means of his
own interell ivith the queen, and the afcendency his
duchefs had over the king, for fonie time got the bet-
ter of his rival, and was made lieutenant general and
governor of the kingdom ; but having prelumed on
his power to levy neiv Irapofts on the people, and op-
prefling alfo the churchmen, whom in that fupcrlHtious
age he ought by all means to have let alone, he was
deprived of his authority, and obliged to yield to the
duke of Burgundy. For fome time, however, thefe
powerful rivals were kept within fome bounds by the me-
diation of the duke of Bourbon, who fcems to have
been the only grandee who maintained a pure and un-

flattery, and ready to yield to every Impulfe of law
lefs palTion. The duke of Orleans was equally re-
markable for his perfonal accomplilhments, and had
married Valcntlna daughter of the duke of Milan ; but
his engagements with that princefs did r.ot prevent lilm
from engaging In a number of licentious amours, and
among the reil, as was fuppofed, with his filler-in-law
Il'abella. During the king's illnefs he openly afplred
at the regency ; but his pretenfions were overruled
by the ftates, the adminlftration of affairs being for
the prefent conferred on the duke of Burgundy. In a
few months indeed the health and underftanding of the
king feemed to be futhciently reftored : but in the year
1593 it was again difturbed by an accident no lefs ex-
ttraordinary than the former had been. An entertainment
had been given in honour of the marriage of one of the
queen's attendant's. At this fix mafques ei-.tered the
apartment, difguifed like fatyrs, in linen clothes covered
with rofin, and while warm lluck over ivith down. Thefe
were the king and five of his lords. The duchefs of
Berri paid attention to the king, though fhe did not
know him, and engaged in converfation with him. In
the mean time the duke of Orleans ignorant of the con-
fequence, out of dlverfion ran a lighted torch againft
one of them. His whole drefs was initantly in a llame,
and the fire was from him communicated to all the
reft. The mafques, notwithftanding the dreadful iitua-
tion they were In, called out, " Save the king ; fave
the king !" on which the duchefs of Berri, recollect-
ing that it muft be him %vlth whom flie had engaged in
converiation, wrapped him in her cloak, and preferved
him from further danger. Only one of the reft efcap-
(=d by jumping into a clitern of water •, the other four
perished in the flames. The terror wliich the king un-
derwent by this accident inftantly occafioned a relapfe ;
and he continued delirious at Intervals as long as he
lived. During this ftate of infanity he was untrac-
table by every perfon except Valentina duchefs of Or-
leans ; who feemed to have as great an influence over
him as her huiband the duke had over the mind of the
queen. So great was the power indeed which ftie had
over the king in this deplorable ftate, that in thofe fu-
^lerrtitious times it was fuppofed by many to be the
effect of magic. Others, with more probability, afcrlbed
it to her fuperior charms as a woman ; and this idea in-
itantly produced her a number of enemies among her
own fex, the duchefs of Burgundy particularly ; and
the quarrel between the two ladies, foon extended itfelf fpotted charadler ; but by his death in 1404, the un-

to their hulbands. Araidrt their dlffenfions, however,
tiiey did not entirely neglect the-adminiftration of pub-
lic affairs •, they ftrove to conciliate the affection of the
parliament by preferving the rights of the commons in-
violate ; and they endeavoured to check an inordinate
paflion for gaming which began to appear about this
lime, and to fubftitute manly and martial exercifes in its
place.

During the intervals of his reafon, Charles fre-
quently affumcd the government Into his own hands :
and as the war Itill contioued with England, though in

happy nation was left totally expofed to their rclentlefs
fury. In 1 405, the queen and duke of Orleans again
feized the adminlftration ; but were foon deprived of It
by the unanimous voice of the people. During thi^
period Charles and his children were uegleclcJ and
abandoned to diftrefs ; but they were relieved by tlie
duke of Burgundy on his obtaining the regency ; and
Ifabella, v.ith the duke of Orleans, was obliged to retire
from Milan. A fuddcn return of the king's reafon and
underftanding for a much longer time than ulual, now
deprived both parties of their power ; and the ad-
mlniilrallon

F R A

[ 80 .]

F R A

nu'se of
Orleans sf-
faffinatecl.

liirttation tt-as veiled in the queen and 3 council com-
pofed of princes of the Ijlood.

The two rival dukes, thus prohibited from inter-
fering in public affairs, exerclfed themfelves in com-
mitting hoftilities againil the Englifh, with whom the
truce had been lately concluded. They were encou-
raged to this infraftion of the treaty by the unfettled
iituation of the affairs of Henry IV. : but their at-
tempts proving unfuccelsful, the truce was reneived af-
ter obtaining reftoration of the princefs, v.ho had been
married to Richard II. as has been already mentioned.
The failure of their enterprifes produced a new fcene of
<lifcord betwixt the dukes, who mutmlly threw the
blame upon each otiier. By the entreaties of the duke
of Berry they were apparently reconciled ; but the duke
ot Burgundy pretended friendfliip only in order to take
the more fignal vengeance. To this he ^vas now fur-
ther inriamed by jealoufy. Having hired a band of
ruffians to execute his bloody purpofe, the duke was
one evening attacked by eighteen of them while. at-
tended only by tu'o pages. A Norman gentleman
whom the duke had deprived of an employment, head-
-ed the aflafiins, and in perfon attacked the duke. At
the firft blow he cut off his hand, at the fecond he
llruck him from his mule, and at the third put an end
to his life. His wife Valentina was fo concerned at his
death, that (lie died foon after. The duke of Bur-
gundy efcaped to Flanders •, and the ^vhole nation was
rent into two factions, called the Burgundians and Ar-
magnacs ; the latter being the title of the party of the
duke of Orleans, from Armagnac the father-in-law of
that prince. A dreadful confufion enfued : the duke
of Burgundy foon returned to France, and extorted a
pardon from the unhappy king, who was now no

jnger

able to relilt him : and we may have feme no-

95
invafion by
Henry V.
of Enaland.

of the ftate of the kingdom in general from being
told, that 2;oo people periflied in one tumult in the
capital. The king himfelf was alternately the prifoner
of each party,' and alternately transferred the power
from the one to the other as he happened to fall into
their hands. This therefore was thought by Henry V.
of England, a favourable opportunity to recover from
France thofe grants that had been formerly given up
by treaty. But previoufly, to give his intended expe-
dition the appearance of jullice, he fent over ambafia-
dors to Paris, offering a perpetual peace and alliance,
on condition of being put in poffeflion of all thofe pro-
vinces which had been ravilhed from the Englifh du-
ring fome former reigns, and of efpouling Catharine,
the French king's daughter, in marriage, with a fuit-
able dowry. Though the French court ^vas at that
time extremely averfe to war, yet the exorbitance of
thefe demands could not be complied \vith ; and Henry
very probably made them in hopes of a denial. He
therefore affembled a great deet and army at South-
ampton ; and having allured all the military men of
the kingdom to attend him, from the hopes of con-
queft, he put to fea, and landed at Harfleur, at the
head of an army of 6000 men-at-arms, and 24,000 foot,
moftly archers.

His firll operations were upon Harfleur ; which be-
ing preffed hard, promifed at a certain day to furren-
der unlefs relieved before that time. The day arriv-
ing, and the garrifon, unmindful of their engagement,
iliU refolving to defend the place, Henry ordered an

affauh to be made, took the town by florni, and put
all the garrifon to the fword. From thence the vic-
tor advanced farther into the country, which had been
aheady rendered defolate by faftions, and which he
now totally laid \valle. But althougli the enemy made
a feeble reliilance ; yet the climate Teemed to light
againft the Englilh ; a contagious dykntery carrying
off three parts of Henry's army. In this fituatioij
he had recourfe to an expedient common enough in that
barbarous age, to infpire his troops \vith con.'idence in
their general. He challenged tlie dauphin, who com-
manded in the French array, to fingle combat, offer-
ing to flake his preteniions on the event. This chal-
lenge, as might naturally be expeiTted, was rejected ;
and the French ,' though difagreeing hiternally, at laft
feemed to unite at the appearance" of the comm.on
danger. A numerous army of 14,000 men at arms,
and 40,000 foot, was by this time affembled under the
command of Count Albert, and was now placed to in-
tercept Henry's weakened forces on their return. The
Englifli monarch, when it was too late, began to re-
pent of his rafti inroad into a country where difeafe
and a powerful army everywhere threatened deilruc-
tion ; he therefore thought of retiring into Calais. In
this retreat, which was at once botii painful and dan-
gerous, Henry took every precaution to infpire his
troops with patience and perfeverance ; and fbov,-ed
them in his o%vn perfon the brighteft example of forti-
tude and refignation. He was continually haraffed
on his march by flying parties of the enemy ; and
whenever he attempted to pafs the river Somme, acrofs
which his march lay, he faw troops on the other fide
ready to oppcfe his paffage. Hoivever, he was fo for-
tunate as to feize by furpiife a paffage near St Q^uintin,
which had not been fufficiently guarded ; and there he
fafely carried over his army.

But the enemy was flill refolved to intercept his re-
treat : and after he had paffed the fmall river of Ter-
trois at Blangi, he was furprifed to obferve from the
lieights the whole French army drawn up in the plains
of Agincourt ; and fo polled, that it vrss impoffible for
him to proceed on his march, without coming to an
engagement. A battle accordingly took place, in
which the Englilh gained a vidory, the tnoft remark-
able perhaps of any recorded in hiftory •, an account
of which is given under the article Agincourt.

This victory, gained on the 25th of October 1415,
was however attended with no immediate effects.
Henry ftill continued to retreat, after the battle of
Agincourt, out of the kingdom 5 and carried his pri-
foners to Calais, and from thence to England. In
1 41 7, he once more landed an army of 25,000 men
in Normandy ; and prepared to ftrike a decifive blow
for the crown of France, to which the Englifh mo-
narchs had long made pretenfions. That wretched
coimtry was now in a moft deplorable fituation. The
whole kingdom appeared as one vaft theatre of crimes,
murders, injuflice, and devallation. The duke of Or-
leans was affaffmated by the duke of Burgundy ; and
the duke of Burgundy, in his turn, fell by the treach-
ery of the dauphin. At the fame time, the duke's
fon, defirous of revenging his father's death, entered
into a fecret treaty with the Englilli ; and a league was
immediately concluded at Arra<:, between Henry and
the young duke of Burgundy, in which the king pro-
mifed

Henry

in Nor-
niantly.

F R A [8

France. mifeJ to revenge the murder of the h.:i duke ; and
■""v— ' the ion feemcd to infill upon no further ftipulations.
Henry, therefore, proceeded in liis conquefts ^vithout
much oppofition from any quarter. Several townis and
provinces fubmitted on his approach ; the city of Rou-
en was befieged and taken : Pontoife and Gifors he
foon became mailer of. He even threatened Paris by
the terror of his power, and obliged the court to re-
move to Troyes. It was at this city that the duke of
Burgundy, who had taken upon him the protection
of the French king, met Henry in order to ratify that
treaty which was formerly begun, and by which the
crown of France was to be transferred to a Ifranger.
The imbecility into which Charles had fallen, made
him paffive in this remarkable treaty ; and Henry die-

I ]

F R A

tated the terms thr

the whole negotiation.

The principal articles ot this treaty were. That Henry
Uiould efpoufe the princeis Catharine ; that King Charles
Uiould enjoy the title and dignity of king for life ; but
that Henry ihould be declared heir to the crown, and
Ihould be intrufted with the prefent adminiftration of
the government ; that France and England ihould for
ever be united under one king, but iliould flill retain
their relpeitive laws and privileges •, that Henry ihould
unite his arms with thofe of King Charles and the
duke of Burgundy, to deprefs and lubdue the dauphin
and his partifans.
He marries ^^ ^^'^^ ^°^ ^°^S ^ft*'' '^'^ treaty, that Henry mar-
the Princefs ned the princefs Catharine ; after which he carried his
Citharine. father-in-Iavir to Paris, and took a formal poffeiTion of
that capital. There he obtained from the eflates of
the kingdom a ratification of the late compafl: ; and
then turned his arms with fuccefs againil the adhe-
rents of the dauphin ; who, in the mean time, ^van-
dered about a ftranger in his own patrimony, and to
his enemies fuccefles only oppofed fruitlefs expollu-
lations.

Henry's fupplles were not provided in fuch plenty
as to enable him to carry on the war without return-
ing in perfon to prevail upon his parliament for freih
fuccours ; and, upon his arrival in England, though
he found his fubjecls highly pleaied with the fplendour
of his conquefls, yet they feemed fomewhat doubtful
as to the advantage of them. A treaty, which in its
confequences was likely to transfer the feat of empire
from England, was not much relilhed by the parlia-
ment. They therefore, upon various pretences, refufed
him a fupply equal to his exigencies or his demands ;
but he was refolved on purluing his Ichemes ; and,
joining to the fupplies granted at home, the contribu-
tions levied on the conquered provinces, he was able
once more to alTemble an army of 28,000 men, and
with thefe he landed fafely at Calais.

In the mean time, the dauphin, a prince of great
prudence and aftivily, omitted no opportunity of re-
pairing his ruined fituation, and to lake the advantage
of Henry's abfence from France. He prevailed upon
the regent of Scotland to (end him a body ot 8000 men
from that kingdom ; and with thefe, and lome few
forces of his own, he attacked the duke of Clarence,
who commanded the troops in Henry's abfence, and
gained a complete viftory.

This was the firll attion which turned the tide of
fucceis againil the Englilh. But it was of ihort dura-
tion : for Henry foon after appearing with a confider-
VoL. IX. Part I.

able arn-y, the dauphin Ik-d at his approa<h ; while Fnncf.

many of the places, which held out for the dauphia » '

in the neighbourhood of Paris, furrendered to the con-
queror. In this manner, while Henry was everyu-here
\-iilorious, he fixed his refidencc at Paris : and while
Charles had a ilnall court, he was attended with a
very magnificent one. On Whitlunday 1421, the twa
kings and their two queens with crowns on their heads
dined together in public ; Charles receiving apparent
homage, but Henry commanding with ablolute autho-
rity.

In the mean time, the dauphin was chafed beyond
the Loire, and almoil totally diipoiTcired of ali the
northern provinces. He was even purl'ucd into the
fouth, by the united arms of the Englifli and Burgun-
dians, and threatened with total dellruclion. In this
exigence, he found it necelTary to fpin out the war, and
to evade all hazardous aclions with a rival who had
been long accullomed to viclory. His prudence was
everywhere remarkable ; and, after a train of long
perfecutions from fortune, he found her at length wil-
ing to declare in his favour, by the death of the king
of England.

Charles VI. died a ihort time after-, and Charles VII. D.-ath'oi'
fucceeded his father to a nominal throne. Nothing Ht-mv ;iiij
could be more deplorable than the fituation of that '-''2'''--
monarch on aiTuming his title to the crown. The Eng-
lilh were mailers of almoil all France ; and Henry VI.
though yet but an infant, was folemnly inverted with
regal power by legates from Paris. The duke of Bed-
ford was at the head of a numerous army, in the heart
ot the kingdom, ready to oppofe every inlurreftion ;
while the duke of Burgundy, who had entered into a
firm confederacy with him, llill remained lledfaft, ami
feconded his claims. Yet, notwithflanding thefe fa- ,00
vourable appearances, Charles found means to bi'eak Di-fpcr.nc
the leagues formed againil him, and to bring back his'""^*'"" °f
fubjefls to their natural interells and their duty. i'?'^ "

However, his firil attempts were totally dellitute of
fuccefs. Wherever he endeavoured to face the enemy
he was overthroivn, and he could fcarcely rely on the
friends next his perfon. His authority was inflilted
even by his own fervants ; advantage after advantage
was gamed againil him ; and a battle fought near Ver-
neuil, in which he was totally defeated by the duke of
Bedford, feemed to render his affairs altogether defpe-
rate. But from the impoiribility of the Englilh keep-
ing the field without new fupplies, Bedford was obli-
ged to retire into England ; and in the mean time, his
vigilant enemy began to recover from his late coniler-
nation. Dumois, one of his generals, at the head of
1000 men, compelled the earl of Warwick to raife
the fiege of Montargis ; and this advantage, flight as
it was, began to mr.ke the French fuppofe that the
EnglilTi were not invincible. ,0,

But they foon had ftill greater reafon to triumph in Tlie French
their change of fortune, and a new revolution was pro.»'f=i"''*"
du(cd by means apparently the mo\l unlikely to be at-|['"^\'^;ai/
tended with fuccefs. In the village of Dornremi, near^f oile.ns,
Vaucoulcurs, on the borders of Lorrain, there lived a
country girl, about 27 years of agCj called Joan de
Arc. This girl had been a fervant at a fmall inn ; and
in that humble (lation had fubmitted to thofe hardy
employments which fit the body for the fatigues of
war. She was of an irreproachabl;: life, and had hi-
I. ther-o

F R A [8

ftirtt. tlierto teftified r.one of thofe enterprifing qualities
•''-^r—— v;hich diCpluyed themfelves foon after. She content-
edly falQled the duties of her fituation, and was re-
markable only for her modefty and love of religion.
But the miferies of her country feemed to have been
one of the greateft objefts of her compalTion and re-
gard. Her mind, inflamed by thefe objeds, and brood-
ing with melancholy ftedfallnefs upon them, began to
iieel leveral impulfes, which (he was willing to miftake
for the infpirations of heaven. Convinced of the rea-
lity of her oivn admonitions, (he had recourfe to one
Baudricourt, governor of Vaucouleurs, and informed
him of her deilination by heaven to free her native
coiintry of its fierce invaders. Baudricourt treated
her at firft ivith negleft : but her importimities at
length prevailed ; and willing to make a trial of her
pretenfions, he gave her fome attendants, who con-
dueled her to the court, which at that time refided at
Chinon.

The French court were probably fenfible of the
■weaknefs of her pretenfions ; but they were willing to
make ufe of every artifice to fupport their declining
fortunes. It was therefore given out, that Joan was
aclually infpired ; that (he had been able to difcover
the king among the number of his courtiers, although
lie had laid afide all the dillinftions of his authority ;
that (he had told him fome fecrels, which were only
knov.Ti to himfelf; and that (lie had demanded, and
minutely defcribed, a fivord in the church of St Ca-
tharine de Fierbois, which ihe had never feen. In this
manner, the minds of the ^Tilgar being prepared for
her appearance, (he was armed cap-a-pee, and (hown
In that martial drefs to the people. She was then
brought before the doftors of the univerfity ; and they,
tinctured with the credulity of the times, or vnlling to
I'econd the impollure, declared that (he had aftually
received her commilTion from above.

When the preparations for her milTion were com-
pletely blazoned, the next aim was to fend her againft
the enemy. The Englilh were at that time befieging
the city of Orleans, the laft refource of Charles, and
every thing promifed them a fpeedy furrender. Joan
undertook to raife the fiege ; and to render herfelf (till
more remarkable, girded herfelf with the miraculous
(word, of wliich (lie before had fuch extraordinary no-
tices. Thus equipped, ftie ordered all the foldiers to
confeis themfelves before they fet out ; (he difplayed in
her hand a confecrated banner, and alTured the troops
of certain fuccefs. Such confidence on her fide foon
raifed the fpirits of the French army ; and even the
Engli(h, who pretended to defpife her elforts, felt
themfelves fecrctly influenced with the terrors of her
mi(rion. A lupply of provifions was to be conveyed
into the town ; Joan, at the head of fome French
troops, covered the embarkation, and entered Orleans
at the head of the convoy which (he had fafely pro-
tetled. While (lie was leading her troops along, a dead
filcncc and al\oni(hment reigned among the Engli(h ;
and th^'y regarded with religious awe that temerity,
which they thought nothing but fupematural afiiftance
could infpire. But they were foon roufed from their
Aatc of amazement by a faliy from the tov.n ; Joan led
on the beficgid, bearing the facred rtandard in her hand,
•ncoura'ging them with her ^^o^ds and aflions, bring-
ing them to the trenches^ and overpowering the beCci

2 ] F R A

gers in their own redoubts. In the attack of one of France,
the forts, (lie was wounded in the neck \nth an arrow ; '"^"^"■"^
but inftantly pulling out the weapon with her own
hands, and getting the wound quickly drefTed, (he hall-
ened back to head the troops, and to plant her vifto-
rious banner on the ramparts of the enemy. Thefe"luc-
celTes continuing, the Englilh found that it was impol-
fible to refill troops animated by fuch fuperior energy ;
and Sulfolk, who conduced the attack, thinking that
it might prove extremely dangerous to remain any
longer in the prefence of fuch a courageous and victo-
rious enemy, raifed the fiege, and retreated with, all
imaginable precaution.

From being attacked, the French now in turn be-
came the aggreflbrs. Charles formed a body of 6000
men, and fent them to befiege Jergeau, whither the
Englilh, commanded by the earl of SuflFolk, had re-
tired, with a detachment of his army. The city was
taken ; Suffolk yielded himfelf a prifoner j and Joan
marched into the place in triumph at the head of the
army. A battle was foon after fought near Patay,
where the Englilh were worlled, as before ; and the
generals Scales and Talbot were taken prifoners.

The railing of the fiege of Orleans ^vas one part of
the Maid's promife to the king of France ; the crown-
ing him at Rheims was the other. She now declared
that it was time to complete that ceremony •, and
Charles, in purfuance of her advice, fet out for Rheims
at the head of 1 2,ooo men. The towns through which
he paffed opened their gates to receive him ; and Rheims
fent him a deputation, with its keys, upon his ap-
proach. The ceremony of his coronation was there
performed ^vith the utmod folemnity ; and the Maid
of Orleans (for fo (lie was now called) feeing the com-
pletion of her mi(rion, defired leave to retire, alleging
that (lie had now accompliflied the end of her calling.
But her fervices had been fo great, that the king
could not think of parting with her ; he prefled her to
flay fo eameftly, that (he at length complied with his
requed.

A tide of fuccefles followed the performance of
this folemnity •, Laon, SoiflTons, Chateau-Thierri, Pro-
vins, and many other fortrelTes in that neighbourhood,
fubmitted to him on the firll fummons. On the other
hand, the Englifli, difcomfited and difpirited, fled on
every quarter ; not knowing whether to afcribe their
misfortunes to the power of forcery or to a celellial
influence ; but equally terrified at either. They now
found themfelves deprived of the conquefls they had
gained, in the fame manner as the French had former-
ly fubmitted to their power. Their own divifions,
both abroad and at home, unfitted them entirely for
carrying on the war ; and the duke of Bedford, not-
withllanding all his prudence, f.iw himfelf diverted of
his firong holds in the country, without being able to ic2
flop the enemy's progrefs. In order therefore, to re- '^e"''y VI.
vive the declining (late of his alTairs, he relblved to"^^^"^^"'^
have Henry crowned king at Paris, knowing tliat the|^,^^Qf
natives would be allured to obedience by the fplendour France.
of the ceremony. In 1430, Henry was accordingly
crowned, all the vaflals that llill continued under the
Englilh power fwearing fealty and homage. But it
was now too late for the ceremonies of a coronation to
give a turn to the affairs of the Englilh •, the genera-
litjr of the kingdom had declared againft them, and the
remcUjidcr

F R A

[ s

remainder only wr.itcd a convenient opportunity to fol-
low the example.

An accident enfiicd foon after, ivliich, though it pro-
mifed to promote the Englifli caufe in France, in the
end ferved to render it odious, and conduced to the
total evacuation of that country. The duke of Bur-
gundy, at the head of a po^verful army, had laid iiege
to Compeignj and the Maid of Orleans had thrown
herfelf into the place, contrary to the willies of the
governor, who did not defire the company of one
whofe authority would be greater than his own. The
garrifon, hoivever, were rejoiced at h^'r appearance,
and believed themfelves invincible under her protec-
tion. Uut their joy was of ihort duration; for Joan
ha^-ing the day after her arrival headed a fally, and
twice dri\en the enemy from their intrenchments, (he
was at laft obliged to retire, placing herfelf in the rear,
to proteifl the retreat of her forces. But in the end,
attempting to follow her troops into the city, (he found
the gates Ihut, and the bridge drawn up by order of
the governor, who is faid to have long iviflied for an
opportunity of delivering her up to the enemy.

Nothing could exceed the joy of the befiegers, in
having taken a perfon who had been fo long a terror
to their arms. The fervice of Te Deum was publicly
celebrated on this occafion; and it was hoped, that the
capture of this extraordinaiy perfon would reflore the
Englilh to their former victories and faccefles. The
duke of Bedford was no fooner informed of her being
taken, than he purchafed her of the Count Vendome,
who had made her his prifoner, and ordered her to be
committed to clofe confinement. The credulity of
both nations ^vas at that time fo great, that nothing
was too abfurd to gain belief that coincided ^vith their
paflions. As Joan but a little before, from her fuccef-
fes, was regarded as a faint, fhe was now, upon her
captivity, confidered as a forcerefs, forfaken by the de-
mon who had granted her a fallacious and temporary
aJiftancc. Accordingly it was refolved in council to
fend her to Rouen to be tried for witchcraft : and the
bilhop of Beauvais, a man wholly devoted to the Eng-
li(li intereft, prefcnted a petition againll her for that
purpofe. The univerfity of Paris was fo mean as to
join in the fame requell. Several prelates, among
whom the carduial of Winchefter was the only Englifh-
man, were appointed as her judges. They held their
court at Rouen, where Henry then refided ; and the
Maid, clothed in her former military apparel, but load-
ed with irons, was produced before the tribunal. Her
behaviour there no way difgraced her former gallantry ;
Ihe betrayed neither weaknefs nor womaniih fubmif-
fion ; but appealed to God and the pope for the trutlr
of her former revelations. In the iffiie. flie was found
guilty of herei'y and witchcraft ; and fentenced to be
burnt alive, the common punidiment for fuch offences.

But previous to the infiiftion of this dreadful fen-
tence upon her, they were refolved to make her abjure
her former errors; and at length fo far prevailed upon
her, by terror and rigorous treatment, that her fpirits
were entirely broken by the hardlhips (lie was obliged
to fuffer. Her former vifionary dreams began to va-
iiilh, and a gloomy diftruft to take place of her late in-
fpirations. She publicly declared herfelf willing to
recant, and promifcd never more to give way to tlic

3 1 F R A

vain dclufioiis which had hitherto milled lier, and ira-
poled on the people. This was what her oppreflbrs
fome appearance of mec-

Ff .K.r ■

the
defired ; and willing to Cm

cy, they changed her fentence into perpetual hmprifo
ment, and to be fed during life on bread and water.
But the rage of her enemies was not yet fatiatcd. Su-
fpefting that the female drefs which fhe had confent-
ed to wear, was difagreeable to her, they purpofely
placed in her apartment a iuit of men's apparel, and
watched for the efleft of their temptation upon her.
Their cruel artifices prevailedi Joan, (truck witl? the
fight of a drefs in which ihe had gained fo much glo-
ry, immediately threw oft" her penitent's robes, and
put on the forbidden garment. Her enemies caught
her equipped in this manner ; and her imprudence was
confidered as a relapfe into her former tranfgrefTions. 15,
No recantation would fufhce, and no pardon would and cruelly
be granted. She wns condemned to be burnt alive inI'"tto
the market place of Rouen ; and this infamous fentence
was accordingly executed with moft brutal feverity.

One of the tirlt misfortunes which the Englifh felt •
after tliis punidiment, was the defection of the duke
of Burgundy ; who had for fome time feen the error
of his condutl, and wilhed to break an unnatural con-
nexion, that only ferved to involve his country in ruin.
A treaty was therefore begun and concluded between
him and Charles, in which the former agreed to alTiil
him in driving the Englifli out of France. This was
a mortal blow to their caufe ; and fuch was its effects
upon the populace of London when they were inform-
ed of it, that they killed feveral of the duke of Bur-
gundy's fubjefts, who happened to be among them at
the time. It might perhaps alfo have haftened the
duke of Bedford's death, who died at Rouen a few
days after the treaty was concluded ; and the earl of
Cambridge was appointed his fucceflbr to the regency
of France. 105

From this peiiod, the Englifh affairs became totally Affairs of
irretrievable. The city of Paris returned once more E"gi»>
to a fenfe of its duty. Lord Willoughby, who com- ^'y,]^gj_
mandcd it for the Englilh, was contented to flipulate
for the fafe retreat of his troops to Normandy. Thus
ground was continually, though llowly, gained by the
French ; and notw-ithilanding their fields were laid
watle, and their towns depopulated, yet they found
protection from the weaknefs and divifions of the Eng-
lilh. -A.t length both parties began to grow weary
of a v.ar, which, though carried on but feebly, was yet
a burden greater than either could fupport. But the
terms of peace infilled upon by both were (o wide of
each other, that no hopes of an accommodation could
quickly be expefted. A truce, therefore, for twenty-
two months, was concluded in 1443, vrhich left every-
thing on the prefcnt fooling between the parties. No
fooner was this ainreed upon, than Charles employed
himfclf with great induflry and judgment in Repairing
thofe numberlefs ills to which his kingdom, from the
continuance of wars both foreign and domeflic, had
fo long been expofed. He eflablifhed difcipline a-
mong his troops, and jullice among his governors.
He revived agriculture, and repreffed faftion. Thus
being prepared once more for taking the field, he t«ok
the firfl favourable occafion of breaking the truce ;. and.
Normandy was at the fame time invaded by four
L 2 powerful

F R A

[ 84 ]

F R A

pcwerfu! armies ; one commanded by Cliaiki himfelf,
' a fecond by the duke of Brittany, a third by the count
ot Alengon, and a fourth by the Count Dunois. Every
place opened its gates almoft as foon as the French
appeared before them. Rouen was the only one that
promifed to hold out a fiege ; but the inhabitants cla-
moured fo loud for a furrender, that tlie duke of So-
raerfet, who commanded the garrlfon, was obliged to
capitulate. The battle, or rather the fkirmilh, of
Fourroingi, was the lart lland which the EngUrti made
in defence of their French dominions. However, they
were put to the rout, and above a thoufand were flain.
All Normandy and Guienne, that had lb long acknow-
ledged fubjeftion to England, were loft in the (pace
of a year ; and the Englifh faw themfelves entirely dif-
pcfleffed of a country which for above three centuries
they had confidered as annexed to their native domi-
nions. Calais alone remained of all their conquefts ;
and this was but a fmall compenfation for the blood
nnd treafure which had been laviihed in that country, and
^nly ferved to gratify ambition with a tranfient applaufe.
Thus, in the y«ar 1450, the power of the Englifh
m France was entirely deftroyed ; and Charles deferv-
edly obtained the furname of Vitlorious, on account of
the vigour he had (hown in driving out the invaders of
his country. His fatisfaclion, however, was now
J greatly diminifbed by domeflic misfortunes. The dau-
phin, forgetting the allegiance and filial duty he owed
to his father, had already impeded his conquefts by his
feditious intrigues. He had ufed every endeavour to
thwart the defigns of his minifters, and it was fuppof-
ed that he had deftroyed Agnes Soreille his father's
favourite miftrefs by poifon. He had married Char-
lotte daughter to the duke of Savoy ; which Charles
had refented by a declaration of war againft the duke,
but had been perfuaded to reeal it in order to profe-
cute the war againft Guienne, which made part of the
dominions of the Englifh. At laft, weary of the dif-
obedience of his fon, he commanded him to be arrefted ;
but Louis, informed of his defign, withdrew to Franche
Comte, and afterwards to Brabant ; of which the duke
of Burgundy ( at this time fovereign of the countrj-)
'vas no fooner apprifed, than he ordered him to be
fupplied with every necelTary, and treated with all
imaginable refpeft. He refufed to fee him, however,
until he fhould obtain the approbation of his father j
on which Louis, having in vain attempted to draw the
duke into a participation of his crimes, employed him-
felf in fowing dilTenfion betwixt his benefactor and his
fon the count of Charolois, at the very time that he
himfelf was receiving a penfion of i2.oos crowns an-
nually from the father. 'I'hus he at laft deftroyed the
iomeftic peace of his benefador, while his unnatural
behaviour created continual fufpicions in the mind of
his father, Charles was repeatedly informed that his
o.\-a domeftics, along with his undutiful fon, were in
J confpiracy againft his life. The miferable monarch,
therefore, in continual fear of being poifoned, and hav-
ing none in whom he could repofe any confidence,
obllinately refufed f r fome days to take any nouriih-
ment ; and when at laft prevailed upon by the impor-
tunities of his attendants to do fo, his ftomach had
become incapabk of receiving food, fo that he died
for want of fuftenance in the year 1461. His body,
J»egledcd by. his unnatural fon, was interred at the e.\-

pence of Tannegul de Chaftel, who had been his faith- France,
ful companion. ' ^r—^

On the death of Charles, his fon Louis fucceeded to j^^j'^'^-
the throne, to which he had fo long afpired. He Loi,,s xl
was reckoned one of the greateft politicians that ever
exirted ; though his charader was not on that account
the more amiable ; on the contrary, there are few
princes whofe hillory appears in a more deteilable light.
So deftitute was he of natural aftetlion, that he did
not even attempt to conceal his joy at his father's
death. He pretended much friendlhip for the count
of Charolois, fon to the duke of Burgundy, on ac-
count of the proteclion he had received at his father's
court ; and even conferred upon him a penfion of
12,000 crowns annually : but all tliis ihow of affec-
tion foon degenerated into a mortal averfion on both
fides. Some differences which took place between the
courts of France and Caftile produced an interview
betwixt the two monarchs, Louis, and Henry fur-
named the Impotent. They met at Mauleon on the
confines of Navarre : but their negotiations came to
nothing, and they parted with a mutual contempt of
each other ; Henry defpifing the mean and fordid ap-
pearance of Louis, as he in his turn did the gaudy
magnificence of Henry. In his negotiations with the
duke of Burgundy, Louis proved more fuccefsful •, per-
fuading him to reftore fome towns on the river Somme,
which had been ceded by Charles VH. and by the
pofTefTion of which the duke was in effeft mafler of
Picardy. This cefTion was oppofed by the count of
Charolois ; but Louis, by corrupting John de Croy
the duke's minifler, obtained his end ; and for the fum
of 400,000 crowns the cities were delivered to him.
By this tranfaftion he effedfually enfured the hatred of
Charolois : and even in that very tranfadion the dupli-
city of Louis was eminently difplayed j for though he
had agreed to retain in thofe towns the officers ap-
pointed by the duke, he was no fooner in poffefTion of
them than he difplaced thera all, and nominated others
in their ftead. j^g

The duchy of Brittany was at this time governed Fermidtble
by Francis, a weak but generous prince, and whofe confederacy
defefl of capacity was fupplied by the abilities of his'g="."'*
minifters. Him Louis infulted in the raoft grievous ^""'^^
manner j and as Francis found himfelf unable to op-
pofe fuch a powerful adverfary alone, he joined in a
clofe alliance with the duke of Burgundy and the
count of Charolois ; the latter having been grievoufly
offended with Louis, and even accuted him of attempt-
ing his life. The confpiracy ^vas joined by feveral of
the principal French nobihty, who had been oppref-
fed by the king •, and though the fecret was confided
to upwards of joo perfons, not one oi them ever di-
vulged it. Louis finding matters become very critical,
marched with an army towards the capital, which the
count of Charolois already infulted. A battle enfued,
in which both princes exerted themfelves to the ut-
moft, though their valour was but ill feconded by
the bravery of their troops. About 1500 perilhed on
each fide ; but the count of Charolois remained niafter
of the field of battle. Louis, however, after this en-
gagement, entered the capital : where he endeavoured,
by ever)' kind concefTion he could think of, to con-
ciliate the affetlion of his fubj-cls ; in which he fuc-
ceeded fo well, that though the army of infurgents

F R A [

Frar^e. was foon augmented to more than ico,OCO men, they
^- • were unable to make themfelves mafteis of the city.
PfBce'on- ■^^ '"'' * treaty was let on foot betwixt Louis and the
tludtd. count of Charolois ; by \vhich the latter obtained the
towns which had been formerly ceded, vvith the di-
ftrids of Boulogne, Guilne, Peronne, Mondidior, and
Roye, as a perpetual inheritance for himfclf. By
granting favours to the other confederates, the league
j,p was broken ; and the moment that Louis found him-
Treacherv felf freed from danger, he protefted againft the whole
of Lou;3. ' treaty in the prefence of fome confidential members of
parliament, as contrary to the interelt of the crown ;
and therefore waited the firR favourable opportunity
to crulli one by one thofe who had been ready by their
united eflForts to deftroy himfelf. The duke of Bour-
bon, one of the moll able of the confederates, was
gained over, by beftowing upon him in marriage, Jane
the natural daughter of Louis himfelf, with the dowry
of UiTon in Auvergne ; together with Moras, Beau-
repaire, and Cormillon in Dauphiny ; while, by the dif-
contents betxvixt the dukes of Brittany and Normandy,
he was enabled to fecure the neutrality of the former,
and to recover from the latter fome territories ivhich
he had unwillingly ceded to him.

In 1467, Philip duke of Burgundy, from his amiable
qualities fumamed T/ie Gooti, died, and left his domi-
nions to his fon Charles count of Charolois. That
fiery and impetuous prince, jealous of the growing
power of France, and an implacable enemy of Louis,
had entered into a fecret treaty with Francis ; but
Louis had driven the Bretons from the pofts they oc-
cupied in Normandy before the duke of Burgundy
could pafs the Somme. The king, however, alarmed
at the power of the confederates, concluded a peace
with Brittany j and, confiding in his talents for nego-
tiation, determined to have a perfonal interview with
the duke of Burgundy,
louis un- This memorable interview took place in the year
prifoned by 1 468 ; and Peronne, a city of Picardy, but belong-
Charles. ing to the duke of Burgundy, was appointed as the
place of rendezvous. To this place the politic Louis
repaired with a (lender train, and attended only by
Cardinal Balue, the duke of Bourbon, and the tount
de St Pol, conftablc of France ; feemingly without re-
flefting that he was entering a hoftile city, where he
might be confined for any length of time, or treated at
the pleafure of the duke, who was his mortal enemy.
Indeed he had not long been in the place when he be-
gan to fee the error of his conduft ; and by the daily
roncourfe of Burgundian lords and other perfons of
rank, ivho were his avowed enemies, he became
alarmed for his perfonal fafety. His fear novv fug-
gefted to him a worfe meafure than even the former ;
ind he requefted apartments in the caftle, where it
was in the power of his rival in a moment to make him
a clofe prifoner. This event accordingly took place,
and that through the arts and machinations of Louis
himfelf. His defign had been fiom the beginning to
keep the duke of Burgundy conl^antly employed in
domeftic wars. For this purpofe he had, btfore his
intert'iew with Charle>, excited the inhabitants of
Liege, who were fubjeft to the duke of Burgundy, to
revolt. It is moll probable, that he did not imagine
the effecls of this treachery would fo foon Ijcgin to
appear. At the very time, however, that Louis was

35 ] F R A

in the caiHe of Pciojui?, the people of Liege revolted, rrir.c-

feized the bilhop and governor ; and having m.iffacred " ^—

great numbers of the adherents of Charles, retired
with the prifoners they had made to the capital.
Charles was foon informed of this maffacre, with the
additional circumftance, that the ambaffadors of Louis
were feen animating the infurgents to their work of
deftruilion. He then flew into a tranfport of rage;
commanded the gates of the caille to be ihut and
flriclly guarded j denouncing the fevered vengeance
on the perfidious monarch who had fo often deceived
him. Louis, however, though greatly, and no doubt
very juftly, alarmed, did not neglecl to take the pro-
per methods for fecuring himfelf. He diftributed large
fums of money among thole otficers to whom he ima-
gined the duke was moll inclined to pay any regard,
and by fplendid promifes and prefents endeavoured to
allay the refentment of his other enemies. At laft the tii
refentment of Charles having fubfided, he entered into ■'^ "eaty
a treaty with the king, and concluded it upon much ^'^'"'^<="
the fame terms as thoie which had been agreed upon thjjjjs*'*
before. His refentment, however. Hill manifeiled it-
felf fo far, that he infilled upon Louis being prefent
at the punilhment he inflicled upon the inhabitants of
Liege for the maifacre they had committed, and of
which we have already taken notice. This was agreed
to : the two princes formed the fiege of the city in
conjunftion ; and, notwithilanding the obilinate de-
fence of the people, it was at lall taken by llorm, and
the inhabitants maflacred. It was not long, however,
before the new alliance was diflblved. A confederacy
againfb Louis, whom neither promifes nor treaties
could bind, was formed betwixt his own brother the
duke of Normandy and the duke of Burgundy ; but
before their meafures were ripe for execution, Louis
had already commenced hoftilities. The duke of Bur-
gundy, as a peer of France, was fummoned to parlia-
ment ; and on his refiifal, the conllable St Pol made
himfelf mailer of St Q^uintin. Several other cities ■
were foon after reduced ; and Baldwin, the natural
brother of Charles, corrupted by Louis, deferted his
caufe ; and the haughty fpirit of the duke was thus at
lall obliged to condefcend to folicit a peace. This,
however, was of no long duration. Ch?.rles, encou-
raged by the fuccefs of Edward IV. of England his
brother-in-law, began once more to league againft
Louis with the dukes of Brittany and of Guienne ; the
latter being the king's brother, formerly duke of Nor-
mandy, but who had exchanged that duchy for the
territory of Guienne. But while the affairs of the
confederates feemed to be in a profperous w^ay, their
pjofpeds were fuddenly ovcrcail by the death of the
duke of Guienne, which was univerfally fuppofed to
have been occafioned by poifon, and Louis was as uni-
verfally looked upon as the author. The abbot of St
Joan d'Angeli was fixed upon as the immediate perpe-
trator of the deed : but on the day appointed for his
trial he was found llrangled in his cell ; and this alfo
was with great probability fuppofed to have been the
deed of Louis, who after the death of his brother in-
llantly feized on the territory of Guienne, and annex-
ed it to the dominions of France.

By this unheard of conduft of the French monarch,
Charles was exafpcrated to fuch a degree, that he vow-
ed the moft dreadful vengeance againll the unhapp/j

people

F R A

> ranee by
i;}iar!e< of
■JSuigun.dy.

Invafion by
Edward IV.
cf England.

Louis
agrees to
pay an an-
nual pen-
fion to £d.
ward.

people of Francs, and O'.rsatensd to faciiScc to the
mctnory of the duke of Gulcniic every or.e ivho nov; fell
into Ills hands. The citizens of Neflc were malTacred
without diltinflion of fex or age -, Beauvis refifted his
attacks J after which Cliarles wreaked his fury ov. other
places. Having entered the country of Cau.x, he re-
duced the cities of Eu and St Valery, burnt Longue-
ville, and «-afted tlie \vho!e country as far as Rouen.
Louis, on the other hand, fteady and conftant rn his
dcfigns, determiiv'd to diiVolve the league between the
duke .:■! Brittany and Edward IV. of England. Ac-
cordingly he encamped ivith his army on tlie frontiers
of Brittany ; while the dake, not meeting ^vith the
aliiftance promifed by Edward, was obliged to confent
to a truce for a year ; and the duke of Burgundy him-
felf was ol.liged to fellow his example, having com-
mitted fuch devaftations as deprived him of all means
of fubliftence in the country, fo that he could neither
advance nor retreat. In a very little time, however,
he again began to confpire \vith the king of England
againft Louis, and a powerful invailon was determined
upon. Edivard ivas to crofs the fea with an army of
I o,ooo men, while Charles aflembled all his forces to
join him. The former was alfo to fet up a claim to
the cro^ni of France, and at lead to obtain the pro-
vinces of Normandy and Guienne ; the duke was to
have Champagne with fome adjacent dillrifts ; to free
his dominions from homage ; and neither party was
to make peace without the conl'ent of the other. It
was fuppofed that the duke of Brittany would na-
turally accede to the confederacy ; and the Count de
St Pol, conftable of France, had engaged to deliver
up the town of St Q^uintin and others which he oc-
cupied on the river Somme. Louis, however, ftill
liad the good fortune to avoid the florm. Charles,
inltead of advancing to the affiftance of Edward, who
had entered France at the head of 15,000 archers and
ijOO men at arms, laid fiege to the city of Nuiz on
the Rhine -, while the conftable St Pol, inftead of
delivering up the towns as he had promifed, deceived
his allies, and enabled Louis to diClblve a ocnfederacy,
which, had it been vigoroully maintained, might have
involved him in the greateft ditHcuIties. To procure
the departure of Edward, however, he was obliged to
confent to a tribute of 75,000 crowns, as well as to
fettle on the king himfelf 50,000 crowns for life ; be-
trothing alfo the dauphin to the eldeft daughter of
the king of England. The duke of Burgundy ex-
claimed loudly againft this treaty ; But Edward per-
fifted in his refolution ; and it was accordingly exe-
cuted at a place called Pecquigmj, near Amiens ; but
in fttch a manner as (howed the little confidence the
two fovereigns repofed in each other. A grated bar-
rier was erefted in the middle of the bridge of Pec-
quigny, between the barriers of which only a man's
arm could pafs : the two princes appeared on the op-
polite fides of it ; and having conferred privately, and
confirmed the treaty between them, parted w-ith many
proteilations of friendfhip ; in which, probably, neither
party was very fincere. A power was refei-ved by Ed-
ward, for the duke of Burgundy to accede to the
treaty ; but the latter haughtily replied, that he was ■
able to fupport himfelf without the affillance of Eng-
land ; and that he would make no peace with Louis
till three months after the return of Edward to his own
3

[ 86 ]

F R A

country. To this refolution he adhered ; but no fooner Fi.-in.-e.
was the term expired, than he concluded a truce with — — ^. ■ ■<'
Louis for nine years. Tlie ftipulations publicly agreed
upon betwixt thefe two princes confifted only in fome
articles for the mutual advantage of their fubjeft s ;
but privately they had figned others of a different na-
ture. The conftable St Pol having rendered himfelf
obno.\Iou=: to all parties by his complicated treachery,
ded to Mons in Hainault ; but the duke of Burgundy
had already confented to deliver him up on condition
of receiving his eftates and moveables as the price of
his treachery.

Thus w-as Louis without any other remarkable quali-
fication than the mere arts of falfehood and duplici-
ty, got rid of all his enemies except the duke of Bur-
gundy, whofe growing poorer rendered him a conftant
objeft of jealoufy and terror. His own imprudence
and ralhnels, however, foon proved his ruin. Having Charles en.
rafhly engaged in a war with the Swifs, he was de- gages in a
feated in the firft engagement with that martial nation, war with
with the lofs of his military cheft and baggage, with*''^ ^^'^^
his plate and je^vels, fuppofed to be the richeft in Eu-
rope. His difappointment on this occalion was io
great, that he was feized with a fevere ficknefs, from
which he had hardly recovered when he refiuned his
mad fcheme of conquering the Swifs. Another battle
enfued ; in which, after an obftinate difpute, Charles
was defeated with the lofs of l8,oco men, himfelf
efcaping with great difhculty. This difaller was fol-
lowed by the defection of moll of his allies ; the duke
of Lorrain recovered the city of Nancy and great part
of his dominions which Charles had feized ; while the
latter, overwhelmed -with fhame and difappointment,
fpent his time in folitude and inaftivity. From this
he was at laft roufed by the misfortimes which fell up-
on him in fuch qiuck fuccefTion. He now inverted
the city of Nancy •, and in this, as ivell as in every
other inftance, he acted againft the advice of his beft t

officers ; and the confequences were ftill more fatal
than before. The duke of Lorrain advanced ^vith a
ftrong body of Germans to the relief of the city, while
Charles had fcarcely 4000 men to oppofe him. His
troops were therefore eafily defeated, and himfelf, not-
withftanding the moft heroic eflForts of valour, hurried
a^vay in the crowd. The count de CampobafTo, an
Italian nobleman in whom he put a great deal of confi-
dence, but who was in reality a traitor, had deferted
with about 8q men in the beginning of the engage-
ment. He left 1 2 or 15 men about the duke's perl'on, jj^ j^ J(|.^.-_
with fbift orders to afTalhnate him in the tumult ; and fiuatcd.
this order they punftually complied with ; the body of
Charles being found two days after the . battle pierced
ivith three wounds.

The news of Charles's death was received with the
moft unfeigned joy by Louis, whofe fole objeft now
was to unite the territories of the duke of Burgundy
to his own. This might be done in two ways; one f.^^ ^^j^ gf
by a match betwixt the dauphin and Mary the heirefs Burgundy,
of Burgundy ; the other, by marrying her to the duke by Louis,
of Angouleme, a prince of the royal blood of France,
and on whom Mary had fliown fome inclination to be-
ftow herlelf. The king, however, to whom duplicity
and falfehood feem to have been abfolutely necelTary,
chofe a third method, more agreeable to his charaftcr.
s l.'hc match ^vith the dauphin was attended with fuch
circumftanccs

F R A

[ «7 1

F R A

circumftances as rendered it evidently impracticable.
The difparity of age was very great, the dauphin be-
ing only eight years old, and the princefs twenty : the
Flemings were befides very much averfe from fubmit-
ting to a prince whofe po^verful refources ^vould enable
him to opprefs their liberties : but notv\ithrtanding
thefe unfurmountable difficulties, Louis chofe to infift
upon the match, at the fame time that he endeavoured

againll him in the league in which Edward and Charles Fran,

were concerned. The unfortunate nobleman, know- *■"

ing that vengeance was determined againft him, tied to
a fortrefs named Carlat, fituated among the mountains
of Auvergne. Here he was befieged by the Seigneur
de Beaujeu, who had married Anne the daughter of
Louis. The place, however, was almoil impregnable
to any force ; fo that his enemies were obliged to make

to make himfelf mailer of her dominions by force of the moft folemn promifes of fafety in order to induce

arms. He addreffcd circular letters to the principal
cities of Burgundy ; reprelenting, that the duchy had
been given by King John to the male heirs of his ion
Philip ; and that now, ^vhen thefe %vere e.xtinft by the
death of Charles, the territory reverted of courfe to
the crown. To render this argument more efteilual,
he corrupted the governors of fome towns, feduced
the inhabitants of others to rife againft their gover-
nors ; vvhilfb he himfelf at the head of an army, pre-
pared to enforce obedience from thofe who could not
be worked upon by other methods. Thus the pro-
vince of Burgundy was entirely reduced ; but Flanders
could not be brought under fubjetlion either by fair
means, force, or fraud. In his conduft for this pur-

him to furrender himfelf By thefe he was at laft per-
fuaded to truft himfelf in the hands of the faithlef;
tyrant ; who no fooner had him in his power than he
(hut him up in the Ballile in an iron cage, and repri-
manded the judges becaufe they had releafed him from
this clofe confinement during the time of his examina-
tion. The judges reluiflantly condemned him to be
beheaded : but the king's cruelty extended beyond the
fentence ; and he ordered the two young ions of the
duke, though yet in early childhood, to be placed di-
redlly under the fcaffold, that they might be covered
with the blood of their father. Four thouland perfoiK
are fuppofed to have perillied upon this occalion
without any form or trial : and \vere it not for the
pofe, indeed, Louis difplayed the moft deteftable as concurrent teftimony of the hilforians of that age, the
well as the meanelf treachery and falfehood. To ren- inhumanities and barbarities of this monarch are fcarcc
der Mary odious to her lubjeifls, he negociated with to be credited. By thefe he broke the fpirits of the
her minirters, and prevailed upon them to dlfclofe to French nobility, and gradually extended the power of
him fome of the molf important flate fecrets ; after the crown beyond all bounds ; fo that at laft it was li-
which he communicated their letters to the Hates of mited only by the fovereign's pleafure. Amidll all
Flanders. This double treachery, however, did not the perfidy and cruelty, however, for which this mo-
at prefent anfwer his purpofe. The two miniflerj narch is fo juftly to be detefted, we may on fome oc-
whom he had betrayed were indeed put to death with- cafions remark a kind of magnanimity and gcnerolity,
out mercy, and that even in the prefence of their fo- which we cannot but applaud. An inftance of this
vereign : but Mary herfelf was thus induced to be- was his lupporting the houfe of Medici againft Pope
flow herfelf upon the emperor Maximilian ; and Louis Sextus, whom he obliged to defift from his attacks,
had the mortification to find that all his arts had con- and to recal his fentence which he had firlminated
tributed only to aggrandize a rival power, whom he againft them. no

had already fufBcient caufe to dread. To remedy this In 1479, the emperor Maximilian, who had lightly Eurguntfy
overfight, he entered into an alliance with Edward IV. abandoned the duchy of Burgundy when he might ""j^^^."^*-
of England, whom he had infpired with a jcaloufy of have reduced it, now renewed his claims when it was 'j^j'^.j j^
his brother Clarence, in order to prevent a match be- no longer in his power to enforce them. After a va Maxim.-
tv.ixt that nobleman and the princefs I\Iary, wliich had riety of anions of kffer note, and the ' deftruftlon oflian.
ilfo been in agitation. Thus a peace was concluded cities on both fides, a decifive battle was fought at
between the f.\o monarchs, to continue during the life Guinegate. Here the Flemings were routed j but as
of each, and a year after. the French purfued mth too great ardour, the infantry

The marriage of Mary with Maximilian effeftually of the enemy rallied, and the battle was renewed with
fecured the independence of Flanders ; while the re- great (laughter on both fides. A more decifive advan-
tum of the prince of Orange to the party of that tage was afterwards gained by the capture of 80 Fle-
princefs extended the flames of war once more to the milh veffels, which induced that commercial people to
cities of Burgundy. The French were on the point think of peace. In the mean time, however, Louis,
of being totally expelled from that country, when after a life fpent in continual deceit, hypocrify, and

cruelty, received warning of his approaching end by
a fit of apoplexy with which he was feized in the
year 1480. He lav fpeechlcfs and motionlefs for two
days J after which he recovered in fome degree, but
never completely regained his health and ftrength.
His illnefs, however, neither prevented him from pur-
fuing the fchemcs of his ambition, nor from ufing the
fame methods as before to attain them. He feized,
without any pretence, the eflates of the duke of Bour-
bon, the only nobleman in the kingdom whofe power
could give him any caufe of fufpicion ; ■•jtX, notwith-

Maximilian unexpefledly made propofals of peace. A
truce was on this concluded between the two princes,
but without any term limited for its duration, or with-
out any conditions flipulated in favour of the Bur-
gundians ; fo that the whole country was tjuickly after
lei'uced by Louis.

The king now freed from the apprehenfions of fo-
j- reign enemies, turned his vindidive difpofition againft
his own fubjeds ; over whom, under pretence of for-
mer rebellions, he exercifcd the moft infupportable ty-
rannv. The principal vldim to his fanguinary difpofi-

tion on this occafioii was James d'Armagnac duke of ftanding his afliduity for the intereft of the dauphin,
Nemours, one of the firft noblemen in the kingdom, he kept him a kind of prifoner in the caftle of Am-
bat v.ho bad formerly appeared a xcalous confederate boife, permitting none but his own fcrvants, or per-

fwis

F R A

[ S8 ]

F R A

■Erance. ibr.s of t!ie meaneft rank, to have accefs to liim. He

— ~< baniflied his own confort, the mother of the dauphin,

to Savoy, and endeavoured to infpire the prince with
nverfion towards her. By the death of Charles, the
titular king of Naples, and the laft of the fecond houfc
of Anjou, he became mader of the county of Pro-
vence ; but his fatisfaciion on this occafion was mar-
red by a fecond ftroke of apoplexy. Still, however,
he revived, and, with his recovery, again began to pur-
fue his ambitious intrigues. The death of Mary of
Burgundy, who periftied by a fall from her horfe, in-
fpired him ^vith new views ; and he betrothed his fon
to the infant daughter of the emperor. Thus he of-
fended Edward IV. of England, whofe eldeft daugh-
ter Ehzabeth had been previouily contracted to the
dauphin ; and a war would have undoubtedly enfued,
hsd it not been for the death of the king of England.
Tii This was followed in no long time after by that of
Death of Louis himfelf, who had in vain exhaufted the fls-ill of
Luuis XI. ^|,^ phyfician, and wearied the clerical order with pray-
ers and proceflions to avert the impending ftroke. He
expired in the year 1483, after a reign of 23 years;
during which he was detefted by his fubjefts, whom
he had continually oppreffed ; and equally dreaded and
hated by his neighbours, whom he had conftantly de-
ceived : not;vithlbnding which he obtained the title
of Mojl Chrijlian from his holinefs, which his fuccef-
fors have ever after retained.

Notwithftanding the dark chara£ler of this prince,
it is undoubtedly to be allowed, that he laid the foun-
dations of the future greatnefs of France. By his
arts he deprived the common people of their liberty,
depreffed the power of the nobility, eftablilhed a (land-
ing army, and even induced the dates to render many
taxes perpetual, which formerly were only temporary,
in order to fupport the army which was to keep them-
felves in (lavery. From this time the people were ac-
cuftomed to fubmit entirely to the voice of their fo-
vereign as their only legiilator ; and being always obe-
dient in matters of the greatell; confequence, they
cheerfiilly contributed whatever fums were required to
iJi fulfil the king's pleafure.
Reign of Charles Vm. who fucceeded his father Louis XI.

Vin "^^ in 1483, was only 14 years of age at the time of his
father's death : but though he might, even at that
age, have afcended the throne without any material
violation of the laws of France, yet it was judged ne-
cefTary to have a regent, on account of the king's de-
licacy of conftitution and want of education. Three
competitors appeared as candidates for this important
truft, y\z. .Tohn duke of Bourbon, a prince of the
blood, and who had, till the age of 60, maintained
the mod unblemifhed charafter ; Louis duke of Or-
leans, prefumptive heir to the crown, but who from
his being only 20 years old himfelf, feemed incapaci-
tated on that account from undertaking fuch an im-
portant office: the third competitor was Anne, the
,2, eldell daughter of Louis, to whom the latter had in
R-gency of the lad moments of his life committed the charge of
the Lai'.y ^v . y-igjom, with the title of governefs. The claim
Ktaujeu. of ■(^^ J^dy was fupportcd by the alTembly of the
dates general at Tours ; and though die was only en-
tered into the 2 2d year of her age, it appears that the
"Tice could not have been more properly beftowed.
Being married to Peter of Bourbon, fire of Beaujcu,
4

her prefenl title was the Lady of Beaujeu ; but flie sp- France.
pears to have ailed entirely independent of her huf- *~"~v~~
band, who was but of a moderate capacity, and in-
deed had been recommended to her by Louis on ac-
count of his dender abilities, left by any other match
the houfe of Bourbon ftiould be too much aggran-
dized. Her firll dep was to ingratiate heafelf with
the people, by fome popular afts ; among ^vhich one
was to punidi the indruments of her father's cruelties.
One of thefe, named Olivier le Dian, who, from the
ftation of a barber, had raifed himfelf to the confi-
dence and favour of the king, and had didinguidied
himfelf by the invenUon of new modes of torture,
was publicly hanged. Another, named Jean Doyac,
who by continual acts of violence and rapacity had
oppieiTed the people, was condemned, after being
whipped in all the open places or fquares of Paris, to
have one of his ears cut off, and his tongue pierced
with a hot iron ; after which he was conveyed to his
native city of Montferrand, where he was again whip-
ped, and his other ear cut off; after which his edates,
as well as thofe of Olivier, were confifcated. Jacques
Coitier, the phyfician of Louis, who had availed him-
felf of the terror of death with which the king was
drongly influenced, to extort great fums of money
from him, was ordered to anfwer for the immenle
wealth he had acquired % but he averted the danger by
pajring a fine of 50,000 crowns.

Thus the lady de Beaujeu gained the affeftion of
the people at large ; and was equally fuccefsful in gain-
ing over thefe who were averfe to her government.
The duke of Bourbon was made condable, an office
which he had long defured ; but the duke of Orleans
behaved in fuch a manner as to exclude all hopes of
favour. Incenfed at the determination of a trifling
difpute at tennis againft him, by the lady Beaujeu, he
exclaimed, that whoever had decided it in that manner
" was a liar if a man, or a drumpet if a woman." Af-
ter this furious declaration he fled to the cadle of Beau-
jency, where, however, he was foon forced to furrender.
He then applied to Henry VII. of England, who had
newly afcended the throne of England ; but that prince,
naturally flow and cautious, did not pay much attention
to his propofals ; on which he next made his applica-
tion to the court of Brittany. Here he was received "4.
with great marks of efleem, and began to entertain Q^^g^" I
hopes of marrying the daughter of the duke ; but be- fl;^ to Brit- I
ing looked upon with a jealous eye by the nobility, tany.
they entered into fecret negotiations with Anne, and
even folicited her to invade the country. In thefe ne-
gotiations, however, they dipulated that only a certain
number of troops fliould enter the province, and that
no fortified place ftiould remain in the hands of the
French •, which conditions were indeed agreed to by
the regent, though die determined to keep them no jj, j
longer than it aniwered her purpofe. In purfuance ofThat coun-
this refolution, Brittany was invaded at once by four try >n-
armies, each of them fuperior to the dipulated number, '^^*^ ''^ . 1
who quickly made themfelves maders of the mod im-
portant places in the country ; while the troops of
the duke retired in difgud, leaving them to purfue
their conquefts as they pleafed. Finding at lad, how-
ever, that the entire fubje£lion of their country was de-
termined upon, the nobility began to e.\ert themfelves in
defence of it 5 and, inflamed by the enthufiafer of !-bcr-

F R A [8

ty, thev raill-J an army of 6o,cco men. By tli'-fe the
' French were corapL-Ued to abandon the fiege of Nantz ;
but this prsved only a tranficnt gltam of fuccefs. Anne
perfevered in her defign of completing the conqueft of
the country, and the ftate of Europe at that time fa-
voured the defign. Of all the European Hates, Eng-
land alone was then capable of affording any elfcctual
aiTiiiance ; and the Hon- caution of Henrv prevented
him from giving the aflillance which for his own inte-
refi he ought to have done. Thus the Bretons were
left to defeiKl themtelves the beft way they could ; and
having ventured a battle, they were entirely defeated,
and moft of their leaders taken prifoners. A fmall body
of Englilli, under the command of Lord Woodville,
wlio alFilied them, were entirely cut in pieces. The
duke foon after died by a fall from his horfe, leaving
liis dominions to his daughter Anne, at that time only
15 years of age. A marriage was negotiated betwixt
this princefs and Maximilian king of the Romans, who
had been married to Mary of Burgiindy ; but by
reafon of the poverty of that prince it was never
completed. The lady Beaujeu, then, finding that the
abfolute conqueft of Brittany would ftill be a difficult
matter, determined to conclude a marriage betwixt the
young king of France and the duchefs, though the
former had already been married to Margaret of Auf-
tria, the daughter of Maximilian. Tliis marriage in-
deed had not been confummated by reafon of the
tender age of the princefs ; but flie had been fent to
Paris for her education, and had for feveral years been
treated as queen of France. In 1 49 1, however, Mar-
garet was fcnt back to her father : Anne of Brittany
for a long time refufed to violate the engagements into
which llie had entered ; but at laft, finding herfelf dif-
treffed on all fides, and incapable of refifting the nu-
merous forces of France with which (lie was prefled,
Ihe rehiclantly confented to the match, and the
nuptials were celebrated the fame year at Langeais
in Touraine.

Maximilian, whofe poverty had prevented him from
giving any aflilfance to his bride, or even from coming
to fee her, enraged at the double difgrace he had fuf-
fered, began, when too late, to think of revenge.
France was now threatened with an invafion from the
united forces of Auifria, Spain, and Enr^land. But
this formidable confederacy was foon diffipated. —
Henry, whofe natural avarice had prevented him from
giving the neccffary aflilfance, was bought off with
money : the immediate payment of 745,030 crowns,
and the proraife of 25,000 annually ever after, per-
fuaded him to retire into his own country. Ferdinand
king of Spain had the counties of Roufllllon and Cer-
dagne reftored to him ; while IMaxirailian was gratified
by the cefllon of part of Artois, which had been ac-
quired by Louis XI.

The young king of France agreed to thefe terms
the more readily, that he was impatient to undertake
an expedition into Italy, in order to conquer the king-
dom of Naples, to which he claimed a right. Moft of
his counfcllors were againft the expedition ; but the
king was inflexible, even though Ferdinand king of
Naples tiered to do homage for his kingdom, and pay
him a tribute of 50,000 crowns ayear. He appointed
Peter duke of Bourbon regent in his abfence ; after
■which he fet out on his expedition with very few

Vol. IX. Part I.

F R

A

By the tvay he fell ill

uS

trjoops and very little money.

of the fmallpox, but in a ihort time recovered, and en-
tering Italy with only 6coo horic and 1 2,000 foot, he
was attended with the moft furpriling fuccefs, travel fing
the whole country in fix weeks, and beco'ning raaftcr of
the kingdom of Naples in lels than a fortnight. Such
extraordinary good fortune feemed miraculous ; and he
was reckoned an inltrument raifed up by God to deftroy
the execrable tyrants with which Italy was at that time
infcfted. Had Charles made ufe of this prepofTelFion in
his favour, and afted up to the ch.aiafter generally given
liim, he might have raifed his name as high as any hero
of antiquity. His behaviour, however, was of a very
different nature. He amufed himfelf with fealfs and
Ihows ; and leaving his power in the hands of favourites,
they abandoned it to whoever would purchafe titles,
places, o rauthority, at the rates they Lmpofed ; and the
whole force he propoled to leave in his new conquered
dominions amounted to no more than 4000 men.

But while Charles was thus lofing his time, a league
was concluded againft him at Venice j ira lyhich en-
tered the pope, the emperor Maximilian, the archduke
Philip, Ludovic Sforza, and the Venetians. The con-
federates aflcmbled an army of 40,020 men, command-
ed by Francis marquis of Mantua ; and they waited
for the king in the valley of Famova, in the duchy of
Parma, into which he defcended with 9000 men. On
the 6th of July 1495 he attacked the alUes ; and, not-
withftanding their great fuperiority, defeated them,
with the lofs of only 80 of his own men. Thus he got
fafe to France ; but his Italian dominions ^vere loft
almort as foon as he departed. Some fchemes were
propoled for recovering thefe conquefts ; but they were His death,
never put in execution, and the king died of an apo-
plexy in 1498.

The premature death of this monarch, in the 28th
year of his age, vras fuppofed to have been owing to
his irregular life, and particularly his attachment to
women ; which had for fome time impaired his health,
and brought on evident fymptoms of his approaching
dilTolution. At laft he relinquilhed his irregularities,
and retired with the queen to the caftle of Ambloife.
Here in pafling through a low door he ftruck his head
with violence againft the top. No unfavourable fyrap-
tom appeared at the time ; but foon afterwards, as he
converted with his confelTor, and avowed his delign of
oljferving the nuptial fidelity he o'.ved to the queen,
he fuddenly fell backward in a fit of apoplexy. He
recovered his voice three times, and uttered forae ex-
prellions of devotion ; but inftantly rclapfed, and in a
fliort time expired, notwithftanding every allillance
that could be given. He was greatly celebrated for
his fweet temper and agreeable difpofition, which pro-
cured him the fumames of the ylffahle and Courteous.
T>vo of his domcftics are faid to have died of grief
after his death, and his widow abandoned herfelf to
the moft pungent forrow for two days.

By the death of Cliarles VIII. the throne of France
palTed from the direct line of the houfe of Valois, and
Louis duke of Orleans fucceeded to the throne. At
the time of his accclTion he was in his 36th year, and
had long been taught prudence in the fchool of ad-
verfity. During the adminiftration of the lady Beau-
jeu, he had been, as we have already obfcrvcd, con-
ftantly in difgrace ; and after his connexions nith the
-M duke

ispeo
'ii Loi
XU, i

F R A [90

ice. duke of Bikanny, had fpent a veiy confiderabie time
■~~^ in prifon ; and though afterwards fet at liberty by
Charles, he had never poflefled any lliare of that mo-
narch's confidence or favour. Toxvards the conciu-
fion of that reign, he fell under the difpleafure of the
queen ; and hud afterwards continued at his caftle of
Blois till he was called from thence to the poffeflion of
the kingdom. He had been married in early life, and
againft his will, to Jane the youngeft daughter of
Louis XI. a princcfs of an amiable dilpofition, but de-
formed in her perfon, and fuppofed to be incapable of
bearing children. Afterwards he entertained thoughts
of having this marriage diffblved, and was fuppofed to
po3efs the affeftion of the duchefs of Britanny, before
ihe became queen of France. After the death of her
hufband, that princefs retired to Brittany, where (he
pretended to alTume an independent fovereignty ; but
Louis having got his marriage ivith Jane dlfTolved by
Pope Alexander VL quickly after made propofals to
the queen-dowager, which on her part were accepted
without heihation ; though it was ftipulated, that if fhe
fliould have two fons, the younger fhould inherit the
duchy of Brittany.

As Louis, while duke of Orleans, had fome preten-
fions to the kingdom of Naples, he inftantly fet about
realizing them by conqueft. On his acceflion, he
found matters in that country much more favourable
to his defigns than formerly. The pope, Alexander
VL was very much in his interefts, from the hopes of
getting his Ion Cafar Borgia provided for : he had con-
ciliated tlie friendfliip of the Venetians by promifing
thera a part of the Milanefe ; he concluded a truce
with the archduke Philip ; and renewed his alliances
- with the crowns of England, Scotland, and Denmark,
ticti He then entered Italy with an army of 20,OO0 men ;
is and being affifted by the Venetians, quickly conquered
"° one part of the duchy, while they conquered the other,
the duke himfelf being obliged to fly ivith his family
ta Iufpruck. He then attacked Ferdinand of Spain
with three armies at once, two to aft by land, and one
Ly lea ; but none of thefe performing any thing remark-
i.bie, he was obliged to evacuate the kingdom of Na-
ples in 1504.

In 1506, the people of Genoa revolted ; drove out
the nobility ; chofe eight tribiuies 5 and declared Paul
Nuova, a filk dyer, their duke : after which they ex-
pelled the French governor, and reduced a great part
of the Riviera. This occafioned Louis's return into
Italy ; where, in 1 507, he obliged the Genoefe to far-
render at difcretiou : and, in J 508, entered into the
league of Cambray, with the other princes who at
that time wanted to reduce the overgrown power of
the Venetians. Pope Julius II. who had been the firft
contriver of this league, very foon repented of it ; and
declared, that if the Venetians would reftore the cities
of Faenza and Rimini, which had been unjuflly taken
from him, he would be contented. This was refufed ;
and in i J09, the forces of the republic received fuch
an entire defeat from Louis, that they agreed to rellore
not only the tivo cities demanded by Pope Julius, biit
whatever elfe the allies required.

The pope now, inllead of executing his treaties with
his allies, made war on the king of France without the
Jeaft provocation. Louis called an aflembly of his
«krgy j where « -yvas deleiuuped. thatjo fosj? cafts i\

] F 1\ A

was lawful to make war upon the pope j upon wh.ich Fiarce.
the king declared war againft him, and committed the — v— ^
care of his army to the i\Iarr.ial de Trivulce. He foon
obliged the pope to retire ir»to Ravenna ; and in 151J,
Gallon de Foix, duke of Nemours, gained a great vic-
tory at Ravenna, but was himfelf killed in the engage-
ment. After his death the army i\as diihanded for v. ant
of pay ; and the French affairs in Italy, and everywhere
elfe, fell into great confufion. They recovered the
duchy of Milan, and loft it again in a few weeks. Hen-
ry VIII. of England invaded France, and took Teriu-
enne and Toumay ; and the Swifs invaded Burgu.idy
with an army of 25,000 men. In this defperate fituation
of aftaus the queen died, and Louis put an end to the
oppolition of his moft dangerous enemies bv negotiating
marriages. To Ferdinand of Spain he offered his fe-
cond daughter for either of his grandfons, Charles or
Ferdinand ; and to renounce, in favour of that mar- 130
riage, lus claims on Milan and Genoa. This propofalHls mar- .
■was accepted ; and Louis himfelf married the princcfs""?' ""'"
Mary, filkr to Henry VIII. of England. This mar.„, ^"^"f"''
riage he did not long fur\ave, but died on the 2d of Ja- EnsIaniJ,
nuary 1514; and was fucceeded by Francis I. count of and death,
Angoulefme, and duke of Bretagne and Valois. ,j,

The new king was no fooner feateJ on the throne, Francis I.
than he refolved on an expedition into Italy. In this '"vades
he xvas at firft fuccefsful, defeating the Swils at Marig- '^ ^'
non, and reducing the duchy of Milan. In 1518, the
emperor Maximilian dying, Francis was very ambitious
of being his fucceffor, and thereby reftoring to France
fuch a fplendid title, which had been fo long loft. But
Ma.ximilian, before his death, had exerted himfelf fo
much in favour of Charles V. of Spain, that Francis
found it impoflible to fucceed ; and from that time an
irreconcilable hatred took place between the two mo-
narchs. In 1521, this ill will produced a war ; which,
however, might perhaps liave been tenninated, if Fran-
cis could ha\-e been prevailed upon to reftore the town
of Fontarabia, v.hich had been taken by his admiral
Bonivet : but this being refiifed, hoftiltties were re-
newed xvith greater vigour than ever ; nor were they
concluded till France ivas brought to the very brink
of deftiTjclion. The war was continued ^rith various
fuccefs till the year 1524; when Francis having in- i-i
vaded Italy, and laid fiege to Pax ia, he was utterly de- Defeated

feated before that city, and taken prifoner on the 24th "".'J; ^^^^^

f -c , ■' ^ pnfoBer.

or rebruary.

This difarter threw the whole kingdom into the ut-
mort confufion. The Flemilh troops made continual
inroads ; many thoufand boors affembled in Alface, in
order to make an invafion from that quarter ; Henry
VIII. had affembled a great army, and threatened the
kingdom on that fide alio ; and a party was formed
in the kingdom, in order to difpoffefs the duchefs of
the regency, and confer it upon the duke de Vcn-
dofme. This prince, however, who, after the conftable,
was the head of the houfe of Bourbon, went on pur-
pofe to Lyons, where he affured the regent that he
had no view but for her fcrvice, and that of his coun-
try ; upon which ftie formed a council of the ableft
men of the kingdom, and of this ihe made him prefi-
dent. The famous Andrew Doria failed with the
French galleys to take on board the remains of the
French troops under the duke of Alva, whom he land-
ed fafely m frange. Thpft nlw elcaped out of the
JVIiJanefe

Francis I.
carried to
Madrid,
where he
Cgiis a dif-
advanta-
geous trea

F R A [9

Ttlikncfe alio made tlieir way back again a? well as
they could. Heni-y VIII. under the influence of Car-
dinal Woliey, refolved not to opprefs the opprefled :
he therefore aiTured the regent that Ihe had nothing to
fear from him ; and at the fame time advifed her not
to confent to any treaty by which France was to be
diimembered. To the emperor, however, he ufed an-
other language. He told him, that the time was now
come when this puii}"int monarchy lay at their mercy j
and therefore, that fo favourable an opportunity ihould
not be let llip ; that, for his part, he fhould be content
with Normandy, Guienno, and Gafcony, and hoped
the empire would make no fcruple of owning him king
of France : adding, that he expected the emperor
would make a right ufe of his victory, by entering
Guienne in perfon ; in which cafe he was ready to bear
half the expences of the war. He forefaw what fell out :
the emperor was alarmed at thefe conditions, and did
not care to have him for a neighbour ; for ^vhich reafon
he agreed to a truce with the regent for fix months. In
Picardy the Flemings were repulled ; and the count de
Guile, with the duke of Lorrain, had the good fortune,
with a handful of troops, to defeat and cut to pieces the
German peafants.

In the mean time, Francis was detained in captivity
in Italy : but being wearied of his confinement in that
country, and the princes of Italy beginning to cabal
for his deliverance, he was carried to Madrid *, where,
on the I4lh of January 1525, he figned a treaty, the
principal articles of which were. That he ihould refign
to the emperor the duchy of Burgundy in full fove-
reignty ; that he ihould defift from the homage which
the emperor owed him for Artois and Flanders ; that
he ihould renounce all claim to Naples, Milan, Alii,
Toumay, Lille, and Hefden, &c. ; that he Ihould per-
fuade Henry d'Albert to relign the kingdom of Na-
varre to the emperor, or at leall iliould give him no af-
filfance ; that ^nthin 40 days he ihould reltore the
duke of Bourbon and all his party to their ellates ;
that he ihould pay the king of England ;oo,QOO
crowns which the emperor owed him ; that %vhen the
emperor went to Italy to receive the Imperial crown,
he fhould lend him I 2 galleys, four large ihips, and a
land armv, or inllead of it 200,OC3 crowns.

All thefe articles the king of France promifed on
the word and honour of a prince to execute ; or, in
cale of non-performance to return priloner into Spain.
But, notwithilanding thefe profclTions, Francis had al-
ready protefted before certain notaries and witnelTes in
v.hom he could trull, that the treaty he was about to
lign was againfl iiis will, and therefore null and void.
On the 2 1 ft of February, the emperor thought fit to
releafe him from his prifon, in which he had been
clofely confined ever fince his arrival in Spain ; and
after receiving the ftrongeil aiTurances from his own
mouth, that he would literally fulfil the terms of the
treaty, fent him under a llrong guard to the frontiers,
where he was exchanged for his two eldeft fons, who
were to remain as hollages for his fidelity.

When the king returned to his dominions, his firft
care was to get himfelf abfolved by the pope from the
o-^.ths he had taken ; after which he entered into a
league with the pontiff, the Venetians, the duke of
Milan, and the king of England, for preferving the
peace of Italy. In the month of June, he publicly

I ] F R A

received remouftrances from the ftates of Burgundy ; in Fr.i
which they- told him, without ceremony, that by the '
treaty of Madrid he had done wh:.t he had no right to
do, in breach of the laivs and his coronation oath ; add-
ing, that if l.e perfifted in his refjlution of throwng
them under a foreign yoke, they rouft appeal to the ge-
neral Hates of the kingdom. At thefe remonflrances
the viceroy of Naples and the Spaniih miniilers were
prefent. They perceived the end which the king aim-
ed at, and therefore expoftulated with him in pretty
warm terms. At laft the viceroy told him, that he had
now nothing left but to keep his royal word in return-
ing to the callle of Madrid, as his predeceflbr John had
done in a like caie. To this the king replied, that King
John afted rightly ; that he returned to a king who had
treated him like a king ; but that at Madrid he had re-
ceived fuch ufage as would have been unbecoming to a
gentleman : that he had often declared to the emperor's
miniilers, that the terras they extorted from him were
unjull and impraclicablc : but that he ^vas flill ivilling
to do all that was fit and reafonable ; and to raulbm his
fons at the rate of two millions of gold, in lie« of the
duchy of Burgundy.

Hitherto the treaty for the tranquillity of Italy had
been kept fecret, in hopes that fome mitigation of the
treaty of Madrid would have been obtained ■, but now
it was judged expedient to publilh it, though the vice-
roy of Naples and ths Spaniili lords were ilill at the
French court ; and the emperor was to be admitted
into it, provided he accepted the king's offer of two
millions for the releafe of his children, and left the
duke of Milan and other Italian princes in quiet pof-
felTion of their dominions. It is the common misfor-
tune of all leagues, that the powers ivho enter into
them keep only their ov.n particular interefts in view,
and thus defeat the general intention of the confederacy.
This was the cafe here. The king's great point was
to obtain his children upon the terms he had propofed ;
and he was defirous of knowing what hopes there were
of that, before lie afled againfl the monarch who had
them in his power. Thus the duke of Milan and the
pope were both facrificed. The former was obliged to
iurrender to the duke of Bourbon, and the latter was
furprifed by the Colonnas ; both of which difafters
would have been prevented if the French fuccours had
entered Italy in time. See Italy.

According to an agreement which had been made
between Francis and Henry, their ambaffadors went
into Spain, attended each of them by a herald, in or-
der to fummon the emperor to accept the terms which
had been offered him ; or, in cafe of refufal, to declare
war. It feems the emperor's anfwcr was forefeen in
the court of France ; and therefore the king had pre-
vioufly called together an affembly of the notables j
that is, perfons of the feveral ranks of his people in
whom he could confide. To them he propofed the
great queilion, WTiether he was bound to perform the
treaty of Madrid ' or. Whether if he did not perform
it, he was obliged in honour to return to Spain ? To
both thefe queilions, the affembly anlwered in the ne-
gative: they faid, that Burgundy was united to tlic
cronn of France, and that he could not fcparate it by
his own authority ; that his perfon alfo was the pro-
perty of the public, of which therefore he could not
difpofe ; but for the two millions, which tliey looked
M 2 upon

F II A

f 9^ 1

F R A

Cam bray.

nu-..f. ujion as a juft equivalent, tliey undertook that it AoulJ
* ' be raifed for bis fervice. When the ainh.fladors de-
livered their prppofitions, Charles treated the Engliih
herald with refpeft, and the French one n-ith con-
tempt J which produced a challenge from Francis to
'^^ ?/"'' *^"^ emperor *. All differences, however, were at laft
adjufted ; and a treaty was concluded at Cambray, on
the 5th of Augurt 1528. By this treaty, inltead of
the pofleffion, the emperor contented hinifelf v.'ith re-
ferving his right to the duchy of Burgundy, and the
two millions of crowns already mentioned. Of thefe
1:6 was to receive 1,200,0:0 in ready money : the
prince's lands in Flanders belonging to the houfe of
Bourbon were to be delivered up ; thefe .were valued
at 400,000 more : and the remaining 400,000 were
to be paid by France in difcharge of the emperor's
debt to England. Francis was likewlfe to difcharge
the penalty of joo,ODO crowns which the emperor
had incurred, by not marrying his niece the princefs
Mary of England ; and to releafe a rich fieitr-de-lh
which had been many years before pawned by the houfe
of Burgundy for 50,000 crowns. The town and caltle
of Hefden were aUo yielded ; together with the fove-
reignty of Flanderi and Aitois, and all the king's pre-
teniions in Italy. As for the allies of France, they
were abandoned to the emperor's mercy, without the
leaf! ftipulation in their favour ; and Francis himfelf
protefted againft the validity of the treaty before he ra-
tified it, as did alfo his attorney-general before he regi-
ftered it in parliament j but both of them with the
greatcft Jecrecy imaginable.

Nothing farther of much confequence happened dur-
ing the remainder of the reign of Francis I. 'J"he war
was foon renewed with Charles, who made an invafion
into France, but with very bad fuccefs ; nor was peace
fully eflablilhed but. by the death of Francis, which
Francis dies happened on the ^d of March, 1 1147. He was fuc-
-ee^ded'r" '^^^^^''^ '^X ^'^ '°" ^"^^'X ^^- '•''^''^ alcended the throne
He'J- 1/ ^^'^ ^^"^y "^^y °" ■'^''^'ch he was 29 years of age. In
the beginning of his reign, an infurrection happened
in Guienne, owing to the opprelfive conduiSl of the
officers who levied the fait ta.\. The king defpatched
againft the infurgents two bodies of troops ', one com-
manded by the duke of Aumale ion to the duke of
Guife, the other by the conllable. The firft behaved
with the greateft moderation, and brought back the
people to their duty without making many examples :
the otl'.er behaved with the utmoft haughtinefs and
cmelty ; and though the king afterwards remitted many
of his punilhments, yet from that time the conllable
became odious to the people, while the family of Guife
were "highly refpected.
Henr^'er ^^ 'J48) '''^ king began to e.vecute the edicts which
fecutes the ^'"^ been made againft the Proteftants with the ut-
IJrotctlar.ts. mod feverity j and, thinking even the clergy too mild
in the profecution of herefy, erefled for that purpofe
a chamber compofed of members of the parliament of
Paris. At the queen's coronation, which happened this
jcar, he caufcd a number of Proteftants to be burned,
and was himfelf prefent at the fpe£lajcle. He was, Iiow-
cvcr, ^o much (hocked, that he could never forget it ;
but complained, as long as he lived, that, at certain
times, it appeared before his eyes, and troubled his un-
derllanding.

In 1549. a peace being concluded with Kngli-nd, the

t3«

■33

king purchafed Boulogne from the latter, for the fum Fr,
of 400,000 crowns ; one half to be paid on the day
of reftitution, and the other a few months after.
Scotland was included in the treaty, and the Engliih g'e",Iis"reaty
rellored fome places they had taken there. This was ivith Eng-
the moft advantageous peace that France had hitherto '^'»''-
made with England ; the vaft arrears which were due
to that crown being in etfed remitted ; and the pen-
fion which looked fo like tribute, not being mentioned,
was in fait extinguilhed. The earl of Warwick him-
felf, who had concluded the peace, was fo fcnlible of
the difgrace fuftered by this nation on this occafion,
that he pretended to be fick, in order to avoid fetting
his hand to fuch a fcandalous bargain.

This year, an edift was made to reftrain the extra-
vagant remittances which the clergy had been in ufe
of making to the court of Rome, and for correcting
fome other abufes committed by the papal notaries.
With this edia Pope Julius III. was highly difpleafed ;
and the following year (15 50) war was declared by
the king of France againft the pope and the emperor.
The pretence was, that Henry protected Ocfavio Far-
nefe duke of Parma, whom the pope was defirous of
depriving of his dominions. In this war the king was
threatened with the cenfures of the church, more efpe-
cially when it was known that he had entered into
an alliance ivith the Turks, and a Turkifh fleet entered
the Mediterranean, where they threatened the ifle of
Gozo, and made defcents upon Sicily. Henry, how-
ever, ftrongly denied any fuch connexion, and infilled
that the emperor had given them fufficient provoca-
tion : but be that as it will, the emperor foon found
himfelf in fuch danger from thefe new enemies, that
he could not fupport the pope as he intended, who on Henry's
that account was obliged to fue for peace. After fuccel's
this the king continued the war againft the emperor againft the
with fuccefs ; reducing the cities of Toul, Verdun, ^ mp^or-
and Metz. He then entered the country of Alface,
and reduced all the fortrefles between Hagenau and
Wiifenburg. He failed, however, in his attempt on
Strafburg ; and was foon after obliged by the Ger-
man princes and the Swifs to defift from farther con-
quefts on that fide. This war continued with very
little interruption, and as little fuccefs on the part of
the French, till the year 1557, when a peace was ^^^
concluded ; and foon after, the king was killed at a He is killed
tounrament by one Count de Montgomery, who was at a tourna-
reckoned one of the ftrongeft knights in France, and""^"'-
who had done all he could to avoid this encounter with
the king.

The reign of his fucceflbr Francis II. was remarkable
only for the perfecution of the Pro*ftants ; which be-
came fo grievous, that they were obliged to take up-
arms in their own defence. This occafioned feveral
civil wars, the firft of which commenced in the reign of
Charles IX. who fucceeded to the throne in 1 560. This.Civ
firft war continued till the year 1362, when a peace"'"
was concluded, by which the Proteftants were to have.^'"^^"*"""
a free pardon and liberty of confcience. In 1565,
the war broke out anew, and was continued with very
little interruption till 1569, when peace was again,
concluded upon very advantageous terms for the Pro-
teftants. After this King Charles, v. ho had now ta-
ken the government into his hands carelTed the Pro-
teftants in an extraordinary manner. He invited to,

court

141

F R A [ 9.

court ine admiral Coligni, ^vho was the licad of tht;
- Proteftant party ; and cajoled him fo, that lie was
lulled into a perfect fecurity, notwithftanding the
many warnings given him by his friends, that the
king's fair fpeeches were by no means to be trulled ;
but he had foon reafon to repent his confidence. On
the 22d of Augult 1 5 71, as he was walking from the
court to his lodgings, he received a Ihot from a win-
dow, which carried away the fccond finger of his
right hand, and wounded him grievoully in the left
inn. This he himfelf alcribed to the malice of the
duke of Guife, the head of the Catholic party. Af-
ter dinner, however, the king went to pay him a vifit,
and amongft others made him this compliment : " You
have received the wound, but it is I who fufFer j"
deiiring at the fame time that he would order his
friends to quarter about his houfe, and promifing
to hinder the Catholics from entering that quarter after
it was dark. This fatisfied the admiral of the king's
Cncerity ; and hindered him from complying with the
defires of his friends, who would have carried him
away, and who were ftrong enough to have forced a
pallage out of Paris if they had attempted it.

In the evening, the <iueen mother, Cutiiarine de
of Medicis, held a cabinet council to fix the execution of
■ the maflacre of the Proteftants, which had been long
meditated. The perfons of which this council was
compofed, were, Henry duke of Anjou, the king's bro-
ther ; Gonzagua duke of Ncvers ; Henry of Angou-
lefme grand prior of France, and ballard brother of
the king ; and marlhal de Tavannes ;■ and Albert de
Gondi, count de Retz : the direclion of the whole
v;as given to the duke of Guife, to whom the ad-
minillration had been entirely confided during the
former reign. The guards were appointed to be in
arms, and the city officers were to difpofe the militia
to execute the king's orders, of which the fignal was
the ringing of a bell near the Louvre. Some fay, that
when the hour approached, which was that of mid-
night, the king grew undetermined : that he expref- .
fed his horror at Ihedding fo much blood, efpecially
confidering that the people whom he was going to de-
flroy were his fubjefts, who had come to the capital at
his command, and in confidence of his word ; and par-
ticularly the admiral, whom he had detained fo lately
by his careffes. The queen mother, however, re-
proached him with his cowardice, and reprefentcd to
him the great danger he ivas in from the Protellants ;
which at lad induced him to confent. According to
others, however, the king himfelf urged on the maf-
facre ; and when it was propofed to him to take off
only a few of the heads, he cried out, " If any are
to die, let there not be one left to reproach me with
breach of faith.

As foon as the fignal was given, a body of Swifs
troops of the Catholic religion, headed by the duke
of Guife, the chevalier d'Angoulefmc, accompanied by
many perfons of quality, attacked the admiral's houfe.
Having forced open the doors, the foremoft of the af-
faffins rufhed into his apartment ; and one of them alk-
ed if he v. as Coligni ' 'l"o this he anfwered that he was ;
adding, " Young man refpecl thefe gray hairs :" to
which the affaffin replied by running him through the
body with a fvvord. The duke of Guife and the
chevalier growing impatient below flairs, cried out to

F R A

know it the bufinefs was done ; and being told that it France,
was, commanded that the body Ihould be thro'.vn out ~~"v— '
at the window. ^Vs foon as it fell on the ground, the
chevalier, or (as fome (ay) the duke of Guife, wiping
the blood off the face, kicked it with his foot. Tile
body was then abandoned to the fury of the populace }
Who, after a feries of indignities, dragged it to the com-
mon gallows, to which they chained it by the foot, the
head being cut off and carried to th.e queen mother ;
who, it is laid, caufed it to be embalmed and fent to
Rome. The king himfelf went to fee the body hang
upon the gibbet ; where a fire being kindled under it,
part was burnt, and the reft Icorclied. In the Louvre,
the gentlemen belonging to the king of Navarre and
the prince of Conde were murdered under the king's
eye. Two of them, wounded and purfucd by the af-
faffins, fled into the bedchamber of the queen of Na-
varre, and jumped upon her bed, befecching her to fave
their lives ; and as ihe went to aik this favour of the
queen mother, two more, under the like circumftances,.
rulhed into the room, and threw themfelves at her feet.
The queen mother came to the window to enjoy thefe
dreadful fcenes ; and the king, leeing the Proteftants
who lodged on the other fide oi the river flying for
their lives, called for his long gun, and fired upon them.
In the fpace of tiiree or four days, maay thoulands
were deftroyed in the city of Paris, by the moft cruel
deaths which malice itfelf could invent. Peter Ramus,
profeifor of philofophy and mathematics, after being
robbed of all he had, his belly bc*ing firll ripped open,
was thrown out of a window. This fo much alleded
Denis Lambin, the king's profeflbr, that, though a
zealous Catholic, he died of terror. Tlie firlt t^vc days,.
the king denied it was done by his orders, and threw
the whole blame on the houfe of Guife : but, on the
28th of Augult, he went to the parliament, avowed it,
was complimented upon it, and dircdled a procefs a-
gainft the admiral, by which he was ftigmatized as a
traitor. Two innocent gentlemen fufFered as his ac-
complices in a pretended plot againil the life of the
king, in order to let die crown on the head of the
prince of Condc. 'J'hey were executed by torch light;
and the king and the queen mother (with the king of
Navarre and the prince of Condc by force) were fpec-
tators of tills horrid fad ; and they alfo altilled at the-
jubilee to thank God for the e.'iecution of fuch an in-
famous defign.

The malTacre was not confined to the city of Paris
alone. On the eve of St Bartholomew, orders had
been fent to the governors of provinces to fall upon
the Proteftants themfelves, and to let loofe the people
upon them ; and though an edicl was publiftied before
the end of the week, alluring them of the king's pro-
tection, and that he by no means dcfigned to extermi-
nate tliem becaufe of their rcligbn, yet private orders
were fent, of a nature direclly contrary ; in confequence
of which, the maffacrc, or (as, in allufion to the Sici-
lian vefpersf, it was now flylcd) the MaJins of Pans, ^ See SU/^,
were repeated in Meaux, Orleans, Troycs, Angers,
Tliouloufe, Rouen, and Lyons j lo that in the fpace of
two months 30,000 Protellants were butchered. The
next year Rochelle, the only ftrong fortrefs which the
Proteftants held in France, was befieged, but was not
taken without the lofs of 14,000 of the Catholics who
bclkgcd it. After this a pacification cnfued on terms -
favourable-

F R A

[ 94 ]

F R A

I ,^.-A-e. favourable to the ProteHants, but to which they never

' " ti-ufted.

This year the duke of iVnjoa was elefted king of
Poland, and foon after fet out to take poffeffion of \\u
new kingdom. The king accompanied hira to the fron-
tiers of the kingdom; but during the journey was feiz-
ed with a llow fever, which from the beginning had
'-•■> a very dan'^erous appearance. He lingered for forae

(_^jjjg, iX. ''"'^ under the moft terrible agonies both of body and
mind ; and at laft died on the 30th of May 1572, hav-
ing lived 24 years, and reigned 13. It is iaid, that
after the dreadful maffacro above mentioned, this prince
had a fiercenefs in his looks, and a colour in his cheeks,
■which he never had before. He llept little, and never
found. He waked frequently in agonies, and had foft
mufic to compofe hira again to left.

H»nrv ni During the firft years of the reign of Henry HI.
■ivho fucceeded his brother Charles, the war with the
Protellants was carried on with indifferent fuccefs on
the part of the Catholics. In I 1175, a peace was
concluded, called by way of eminence the EJic} of Pa-
cification. It confilled of no fewer than 63 articles ;
the fubflance of v.hich was, that liberty of confcience,
and the public exercife of religion, were granted to the
reformed, without any other reftriftion than that they
Ihould not preach within two leagues of Paris or any
other part where the court was ; party chambers were
erefted in every parliament, to confiil of equal num-
bers of Catholics and Proteftants, before whom all
judgments were to be tried : The judgments againft the
admiral, and, in general, all who had fallen in the war
or been executed, were reverfed ; and eight cautionary
towns were given to the Proteftants.
'|5 The edift gave occafion to the Guiles to form an

Ifa^ue aflbciation in defence, as was pretended, of the Ca-

foimeii. tholic religion, afterwards known by the name of the
Catholic League. In this league, though the king was
mentioned with refpeft, he could not help feeing that
it ftruck at the very root of his authority : for, as the
Proteftants had already their chiefs, fo the Catholics
were, for the future, to depend entirely upon the
chief of the league ; and were, by the very ivords of

cobine monk, on the firft of Auguft 1588. His v/ound Fr.uce.

at firft was not thought mortal; but his frequent fivoon- j— ■

ing quickly dilcovered his danger ; and he died next
morning, in the 39th year of his age, and [6th of his

Before the king's death, he nominated Henry Bour- '47
bon king of Navarre for his fucceflbr on the throne ""^^ '
of France ; but as he was a Proteftant, or at leaft
one who greatly favoured their caufe, he was at firft
owned by very few except thofe of the Proteftant party.
He met with the moft violent oppofition from the
members of the Catholic league ; and was often re-
duced to fuch ftraits, that he went to people's houfe?
under colour of vifits, when in reality he had not a
dinner in his own. By his aftivity and perfevcrance,
however, he was at laft acknoivledged throughout the
whole kingdom, to which his abjuration of the Pro-
teftant religion contributed not a little. As the king
of Spain had laid claim to the crown of France, Hen-
ry no fooner found himltlf in a fair way of being firm-
ly feated on the throne, than he formally declared war
againft that kingdom ; in wlrich he at laft proved fuc-
cefsful, and in 159" entered upon the quiet poffeflion
of his kingdom.

The king's firft care was to put an end to the
religious difputes which had fo long diftrafted the
kingdom. For this purpofe, he granted the famous
edid, dated at Nantz, April 13. 1598. It re-efta-£jj^ ^f
bliftied, in a moft folid and effedlual manner, all the .Vantz.
favours that had ever been granted to the reformed
by other princes ; adding feme which had not been
thought of before, particularly the allowing them a
free admiftion to all employments of truft, profit, and
honour ; the eftablilhing chambers in which the mem-
bers of the two religions were equal ; and the per-
mitting their children to be educated without con-
flraint in any of the univerfities. Soon after, he con-
cluded peace with Spain upon very advantageous
terms. This gave him an opportunity of reftoring
order and juftice throughout his dominions ; of repair-
ing all the ravages occafioned by the civil war ; and
aboliftiinj; all thofe innovations which had been made.

it, to execute whatever he commanded, for the good of either to the prejudice of the prerogatives of the

the caufe, againft any, without exception of perfons
The king, to avoid the bad effefts of this, by the ad-
vice of bis council declared himfelf head of the league ;
and of confequence recommenced the war againft the
Proteftants, which was not extinguiftied as long as he
lived.

The faflion of the duke of Guife, in the mean time,

crown or the welfare of the people
of reformation, indeed, he intended to have carried be-prnpofes*
yond the boundaries of France. If we may believe new-model
the duke of Sully, he had in view no lefs a defign than^*"^ Eiiro-
the new-modelling of all Europe. He imagined that'^^^^^^j
the European powers might be formed into a kind of
Chriftian republic, by rendering them as nearly as pof-

took a refolution of fupporting Charles cardinal of fible of equal ftrength ; and that this republic might

dered, anci
tikewife thi
king.

ik old man, as prefumptive heir of th
crown. In 1 584 they entered into a league with
Spain, and took up arms againft the king ; and though
peace was concluded the fame year, yet in 1587 they
again proceeded to fuch extremities, that the king was
forced to fly from Paris. Another reconciliation was
foon after eflFefled ; but it is generally believed that
the king from this time refolved on the deftruffion
of Guife. Accordingly, finding that this nobleman
. ftill behaved towards him with his ufual infolence,
the king caufed him to be ftabbed, as he was coming
into his prefcncc, by his guards, on the 23d of De-
cember 1587. The king himfelf did not long fur-
vive him ; being ftabbed by one James Clement, a Ja-
3

be maintained in perpetual peace, by bringing all thei^
differences to be decided before a fenate of wife, dif-
interefted, and able judges ; and then he thought it
would be no diflicult matter to overturn the Ottoman
empire. The number of thefe powers was to be 15;
viz. the Papscy ; the empire of Germany; France;
Spain; Hungary; Great Britain ; Bohemia; Lomhardy;
Poland ; Sweden ; Denmark ; the republic of Venice ;
the States General ; the Swifs Cantons ; and the Ita-
lian commonwealth, which was to comprehend the
ftates of Florence, Genoa, Lucca, Modena, Parma,
Mantua, and Monaco. In order to render the ftates
equal, the empiie a as to be given to the duke of Ba-
varia J the kingdom of Naples to the pope ; that of

Sicily

F R A [9

Sicily to the Venetians ; IMilaii to tlie duke of Savoy,
who, "by his acquilitio:;, was to become king of Lom-
bardy ; the Auftrian Low Countries were to be added
to the Dutch republic ; Tranche Compte, Alface, and
the country of Trent, were to be given to the Swifs.
With a view, it is now thought, of executing this grand
projeft, but under pretence of reducing the exorbitant
power of the houfe of Auilria, Henry made immenfe
preparations both by Tea and land •, but if he really
had fuch a defign, he was prevented by death from
attempting to execute it. He was (tabbed in his
coacli by one Ravilliac, on the i :th of May i6o8.

On the death of Henry IV. tl.;; queen mother af-
fumed the regency. Ravilliac was executed, after fuf-
fering honid tortures. It is faid that he made a con-
feflion, which was fo written by the perfon who took
it down, that not one word of it could ever be read,
and thus his infligators and accomplices could never
■ be difcovered. The regency, during the minority of
Louis XIII. was only remarkable for cabals and in-
trigues of the courtiers. In 1617, the king afluraed
the government himfelf, banilhed the queen mother to
Blois, caufed her favourite Marlhal d' Ancre to be killed,
and chofe for his minli^er the famous Cardinal Riche-
lieu. In 1620, a new war broke out between the
Catholics and Proteflants, which was carried on ivith
the greateft fury on both fides •, and we may judge of
the fpirit which actuated both parties by what h-^p-
pened at Negrepliffe, a town in Q^uercy. This place
■vvas befieged by the king's troops, and it was refolved
to make an example of the inhabitants. The latter,
liowever, abfolutely refufed to furrender upon any
terms. They defended themfelves, therefore, moll
defperately ; and the city being at lad taken by florm,
they were all malTacred, ■(\ithout refpecl of rank, fex,
or age, excejji ten men. When thefe were brought
into the king's prefence, he told them they did not
deferve mercy : they anfwered, that they would not
receive it ; that the only favour they alked, %vas to be
hanged on trees in their own gardens •, which was
granted, and the place reduced to alhes. Both par-
tics foon became weary of fuch a deftruclive war ; and
a peace was concluded in 1621, by which the edift of
Nantz was confirmed. This treaty, hov.ever, was of no
long duration. A new war broke out which lalled till
the year 1628, when the edift of Nantz was again con-
firmed ; only the Proteftants were deprived of all their
cautionary tov.Tis, and confequently of the power of de-
fending themfelves in time to come. This put an end
to the civil wars on account of religion in France.
Hiflorians fay, that in thefe wars above a million of
men loft their lives, that i ?o,ood,ooo livres were fpent
in carrying them on ; and that 9 cities, 400 villages,
Z030 churches, IDOO rnonafteries, and lo,oco houfes,
were burnt or otherwife deftroyed during their conti-
nuance. The next year, the king was attacked with a
flow fever which nothing could allay, an extreme dc-
prefhon of fpirits, and prodigious fwelling in his fto-
mach and belly. The year after, however, he recover-
ed, to the great difappointment of his mother, who
had been in hopes of regaining htr power. She was
arrcfled ; but found means to cfcape into Flanders,
where flie remained during the reft of his reign. Riche-
lieu, by a mafterly train of politics, though himfelf
was next to an euthufiaft for popery, fupported the

•S'

5 ] F R A

Proteftants of Germany and Gaftavus Adolphus agaiiift Vi
the houfe of Auilria ; and after quelling all the rebel-
lions and confpiracies which had been formed againll
him in France, he died fome months before Louis XllI.
in 1643.

Louis XIV. furnamed /<? Grant/, fucceeded to theL;uiiXIV.
throne when he was only five years of age. During
his minority, the kingdom was torn in pieces under
the adminiilration of his mother Anne of Auftria, by
the factions of the great, and the divifions between
the court and parliament, for the moft trifling caufes
and upon the moft defpicable principles. The prince
of Conde flamed like a blazing liar ; fometimcs a pa-
triot, fometimes a courtier, and fometimes a rebel.
He was oppofed by the celebrated Turenne, who from
a Proteftant had turned Papift. The nation of France
was involved at once in civil and domeftic wars ; but
the queen mother having made choice of Cardinal Ma-
zarine for her firft minifter, he found means to turn
the arms even of Cromwell againll the Spaniards, and
to divide the domeftic enemies of the court fo effechi-
ally among themfelves, that when Louis afluraed the
reins of government into his own hands, he found
himfelf the moft abfolute monarch that had ever fat
upon the throne of France. He had the good for-
tune, on the death of Mazarine, to put the domeftic
adminiftration of his affairs into the hands of Colbert,
who formed ne^v fyftems for the glory, commerce, and
manufaftures of France, all which he carried to .1
furprifing height. The king himlelf ignorant and
vain, was blind to every patriotic duty of a king, pro-
moting the intcrerts of his fubjecls only that they
might the better anfwer the purpofes of his greatnefs ;
and by his ambition he embroiled himfelf with all his
neighbours, and wantonly rendered Germany a difmal
fceue of devaftation. By his impolitic and unjuft re-
vocation of the edift of Nantz in the year 1685, with
the dragooning* the Proteftants that followed it, he • See Z>/-jk
obliged them to take ftielter in England, Holland, andgioning.-
different parts of Germany, where they eftablilhed the
fllk manufactories, to the great prejudice of their own
country. He was fo bli'.ided by flattery, that he ar-
rogated to himfelf the divine honours paid to the Pa-
gan emperors of Rome. He made and broke treaties
for his conveniency : and ia the end he raifed againft
himfelf a confederacy of almoft all the other princes
of Europe-, at the head of which was King William III.
of England. He was fo well ferved, that he made
head for fome years againft this alliance ; and France
feemed to have attained the highelt pitch of military
glory, under the condud of ihofe renowned generals
Conde and Turenne. (See United Provinces.) At
length, having provoked the Engliih by his repeated
infidelities, their arms under the duke of Marlborough,
and thofe of the Aullrians under Prince Eugene, ren-
dered the latter part of Louis's life as mifcrable as the
beginning of it vas fpleuJid. His reign, from the year
1702 to 1711, v.as one continued feries of defeats and
calamities ; and he had the mortification of feeing
thofe places taken from him, which, in the former
part of his reign, were acquired at the expence of
many thoufand lives. (See Brit.ain, N° 342, &c.) —
Juft as he was reduced, old as he was, to ihe defpcrate
refolution of coUefting his people and dying at their
head, he was faved by the Engliih Tory miniftry dc-

I'crting .

F R A

[ y6 ]

F 'R A

ilratic
the <h
Oi-Ita:

feitii.f; the caufe, withdraiving from tlieir allies, and
concluding the peace of Utrecht in 17 13. See Bri-
tain-, N° 371, &c.

The laft years of Louis XIV. were alfo embittered
by domertic calamities; which, added to tliofe he had
already endured of a public nature, imprefied him ivith
a deep melancholy. He had been for fome time af-
tlifled with a f.flula •, ^\hich, though fuccefsfuUy cut,
ever aitenvards affecled his health. The year before
the peace, his only fan, the duke of Burgundy, died,
together with the duchefs and their eldeft fon ; and the
only remaining child was left at the point of death.
The king himfclf furiived till the month of Septem-
ber I 7 1 5 ; but on the 1 4th of that month expired,
leaving the kingdom to his great grandfon Louis, then
a minor.

By the laft will of Louis he had devolved the re-
gency during the minority of the young king, upon
a council, at the head of which was the duke of Or-
leans. That nobleman, however, difgufted with a
r difjiofition which gave him only a rafting vote, appeal-
ed to the parliament of Paris, who fet afide the will
of the late king and declared him fole regent. His
firfl a<?ls were extremely popular, and gave the moft
favourable ideas of his government and character. He
reftored to the parliament the right which had been
taken from them of remonftrating againft the edifts
of the crown, and compelled thofe who had enriched
themfelves during the calamities of the former reign
to reftore their ^vealth. He alfo took every method
to efface the calamities occafioned by the unfuccefsful
wars in which his predeceflbr had engaged •, promoted
commerce and agriculture; and, by a clofe alliance with
Great Britain and the United Provinces, feemed to
lay the foundation of a lafting tranquillity. This hap-
py profpeft, however, was fuon overcaft by the in-
trigues of Alberoni the Spanidi minifter, w-ho had
formed a defign of recovering Sardinia from the em-
peror, Sicily from the duke of Savoy, and of efta-
blifliing the Pretender on the throne of Britain. To
acc(jmpli(h thefe purpofes, he negotiated with the Ot-
toman Porte, Peter the Great of Ruffia, and Charles XH.
of Sweden ; the Turks intending to refume the war
againft the emperor ; the two latter to invade Great
Britain. But as long as the duke of Orleans retained
the adminiftration of France, he found it irapoflible
to bring his fcheraes to bear. To remove him, there-
fore, be fomented divifions in the kingdom. An in-
furreftion took place in iirittany ; and Alberoni fent
fmall parties into the country in difguife, in order to
fupport the infurgents, and even laid plots to feize the
regent himfelf. All of a fudden, however, the Spa-
niih minifter found himfelf difappointed m every one
of his fchemes. His partizans in France were put to
death ; the king of Sweden was killed at Frederick-
Jhall in Norway ; the Czar, intent on making new re-
gulations, coiJd not be perfuaded to make W'ar upon
Britain ; and the Turks refuftd to engage in a war
with the emperor, from whom they had lately fuffcr-
cd fo much. The cardinal, neverthelefs, continued
his intrigues ; which fjuickly produced a war betwixt
Spain on the one part, and France and Britain on the
other. The Spaniards, unable to refill the union of
two fuch formidable pov.crs, were foon reduced to the
neceffity of fuing for peace ; and the terms were dic-

tated by the regent of France; and of thefe the dif- Fisnce.
milhon of Alberoni the Spanifti minifter was one. A »
double marriage was now fet on foot : the duke of
Orleans gave his own daughter, Mademoifelle IVIont-
penfier, to Don Lewis prince of Afturias, while the
infanta of Spain was betrothed to her coulin the king
of France. From this time the houfe of Bourbon
continued united ; both ptinces being convinced, that
it was their intereft not to vvafte their ftrength in ^vars
againft each other.

'J'he fpirit of conqueft having now in a great rneafure DcftiudiM
fubfided, and that of commerce taken place through- projeft of
out the world in general, France became the fccne of J"""^**",
as remarkable a projefl: in the commercial way as ever
was known in any country. One John Law, a Scotf-
man, who had been obliged to leave his own
country, laid the plan of a company which might
by its notes pay oft" the debt of the nation, and reim-
burfe itfelf by the profits. Law had wandered through '
various parts of Europe, and had fucceflively endea-
voured to engrofs the attention of various courts. The
propofal was made to Vidlor Amadeus king of Sicily j
but he difmiffed Law with a reply, that " he was not
rich enough to ruin himfelf:" but in France it was
looked upon in a more favourable light ; the nation be-
ing at this time involved in a debt of 200 millions,
and the regent, as well as the people in general, very
fond of embarking in new fchemes. The bank, thus
eftabliftied, proceeded at firft with fome degree of
caution ; but having by degrees extended their credit
to more than 80 times their real ftock, they foon be-
came unable to anfwer the demands made upon them ;
fo that the company was dilTolved the very fame year
in which it had been inftltuted. The confuiion into
which the kingdom was thrown by this fatal fcheme,
required the utmoft exertions of the regent to put a
ftop to it; and fcarcely was this accompliftied when-j-ij^ ^,„g
the king, in 1723, took the government into his owntakesthe
hands. The duke then became minifter ; but did not govern-
long enjoy this poft. His irregularities had broken"!^""""'
his conllitution, and brought on a number of ma- ^ands.
ladies, under which he in a ftiort time funk, and
was fucceeded in his adminiftration by the duke of
Bourbon Conde. The king, as we have already re-
marked, had been married, when very young, to the
infanta of Spain, though by reafon of his tender years
the marriage had never been completed. The prin-
cefs, however, had been brought to Paris, and for
fome time treated as queen of France ; but as Louis
grew up, it was eafy to fee that he had contrafted an -j-iie j'rifanta
inveterate hatred againft the intended partner of hisot ^pain
bed. The minifter, therefore, at Lift confented that f*"' tack.
the princefs ihould be fent back ; an affront fo much
refented by the queen her mother, that it had almoft
produced a war betwixt the two nations.

The diffolution of the marriage of Louis was the
laft a<5l of Condc's adminiftration ; and the procuring
of a new match was the firft aft of his fucceiTor Car-
dinal Fleury. The princefs pitched upon was the
daughter of Staniftaus Lcfcziniki, king of Poland,
who had been depofed by Charles XlL of Sweden, ^j^^^J^
The princefs was deftitute of pcrfonal charms, but ofwith the
an amiable difpofition ; and though iris probable that daughter t
ftie never polVefled the love of her liulband, her excel- ^'»"'''-}»*
lent (jualities could not but extort his efteena ; and the^^'l^l"

blttli

•57

Difpuies
betwiKt t!if
parliamcn's
and cltrEv.

F R A f

birth of a prince foon after their marriage removed all
the fears of the people concerning the fucceflion.

Cardinal Fleury continued the pacific fchcines piir-
fued by his predeccflbrs ; though they were fomewlint
interrupted by the war which took place in the year
1733. Notwithftanding the connexion betwixt that
monarch and the French nation, however, Fleury was
lo parfimonious in his alTiftance, that only 1500 lol-
diers were fent to relieve Dantzic, where Stanillaus
liimfelf refided, and who at that time was befieged by
the Ruffians. This, pitiful reinforcement was foon
overwhelmed by a multitude of Ruffians ; and Stanillaus
was at laft obliged to renounce all thoughts of the
crown of Poland, though he was permitted to retain
the title of king : and that this title might not be
merely nominal, the king of France confented to be-
llow upon him the duchies of Bar and Lorrain ; (o
that, after the death of Stanillaus, thefe territories
ivere indiflblubly united to the dominions of France.
Fleury ileadily pUrfued his pacific plans, and the dif-
putes between Spain and England in 1737 very lit-
tle affeded the peace of France ; and it mult be
remembered to his praife, that inllead of fomenting
the quarrels betwixt the neighbouring potentates, he
laboured inceffantly to keep them at peace. He re-
conciled the Genoefe and Corficans, who were at war ;
and liis mediation was accepted by the Ottoman Porte j
ivho at that time carried on a fuccefsful war with the
emperor of Germany, but made peace with him at
the interceffion of the cardinal. All his endeavours
to preferve the general peace, however, proved at lall
ineffedual. The death of the emperor Charles VI. in
1740, the lall prince of the houfe of Aullria, fet all
Furope in a flame. The emperor's eldell daughter,
IVIaria Therefa, claimed the Auftrian fucceffion, which
comprehended the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohe-
mia, the duchy of Silefia, Auftrian Suabia, Upper
and Lower Auftria, Stiria, Carinthia, Carniola ; the
four foreft towns -, Burgaw ; Brifgaiv ; the Low Coun-
tries ; Friuli ; Tyrol ; the duchy of Milan ; and the
duchies of Parma and Placentia. Among the many
competitors who pretended a right to ftiare, or wholly
to inherit, thefe extenfive dominions, the king of
France \v:is one. But as he wilhed not to awaken the
jealoufy of the European princes by preferring direfl-
ly his own pretenfions, he chofe rather to fupport thofe
of Frederick IIL who laid claim to the duchy of Sile-
fia. This brought on the \var of i 740 ; and of which
an account is given under the articles Britain and
Prussia. It was terminated in 1748 by the treaty
of Aix-la-Chapelle ; but to this Louis, who fecretly
meditated a fevere vengeance againft Britain, only con-
fented, that he mi^ht have time to recruit his fleet
and put himfelf fomewhat more upon an equality with
this formidable poiver. But while he meditated great
exploits of this kind, the internal tranquillity of the
kingdom was difturbed by violent difputes betwixt the
clergy and parliaments of France. In the reign of
Louis XIV. there had been violent contefls betwixt

97 J F R A

people. The archbiihop, with 15 other prelates, pro- Franrr.
telled againft it as an infringement of the rights of the '— v— ^
Galilean church, of the laws of the realm, ::nd an in-
fult on the rights of the people themfelves. The duke
of Orleans favoured the bull by inducing tlie billiops
to fubmit to it ; but at 'the fame time ftopped a perfc-
cution which was going on againft its opponents. Thus
matters pafTed over till the conclufion of the peace ; a
fliort time after which, the jealoufy of the clergy was
awakened by an attempt of the niiuifter of ftate to in-
quire into the wealth of individuals of ihcir order. To
prevent this, they renved the conteli about the bull
Unigenitus ; and it was refolved, that confcflional notes
ftiould be obtained of dying perfons ; that thefe notes
ffiould be figned by priells who maintained the .lutho-
rity of the bull ; and that, without fuch notes, no
perfon could obtain a viaticum, or extreme undlion.
On this occafion the new archbiftiop of Paris, and the
parliament of that city, took oppofite fides ; the latter
imprifoning fuch of the clergy as refufed to adminifter
the facraments excepting in the circumftances above
mentioned. Other parliaments followed the example
of that of Paris ; and a war was inftantly kindled be-
twixt the civil and ecclefiaftical departments of the
ftate. In this difpute the king interfered, forbade the
parliaments to take cognizance of ecclefiaftical pro-
ceedings, and commanded them to fufpend all profe-
cutions relative to the refufal of the facraments : but
inrtead of acquiefcing, the parliaments prefented new
remonftrances, refufed to attend any other bufinefs,
and refolved that they could not obey this injunflion
without violating their duty as well as their oath. They
cited the bilhop of Orleans before their tribunal ; and
ordered all writings, in which its jurifdidion was dif-
puted, to be burnt by the executioner. By the af-
liftance of the military, they enforced the adminiftra-
tion of the facraments to the fick, and ceafed to dif-
tribute that juftice to the fubjeft for which they had lOo
been originally inftituted. The king, enraged at their •'ffliament
obftinacy, arrefted and imprifoned four of the mem-"'''"",
bers who had been moft obftinate, and baniflied the '""" ' '
remainder to Bourges, Poicliers, and Auvergne ; while,
to prevent any impediment from taking place in the
adminiftration of juftice by their abfence, he ilTued let-
ters patent, by which a royal chamber lor the profecu-
tion of civil and criminal fuits was inftituted. The
counfellors refuled to plead before thefe new courts ;
and the king, finding at laft that the whole nation was
about to fall into a ftate of anarchy, thought proper
to recal the parhament. The banilhed members en-
tered Paris amidft the acclamations of the inhabitants ;
and the archbiftiop, who ftlU continued to encourage
the priefts in rcfufing the facraments, was banilhed to
his feat at Conftans ; the biftiops of Orleans and Troyes
were in like manner baniftied, and a calm for the pre-
fent reftored to the kingdom. ,(j,

The tranquillity thus eftabliftied xvas of no long du-N'tw dif.
ration. In the year 1756, the parliaments again fell pu^t^s 1"^-
under the difpleafure of their king by their imprudent'"'""

the Janfenifts and Jefuits concerning free will and other perfecution of thofe who adhered to the bull Unige- p'.rfij^nj^nt.

obfcure points of theology ; and the opinions of thi
.lanfenifts had been declared heretical by the celebra-
ted papal bull named Uiiigenilus ; the reception of which
was enforced by the king, in oppofition to the parlia-
ments, the acchbifhop of Paris, and the bodv of the
Vol, IX. Part I.

nitus. They proceeded fo far in this oppofition as to .
refufe to regifter certain taxes abfolutely neced'ary for
the carrying on of the war. By this I^ouis was fo
provoked, that he fuppreffed the fourth and fifth cham-
bers gf inquefts, the members of ^vhich had diftin-
N £ui.led

F R A

[ 98 ]

R A

Spain e

»«3
Espnltior
ofthe Je.
liiits.

^ guilliej tht nilelvcs by their oppofilJon to lib will. He
~ commanded the bull Unigenitus to be refpecied, and
prohibited the fecular judges from ordering the admi-
iiiftration of the facrament-;. On this 15 couniellors
of ihe jjrcat chamber refigiied their offices, and 1 24
members of the different parliaments followed their
example ; and the moft grievous difcontents took place
throughout the kingdom. An attempt was made by
a far.atic, named Damien, to aflaflinate him ; and the
king was adually wounded, though ilightly, between
the ribs, in the prefence of his fon and in the midft
of his guards. The alTaflin was put to the molt ex-
quifite tortures ; in the midft of which he perfifted,
in the moft obftinate manner, to declare that he had
no intention to kill the king ; but that his defign was
only to wound him, that God might touch his heart,
and incline him to reftore peace to his dominion;:, 8ic.
Thefe expreilions, which undoubtedly indicated infa-
nity, had no effect on his raercilefs judges, who con-
figned him to one of the molt horrid deaths the inge-
nuity or cnielty of man could invent. This attempt,
however, feems to have had feme effeft upon the king j
for he foon after banifhed the archbiftiop of Paris, who
had been recalled, and once more accommodated matters
with his parliament.

The unfortunate event of the war of 17JJ had
brought the nation to the brink of ruin, when Louis
, implored the aliillance of Spain ; and on this occafion
the celebrated Familij Conipaci was llgned ; by which,
with the iingle exception of the American trade, the
fubjedts of France and Spain are naturalized in both
kingdoms, and the enemy of the one fovereign is in-
variably to be looked upon as the enemy of the other.
At that time, however the afliltance of Spain avail-
ed very little ; both powers were reduced to the low-
eft ebb, and the arms of Britain ivere triumphant in
every quarter of the globe. See the article Britain.

The peace concluded at Paris in the year 1763,
though it freed the nation from a molt deftruclive and
bloody war, did not reftore its internal tranquillity.
The parliament, eager to purfue the vidory they had
formerly gained over their religious enemies, now di-
rected their efforts agaiull the Jefuits, who had obtain-
ed and enforced the bull Unigenitus. That once
powerful order, however, was no^v on the brink of de-
ftruflion. A general deteftation of its members had
taken place throughout the whole world. A confpi-
racy formed by them againit the king of Portugal,
and from \vhich he narrowly elcaped, had roufed the
indignation of Europe, and this was ftill farther in-
flamed by fome fraudulent practices of v.hich they had
f)een guilty in France. Le Valette, the chief of their
.-nilTionaries at Martinico, had, ever lince the peace of
Ai.x-la-Chapelle, carried on a very extenfive commerce,
iiifomuch that he even afpired at monopolizing the
vvhole Weft India trade when the wax uith Britain com-
menced in 1755. Leonay and Gouffre, merchants at
MarfcillcS, in expedation of receiving merchandife to
tlie value of two millions from him, had accepted of
bills drawn by the Jefuits to the amoimt of a million
and a half. Unhappily tlicy were difappointcd by
the vaft number of captures made by the Britilh ; in
confequence of which they were obliged to apply to
the Society of Jefuits at large : but they, either igno-
rant of their tnie intereft, or too flov/ in giving alliit-

arice,fuffered the merchants to ftop payment ; and thus Frr.nee.
not only to bring ruin upon themi'elves, but to in- '"""v— '
volve, as is ulual in fuch cafes, a great many others
in the fame calamity. Their creditors demanded in-
demnification from the Society at large ; and on their
refufal to fatisfy them, brought their caul'e before the
parliament of Paris. That body, eager to revenge
themfelves on iuch powerful adverlaries, carried on the
m(5ft violent perfccutions everywhere againtt them. In
the courfe of thefe, the volume containing the con-
ftitution and government of the order itfelf was ap-
pealed to, and produced in open court. It then ap-
peared, that the order of Jefuits formed a diftinfl body
in the ftate, fubmitting implicitly to their chief, who
alone was abfolute over their lives and fortunes. It
was likewil'e difcovered that they had, after a former
expulilon, been admitted into the kingdom upon con-
ditions which they had never fulfilled ; and to which
their chief had obltinately refufed to fubfcribe ; con-
fequently that their exiftencc at that time in the na-
tion was merely the effect of toleration. The event
^vas, that the writings of the Jefuits ;vere pronounced
to contain doftrines fabveriive of all ci\'il government,
and injurious to the fecurity of the facred perfons of
fovereigns ; the attempt of Damien againft the king
was attributed to them, and every thing feemed to prog-
noflicate their fpeedy diffolulion. In this critical mo-
ment, however, the king interfered, and by his royal
mandate fui'pended all proceedings againft them for a
year ; a plan cf accommodatio:i was drawn up, and
iubmitted to the pope and general of the order : but
the latter, by his ill-timed haughtinefs, entirely over-
threw the hope of reconciliation. The king withdrew
his protection, and the parliament redoubled their ef-
forts againft them. The bulls, briefs, conftitutions,
and other regulations of the Society, were determined
to be encroachments on authority, and abufes of go-
vernment ; the Society Itfelf was finally diffolved, and
its members declared incapable of holding any clerical
or municipal offices ; their colleges were feized ; their
effefts confifcated, and the order annihilated ever
fince. 15^

The parliament, having gained this vidory, next Contentions
made an attempt to fet bounds to the power of the ''J^*"'"*^
king himfelf. They now refufed to regifter an edift ^^^ his par-
which Louis had ilTued for the continuance of fomeUamcni.
taxes which Itiould have ended with the war, and like-
wife to conform to another by ^vhich the king was en-
abled to redeem his debts at an inadequate price. The
court attempted to get the edicts regiftered by force,
but the parliaments everywhere feemed inclined to rc-
fift to the laft. In 1 766, the parliament of Brittany
refufed the crown a gift of 700,000 livres ; in ccnfe-
quc-nce of which tliey were fingled out to bear the
weight of royal vengeance : but while matters were on
the point of coming to extremities, the king tliought
proper to drop the procels altogether, and to publifti a
general amnefty. The parliaments, however, now af-
feded to defpile the royal clemency ; which exafperated
the king to fuch a degree, that he ordered the counfel-
lors of the parliament of Brittany (who had refufed
to rcfume the fundions of which he deprived them)
to be included in the lilt of thofe who were to be
drafted for militia j and thofe upon whom the lot fell
ivere immediately obliged to join their refpedive regi-

F R A

[ 99 ]

F R A

165

laana of

Corfica rC'
duced.

Tranc*. ments •, llie reft being employed in forming the city
■"~v^~^ guard. I'he parliament of Paris remonftraled fo free-
ly upon this conduct of the king, that they alfo fell
under his cenfure ; and Louis in the moll explicit
manner declared, that he would fufter no earthly power
to interfere with his will ; and the parliamcnis were
for the prelent intimidated into fubmillion.

The interval of domcilic tranquillity w hich noiv took
place, was employed by the king in humbling the pride
of the pope, who refuled to recal a brief he had pub-
lillied againft the duke of Parma. On this the French
monarch reclaimed the territories of Avignon and Ve-
r.aiffin ; and while the pontiff denounced his unavailing
cenfures againll him, the marquis de Rochecouart, \vith
a lingle regiment of foldiers, drove out the troops of
the pope, and took poffeflion of the territories in que-
Ition.

A more formidable oppofition was made by the na-
tives of the fraall iiland of Corlica ; the fovereignty of
wliich had been transferred to France by the Genoefe
its former mailers, on condition that Louis ibould re-
inllate them in the polTelTion of the iiland of Caprala,
which the Corficans had lately reduced. Thefe illanders
defended themfelves with the moll defperate intrepidi-
ty ; and it was not till after two campaigns, in which
feveral thoufands of the braveft troops of France were
^ loft, that they could be brought under iubjeclion.
Diftreil'ca 1"^^ fatisfaclion which this unimportant conqueft
■ftate of the might afford to Louis, was clouded by the diftrefs of
cation. the nation at large. The Eaft India Company had to-
tally failed, and moif of the capital commercial houfes
in the kingdom were involved in tlie fame calamity.
The minifter, the due de Choifeuil, by one defperate
llroke, reduced the interell of the funds to one halt,
and at the fame time took aw ay the benefit of the iiu"-
vivorihip in the tontines, by which the national credit
was greatly affected ; the altercation betwixt the king
and his parliaments revived, and the diifenfions became
worfe than ever. The due de Choifeuil attempted in
vain to conciliate the differences ; his efforts tended
only to bring misfortunes upon himfelf, and in 1 77 1
he was banilhed by the king, who fufpeCted him of fa-
vouring the popular party too much ; nnd this was foon
auer followed by the baniihment of the whole parlia-
ment of Paris, and that by the banillunent of a num-
ber of others ; new parliaments being everywhere cho-
fen in place of thofe who had been expelled. The
people were by no means difpofed to pay the fame re-
gard to thefe new parliaments that they had done to
the old ones ; but every appearance of 0[)porition was
at laft fiienced by the abfolute authority of the king.
In the midlt of this pltntitudc of power, however, which
he had fo ardently deiired, his health daily declined,
and the end of his days was evidently at no great
diftance. As he had all along indulged himfelf in fen-
fual pleafures to the rr*atell excels, fo now they prov-
ed the immediate means of his deftruclion. His fa-
vourite miilrcfs, Madame de Pompadour, who for a
long tnne governed him with an abfulute fway, liad
long fince been dead, and the king had for fome time
been etiually enlla\ed by the charms of Madame du
Barrc. At laft even her beauty proved infufficient to
excite defire ; and a fuccelTion of miftreifes became ne-
celTary to roufe the languid appetites of the king. One

of thefe, who was infcfted with the lm.illpox, comrau- Fnncc

nicated the difeafe to the king ; who in a Ihort time ' '

died of it, notwithftanding aU the affiftance that could r, 'X' (
be given him by the phyficians. l^'L X V.

The new king Louis XVI. grandfon to the former, 168
afcended the throne in the year 1774, in the 20th year'^'-'S" °^
of his age; and to fecure himfelf againft the dileafe '''"'" ■'^^^■
which had proved fatal to his predcceffor, fubmittcd to
inoculation, with feveral others of the royal family.
Their quick and eafy recovery contributed much to ex-
tend that praflice throughout the kingdom, and to remove
the prejudices which had been entertained againft it.

The king had no fooner regained his health, than he
applied himfelf diligently to extinguifti the differences
which had taken place betwixt his prcdeceffor and the
people. He removed thofe from their employments
who had given caufe of complaint by their arbitrary
and oppreiiive conduft ; and he conciliated the affec-
tion of his fubjefls by removing the new parliaments
and recalling the old ones.

But though the prudence of Louis liad fuggefted
to him thefe compliances, he endeavoured flill to pre-
fcrve pure and entire the royal authority. He explain-
ed his intentions by a fpeech in the great chamber
of parliament. " The ftep that he had taken to cn-
fure the tranquillity and happinefs of his fubjeds, ought
not (he obferved) to invalidate his own authority ; and
he hoped, from the zeal and attachment of the prefent
affembly, an example of fubmilTion to the reft of his
fubjecls. Their repeated refiftance to the commands
ol his grandfather had compelled that monarch to
maintain his prerogative by their banilhment ; and they
were now recalled, in the expeclation that they would
quietly exercife their funclions, and difplay their gra-
titude by their obedience." He concluded with de-
claring, " That it was his defire to bury in oblivion all
pall grievances ; that he (liould ever behold with ex-
treme difapprobation whatever might tend to create
divifions and dillurb the general tranquillity ; and that
his chancellor would read his ordinance to the affem-
bly, from which they might be affured lie ivould not
fuffer the fmalleft deviation to be made." That ordi-
nance was conceived in the moft explicit terms, and
w:is immediately regiftered by the king's command.
The articles of it limited within very narrow bounds
tile pretenfions of the parliament of Paris : The mem-
bers were forbidden to look upon themfelves as oj:c
body witli the other parliaments of the kingdom, or
to take any liep, or affume any title, that might tend
towards or imply fuch an union ; I 'hey were enjoin-
ed never to reUnquifti the adminiftration of public jv-
fiice, except in cafes of abfolute ncceflity, for which
the firlt prefident was to be refponliblc to the king ;
and it was added, that on their difobedience the grand
council might replace the parliament, without any-
new edi(5l for the purpofc. They were flill however
permitted to enjoy the right of remonftrating before
the regirteriiig of any edifls or letters patent which
they might conceive injurious to the welfare of the
people, provided they prefer>'ed in their reprefentations
the refpejl due to the throne. But thefe remonftranccs
were not to be repeated ; and the parliament, if they
proved incffeclual, were to regiftcr the ediifl objeifled
to within a month at fartheft from the firrt day of its
N 2 being

F R

[ 100 ]

F R A

being publiilicd. They were forbidden to iiTue any ar-
rets which might excite trouble, or in any manner re-
tard the execution of the king's ordinances ; and they
were aflured by the king himfelf, at the conclufion of
this code for their fiiture conduifr, that as long as they
adhered to the boimds prefcribed, they might depend

the finances i\I. Xeckar, by birth a Swifs, z:\d by re- France
ligiou a Proteilant. That gentleman, in the preced-
ing reigii, had been chofen to adjull feme dilYerences ^„„g,
between the Eall India Company and the crown ; and ment of M.
had difcharged his truft in a manner which gained the Ncckar to
approbation of both parties. PolTelTed of dillinguilh-'!"^ '^"■^'^-
upon his countenance and proteftion. In (hort, the ed abilities, his appointment would have excited no '"r-';'„^nc(^5,
terms on which Louis confentcd to re-eftabli(li the par-
liaments were fuch, that they were reduced to mere
cyphers, and the -jvorcl of the king llill continued to be
the only la«' in t!ie kingdom. The archbifhop of Pa-
ris, who had likewile prefuraed to raife fome commo-

'7'

1 of th?

tions with regard to the bull Unigenitus, was obliged
to fubmit ; and feverely threatened if he IhouJd after-
n-aids interfere in fuch a caufs.

169

Humane
edict in fa-

170
Siippreffi
of them-:

prife, had it not been contrary to the conllant policy
of f ranee, which had carefully excluded the aliens of
her country and faith from the controul of her revenue.
It now flood forward as a new inftance of enlargement
of mhid and liberality of fentiment ; and will to po-
llerity mark the prominent features of the reign of
Louis XVI.

Although the French monarch was of a pacific dif-
The final conquefl of the Corficans, who, provoked pofition, and not dellitute of generofity of fentiment ;
by the opprefTion of their governors, had once more yet his own and the public exultation had been openly
attempted to regain their former liberty, was the firfl and contlantly proportioned to the fuccefs of the Ame- ,jj
event cf importance which took place after this refto- ricans in their contefl with Britain : the princes of the The French
ration of tranquillity : but the kingdom was yet filled blood and the chief nobility were eager to embark in P"vately
v^ith diforder from other caufes. A fcarcity of corn fupport of the caufe of freedom; and the prudence of^ .
happening to take place jufl at the time that fome the king and his mofl; confidential minitlers alone re-j„t|,pif
regulations had been made by M. Turgot the new fi- llrained their ardour. The fatal events of the former war contetl
nancier, the populace rofe in great bodies, and com- were flill imprefled on the mind of Louis ; and he could "'t'" Bri-
mitted fuch outrages, that a military force became ab- not readily confent to expole his infant marine in a con-'^"''
folutely neceffary to quell them ; and it was not till teil %vith a nation who had fo frequently alTerted the

" " ■ " dominion of the feas, and fo lately broken the united

ftrength of the houfe of Bourbon. At the fame time,
he ivas fenfible that the opportunity of humbling thofc
haughty iilanders fhould not be entirely neglected, and
that Ibme advantages fliould be taken of the prefent
commotions in America. Two agents from the Unit-
ed States, Silas Deane and Dr Benjamin Franklin,
had fuccelTively arrived at Paris : and though all audi-
ence was denied them in a public capacity. Hill they
i\ere privately encouraged to hope that France only
waited the proper opportunity to vindicate in arms

upwards of 500 of thefe miferable wretches were de-
ilroyed that they could be reduced. The king, how-
ever, by his prudent and vigorous conduct on this oc-
cafion, foon put a flop to all riots, and eminently dif-
played his clemency as well as prudence in the me-
thods he took for the refloration of the public tran-
quillity.

The humanity of Louis was next fhown in an edict
which he caufed to be regiflered in parliament, fenten-
cing the deferters from his army in future to work as
flaves on the public roads, inltead of punilliing them as

formerly with death ; and with equal attention to the the independence of America. In the

general welfare of his fubjefts, he feized the moment of
peace to fulfil thofe promifes of economy which on his
acceflion he had given to the people. Various regula-
" tions took place in confequence ; particularly the fup-
prelTion of the moufquetaires and fome other corps,
which being adapted more to the parade of guarding
the royal perfon than any real military fer^dce, were
fupported at a great expence, without any adequate re-
turn of benefit to the Hate.

Particular attention was alfo paid to the ftate of tl->e
marine ; and the appointment of M. de Sartine in
1776 to that department did honour to the penetra-
tion of the fovereign. That miniller, fruitful in re-
fources, and unwearied in his application, was incef-
fantly engaged in augmenting the naval ftrength of Direflor General of the Finances, fubmitted to him the

i-hile,
the American cruilers were hofpitably received into
the French ports ; artillery and all kinds of warlike
ftores were freely fold or liberally granted to the di-
ftrefs of the colonifls ; and French officers and engi-
neers, with the connivance of government, entered into
their fervice.

Some changes were about this time introduced into
the difierent departments of llate. The conduft of M.
Neckar in the tnances had been attended with univer-
fal approbation ; and I\I. Taboureau des Reaux, his col-
league, had refigned his fituation, but llill retained the
dignity of counfellor of Itate. To afford full fcope to
the genius of M. Ntckar, Louis determined no longer
to clog him with an aflbciate : but, with the title of

his country ; and the various preparations that filled
the ports and docks created no fmall uneafinefs to the
Britifh court.

The next appointment made by the king was equal-
ly happy, and in one refpeft fingular and unpre-
cedented. M. Turgot, though poffeffed of integrity
and induflry, had not been able to command the pub-

entire management of the funds and revenue of France.
In the enfuing year, the Count de St Germains, fecre-
tary at war, died ; and the prince de Montbarey, who
had already filled an inferior fituation in that depart-
ment, was now- appointed to fucceed him.

In the mean time, Louiv's negotiations w'nh foreign
courts were not neglefled. He concluded a new trea-

lic confidence. On his retreat, M. Clugny, intendant ty of alliance with Switzerland ; vigilantly obferved
general of Bourdeaux, had been elevated to the %-acant the motions of the different princes of Germany on the
pofl : but he dying in a very fhort fpace, M. Taboureau death of the elector of Bavaria ; and ^vhen clofely
des Reaux was appointed his fuccefTor ; and the king queflioned by the EnglilTi ambaffador. Lord Storraonl,
foon after affociated with him in the management of refpefting the various warlike preparations which were

diligently

rpenlyac.
knovledg;
the inde-
per.derce
oftheUnt

F R A [ 1

diligently coniinued through the kingdom, he replied.
That at a time ^vhen the leas were covered with Engliih
fleets and American crullers, and when fuch armies
were fent to the New World as bad never before ap-
peared there, it became prudent for him alfo to arm
for the fecurity of the colonies and the protcflion of
the commerce of France. The kin^ was not ij^norant
at the fame time, that the remonftra; ces of Great Bri-
tain, and the importunities of the agents of the United
States, ^^•ould loon compel him to adopt fome decilive
line of conduct. This ^vas hallened by a new event
difaftrous to Britain •, the failure of General Burgoyne's
expedition, and the capture of his army. The nens
of that event was received at Paris with unbounded ex-
ultation. M. Sartine, the marine fuperintendant, was
eager to meafure the naval llrength of France with
that of Great Britain -, the queen, who had long 'e-
conded the applications of the American agents, now
efpoufed their caufe with frelh ardour ; and the pacific
inclinations of Louis being overborne by the fuggeftions
of his minifters and the influence of the queen, it was
at length determined openly to acknowledge the inde-
pendence of the United States.

Dr Franklin and Silas Deane, who had hitherto
acted as private agents, ivere r.ow acknowledged as
public ambaQadors from thofe dates to the court of
Verfailles •, and a treaty of amity and commerce « r.s
figned between the tivo powers in the month of Febru-
ary 1778, The duke of Noailles, ambalTador to the
court of London, was in the month of March in-
ilrufted to acquaint that court with the above treaty.
At the fame time he declared, that the contracting
parties had paid great attention not to llipulate any
exclufive advantages in favour of France, and that the
United States had referved the liberty of treating with
every nation whatever on the fame footing of equality
and reciprocity. But this llipulation was treated by
the Britilli with contempt ; and the recal of Lord
Stormont, their ambalTador at Verfailles, was the fig-
nal for the commencement of holtilities. — The events
produced by this war are related under the articles
America, Britain, and Indostak. Here our
chief bufinefs is with domeftic tranfadions, the mea-
fures of the cabinet, and the internal economy of the
nate.

In the year 1780 new changes in the French mini-
ftry took place. M. Berlin had refigned the office
of fecretary of ftate ; the prince de Montbarey had re-
tiied from the pofl of fecretary at war, and was fuc-
ceeded by the Marquis de Segur. But the moll im-
portant removal was that of M. Sartine, who had for
feveral years prefided over the marine department, and
whofe unwearied application and ability had raifed the
naval power of France to a height that aftonilhed Eu-
rope : but his colleagues in the cabinet loudly arraigned
a profulion, which would have diverted into one chan-
nel the whole refources of the kingdom ; and his re-
treat opened a road to the ambition of the Marquis de
Caftries, who was appointed to fupply his place.

This year, the king fixed on the anniverfary of his
birth day to render it memorable by a new inllance of
humanity : and he aboliihed for ever the inhuman cu-
ftom of/>utlin^ thequejlion, as it was called, by torture ;
a cuftom which had been fo eftabliflied by the practice
of ages, that it ficcmed to be an infeparable part of

01 ]

F R A

the conftitulion of the courts of juftice in France. Kr Frircr.

the fame time, to defray the charges of war, he conti- """^

nued to diminiih his own expenditure ; and facrificing
his magnilicence to the cafe of his fubjefls, difmiffed
at once above 400 officers belonging to his court. 175

Unhappily, however, the popular difcontents were '^''™"'''™
excited next year by the difmiffion of their favourite^ "^k.^
minilter, M. Neckar. He had conceived the arduous ' "^ '"'
but popular project of fupporting a war by loans with-
out taxes ; and the rigid economy which he had intro-
duced into all the departments of the royal houfehold,
and the various refources that prefcnted themfelves to
his fertile genius, had fupported him amidll the dilK-
culties that attended this iyltcm. But his aufterity of
temper had not rendered him equally acceptable to the
fovereign and his fubjefts ; anti \!\\t repeated reforms
he had recommended were reprefjr;tcd as inconfiftent
with the dignity of the crown j Le was therefore in
1781 difmiffed from his office of comptroller-general ;
and M. Joli de Fieuri, counfellor cf llntc, wp.s appoint-
ed to that important department. The defeat of the
count de Gr:>.fle happened next year, and imprelTed the
kingdom with general grief and -confternation. Im-
menfe preparations were, however, made for the opera-
tions of 1783 J and in conjunftion with the courts of
Madrid and the Hague, Louis was determined this year
to make the moil powerful efforts to bring the war to a
conclufion. But in the midrt of thefe preparations, the
voice of peace was again heard ; and Louis was induced i-if,
to liflen to the proffered mediation of tiie two firll po- Peace con.
tentates in Europe, the emperor of Germany and the <^l"Jed.
emprefs of Ruffia. The count de Vergennes, who ftill
occupied the poll of fecretary of foreign affairs, was
appointed to treat with Mr Fitzherbert the Britifli
miiiiller at Bruffels, but who hud lately proceeded to
Paris to conduct this important negotiation. The
way was already fmoothed for the reftoration of public
tranquillity, by provifional articles figned at the con-
clufion of the lafl year between the dates of America
and Great Britain, and which were to conftitute a
treaty of peace finally to be concluded when that be-
tween France and Great Britain took place. Prelimi-
nary articles were accordini^ly agreed upon and fign-
ed at Verfailles : thefe were foon after fucceeded by a '
definitive treaty ; and France, throughout her exten-
five dominions, beheld peace once more eftablillied.
Though the late war had been attended by the moli
brilliant fuccefs, and the independence of America
feemed to Itrike deep at the fource of her rival's power,
yet France herfelf had not been entirely free from in-
convenience. The retreat of ^L Neckar, had, as we
have already obfervcd, diminiffied the public confidence;
three different perlons who had fiuce tranfiently occu-
pied his pofl, increafed tlie jealoufies of the people; of the
and the failure of the celebrated Caiffe d'EfcompteCaifle
completed the univerfal conllernation. d'Elcomptc

That bank had been eftabliffied in the year 1776.
The plan of it was formed by a company of private
adventurers, and its capital was fixed at 503,0:0].
Ilerling. The profeffed defign of the Company was
to difcount bills at Ihort dates, at the rate ot four per
cent, per annum : but as this intereft could never be an
equivalent for the capital funk by the proprietors, they
were intrufted with the additional power of iffuing
notes to the aino;mt of their capital, which, as they

F R A

[ 102 ]

F R A

i-S
Treaty be-

■n-ere cr.p.ibic at anv time of being converted into fpecie,
miglit be often voluntarily taken by t'aeir cullorners
from mere convenience. The reputation of the bank
foon caufed its ftock. to fell above par : and its credit
^vas flill at the higheft, when to the aftonifhment of the
nation it fuddenly flopped payment on the 2d of Octo-
ber 1783. Tlie caufe afligned was an uncommon (car-
city of fpecie : But the public fufpefled that the failure
arofe from a loan fecretly made to government ; and
Avhat confirmed the fufpicion was, that government a-
bout the fame time flopped payment of the bills drawn
upon them by their army in America.

Whatever was the caufe of this event, the king was
prevailed on to extend his protetlion to the Company.
By four fuccefTive edifts the banks in Paris were
ordered to receive the notes of the Caiffe d'Efcompte
as currency ; and a lottery with a flock of one million
Irerlmg, redeemable in eight years, being eftablilhed,
the tickets were made purchafable in notes of the CaiiTe
d'Efcompte. By thefe expedients the public confi-
dence in that bank was revived, its bufinefs increafed,
and its ftock rofe to above double the original fubfcrip-
tion ; the bills from America were at the fame time put
in a train of payment, and public credit was reftored
throughout the kingdom. Some compenfation alfo
for the expences that had been incurred during the late
i\ar, was drawn from a treaty with the United States
of America. Thefe engaged to rciraburfe France in
the fum of 18 millions of livres, which had been ad-
vanced in the hour of their diftrefs ; and Louis con-
lented to receive the money, as more convenient to the
States, in the fpace of i 2 years, by 1 2 equal and an-
nual payments.

The general peace was foon after follo^ved by a par-
ticular treaty between France and Holland, ^vhich was
' effected with great addrefs by the Count de Vergennes.
It included all the principles which can ferve to ce-
ment in the clofeft union diftinfl nations under diftinft
governments ; and by ivhich they may mutually partici-
pate, in peace or in war, of good or of evil ; and in
all cafes adminifter the moft perfect aid, counfel, and
fuccour to each other. It alfo prefcribed, if their
united good offices for the prefervation of peace fliould
prove ineffeftual, the alTiftance they were to afford
each other by fea and land. France was to fumith
Holland with ic,000 effedive infantry, 2000 cavalry,
with 12 {hips of the line and 6 frigates. Their High
Mightineffes, on the other iide, in cafe of a marine
war, or that France fhould be attacked by fea, ivere to
contribute to her defence fix ihips of the line and three
frigates ; and in cafe of an attack on the territory of
France, the Stales General were to liave the option of
furniihing their land contingent either in money or
troops, at the eftimate of 5000 infantry and lOOD ca-
valry. Further, If the ftipulated fuccours lliould be
infaffxient for the defence of the party attacked, or
for procuring a proper peace, they engaged to alFilt
each other with all their forces, if neceffary ; it being
liowever agreed that the contingent of troops to be fiu--
i.ilhed by the States General fliould not exceed 20,000
infantry and 4000 cavalry. It was further added,
that neither of the contradling powers (hould difarm,
or make or receive propofals of peace or truce, ivith-
out the confent of the other : they promifed alfo not
.to coutrafl any fiiture alliance or engagement what-

ever, direflly cr indireftly, contrary to the prefent Fricce,

treaty : and on any treaties or negotiations being pro- " v—— '

pofed which might prove detrimental to their joint inte-
reft, they pledged their faith to give notice to each o-
ther of fuch propolals as loon as made.

Thus was Holland now converted into the firm rdlv
of that power againft ^vhofe encroaching fpirit fhe had
formerly armed the moft powerful kingdoms of El.
rope J while France having atTerted the independent
of America againft Great Britain, and having cc^i
verted an ancient and formidable foe into an ufeful
friend, feemed to have attained an influence over thr
nations of the earth that flie had never before been pof-
feffed of.

But however exalted her prefent fituation might ap-
pear, the feeds of future commotion were already ap-
parent to an attentive obfer\er. The applaufe that
had attended the parliament of Paris in their flruggle^
with the late king might be confidered as the firft daw n
of freedom ; the language of that affembly had boldly
inculcated to their countrymen their natural rights,
and taught them to look ^\"ith a lefs enraptured eye on j.-
the lullre that encompaffed the throne. The war inConfe-
America had contributed to enlarge the political ideas "3"^"" '"
of the French : they had on that occafion ftood forth f^om"
as the champions of liberty, in oppofition to regal intgrfe. 1
power 5 and the otflcers, who had atted on that confpi-rtnce be-
cuoustheatre, accuftomed to think and fpeak without '";^en Bri-
reftraint, on their return Imparted to the provinces of P'" ^ "
France the flame of freedom which had been kindled in ^[^^
the wilds of America. From that moment the French,
inftead of filently acquiefcing under the edifts of their
fovereign, canvalTed each action with bold and rigid im-
partiality ; ^^ hile the attachment of the army, which
has ever been confidered as the fole foundation of def-
potifm, gave way to the noble enthufiafm of liberty.

We have already noticed the public diffatisfaclion
that had attended the difmiffion of M. Necker;iiistran-
fient fucceffor, M. de Fleury, had retired from the
management of the finances in 1783, and the more
tranfient admiuiftration of M. d'Ormeffon had expired
in the fame year that gave it birth. On his retreat,
M. de Caloniie, who had fucceflively filled with acknoiv- .\ppoirt-
ledged reputation tlie office of intendant of Mentz, and ment and
aftenvards of the provinces of Flanders and Artois, was
nominated to the poft of comptroller-general. This
gentleman, flexible and infinualing, eloquent in con-
verfation and poliihed in his manners, fertile in refour-
ces and liberal in the difpofal of the pubhc money,
foon rendered himfelf acceptable to the foveieign. But
he did not enter upon his new and arduous ftation fa-
voured by the breath of popularity : he was reported
to be more able than confiflent, and not to have tem-
pered the ardour of his fpirit by the fevcrity of deep
refearch ; and the people, amidft repeated loans, re-
gretted that fevere fimplicity which had charailerized
the adminiflration of IM. Necker.

It was the bold and judicious meafures of Calonne,
ho%vevcr, that reftored credit to the CaiiTe d'Efcompte,
which had flopped payment a few weeks before his ac-
ccflion. His next meafure, in 1784, the eftablifliment
ef the Caiffe d'Amortiffement, or finking fund, was en-
titled to a ftill higher degree of applaufe. The plan
of that fiind was fimple and moderate : It was to pay
annually by government, uito the hands of a board fet

apart

M de Ca-
lonne.

F R A [I

Fr-rce. apart for iViat purpofc, the entire interell of the nation-

*—^j ' al debt?, whether in flock or annuities, together with

;m additional fum of I20,oool. The annuities that
Avould be extinguilhed every year ^vere eftimated at
5O,'50ol. ; and in that proportion, the fum fet apart for
tlie redemption of the national debt uould annually in-
creafe. The operation of this new fund was limited to
the term of 25 years ; and during that term the annual
receipt of the CaitTe d'AmortiiTement is declared unal-
terable, and incapable of being diverted to any other
objea.

The principal meafure of the next year ivas the
ertabliihment of a new Eaft India Company, (the con-
ilitutions of which have been already detailed : fee
Company); — a meafure not equally commendable
with the preceding, and which did not fail to excite
violent complaints. The time, however, was now ap-
proaching, when the neceirities of the llate would com-
pel him to meafures Hill more unpopular, and dellined
to undergo a feverer fcrutiny. Although peace had
been re-ellablillied throughout Europe for three years,
yet the finances of France feemed Icarce affcdled by
this interval of tranquillity, and it was found requifite
to clofe every year with a loan. The public expen-
diture of 1785 might probably fecm to i'ancliou this
mealure. It had been thought proper to fortify
Cherbourg upon a large and magnificent fcale ; the
claim of the emperor to the navigation of the Scheldt
had obliged the French to increafe their land forces,
cither to torm a relpeclable neutrality, or to alTift ef-
feflually their Dutch allies ; and the marquis de Caf-
tries, fond of war, and profufe in his dellgns, had not
luffered the navy, which M. Sartine had furrendered
i.ito his hands, to decline during the interval of peace.
The treaty of commerce concluded in the year 1786
with Great Britain was a new fource of difcontent. —
Though regarded by the Englilh manufaclurers as far
from advantageous, it excited in France flill louder
murmurs. It was reprefented as likely to extinguiHi
thole infant eftablilhments, which were yet unable to
vie wth the manufactures of England that had attain-
ed to maturity ; and the market that it held out for
the wines and oils of France was pafled over in filence,
while the dillrefs of the artifan was painted in the moll
ftriking colours. Eut when the ediifl for regiftering
the loan at the conclufion of the laft year, and which
amounted to the fum of three millions three hundred
;:nd thirty thoufand pounds, was prefented to the par-
liament of Paris, the murmurs of the people, through
the remonllrances of that affembly, alVumed a more le-
gal and formidable afpecl. The king, however, figni-
fied to the felecl deputation that were commilTioned
to convey to him their remonftrances, that he ex-
peded to be obeyed without farther delay. The ce-
remony of the regiftering accordingly took place on
the next day ; but it was accompanied with a refolu-
tion, importing, " that public economy was the only
genuine fource of abundant revenue, the only means
of providing for the neceiruies <f the fiate, and rellor-
ing that credit which borrowing had reduced to the
brink of ruin."

The king was no fooner informed of this ftep, than
he commanded the attendance of the grand deputa-
tion of parliament ; when he erazed from- their records

C3 ] F R A

the refolutlon that had been adopted ; and obferveJ, France,
that though it was his pleafure that the parliament ' — » ■—
ihould communicate, by its refpeclful reprefentations,
whatever might concern the good of the public, yet
he never would allow them fo far to abufe his clemency
as to erect themfelves into the cenfors of his govern-
ment. At the fame time, more ilrongly to mark his
dilpleafure at their expoftulations, he iupcrfedcd on:;
of their officers, who had appeared moll active in for-
warding the obnoxious refolution.

M. de Calonnc, however, though gratified by tlie
approb;ition of his fovereign, could not but feel him-
felf deeply mortified by the oppofition of the par-
liament. His attempts to conciliate that affembly had
proved ineffectual : and he experienced their iniiexible
averfion at th." critical jimtture when their acquiefcence
might have proved of the moll effential fervice. An
anxious inquiry into the ftate of the public finances
liad convinced him that the expenditure by far exceed-
ed the revenue. In this iituation, to impofe new taxes
was imprafticable ; to continue the method of borrow-
ing Wis ruinous ; to have recourfe only to economical
reforms, would be found wholly inadequate ; and he he-
fitated not to declare, that it would be impoflible to
place the finances on a folid bails, but by the reforma-
tion of whatever was vicious in the conllitution of the
ftate.

To give weight to this reform, M. de Calonne was
fenfible that fomething more was neceffary than the
royal authority ; he perceived that the parliament was
neither a fit inftrument for introducing a new crder
into public affairs, nor would fubmit to be a pafnve
machine for lanclioning the plans of a minifter, even
if thofe plans were the emanations of perfefl wifdom.
Though originally a body of lawyers, indebted for
their appointments to the king, there was not an at-
tribute of genuine legillative affembly but what they
fcemed defirous to engrofs to themfelves; and they had
been fupportcd in their pretenfions by the plaudits of
the people, who were fenfible that there was no other
body in the nation that could plead their caufe againft
royal or minifterial oppreflion. To fuppre'.s, therefore,
the only power of controid that remained, and to ren-
der the government more arbitrary, was deemed too
perilous a meafure : yet to leave the parliament in the
full poffeffion of their influence, an influence that the
minirter was convinced would be exerted againft him,
was at once to render his whole fyftem abortive.

•In this dilemma, the only expedient that fuggefted
itfclf was to have recourfe to fome other affembly, more
dignified and folemn in its charader, and which ihould
in a greater degree confift of members from the vari-
ous orders of the ftate and the different provinces of
the kingdom. This promifed to be a popul.ir mea-
fure ; it implied a deference to the people at large,
and might be expefted to prove highly acceptable.
But the true and legitimate affembly of the n.ation, the
States General, had not met lince the year 1614; nor
could the minifter flatter himfelf with the hope of ob-
taining the royal affent to a meeting which a defpotic
fovereign could not but regard with fecrct jealoufy. iSi
Another affembly had occafionally been fubflituted in ^flemblf
the room of the States General: this was diltingulihed°[*'''^°*
by the title of tlie iVi/rV/fj; and confifted of a num-" *^

bet-

F R A [ 104 ] F R A

bev of perfons from all parts of the kingdom, cliiclly poffeffions of ll;e clergy, which hitherto had been

' felected from the higher orders of the ftatc, and 110- deemed facred from their proportion of the public bur-

niinated by the king himfelf. This afiembly had been dens : the various branches of internal taxation -ivere

convened by Henry IV. again by Louis XIII. and alio to undergo a llrift examination ; and a confidera-

^vas now once more fummoned by the authority of ble relburce was prefented in mortgaging the demefne

Louis XVI. lands of the crown.

The writs for calling them together vTere dated on The very neceflity for thefe reforms was combated

the 29th of December 1786; and they were addreflfed with a degree of boldnefs and force of reafoning that

to feven princes of the blood, jiine dukes and peers of could not fail of deeply imprefling the affembly ; and

France, eight field marefchals, twenty -two noble
counfellors of Hate, fcur mafters of requells, ele
archbilhops and bilhops, thirty-feven of the lieads of
the law, t\velve deputies of the [yays d''etats, the lieute-
nant civil, and twenty-five magiftrates of the different
touTis of the kingdom. The number of members was
144-, and the 29th of January 1787 was ihe period ap-
pointed for their meeting.

Upon the arrival of the notables at Paris, hoivever,
the minifter found himfelf yet unprepared to fubmit
his fyftem to their infpeiElion, and poftponed the
opening of the council to the 7th of February. A
fecond delay to the 14th of the fame month was oc-
cafioned by the indifpofition of M. de Calonne him-
felf, and that of the count de Vergennes prefident of
the council of finance and firil fecretary of ftate ; and
a third procraftination was the neceflary refult of the
death of the count on the day previous to that fixed
far the opening of the meeting. He was fucceeded

Splendid
projcdl of
M. de Ca.

lonnc.

inftead of meeting with a ready acquiefcence, the
comptroller general was now launched into the bound-
lefs ocean of political controverfy. M. Neckar, pre-
vious to his retirement, liad publiihed his Compte ren-
du au Roi, in which France \vas reprefenttd as pof-
fcfling a clear furplus of 425,000 pounds Sterling : ts«
this performance had been read with avidity, and pro- Op.' fed by
bably contributed to ellrange from the author the royal M'rabeau
countenance ; but the credit of it was ably vindicated ''^^^ 'Jf '"
by M. de Brienne archbilhop of Thouloufe. Thouloufe

M. de Calonne met ^v•ith a (till more formidable ad- '

verfary in the count de Mirabeau. This extraordinary
man, relllefs in his difpofition, licentious in his morals, ,

but bold, penetrating, and enterprifmg, had occafion-
ally vifited every court in Europe. He had been ad-
mitted at one time to the coniJdence of the minifter ;
and had been direfted, though in no ollenfible charac-
ter, to obierve at Berlin, the difpofition of the fuccef-
for of the great Frederick ; in this capacity he was

in the department of foreign affairs by the count de frequently expofed to negletf and difappointment ; \\v
Montmorin, a nobleman of unblemilhed charafter.
But his lofs at this critical junfture was feverely felt
l>y M. de Calonne ; he alone, of all the miniflers, hav-
ing entered with wannth and fincerity into the plans
of the comptroller general. The chevalier de Miro-
raefnil, keeper of the feals, was avowedly the rival and
enemy of that llatefman. The raarefchal de Caftries,
iecretary for the marine department, was perfonally at-
tached to M. Neckar ; and the baron de Breteuil, fe-
cretary for the houfehold, was the creature of the
queen, and deeply engaged in what was called the Auf-
trian fyftem.

It was under thefe difficulties that M. de Calonne

letters were often left unanfwered •■, difgull fucceed-
ed to admiration; and he who had entered the Pruf-
fian court the intimate friend, returned to Paris the
avowed enemy, of M. de Calonne : While the arch-
bidiop arraigned the underftanding, the count impeach-
ed the integrity, of the comptroller general.

The eloquence of M. de Calonne, liowever, might
have fuccclsfully vindicated his fyftem and reputation
againrt the calculations of Brienne, and the inveftives
of Mirabeau ; but he could not fupport himfelf againft
the influence of the three great bodies of the nation. 1S4
The ancient nobility and the clergy had ever been a"d 'jy ihi
free from all pubhc afleffments •, and had the evil I^","^'"'.^'

on the 22d of February, firft met the afiembly of the gone no farther, it might have been ftill perhaps borne i.-,
.1, 1 11-1 rvjt TT. ...:^i. : L__^ ^1 1, .l,_ n. r..i ,_ .a.„. .f SJ>

notables, and opened his long-expefted plan. He
began by ftating, that the public expenditure had for
centuries paft exceeded the revenue, and that a very
confiderable deficiency had of courfe exifted ; that the
Miffiffippi fcheme of 1720 had by no means, as might
have been expefted, reftored the balance ; and that
under the economical admlniftration of Cardinal Fleury
the deficit ftill exifted ; that the progrefs of this de-
rangement under the laft reign had been extreme ; the
deficiency amounting to three millions fterling at the
appointment of the Abbe Terray •, who, however, re-
duced it to one million fix hundred and feventy five
ihoufand pounds ; it decreafed a little under the ftiort
adminiftrations that followed, but rofe again in con-
fequence of the ^var, under the adminiftratlon of M.
Neckar ; and at his ovm. acceftion to oliice, it \vas three
millions three hundred and thirty thoufand pounds.

In order to remedy this growing evil, M. Calonne
recommended a territorial impoft, in the nature of the
England land tax, from which no rank or order of
men wc-c 10 be exempted ; arul an inquiry into the

with patience; but through the fti imeful cuftom ofn
felling patents of nobility, fuch crowds of new nobleffe Urates,
ftarled up, that every province in the kingdom was
filled with them. The firft objea with thofe who had
acquired fortunes rapidly, was to purchafe a patent ;
which, befides gratifying their vanity, afforded an ex-
emption to them and their pofterity from contributing
proportionably to the exigencies of the ftate ; the ma-
giftracies likewife throughout the kingdom enjoyed
their ftiare of thefe exemptions ; fo that the whole
^veight of the taxes fell on thofe who were leaft able to
bear them.

The minifter's defign, then, of equalizing the pub-
lic burdens, and by rendering the taxes general dimi-
niftiing the load borne by the lower and moft ufeful
claffes of peop'e, though undoubtedly great and pa-
triotic, at once united againft him the nobility, the
clergy, and the magiftracy ; and the event was fuch as
might be expedcd : the intrigues of thofe three bodies
raifed againft him fo loud a clamour, that finding it
impo'Jible to flcm the torrent, he not only refigned his

place

F R A

[ ^os ]

F R

iss-

Difturban-
cts ir, Hol-
land.

"7
Attempts
of the

French to

republican
party.

piacs en ll'c 1 2lh of April, but foon afler rttirtd to
England from the florm of perfecution.

In the midll of thefc tranfaclions at home, Louis's
attention n-as zUo called to the Rate of affairs in the re-
public of Holland, his new and clofe ally. Tlie prince
of Orange had been ftripped of all authority by the
ariftocratic party, and, retiring from the Hague, main-
tained the niadow of a court at Nimeguen. His bro-
ther-in-law, hcv.evcr, tlie new king of PrulVia, e.xerted
his endeavours to promote the interelts of the ftadt-
holder ; and, having offered, in concert v.ith France,
to undertake the arduous talk of compofmg the differ-
ences which diftraded the republic, the propofal was
received with apparent cordiality by the court of Ver-
failles. At the fame time it could fcarce be expefted
that France would become the inihument of reftoring
the prince of Orange to that fiiarc of power which he
had before occupied, and thus abandon one of the
longeft and moll favourite objects of her policy, the
eftablifhing a fupreme and permanent controul in the
affairs of Holland. In fail, the conditions which were
framed by the Louveftein faftion, as the balls of re-
conciliation, were fuch as plainly indicated their defign
to reduce the influence and authority of the ftadtholder
within very narro^v limits. On his renouncing his
right of filling up the occafional vacancies in the town
fenates, he was to be reftored to the nominal office of
captain general : but he was to be reltrained from
marching the troops into or out of any province, with-
out leave from the refpeiSlive provinces concerned ;
and he was alio to fubfcribe to a refolution paffed fome
time before by the fenate of Amftefdam, that the
command (hould at all times be revocable at the
pleafure of the ftates. Had the prince acquiefced
in thefe prehniinaries, France would have complete-
ly attained the objedl of her long negotiations, and
by means of the Louveftein faction have acquired
the afcendency that (he had repeatedly fought in
the councils of Holland. But under the difficul-
ties that furrounded liim, the prince of Orange was
admirably fupported and affifted by the genius, the
fpirit, and the abilities of his confort : flie firmly re-
jefted every meafure tending to abridge any rights
that had been attached to the office of Itadtholder; and
M. de Rayneval, the French negotiator, liaving in
vain endeavoured to overcome her refolution, broke
off the correfpondence between the Hague and Nime-
guen, andTetumcd to Paris about the middle of Janu-
ary 1787.

But the republican party were totally difappoint-
ed in their hopes from France. The court cf
Verfailles had indeed long trufted to the natural
' ftrength of this party, and had been affiduous dur-
ing the whole fummer in endeavouring to fecond
them by every fpecies of fuccours that could be
privately afforded. Crowds of French officers arrived
daily in Holland ; and either received commiffions in
the fervice of the ftates, or acled as volunteers in their
troops. Several hundreds of tried and experienced
foldiers were felefled from different regiments ; and
being furniflied with money for their journey, and af-
furances of futuie favour, v/ere dcfpatched in fmall
parties to join the troops, and help to difcipline the
burghers and volunteers. A confiderable corps of cn-

VoL. IX. Part I.

gineers were alio dircv^ed to proceed file^itly and in Fri;ir?.
difguife towards Amfterdam, and to affift in ftrength- ' "'"""^
ening the works of that city. Thefe aids, which might
have proved effeftual had the conteft been confmed
to the iiates of Holland and the ftadtholder, were over-
whelmed in the rapid invalion of the Pruilians ; "and
the court of Berlin' had taken its" meafures with fo
much celerity, and the fituation of the repubhcans was
already become fo defperate, that it was doubtful
whether their affairs could be reilorcd by. any affiil-
ance that France was capable of immediately admi-
nlftering. Yet on Great Britain fitting out a ftrong
fquadron of men of war at Portfmouth to give confi-
dence to the operations of the king of Pruffia, the
court of Verfailles alfo font orders to equip 1 6 fail
of the line at Breft, and recalled a fmall fquadron
whicli had been commillioned on a fummer's cniife
on the coaft of Portugal. But in thefe preparations
Louis feemed rather to regard his own dignity, than
to be aftuated by any hopes of effeiElually relieving
his allies. All oppofition in Holland might be ■^al-
ready confidered as extinguilhed. The ftates affem-
bled at the Hague had officially notified to the
court of Verfailles, that the difputes between them
and the ftadtholder were now happily terminated ;
and as the circumftances which give occafion for
their application to that court no longer exifted, fo the
fuccours which they had then requefted would now be
unneceffary.

Under thefe circumftances, France could only wi(h
to extricate herfelf from her prefent difficulty with
honour. She therefore readily liftened to a memorial
from the Britifh toinifter at Paris ; who propofed, in
order to pre.ferve the good uuderftanding between the
tivo crowns, that all \varlike preparations ftiould be
difcontinued, and that the navies of both kingdoms
Ihould be again reduced to the footing of a peace
eftablilhmcnt. This was gladly acceded to by the court
of Verfailles ; and that harmony which had been tran-
fiently interrupted between the two nations was re-
ftored. 1 85

Though the French king could not but fenfibly feel Doraeftic
the mortification of thus relinquiftiing the afcendency £?"""" °*
which he had attained in the councils of Holland, the
ftate of his own domeftic concerns and the internal fi-
tuation of his kingdom fmiiiilied matter for more fe-
rious refleftion. The difmiffion of M. de Calonne had
left France without a minifter, and almoft vntliout a
i\ fteni ; and though the king bore the oppofition of
the notables with admirable temper, yet the difap-
pointmcnt that he had experienced funk deep into his
mind. Without obtaining any relief for his moft ur-
gent ncceffities, he perceived too late that he had
opened a path to the refloration of the ancient confli-
tution of France, which had been undermined by the
crafty Louis XI. and had been nearly cxlinguifticd by
the daring and fanguinary counfels of Richelieu under
Louis XIII. The notables had indeed demeaned
themfelves with refpeft and moderation, but at the
fame time they had not been deficient in firmnefs. '89
The appointment of the archbilhop of Thouloufe, the Affembljr
vigorous advcrfary of M. de Calonne, to the office of^.,,J|^^^^
com])trolkr-general, probably contributed to prefcrvc folved.
the appearance of good humour in that aflcmblv ; vet
O ' ihe

F R A

[ iq6 ]

F R A

193

Refufal of
the parlia-
ment to re.
gifter the
Dew taxes.

591
The iiifl
bc»s ba-
^lillied.

the propofcd territorial import, or general land tax,
which was an object fo ardently coveted by the court,
was rejected. Louis, therefore, deprived ot any fur-
ther hope of rendering the convention fabfer\ient to !.is
embarraffments, determined to diflblve the allembly j
which he accordingly did, with a very luoderaie
and conciliatory fpeech to the members on their dif-
milTion,

Thus difeppointed of the advantage which he had
flattered hinilelf he ivould have drawn from the acqui-
efcence of the notables, the king was obliged now to
recur to the ufual mode of raifing money by the royal
edicls ; among the meafures propofcd for which pur-
pofe were the doubling of the poU tax, the re-eftabliili-
ment of the third twentieth, and a llamp duty. But
the whole was ftrongly difapproved by the parliament
of Paris ; and that affembly, in the moil pofitive terms,
refufed to regiller the edift. Louis ^vas obliged to
apply, as the laft refort, to his abfolute authority ; and,
by holding ivhat is called a bed of jujlice, compelled
thcjii to enrol the impoft.

The parliament, though defeated, were far from
i'ubdaed ; and on the day after the king had held his
bed of juftice, they entered a formal proteft againfl the
edict J declaring, " that it had been regiftered againll
their approbation and confent, by the king's exprefs
command ; that it neither ought nor fhould have any
force ; and that the firft perfon who fhould prefume
to attempt to carry it into execution, fhould be ad-
judged a traitor, and condemned to the galleys." —
This fpirited declaration left the king no other alter-
native, than either proceeding to extremities in fupport
of his authority, or relinquiihing for ever after the
power of raiiing money upon any occaCon without the
confent of the parliament. Painful as every appearance
of violence mull have proved to the mild difpofition
of Louis, he could not confent to (urrender, without
a llruggle, that authority which had been fo long
exercifed by his predeceflbrs. Since the commence-
ment of the prefent difcontents, the capital had been
gradually filled with confiderable bodies of troops ;
and about a week after the parliament had entered
the protcft, an officer of the French guards, with a
party of foldiers, went at break of day to the houfe
of each individual member, to fignify to him the
king's command, that he fliould immediately get in-
to his carriage, and proceed to Troves, a city of
Champagne, about 70 miles from Paris, without
writing or fpeaking to any perfon out of his own
houfe before his departure. Thefe orders were ferved
at the fame inllant j and before the citizens of Paris
were acquainted with the tranfaftion, their magi-
llrates were already on the road to their place of ba-
lufhment.

Previous to their removal, however, they had pre-
fented a remoullrance on the late meafures of govern-
ment, and the alarming ftate of public affairs. In Ha-
ting their opinions on taxes, they declared, that nei-
ther the parliaments, nor any other authority, except-
ing that of the three cftates of the kingdom colleftive-
ly aflembled, could warrant the laying of any perma-
nent tax upon the people ; and they ilrongly enforced
the renewal of thofe national affemblies, which h;id
rendered the reign of Charlemagne fo great and illu-
iVious.

This requllition of the parliaments to re-c.lablilh France,
the national council, or Hates general, was the more i'""'

honourable, as the former afiemblies mull have lunk
under the influence of the latter, and returned to their
original condition of mere regifters and courts of
law. The confidence and attachment of the peo-
ple of confequence rofe in proportion to this inftance
of difintereilednefs j their murmurs were openly ex-
prefled in the flreets of the capital, and the general
diiTatisfaclion was augmented by the flop that was
put to public bufinefs by the exile of the parlia-
ment.

Tlie cabinet at the fame time was apparently weak,
difunited, and fluctuating ; and continual changes took
place in every department of the ftate. Louis, averfe
to rigorous counfels, wilhed to allay the gro\ving dif-
contcnt by every conceflion that was confiftent with
his dignity ; but it was generally believed, that the
queen Ilrongly diffuaded him from any Hep that might
tend to the diminution of the royal authority. The
influence of that princefs in the cabinet was undoubt-
edly great : but the popularity which once had accom-
panied her was no more ; and fome imputations of pri-
vate levity, which had been rumoured through the ca-
pital, were far from rendering her acceptable to the
majority of the people ■■, nhile the Count d'Artois, the
king's brother, who had exprefled himfelf in the moll
unguarded terms againft the conduci of the parliament,
flood expofed to all the confequences of popular
hatred.

Nor was it only in the capital that the flame of li-
berty once more burrt forth j it blazed with equal
ftrength in the provincial parliaments. Among va-
rious inftances of this nature, the parliament of Gre-
noble pafled a decree againft Uttres de ccchet, the
moft odious engine of arbitrary power j and declared
the execution of them within their jurifdiftion, by any
perfon, and under whatever authority, to be a capital
crime.

The king had endeavoured to foothe the Parifians
by ne^v regulations of economy, and by continual re-
trenchments iu his houfehold : but theie inftances of
attention, ^vhich once would have been received with
the loudeft acclamations, were now difregardcd under
their aftliflion for the ablcnce of their parliament. His
majefty, therefore, in order to regain the affeflions of ip~
his fubje(fls, confented to reftore that affembly j aban- Recalled,
doning at the fame time the ftamp duty, and the terri-
torial impoft, which had been the fources of difpute.
Thefe meafures, were, however, infuflicient to eftablifti
harmony between the court and the parliament. The
neceflities of the ftate ftill continued ; nor could the
deficiency of the revenue be fupplied but by extraor-
dinary refources, or a long courfe of rigid frugality.
About the middle of November 1787, in a full meet-
ing of the parliament, attended by all the princes of
the blood and the peers of France, the king enter-
ed the aflembly, and propolcd two edicts for their ap-
probation : one was for a new loan of 450 millions,
near 19 millions fterling : the other was for the re-
eftablilhment of the Proteftants in all their ancient
civil rights ; a meafure which had long been warmly
recommended by the parliament, and which was pro-
bably now introduced to procure a better reception to
the lotH;

On

F R A [10

YAnce. On this occafion, the king delivered hirafclt in a
'——w^-^ ipcech of uncommon length, filled with profeirions of
regard tor the people, but at the fame time ilrongly
exprelTivc of the obedience he expefted to his edifts.
Louis probably imagined, that the dread of that ba-
nilliment from which the members had been fo lately
recalled ivould have enfured the acquiefcence of the
aJembly •, but no fooner was permilTion annoimced for
eveiy member to deliver his fentiments, than he was
convinced that their fpirits remained totally unfubdued.
An animated debate took place, and was continued
,„, for nine hours j when the king^ wearied by perpetual
Oppofe the oppolition, and chagrined at fome freedoms ufed in
edicl for a their debates, fuddenly rofe and commanded tlie edicl
''"°- to be res^irtered without further delay. This meafure

was molt unexpededly oppofed by the duke of Or-
leans, firil prince of the blood ; who, confidering it as
an infringement of the rights of parliament, protefted
againlt the whole proceedings of the day as being
thereby null and void. Though Louis could not con-
ceal liis alloniihment and difpleafure at this decifive
Hep, he contented himfelf with repeating his orders ;
and immediately after, quitting the aflerably, retired
to Verfailles. On the king's departure, the parliament
confirmed the proteft of the duke of Orleans ; and de-
clared, that as their deliberations had been interrupted,
they confidered the whole bufinefs of that day as of no
effea.

It was not to be fuppofed that Louis would fjiTer
lo bold an attack on his power >vith impunity. Ac-
cordingly, a letter was next day delivered to the duke
of Orleans, commanding him to retire to Villars Cot-
terel, one of his feats, about 15 leagues from Paris,
J and to receive no company there except his own fami-

Duke -'f ly ; at the fame time, the Abbe Sabatiere and JM. Fre-
Orleari= and teau, both members uf the parliament, and who had
tivo mem- djilinguillied themlelves in the debate, were feized
lib d' ^"^^^ the authority of lettres de cachet, and con-
veyed, the firrt to the caftle of Mont St Michel in
'55 Normandy, the laft to a prifon in Picardy. This aft
Bona^a'n' °^ def;,otifm did not fail immediately to roufe the feel-
cesofthe i^g* of the parliament. On the following day they
parliament, waited on the king, and expreiTed their alionilli-
ment and concern that a prince of the blood royal
had been exiled, and two of their members iraprifon-
ed, for having declared in his prefeuce what their
duty and confciences dictated, and at a time when
his majelly had announced that he came to take the
fenfe of the aflembly by a plurality of voices. The
anfwer of the king was referved, forbidding, and
unlatisfaciory ; and tended to increafe the refentment
of the parliament. At the fame time, it did . not
prevent them from attending to the exigencies of
the ftate ; and convinced of the emergency, they con-
fented to regifter the loan for 450 millions of livres,
which had been the fource of this unfortunate dif-
ference. This conccflion contributed to foften the
mind of the king, and the fcntence of the two magi-
ftrates was in confequence changed from imprifonmcnt
to exile ; M. Freteau being fent to one of his country
feats, and the Abbe Sabatiere to a convent of Bene-
diflines.

Tlie parliament, however, was not to be foothed by
that meafure to give up the points againft which they
had originally remonftrated. In a petition conceived

7 1

F R A

with freedom, and couched in the molt aniaiated lar.- Franrf-
guage, they boldly reprobated the lato afls of arbitrary 'f—'
violence, and demanded the entire liberation of the
perfons againll whom they had been exerted. We
have already noticed tiie fluftuatiug counfels of the
court of Verfailles •> and tiiat Louis, as often as he
was left to purfue his own inclinations, adopted mea-
fures of reconciliation. On the prefent occafion, in _ ,'^*-
the beginning of the year 1 788, he recalled theo°eansrc
duke of Orleans to court, who loon after obtained called,
leave to retire to England ; and he permitted the re-
turn of the Abbe Sabatiere and M. Freteau to the ca-
pital.

The parliament, however, had not confined their
demands to the liberation of thofc gentlemen ; but had
alfo echoed the remonftranccs of the parliament of
Grenoble, and had loudly inveighed againif the execu-
tion of Ltlres de cachet. Thefe repeated remonftrances,
mingled with perfonal redeclions, feconded nioft pro- 197
bably the fuggeftions of the queen, and Louis was ^^'f"' '■'^-
once more inftigated to meafures of feverity. MeT."'""'*"'^"
d'Efpremenil and Monfam'uert, whofe bold and pointed*^ "
harangues had preffed nioft clofely on the royal digni-
ty, ^vere doomed to experience its immediate refent-
ment. While a body of armed troops furrounded the
hotel in which the parliament were convened, Colonel
Degout entered the aflembly, and fecured the per-
fons of the obnoxious members, who were inllantly
conducted to different prifons. This new inftance
of arbitrary violence occanoned a remonilrance from
parliament, which in boldnefs far exceeded all the
former reprefentations of that aflembly. They de-
clared they were non' more ftrongly confirmed, by
every proceeding, of the entire innovation which was
aimed at in the conilitution. " But, Sire," added
they, " the French nation will never adopt the de-
fpotic meafures to which you are advifed, and whol-.-
effedfs alarm the moil faithful of your magillrates :
we fhall nut repeat all the unfortunate circumllances
which aiflicl us 5 we (hall only reprefent to you with
refpeflful firmuefs, that the fondamental laws of the
kingdom mujl not be trampled upon, and that your au-
thority can only be e/ieemcd fo long as it is tempered
'Mithjujlice." _ ,ps

Language fo pointed and decifive, and which aflert- Anembiy
ed the controlling power of the laws above the regal °'^ '''*' ^''"
authority, could not fail of ferioully alirming the'
king ; and v/ith a view to diniinilh the influence of
parliament, it was determined again to convene the no-
tables. Accordingly, about the beginning of May,
Louis appeared in rliat aflembly : and after com-
plaining of the excelTes in wliich the parliament of
Paris had ir.dulged themfelves, and which had drawn
down his reluftant indignation on a few of the mem-
bers, he declared his refolution, inilead of annihi-
lating them as a body, to rtcal them to their duty
and obedience by a falutary reform. M. de la
Moignon, as keeper of the fcals, then explained his
majelly's pleafure to cftablifli a coiir plenier or fu-
prcme aflembly, to be compofcd of princes of the
blood, peers of the realm, great officers of the crown,
the clergy, marefchals of France, goveri.ors of. pro-
vinces, knights of diflerent orders, a dt-putatipn of
one member from every parliMnent, and two members
from the chambers of council, aijd to be fummoncd as
0 2 often

F 11 A

[

often as the public emergency, in the royal opinlun,
' lliould render it requilke.

If the affembly of the notables liftened in filcnt de-
ference to the projeft of their fovereign, the parliament
of Paris received it with every fymptom of averlion.
' That body if rongly protelled agiiinlf the elf abliflimeiit
. of any other tribunal ; and declared their final refolu-
tion i;ot to affifl: at any deliberations in the fupreme
aflerably which his majefty prepared to inllitute. A
more unexpefted mortllication occurred to the king in
the oppofiticn of feveral peers of- the realm ; thefe ex-
prcfTed their regret at beholding the fundamental prin-
ciples of the conltituticn violated ; and while they were
kvilh in the profeffions of attachment to the perfon
of their fovereign, concluded with apologizing for not
entering on thofe funflions afllgned them in the ple-
nary court, as being inconiiilent i\ith the true interells
of his majefly, which were infeparable from thofe of
the nation.

The flame quickly fpread throughout the more di-
flir.t provinces J at Rennes in Brittany, and Gre-
noble in Dauphine, the people broke out into ads of
tlie moft daring outrage. In the latter city feveral
hundred of tiie inhabitants perilhed in a conlhc^ with
the military ; they yet maintained their ground againft
the regulars ; and the commanding officer, at the en-
treaties of the firft pref.dent, readily withdrew his troops
from a contelt into w hich he had entered with reluc-
tance. The different parliaments of the kingdom at
the fame time expreffed their feelings in the molt glow-
ing language ; and iltongly urged the neceffity of cal-
ing together the ftates general, the lawful council of
the kingdom, as the only means of relforing the pub-
lic tranquillity.

Louis novvT plainly faw, that a compliance with
the public wilhes for the re-eftablifhment of the Hates
general was abfolutely necelTary, in order to avoid
the calamities of a civil war, which impended upon
his refufal. In that event he muil hait expefted
to have encountered the majority of the people, ani-
mated by the exhortations and example of their ma-
giftrates ; the peers of the realm had exprelTed the
Vtrongeft difapprobation of his meafures ; nor could he
even depend any longer on the fupport of the princes
of his blood : but what -afforded moft ferious matter
of alarm was the fpirit lately difplayed among the
military, who, during the dillurbances in the pro-
vinces, had reluflantly been brought to draw their
fwords againft their countrymen, and many of whofe
officers fo recently engaged in ellablilhing the free-
dom of America, publicly declared their abhorrence
of defpotifm.

It was not however, till after many a painful flruggle
that Louis could refolve to reftore an affembly, whofe
iiilluence mull naturally overlhadow that of the crown,
and whofe jurifdiflion would confine within narrow
limits the boundlefs power he had inherited from his
predeceflbr. In the two preceding reigns the ftates
general had bocn wholly difcontinued ; and though
the queen regent, during the troubles which attended
the minority of Louis XIV. frequently expreffed her
intention of calling them together, ftie was conftantly
dilVuaded by the reprefentations of IVfezarin. It is
probable that the prefent monarch ftill llattered him-
feif with the hope of being able tp allutc the meebeis

08 ] F R A

of that aiTembly to the fide of the court; and having
employed them to eliaohlh fonie degree of regularity '
in the finances, and to curb the fpirit of the parlia-
ment, that he would again have dilmifled them to ob-
fcurity,

Under thefe inipreftions an arret was ilTucd in Au- ^
guft, fixing the meeting of the itates general to the •■;,
firft of May in the enfuing year; and every ftep v. asm
taken to I'ecure the favourable opinion of the public ^'
during the interval. New arrangements took place in"^
the adminiftration ; and M. Neckar, whom the con-
fidence of the people had long followed, was again
intioiluctu into the management of the finances; the
ti'iture, \vh:ch by a former edift had been reftrifted
in part, was now entirely abolilhed ; every perlbn ac-
cufed was allowed the allillance of counJel, and per-
miued to avail himlclf of ar.y point of law ; and it was
decreed, that in future fentence of death Ihould not
be paffed on any perfon, unlels the party accufcd ihculd
be pronounced guilty by a majority at lealt of three
judges.

'1 he time appointed for the convention of the ftates
general was now approaching ; and the means of af-
iembling them formed a matter of dithcult deliberation
in the cabinet. The laft meeting, in 1614, had been
convened by application to the bailiwicks. But this
m.ode was liable to feveral ftrong objedions ; the
bailiwicks had been increafcd in number and jurifdic-
tion, feveral provinces having fince that period been
united to France ; and the numbers and quality of the
members were no lefs an object of ferious attention :
it was not till the clofe of the year, therefore, that the
propofal of M. Neckar was adopted, which fixed the
number of deputies at 1 000 and upwards, and ordain-
ed that the reprefentatives of the third eftate or com-
mons fliould equal in number thofe of the nobility and
clergy united.

1 he eyes of all Europe were now turned on tlie
ftates general ; but the moment of that affembly's
meeting was far from aufpicious : The minds of the
PVcnch had long been agitated by various rumours ;
the unanimity that had been expeded from the differ-
ent orders of the ftates was extinguilhed by the jarring
pretenfions of each ; and their mutual jealoufies were
attributed by the fufpicions of the people to the in-
trigues of the court, w ho were fuppofed already to re-
pent of the hafty aflent which had been extorted. A
dearth that pervaded the kingdom increafed the general
difcontent ; and the people, prefled by hunger, and in-
flamed by refentment, were ripe for revolt. The fove-
reign alfo, equally impatient of the obftacles he con-
tinually encountered, could not conceal his chagrin ;
while the influence of the queen in the cabinet was
again eftabliftied, and was attended by the immediate
removal of M. Neckar. The difmiflion of that mini-jni
fter, fo long the favourite of the public, was the fignaltioi
of open infurreftion : the Parifians afl'embled in my- '^^
riads ; the guards refufed to oppofe and ftain their
arms with the blood of their fellow citizens ; the Count
d'Artois and the moft obnoxious of the nobility
thought themfelves happy in eluding by flight the fury
of the infurgents ; and in a moment a revolution was
accomplifhed, the moft remarkable perhaps of any re-
corded in hirtory.

But before we proceejJ in our narratio;!, and detail-

mmcn.
g tha
lies ge-

France
formerly-
barbarous

ariftocracj

F R A [I

the tranfiftior.s which have marked th« progrefs of this
' fiiigular and terrible rcvokilion, it may be vvortli wliile
to taite a fliort vie\v of the internal fituation of Fiance
previous to this period, and the more 0:3vious political
caufes, the operation of which feems to have contributed
to the produfHcn of this great event.

The moral hiflory of iilau is always more important
thsn the mere recital of any phy:ical occurrences that
may take ph-.ce in his lot. It is not the fall of a mighty
mcua-ch and the difperfion of his family ; it is not the
coiivuhion of empires, and the oceans of human blood
which have been fhed, that render the French revolution
peculiarly interefting. Such events, however deplorable,
arc far ftom being without example in the hiflory of
mankind. In the populous regions of the eall, where
il;perftiticn and llavery have always prevailed, they are
regarded as forming a part of the ordinary courfe of
human affairs ; becaufe an intrepid and ikilfi.il ufurper
finds it eafy to intimidate or etifiiare millions of weak
and credulous men. In Europe the cafe is very dif-
ferent ; no adventurer can advance far without encoun-
tering thouiands as artful and as daring as himfelf.
Events are not the refult either of blind hazard or of
individual Ikill ; confpiracies or plots produce little
cffeff. Like other arii, the art of government has been
brought to much perfeftion ; and an eftablilhed cor.*;!-
tution can only be (hakeri by the ftrong convuliion pro-
duced by national paflions and eftbrts. The wonderful
fptctacle which we are now to contemplate, is that of
a mild and policed people btcoming in an initant
fcnguinary and fierce ; a well eftabliflied government,
celebrated for its dexterity and Ikill, overturned almoft
M-ithout a flruggle ; a whole nation apparently uniting
to deilroy every inllitution which antiquity had hallow-
ed or education taught them to refped ; a fuperflitlous
people treating the religion of their fathers wit'.i con-
tempt ; a long-enflaved people, whofe very chains had
become dear t^' them, occupied in their public caunfels
in the difcuflion of refined and even vilionary fchemes
of freedom : In lliort, 25,000,oco, of perfons fuddenly
treading under foot every fentiraent and every preju-
dice that they therafelves had once regarded as facred
and venerable.

Like the other nations of Europe, France was an-
ciently governed by a barbarous ariftocracy, whofe dif-
ferent members were feebly united by the authority of
, a fucceffion of kings deilitute of power or influence.
The nobles, mthin their oivn territories, enjoyed privi-
leges entirely royal : they made peace and war ; they
coined money ; they were judges in the lail refort ;
their vaffals were their (laves, whom they brought and
fold along with the lands ; the inhabitants of cities, al-
though freemen, were depreffed and poor, depending
for proteftion upon fome tyrannical baron in their
neighbourhood. At length, hov, ever, by the progrefs
of the arts, the cities rofe into confiderable importance,
and their inhabitants, along with fuch freemen of low
rank as refided in the country, were confidcred as enti-
tled to a teprefcntation in the ftates-general of the king-
dom, under the appellation of licrs etal, or n'v.rij eflale ;
the clergy and the nobles forming the two firll ellates.
But the fovereign, having fpeedily become defjiotic,
the meetings of the dates general were laid afide. This
abfolute authority, on the part of the crown, was not
acfjuired, as it was in England by the houfc of Tudor,

09 ] F R A

by abolilliing the pernicious privileges of the nobles and Frarrc.

elevating the commons ; but by ikilful encroachiqents, ^-~'

by daring exertions of prerogative, and the ufs of a
powerful military force. I:i France, therefore, the
monarch was abfolute, yet the nobles retained all
their feudal privileges, and the ecclelialUcal hier-
archy did the fame. The following was, in a fe'.v
words, the Hate of that country during thefe two hit
centuries. jq.

The kingdom of France, previous to the revolution, VVas never
was never reduced to one homogeneous mafs. It con-!''^''"'^^''

filled of a variety of feparate provinces acquired by dif-','"° """^
r • r 1 ■ r I . ,hoino;'e.

lerent means ; lome by marriage, iome by legacy, and ncaus in.tf'.
others by conquell. Each province retained its an-
cient laws and privileges, whether political or civil, as
expreifed in their capitularies or conditions by whiclt
they were originally acquired. In one part of his do-
minions the French monarch was a count. In another
he was a duke, and in others he was a king ; the only
bond which united his vaft empire being the Ifrong mi-
litary force by which it v>'as overawed. Each province
had its barriers ; and the intercourfe betwixt one pro-
vince and another was often more rellralned by local
ufages than the intercourfe of either with a foreign
country. Some of die provinces, fuch as Bretagne
and Dauphine, even retained the right of ailerabling
periodically their provincial Hates ; but thefe formed no
barrier agalnft the power of the court. 2C4

The clergy formed the firit eltate of the kingdom n.c clergy
in point of precedence. They amounted to I33,ood.'"'''"''^ '*"
The higher orders of them enjoyed immenfe revenues ;!!| .J", *^*
but the cures or great body of a£llng clergy fel-iin'odum.
dom poilefiTed more than about L. 2 8 ilerling a-year,
and their vicaires about half that fum. A few of
their dignified clergy were men of great piety, who
refided conftantly in their diocefes, and attended to
the duties of their office ; but by far the greater
number of them paOfed their lives at Paris and Ver-
failles, immerfed in all the intrigues and dilTipation
of a gay and corrupted court and capital. They
were almoll exclufively feleclcd from among the
younger branches of the families of the moft power-
ful nobility, and accounted it a kind of diihonour to
the order of biihops for any perfons of Ion- rank to
be admitted into It. The lower clergy, on the con-
trary, were perfons of mean birth, and had little chance
of preferment. At the fame time, we find feveral re-
fpeclable exceptions to this laft rule. The clergy, &i
a body, independent of the tithes, poflfeflTed a revenue
arifing from their property in land, amounting to four
or five millions flerling armually ; at the fame time
they were exempt from taxation. The crown had of
late years attempted to break through this privilege. To
avoid the danger, the clergy prefcnted to the court a
free gift of a fum of money ibraewhat Ihorl of a million
iterling every five years. _ j<,j .

The nobility was nominally the fecond order of the The nobi-
ftate, but it was in reality the firll. The nobles amount-'")"''* fe-
ed to no lefs than 200,000 in number. The title and'""''*
rank defcendcd to all the children of the family, but
the property to the cldeft alone : hence vaft multitudes
of them were dependent upon the bounty of the court.
They regarded the ufeful and commercial arts as dilhoi
nourable, and even the liberal profeliions of the law and
phyfic as in a great mcafure beneath their dignity, dit

daining

F R A

[ II

5- tlaii-.ing to intermarry with the families of their profef-
'~' ibrs. The feudal fyftem in its purity was extremely
favourable to the production of rel'peclable qualities in
the minds of thofe who belonged to the order of the
nobles ; but the intrcduftion of commerce h:is rendered
its decline equally unfavourable to that clafs of men.
Inflead of the ancient patriarchal attachment between
the feudal chieftain and his vaflals, the nobility had be-
come greedy landlords in the provinces, that they might
appear in fplendor at court and in the capital. There,
loft in intrigue, fenfuality, and vanity, their charac-
ters became frivolous and contemptible. Such of the
French noblefle, however, as remained In the provinces,
regarded with indignation this degradation of their or-
der, and llIU retained a proud fenfe of honour and of
courage, ■(vhich has always rende!;ed them refpetlable.
The order of the nobles ^vas exempted from the pay-
ment of taxes, although the property of fome of them
was immenfe. The eftates of the prince of Conde, for
example, were worth ioo.oool. a-year, and thofe of the
duke of Orleans nearly twice as much. The cro^vn
had indeed impofed fome trifling taxes upon the no-
bleCe, \vhicb, however, they in a great meafure con-
trived to elude.

Next to the nobles, and as a privileged order polTef-
tl.e fing a fecondary kind of nobility of their, own, we may
mention the parliaments. Thefe were large bodies of
men, in different provinces, appointed as courts of law
for the admlniflratlon of juftlce. In confequence of the
corruption of the officers of ftate, the members purcha-
fed their places, which they held for life ; but the ion
was ufually preferred when he offered to purchafe his
father's place. In confequence of tliis lafl circumftance,
the praftlfing lawyers had little chance of ever beco-
ming judges. Courts thus confdtuted confifted of a
motley mixture of eld and young, learned and Igno-
rant, men. Juftlce was ill adrainlllered. The judges
allowed their votes In depending caufes to be openly
follclted by the parties or their friends. No wife
man ever entered into a litigation againft a member
of one of thefe parliaments ; no lau-jer would under-
take to plead his caufe ; it never came to a fuccefsful
iilue, and ufually never came to any iffue at all. Af-
ter the Hates-general had fallen into difufe, the parlia-
ments acquired a certain degree of political confe-
quence, and formed the only check upon the abfo-
lute power of the crown. The laws, or royal edifts,
before being put In force, were always fent to be regi-
ftered in the books of the parliaments. Taking ad-
vantage of this, in favourable limes and circumftances,
they often delayed or refufed to regifter the royal edicts,
and prefented remonftrances againft them. This was
done under a kind of legal fiftion : for they pretended
that the obnoxious edift being Injurious to the public
happlnefs, could not be the ^sill of the kirg, but muft
either be a forgery or an Impofnion by the minifters.
Thefe obieftions were got the better of, either by a po-
fitive order from the king, or by his coming In perfon
and ordering the edicl; to be regiftered. The parlia-
ments, however, often carried their oppofition very far,
even to the ruin of themfelves and their families as in-
dividuals. This rendered them extremely popular with
the nation, and enabled them to embarrafs a weak ad-
mlniftration. After all, however, the oppofition of the
.parliaments was fo feeble, that it was never thought
3

o ] F R A

worth while to abolilli them entirely till towards the Tr^rc^.

end of the reign of Louis XV. j but they were reftored v— — ^

as a popular meafure, at the beginning of the reign of
Louis XVI.

1 he Hers etal, or commons, formed the lo^veft order The com-
of the ftate in France, and they \vcre depreiTed and mi- ,'"°"' '■"«
ferable in the extreme. To form a conception of their '°^^^^^
fituation, it is neceffary to obferve that they bore the Oppreffive
whole pecuniary burdens of the ftate : They alone burdens oa
were liable to taxation. An expenlive and ambitious '''sai.
court ; an anny of 2OO,O0O men in time of peace, and
of twice that number In ^var ; a confiderable mraine ef-
tablilhment, public roads and works, were all fupported
exclufively by the loweft of the people. To add to
the evil, the revenues were ill collected. They were
let out to farmers-general at a certain fum, over and
above which they not only acquired Immenl'e fortunes
to themfelves, but were enabled to advance er.onnous
prefents to thofe favourites or mlftreifes of the king or
the minifter, by means of whom they procured their
places. To raife all this money from the people,
they ivere guilty of the cmelleft oppreflion, having it
in their power to obtain whatever revenue laws they
pleafed, and executing them in the fevereft manner.
For this laft purpcfe they kept in pay an army of
clerks, fubaltems, Scouts, and fpies, amounting to
8o,ooo men. Thefe men were indeed detcfted by the
king, whom they deceived and kept In poverty ; by
the people, Avhora they opprelTed -, and by the ancient
nobility, as purfe-prcud upllarts. But the court of
France could never contrive to manage without them.
The peafants could be called out by the intendants of
the provinces, in ivhat they called corvees, to -work upon
the high roads for a certain number of days in the
year, which ^v^s a fource of fevere oppreflion, as the
Intendant had the choice of the time and place of their
employment, and was not boiuid to accept of any com-
mutation In money. They were mort.'-ver iubjeft to
the nobles In a thoufand ways. The nobles retained
all their ancient manerial or patrimonial jurlfdictions.
The common people being anciently flaves, had ob-
tained their freedom, upon different conditions. In
many places they and their pofterity remained bound
to pay a perpetual tribute to their feudal lords. Such
tributes formed a confiderable part of the revenue of
many of the "provincial nobles. No man could be
an offker of the army, by a late regulation, who did
not produce proofs of nobility for four generations.
The parliaments, although orlglr.ally of the tiers
eiat, attempted alfo to Introduce a rule that none but
the nobleffe ftiould be admitted into their order. In
fuch a fituation. It will not be accounted furprifing
that the common people of France were extremely iu-
perftitious and ignorant. They were, however, pr.i-
ilonately devoted to their monarch, and whatever con-
cerned him. In i 754, when Lotus XV. was taken 111
at Metz, the whole nation was truly In a kind of def-
pair. The courier and his horfe that brought the news
of his recovery to Paris ^vere both almoft fuffocated by
the embraces of the people. j^j

We have laid that the French monarch was defpo- Defp^jt r
tic. His power was fu; ported by his army, and by apower"'
watchful police, having in pay an infinite hoft of fpies*"* *""»'
and other fervants. In France no man was fafe. The
fecrets of private families were fenrched into. Nothing

F R A

[ III ]

F R A

francc. was unkno-.vn to the iealous irniuifition of the police.
"""V— ^ Men were fcized by Itttres de cachet when they leaft
expefted it, and their families had no means of difco-
vering their fate. The fentence of a court of law a-
^ainft a nobleman was ufually reverfed by the miniller.
No book was publilhed without the licenfe of a cenfor-
general appointed by the court, and the minifter was
accountable to none but the king. No account was
given of the expenditure of the public money. Enor-
mous gratifications and penfions were given as the re-
ward of the moft infamous fervices. The fupreme
power of the ftate was ufually lodged with a favourite
miftrefs, and (lie was fometimes a v.oman taken from
Splendour public proftitution. This was not indeed the cafe

efthec

Caufe.^ of
the Revo-
lujion.

under Louis XVI. bat it was neverthelefs one of the
misfortunes of his life that he was far from being ab-
folute in his o^\-n family. Still, however, ■ivith all its
faults, the French court was the moft fplendid and po-
iilhed in Europe. It was more the refort of men of
talents and literature of every kind, and there they
met with more ample proteclicn, than anywhere elfe.
The court was often jealous of their productions, but
they met with the moft diftinguilhed attention from
men of fortune and rank ; infomuch that for a cen-
tury part the French have given the law to Europe
in all queftions of tafte, of literature, and of every
polite accomplilhment. The gay elegance that pre-
vailed at court diffufed itfelf through the nation ; and
amidft much internal miferj-,gave it to a foreigner the
appearance of happinefs, or at leaft of levity and va-
nity.

Such as it was, this government had flood for
ages, and might have continued, had not a concur-
rence of caufes contributed to its overthrow. The in-
ferior orders of clergy, excluded from all chance of
preferment, regarded their fuperiors with jealoufy and
envy, and were ready to join the laity of their own
rank in any popular commotion. The inferior pro\in-
cial noblefle beheld with contempt and indignation the
vices and the power of the courtiers, and the higher
nobility irilhed to diminiiTi the power of the crown.
The praclifmg lau-yers, almofl entirely excluded from
the chance of becoming judges, wilhed erigerly for a
change of affairs, not doubting that their talents and
profeflional fkiil would render them neceffary amidft
any alterations that could occur. Accordingly, they
were the firft inftruments in producing the revolu-
tion, and have been its moft aftive fupporters. The
monied intereft wiflied eagerly for the downfal of the
ancient nobility. As for the great mafs of the com-
mon people, they were too ignorant, too fuperftitioudy
attached to old eftablilTiments, and too much depref-
fed, to have any conception of the nature of political
liberty, or any hope of obtaining it. We have al-
ready ftated the leading circumftances which led to
the French revolution (fee N° 184, &c.) ; but there
were other circumftances which contributed in an
equal degree both to its commencement and its pro-
grefs.

For 4D years the principles of liberty had been difTe-
minated with eagernefs in France by fome men of great
talents, as Roufleau, Helvetius, and Raynal, to whom
the celebrated Montefquieu had led the way. Befides
thefe. there was in France a vaft multitude ofwhnt were

called 7iun of letters, or pcrfons who gave this account
of the manner in which they fpcnt their time. All '
thefe were deeply engaged on the fide of fome kind of
political reform. Ihe men of letters in Paris alone are
faid to have amounted to 20,coo. One of the laft afls
of the adminiftration of the archbilhop of Thouloufe
was, on the jth July 1788, to publilh a refolution of
theking in council, inviting all his fubjefts to give him
their advice \nth regard to the ftate of affairs. This
was confldered as a concefTion of an unlimited liberty of
the prefs ; and it is fcarcely pofTible to form an idea of
the infinite variety of political publications which from
that period diffufed among the people a dilTatisfacliou
with the order of things in which they had hitherto
Hved.

The eftablifhed religion of France had for fome time
paft been gradually undermined. It had been folemnly
aifaulted by philofophers in various elaborate perform-
ances J and men of wit, among whom Voltaire took the
lead, had attacked it with the dangerous weapon of ri-
dicule. The Roman Catholic religion is much expofed
in this refpecl, in confequence of the multitude of falfe
miracles and legendary tales with which its hiftory
abounds. Without difcriminating betwixt the refpecl-
able principles on which it refts, and the fuperftitious
follies by which they had been defaced, the French na-
tion learned to laugh at the whole, and rejefted inftead
of reforming the religion of their fathers. Thus the
firft order in the ftate had already begun to be regard-
ed as ufelefs, and the minds of men were prepared for
important changes.

The immenfe population of the city of Paris, a-
mounting to upwards of 8oc,coo fouls, rendered it an
important engine in the hands of the conductors of the
revolution. An overgroT\-n capital has always proved
dangerous to a government that is or attempts to be
defpotic, as appears from the hiftory of ancient Baby-
lon and Rome, as well as of modern Conff antinople, of
London under Charles I. and Paris under feveral of its
kings.

We cannot here avoid mentioning a phyncal event,
which affifted not a little in producing many of the
convulfions attending the revolution, a general fcarcity
of grain, which occurred about that period. On Sun-
day the 13th of July 17S8, about nine in the morning,
without any eclipfe, a dreadful darkntfs fuddenly over-
fpread feveral parts of France. It was the prelude of
fuch a tempeft as is unexampled in the temperate cli-
mates of Europe. Wind, rain, hail, and thunder, feem-
cd to contend in impctuofity ; but the hail was the
great inftrument of ruin. Inftead of the rich profpedts
of an early autumn, the face of nature in the fpace of
an hour prefented the dreary afpeft of univerfal winter.
The foil was converted into a morafs, the ftanding
corn beaten into the quagmire, the vines broken to
pieces, the fruit trees demolilhed, and unmelted hail ly-
ing in heaps like rocks of folid ice. Even the robiill
foreft trees were unable to v.ithlland the fury of the
tempeft. The hail was compofed of enormous, folid,
and angular pieces of ice, fome of them weighing
from eight to ten ounces. The country people, beat-
en down in the fields on their way to church, amidft
this concuffion of the elements, concluded that the lall
day was arrived _; and fcarcely attempting to extricate
themfelves,^

Atten

opt to

feduc

ethe

powe

of

thf ci

own

infpr

ng

17S9.

K R A [I

tliemfelve?, lay defpairing and half fufTocated amidft
the water and the mud, expefting the immediate diflb-
lution of all things. The ftorm was irregula'- in its
devallations. While feveral rich diftriifts were laid en-
tirely wade, fome intermediate portions of country
were comparatively little injured. One of 60 fquare
leagues had not a iingle ear of com or fruit of any kind
left. Of the 66 parilhes in the diilrift of Pontoiie, 43
\vere entirely defolated, and of the remaining 23 fome
loft two-thirds and others half their harveft. The Ifle
of France, being the diftrict in which Paris is fituated,
and the Orleannois, appear to have fufiered chiefly.
The damage there, upon a moderate eftimate, amount-
ed to 80,000,000 of livres, or between three and
four millions llerling. Such a calamity mud at any pe-
riod have been feverely felt ; but occurring on the
eve of a great political revolution, and amidft a gene-
ral fcarcity throughout Europe, it was peculiarly un-
fortunate, ;:nd gave more embarraflment to the govern-
ment '.han perhaps any other event whatever. Num-
bers of families found it neceffary to contraft their mode
of living for a time, and to difmifs their fervants, who
were thus left deilitute of bread. Added to the pub-
lic difcontent and political diifenfions, it produced
fuch an effect upon the people in general, that the na-
tion fcemed to have changed its charafter ; and in-
Itead of that levity by which it had ever been dillin-
guiflied, a fettled gloom now feemed fixed on every
countenance.

The fpring of the year 1789 was a period of much
political anxiety in France. The fuperior orders wilfied
to reduce the power of the crown, but were jealous
of their own privileges, and determined to retain them ;
while the popular philofophers and others were endea-
vouring to render them odious, and to roufe the people
to a love of freedom. Still, however, the great body
of the common people remained carelefs fpeclators of
the ftruggle, and unconfcious of the approaching com-
motion. Such was theix indiiference, that few of them
took the trouble even to attend and vote at the eledlions
of the deputies to the ftates-general. In many places,
where a thoufand voters were expefted, not fifty came
forward ; but fuch ot them as did appear (howed that a
feed was fown which might one day rife into important
fruits. In the inftruftlons Avhjch they gave to their
deputies, the Eritifh conllitution was in general the
model of what they wiihed their government to be.
They demanded equal taxation, the abolition of lellres
lie cachet or arbitrary imprifonment, the refponfibility of
minillers, and the extinction of the feudal privileges
of the nobles j but they wiihed that the whole three
orders of the flate (hould fit and vote in one houfe, well
knowing that Jiheir nobility were not firepared to aft
the moderate part of a Britilli houfe of lords. The
nobles, on the contrary, although willing to renounce
lome of their pecuniary privileges, and to facrifice the
power of the crown, were nioft decifively refolved
neither to furrender their feudal prerogatives nor the
light of fitting in three feparate ailVmblies ; by means
ot v/hich each of the orders could eafily reCfl the
encroachments of the other two. Mr Neckar has
been improperly ccnfured for not deciding this laft
important qucftion previous to the meeting of the
j'tates-g'rueral : Uit it muff be obferved, that the very

12 ] F R A

purpofe of calling that affembly was to overturn the Fraftfe,
unjuft privileges of the higher orders through its ^— v— '
medium, and without any diredl interpofition on the
part of the minlfters. Had the king pofitively de-
cided in favour of three chambers, the nobles and the
clergy would have retained all thofe ancient abufes
cftabliflied in their own favour, of which it was his
wifli to deprive them, and the crown and its prero-
gatives would have been the only objeds of facri-
fice. It was therefore thought fafer to leave the tiers
etat to fight its own battle 5 nor was it yet imagined
that the commons of France, deprefled and poor, and
difperfed by iituation over a multitude of provinces,
could ever unite in enterprlfes dangerous to the fo-
vereign.

The ftates had been fummoned to meet at Ver- states fum
failles on the 27th of April, and moft of the deputies moned to
arrived at that time j but the eleftions for the city ™^^'. ?'
of Paris not being concluded, the king deferred the^'''^'"
commencement of their feffions till the 4th of May.
During this period, the members, left in idlenefs,
began to find out and form acquaintance with each
other. Among others, a few members firom Brittany
(Bretagne) formed themfelves into a club, into which
they gradually admitted many other deputies that
were found to be zealous for the popular caufe, and
alfo many perfons who were not deputies. This fo-
ciety, thus originally eftablifhed at Verfailles, was
called the Comite Breton ; and was one day deftined,
under the appellation of the "Jacobin Club, to give
lavs to France, and to diffufe terror and alarm
throughout Europe. On the other fide, the srifto-
cratlc party eftablilhed conferences at the houfe of
Madame Polignac, for the purpofe, it is faid, of
uniting the nobles and the clergy. 21;

An event occurred at this time which all parties A popular
afcribed to fome malicious motive. In the populous!!"!'"?',*
fuburb of St Antoine, a M. Reveillon carried on astAntoine.
great paper manufactory. A falfe report was fpread
that he intended to louver the wages of his work-
men, and that he had declared bread was too good
for them, and that they might fubfift very well on
potato-flour. A commotion was raifed, he was burnt
in effigy, and his houfe was thereafter burnt and pil*
laged by the mob, who were not difperfed till the
military had been called in, and much carnage en-
fued. The popular party afferted that the commo-
tion had been artfully excited by the party of the
queen and the Count D'Artois, to afford a pretence
for bringing great bodies of the military to the
neighbourhood to overawe the ftates-general, or in-
duce the king more decifively to refolve on alTembling
that body at Verfailles, in preference to Paris, where
they and the popular minifler M. Neckar wiflied it to
be held. 2,^

On the 4th of May the ftates-general affefnbled at The Stater
Verfailles. They commenced bufinefs by going in a'*^""'^'
folemn procefflon, preceded by the clergy, and fol-^X^ftat
lowed by the king, according to ancient cuftom, to Vcrfaille!.
church, to perform an ad of devotion. The nobles
were arrayed in a fplendid robe, and they and the
higher clergy glittered in gold and jewels. The
commons appeared in black, the drefs belonging to
the law. The affembly was thereafter opened by a

Ihurt

F R A

[ ti:

1789.

fliort fpeech from the throne, in which the k.ing con-
gratulated himfelf on thus meeting his people al'-
fembled ; alluded to the national debt, and the taxes,
which ^vere ftverely felt becaul'e unequally levied ;
he took notice of the general difcontent and fpirit
of innovation which prevailed, but declared his con-
fidence in the w4fdom of the aflembly for remedying
«very evil. " May an happy union (added he) reign
in this aflembly ; and may this epocha become ever
memorable for the happinefs and profperity of the
country. It is the wilh of my heart ; it is the moit
ardent defire of my prayers ; it is, in (hort, the price
which I expect from the fincerity of my intentions
and ray love for ray people."

M. Barretin, the keeper of the feals, next addrefled
the alTembly in a congratulatory and uninterefting Ipeecli.
He was followed by the popular minifter M. Neckar,
who fpoke for three hours. Though much applauded
on account of the clear financial details which his fpeech
contamed, he encountered a certain degree of cenfure
from all parties, on account of the cautious ambiguity
\vhich he obferved with regard to the future proceedings
of the ftates-general.
-'5 Next day the three orders aflembled feparately.

b t "^ d '^^^ deputies of the tiers etat amounted to 6o3 in
iDa(5livity. number, and thofe of the nobles and clergy to 300
each. During their firrt fittings much time was fpent
in unimportant debates about triding points of form ;
but the firll important quelHon, that neceffarily be-
came the fubjeft of their dilculTion, was the verifica-
twn of their powers, or prt)duftion of the coramilhons
of the members, -and invefligation of their authenti-
city. The commons [tiers etat) laid hold of this as
a pretext for opening the grand controverfy, whether
the ftates-general fhould fit in one or in three fepa-
rate chambers ? They fent a deputation inviting the
nobles and the clergy to meet along with them in
the common hall for the purpofe of verifying their
powers in one common aflembly. In the chamber of
the clergy i 1 4 members voted for the performance of
this ceremony in the general aflembly ; and 133 againft
it. But in the more haughty order of the nobles, the
refolution for the verification in their own aflembly
was carried by a majority of 188 againft 47. The
commons paid no regard to this. They were con-
duced by bold and ikilful leaders, who difcemed the
importance of the point in conteft, and relolved not
to abandon it. Aware of the exigencies of the ftate,
they knew that the crown was nearly verging upon
bankruptcy ; and that fuch were the deficiencies of
the revenue, that only a (liort delay was neceflary to
accomplifh the abfolute dilTolution of the government.
They fuffered five weeks to pafs away therefore in
total inaffiWty. During this period propofals were
made on the part of the miniftry for a pacification
between the three orders, and conferences were open-
ed by commifTioners from each. But no art eould
feduce the commons from their original purpofe, or
prevail with them to enter upon the bufinefs of the
ftate.

The nation had expefted much from the aflembling

of the ftates-general, and learnt the news of their in-

Etai, aftion with no fmall degree of concern. The tieis

or com. flat was naturally popular, and the public cenfure

""""• could not readily devolve upon that favourite order.

Vol. IX. Part I.

116
Popularity
of thi

ri.r,

5 ] F R A

Moreover, fiom t'le firft period of their aiTembiing Fran - .
the commons made every effort to augment their o\vn " ' ~~'
natural popularity. They admitted all perfons pro- '7^9"
mifcuoully into the galleries, and even into the body
of their hall. No rellraint was attempted to be laivi
upon the moft; vehement marks of popular applauic
or cenfure. Lifts of the voters names were publicly
taken and fent to Paris upon every remarkable occa-
fion ; and the members fuddenly found therafelves be-
come, according to their pofitical fentiments, the ob-
jects of general execration or applaufe. The new
and bold notions of liberty that were daily advanced
by the leaders of the tiers etat were received with
acclamation by their hearers. The capital became
interefted in the ifl"ue of every debate ; and the poli-
tical fervor was eagerly imbibed by the nation wilh
that vivacity which is fo peculiar to the French.
The commons acculcd the nobles of obftinately im-
peding the bufinefs of the ftate, by refufing to veriiy-
their powers in one common aflembly. The accufa-
tion was fwallowed by the multitude, who law not,
or were unwilling to fee, that the attack was made
by their own favourite order. In the mean time
the nobles became rapidly more and more unpopular.
Their perfons were infulted, new publications daily
came forth, and were greedily bought up, which re-
viled their whole order, and repreleuted them as an
ufelefs or pernicious body of men, whofe exiftence
ought not to be tolerated in a free ftate. Whoever
adhered to them was branded with the odious appel-
lation of Arijlocrate. 'I'he clergy, from the influence
of the parilh cures or parfons, icemed ready to defert
their caufe. They were even oppoled by a minority
of their own body, which derived luft/e from having
at its head the duke of Orleans the firft prince of the
blood. Still, however, the majority of the nobles re-
mained firm ; well aware, that if they once confented
to fit in the fame afl'emhly, and to vote promifcuoufly,
\vith the ambitious and more numerous body oi the
commons, their whole order, and all its fplendid pri\'i-
leges muft i'peedily be overthrown.

The leaders of the cemraons faw the change that Taking ad.
was taking place in the minds of men ; and they at y "tape of
length regarded the period as arrived when they ought ''"fP"?"-
to emerge from their inatlivity, and execute the daring ^^[^'^^^1^^*^
project of feizing the legiflative authority in their i^giflative
country. They declared that the reprefentatives ofau.hority ;
the nqbles and the clergy were only the deputies of
particular incorporations whom they would alloiv to
fit and vote along with themfelves; but who had no
title in a colleftive capacity to aft as the legiflators of
France. For condufting bufinefs with more facility,
they appointed 20 committees. In confequcnce of
a propofal by the Abbe Sicyes, a final melTage was
fent to the privileged orders, requiring their attendance
as individuals, and intimating that the commons, as the
deputies of 96 out of every hundred of their country-
men, were about to afl"ume the e.\clufive power of le-
giflation. None of the nobles obeyed this lummons j
but three cures, Mefl'rs CelVe, Ballard, and .lalot, pre-
fented their commilFions, and were received with loud
acclamations. They were next day followed by five
more, among whom were Meff'rs Gregoire, Dillon, and
Bodineau. After fome debate concerning the appella-
tion which thcv ought to aiTumc, the commons, with
P fuch

1789.

tig

the

F R A [I

fuch of tlic clergy as had joined them, folemnly voted
tliemfelvcs the lovereign legiflators of their country
under the name of the Nationa/ j^JJcndily. The rel'ult
of the vote was no iooner declared, than the hall re-
founded with flioutj from the immenfe concourfe of
i'pectators, of " Vive le roi et vive raiTemblee nationale,"
Lung Ihe the king and the national ajfemhiy. M. Bailly
wa<; chofen prefident for four days only, MeiTrs Camus
and P.fon de Galand fecretaries, and the affenibiy pro-
ceeded to bufinefs.

Its firli afts \Tere decifively expreflive of its own
fovtreignty. All taxes impoled without the confent
of the reprefentatives of the people were declared to
be null and void ; but a temporary fantlion was given
to the prcfent taxes, although illegal, till the diffo-
lution of the affembly, and no longer. It was added,
that " ' as foon as, in concert inth his majelly, the
affembly Ihould be able to fix the principles of national
regeneration, it would take into conftderation the na-
ttitnal debt, placing, from the prefent moment, the
creditors of the ftate under the fafeguard and honour
of the French nation."
Majority of '^^^ popular caufe now gained ground fo faft, that
the clergy on the 19th of June a majority of the clergy voted for
imire with the verification of their powers in common with the
'• national alTembly, and they refolved to unite with them

on the foUoTOng dav.
'-■a Affairs were now come to a crifis, and the nobles

_^°' ''"^ perceived that they mult inftantly make a decifive
Hand, or yield up their caufe as finally loft. Such
was their alarm, that M. d'Efpremenil propofed, at
one of the fittings of their order, to addrefs the king,
intreating him to diflolve the fiates-general. Hi-
therto that prince had gone along with M. Neckar
in favouring the popular caufe in oppofition to the
ariilocracy. But every art was now ufed to alarm
hi'-, mind upon the fubject of the late affumptions of
power on the part of the commons, and thefe arts
ivere at length fuccefsful. Repeated counfels were
lield ; M. Neckar was abfent attending a dying fifter,
nnd the king was prevailed upon to aft agreeably to
the advice of the leaders of the nobles. But the firll
meal'ure which they adopted was fo ill condufted as
to aftord little profpecf of final fuccefs to their caufe.
0.1 the 30th of .tune, when the prefident and members
v.cre about to enter as ufual into their own hall, they
found it unexpeftediy furrounded by a detachment of
the guards, who retuled them admiflion, ^vhiie the
.jj heralds at the fame time proclaimed a royal feffion.
Alantied by this unforefeen event, the meaning of
^vh:c^l they knew not, but apprehending that an im-
mediate dilTolution of the aiTenibly was defigned, they
indandy retired to a neighbouring tennis-court, where,
in the vehemence of their enthufiafm, they took a
ioltmn oath " never to feparate till the conftitution of
their cruntry (hould be completed."

On the 2 2d a new proclamation intimated that the
royal fcfTion was deferred till the fallowing day. It
■was now found that the alTembly had been excluded
from their hall merely becaufe the workmen were oc-
cupied in preparing it for the intended folemnity. This
information was ill calculated to excite favourable ex-
pcftations of the meafures about to be adopted at a
royal feil'ion, ufliered in by fuch circumftances, of mark-
ed difrefpe ft for the reprefcnt?.tive5 of the people. The

Royal fel
daim'-d.

1+ ] F R A

affembly, after wandering about in fear:h of a place France,
of meeting, at length entered the church of St Louis, ''"-v— J
and were immediately joined by the majority of the ^'Q^-
clerg^^, ^vith their prefident, the archbilhop of Vienne, ^j^^ ".'
at their head. Two nobles of Dauphine, the marquis 5i/,^t^!™"
de Blacon and the count d'Agoult, prefented their com- in the
millions at the fame time. Encomaged by tliefe events, church of
and by the applaufes of furrounding multitudes, the^*^""'
alTembly now expected with firranefs the meafures about
to be adopted.

The royal feffion was held in the mod fpler.did form, Diftourfe of
but altogether in the llyle of the ancient defpotifm. the kii;g
Soldiers furrounded the hall. I'he two fuperior orders
were feated, while the reprefentatives of the people,
left Handing a fidl hour in the rain, were in no humour,
when at lad admitted, to receive with mucli compla-
cency the commands of their fovereign. The king
read a difcourfe, in which he declared null and void the
relolutions of tlie 17th, but at the fame time prefented
the plan of a conltitution for France. It contained
many good and patriotic principles, but prelerved the
diiiinclicn of orders, and the exercife of lettres de ca-
chet; it faid nothing about any active Ihare in the le-
giflative power to be pofieffed by the llates-general, and
was filent both about the refponfibility of miuillers and
the liberty of the prefs. The king concluded by com-
manding the deputies immediately to retire, and to af-
femble again on the follo^ving day. He then withdrew,
and was followed by aU the nobles and a part of the
clergy. The commons remained in gloomy filence on
their Icats. It was interrupt "i by the grand mailer of m fp^eiveri
the ceremonies, who reminded the prefident of the in- by the
tentions of the king. Inftantly the vehement count <^o'"'"ok5.
de Mirabeau, ilarting from his feat, exclaimed with in-
dignation, " I'he commons of France have determined
to debate. We have heard the intentions that have
been fuggefted to the king ; and you, who cannot be
his agent with the ilates-general, you who have here
neither feat nor voice, nor a right to fpeak, are not
the pcrfon to remind us of his fpeech. Go tell your
mafter, that we are here by the power of the people,
and that nothing ihall expel us but the bayonet."' The
applaufe of the affembly feconded the enthufiafm of tl'.e
orator, and the matter of the ceremonies withdrew in
filence.

M. Camus then rofe ; and in a nolent fpeech indig- nsuj, ."l. ,,
nantlv Itigmatized the royal fefiion by the obnoxious ter t he
appellation of a bedofjujiice; he concluded by moving kind's de-
that the aflembly liiould declare their unqualified adhe-l"""-'-
rence to their former decrees. This motion was fol-
lowed by another, pronouncing the perfons of the de-
puties inviolable. Both were fuyported by Meffrs Pe-
tion, Barnave, Glaizen, the Abbes Gregoire, Sieves,
and many others, and were unanimoufly decreed. The
affembly therefore continued their fittings in the ufual
form. On the following day the majority of the clergv
attended as members; and on the 2>th the duke of
Orleans, along with 40 of the deputies belonging to
the order of nobles, joined them alio. The remaining
nobles, as well as the iinall minority of the clergy, now
found themfelves awkwardly fituated. Whether on this
account, or becaufe their leaders had by this time form-
ed a plan for carrying their point not by peaceable
means but by the aid of a military force, the king,
on the 27th, invited by a prcHing letter both orders

F R A

[ I

Tnr.t

Nximerous
feditlous
poblira-
tioDs.

to join t'ne cooimor.?. This renueft was immediately
*——\r~- complied with, slthough many of the nobility difappro-
1789. ved of the meafure.
''■^'' The fituation of France was now become truly alarm-

C^'"i?on^of '"S" ^^^^^'^ ^^^ '^'"g letired from the affembly after
France at t'le royal (effion, he \vas followed by more than 6doo
lhi5 jwriod. citizens, from whom loud clamours and every mark of
difapprobation broke forth. All Verfailles was fpeedily
in an uproar. M. Neckar h:td repeatedly folicited his
difmiflion, and the report of this had increafed the po-
pular clamour. The court ^vas in conlfernation. The
king probably difcovered, with no great fatisfaftion,
that his miniller waj more popular than himfelf. At
fix oxlock in the evening the queen fent for M. Nec-
kar. When he returned from the palace, he afuired the
crowd that wailed for him that he would not abandon
them ; upon which they retired fatisQed. At the fame
time the news of the royal fellion had thrown the city
of Paris into violent agitation. The peace of that ca-
pital was at this time endangered by a variety of caufes.
A dreadful famine raged through the land, which in a
great city is ufually moll feverely felt. This prepared
the minds of men for receiving unfavourable impref-
ilons of their political flate. Every effort was more-
over made to diforganize the government, and pro-
duce a diflike to the ancient order of things. The
prefs poured fcrth innumerable publications, filled %vith
new and feducing, though generally impraclicable, theo-
ries of liberty. Tliefe were diftributed gran's among the
bulk of the people of Paris, and difperfed in the fame
manner through the provinces. Philip duke ot Or-
leans (prefumptive heir to tlie crown, failing the chil-
dren and brothers of the king) is with good re.ifon be-
lieved to have fupplied this expence out of his more
than royal revenues. In the gardens of the Palais
Royal at Paris, which belonged to him, an immenfe
multitude was daily alTeaabled, liifening from morning
to night to orators who defcanted upon the moll violer.t
fubjefls of popular politics. Many of thefe orators
were fufpeiled to be in his pay. It was even believed
that his money found its way into the pockets of fome
of the moil diflingui(hed leaders in the national affem-
bly.

But the government was, if poffible, ftil! more dan-
'th"mUi S"°^^y aSaulted by the methods now generally ufed
tary. to feduce the m.ilitary. Every officer of the Fiench

army belonged to the order of the nobles ; and from
that quarter, tliereforc, it might iiave been imagined
that there was little danger. But this very circum-
ilance became the means of diforganizing that great
engine of defpotifm. As the foldiers could not avoid
imbibing fome of the new opinions, their own officers
became the firil objedls of their jealoufy ;■ efpecia'ly in
confequence of that impolitic edicl of Louis XVJ.
ivhich required every officer to produce proo.'s of four
c'egrees of nobility ; and thus infultcd, by avowedly
excluding the private men from promotion. Perhaps
with a view to what might happen, the inllruftions to
the deputies of the i:ers elat had recommended an in-
creafe of the pay of the foldiers. And now at Paris
<very art was ufed to gain them to the popular caufe.
1 hey were conducted to the Palais Royal, and were
ihere careffed and flattered by tlie populace, wliile they
liftened to the popular harangues. Thefe aru were
fuccefifu!. On the 23d of June they ilril rcfufcd to

1!S

i)eiiuaii

I7S9.

1:9

.mili-
tary callti

t5 ] F R A

fire on the mob in a riot. Some of them were oA the I
30th reported to be in confinement for this offence ; a ~
crowd inftantly collccled, and refcuvr thera, the dra-
goons that were brought to fupprefs the tumult ground-
ing their arms. A deputation of the citizens iolicited
of the affembly the pardon of the prifoners. The af-
fembly applied to the king, who pardoned thera ac-
cordingly.

All thefe events, together with the tumultuous ftate ^ '
of the capital, which was daily increafing, made
ceffary for the king to call out the military fo
rellore, if poffible, the public peace. That his inten-
tions ^vere pure, the then ilate of affairs will permit
no man but a democrate to doubt ; but the ariftocracy,
with the Count d'Artois at their head, were bringing
forward other meafures, which ultimately contributed
to the ruin of themfelves, the king, and the kingdom.
Crowds of foldiers were colletled from all parts of the
kingdom around Paris and Verfailles. It was or-
ferved, that thefe confifted chietly of foreign merce-
naries. Camps were traced out. Marllial Broglio,
a tried veteran, was fent tor and placed at the head of
the army. The king was fuppoled to have entirely
yielded to new counlels, and every thing bore the
appearance of a defperate effort to rellore the eijjergy
of the ancient government. This is the moil impor-
tant period of the French revolution •, yet the Ipecific
defigns of the leading aclors have never been clearly
underftood. It was rumoured at the time, that Pans
^vas to be fubdued by a fiege and bombardment ; that
the affembly was to be diffolved, and its leaders put
to death. Thefe are incredible exaggerations ; but
the crifis cf French liberty \vas univerlally regarded
as at hand, and alfo the exillence of the national al-
fembly as an independent body ; or at leall upon any
other footing than that propofed by the king on the 23d
of June. 233

An able and eloquent addrefs to the king againll the Tli^ affem-
affemblage of foreign troops in their neighbourhood ^]^^' ^^^^"^
■was brought forward by Mirabeau, and voted by the reniove
affembly. The king properly replied, that the Hate ofthem,
the capital was the caufe of affembling the troops, and which is
offered to transfer the Hates-general to Noyons or Scif- '■^-"'^°-
fons. " We ivill neither remove (exclaimed Mirabeau)
to Noyons or to Soiffons ; we will not place ourfelves
between tivo hollile armies, that whicli is bcfieging
Paris, and that which may fall upon us through Flan-
ders or Alface ; we have not a{ked permiffion to run
a«ay from the troops ; we have defired that the troops
lliould be removed from the capital."

J'hirty-fivc thoufand men were now liationcd in the
neighbourhood of Paris and Verfailles. The polls were
occupied which commanded the city, and camps were
marked out for a greater force. The Count d'Artois
and his party regarded their plans as ripe for execu-
tion ; and M. Neckar received a letter from the king,
requiring him to quit the kingdom in 24 hours. That
popular minifler took the route of Bruffels on the
following day, when liis departure was made public.
In his difmiflion the popular, or, as it was now called,
the democratic, party thought they faw the refolution i^\
adopted to accompliih their ruin. The affembly again They again
addrcifcd the throne ; they requeilcd anew the removal''.'''"'^''*"'
of the troops, offering to be refponfiblc for t!ie public ^^'
peace, and to proceed in a body to Paris to cncoun-
P 2 ter

F R A

bly in cun
fcqueiice.

De Lam.

befq.

I

ter pevfoiully every danger that might occur. But
they were coolly told, that the king was the bell judge
of the mode 01 employing the troops, and that the pre-
fence of the affembly wa5 neccfTary at Verfailles. From
a fovereigii who doubllefs recoUcfted the proceedings
of the long parliament of England, a different re-
ply could not in reafon be expefted. On receiv-
ing it, however, it was inllantly decreed, on the mo-
tion of the marquis de la Fayette, that the late mi-
niftry had carried wh/i them the confidence of the af-
fembly ; th.at the troops ouglu to be removed ; that the
minillry are and fhall be rel'ponfiblc to the people
for their conduft ; that the afiTembly perfifted in all its
former decrees ; and that as it hnd taken the public
debt under the proteftion of the nation, no power in
France was entitled to pronounce the infamous \vord
batikruptcij.
Va-aXx^nvi.- '^^^ "'>' "^ Paris was thrown into deep confterna-
tion in Pa. tion by the news of M. Neckar's retreat. His bull
nson Nec-aud that of the duke d'Orleans were drelVed in mourn-
treat ^^' '"§' ^"'^ carried through the llreets. The royal Alle-
■ mand, a German regiment, broke in pieces the bulls,

Crueicy of and difperfed the populace. The prince De Lambefq,
the Prince grand ecuyer of France, was ordered to advance with
his regiment of cavalry, and take poll at the Thuille-
ries. Being a man of a violent temper, and enraged
by the appearances of difapprobation which were vifible
around him, he furioufly cut do.vn with his fword a
poor old man who was walking peaceably in the gar-
dens. The confequences of this ad of inhumanity were
inch as might have been expefted ; a Ihout of execra-
tion inllantly arofe j the cry to arms was heard ; the
military were alHiulted on all fides ; the French guards
joined their countrymen, and compelled the Germans,
overpoivcred by numbers, and uniupported by the relt
of the army, to retire.

All order was now at an end, and as night approach-
ed an univerfal terror diffufed itfelf through the city.
Bands of robbers were coHefting ; and from them or
from the foreign foldiery a general pillage was expefted.
The night pafled away in conflernation and tumult. It
Avas found in the morning that the hofpital of St La-
xare was already plundered. The alarm bells were rung ;
the citizens affembled at the Hotel de Viile, and adopt-
ed a propofal that was there made, of enrolling thera-
felves as a militia for general defence, under the appel-
lation of the nationa/ guard. Tliis day and the fucceed-
ing night were fpent in tolerable quietnefs, ivithout
any attempt on the part of the army. On the morn-
ing of tlie memorable 14th of July, it was difcovered
that the troops encamped in the Champs Elifees had
moved off, and an immediate aflault was expected.
The national guard now amounted to 150,000 men ;
but tliey were in general deftitute of amis. They had
aflumcd a green cockade ; but on rccollefling that
this was the livery of the Count d'Artois, they adopted
one of red, blue, and white. M. de la Salle was na-
med commander in chief, olllcers were chofen, and de-
tachments fent around in quell of arms. In the Hotel
des Invzlidcs upwards of 30,000 fland of arms were
found, along with 20 pieces of cannon ; a variety
of weapons was alfo procured from the garde vieuhle
de la couronne, and from the (hops of armourers, cut-
lers, &c.

The celebrated fortrcfe of tlie Baftile was an objedl

[ 116 ]

F R A

»3«
'i.erroi in
the city
iiiiiverlal.

(789.

of much jealcufy to the Parifians. At 1 1 o'clock in
the morning, M. de la Rofiere, at the head of a nume-
rous deputation, waited upon I\I. de Launay the go-
vernor, who promifed, along with the oHicers of his ^-'•T.
garrifon, that they would not fire upon the city "nlefs.i]/,,!,''^"^
they fliould be attacked. But a report was foon fpread (d ;
through Paris, that M. i.e Launay had, in a Ihort time
thereafter, admitted into the fbrtrefs a mu-titude of
perfons, and then ft-eacheroufly mafiacred them. The
caufe of this piece of perfidy has never been explained.
The fa£l itielf has been denied ; but it was attelled at
the time by the duke of Dorfet, the Britifh ambafia-
dor at the court of France. Tl.v effcft of the report
was, that a fudden refolution was adopted of aflauiting
the Eaftile ; an immenfe and furious multitude ruflied
into its outer, and foon forced their way into it^ inner,
courts, where they recei\'ed and returned a fevere fire
for the fpace of an hour. The French guards, who
were now embodied into the national guard, conduced
the attack with Ikill and coolnefs : they dragged three
waggons loaded with Hraw to the foot of the walls,
and there fet them on fire ; the fmoke of thefe broke
the aim of the garrifon, while it gave no dillurbance
to the more dlltant affailants. The befieging multi-
tude preffed the attack with incredible obltinacy and
vigour for the fpace of four hours ; the garrifon was
in confufion ; ihe officers lerved the cannon in per-
fon, and fired their mufkets in the ranks ; the governor,
in defpair, thrice attempted to blow up the fortrefs.
A capitulation, when at laft fought, was refufed to the . J^?

•r 1 1- • 1 r 1 II And fur-

garnlon, and an unconditional lurrendcr took piacCf^n^j^^j

1'he governor, and M. de Lofme Salbrai his major, a\mcondi-
gentleman of dillinguilhed humanity and honour, be-t'"r'-^"y.
came vi6lims of popular fury in fpite of every effort
that could be made for their proteflion ; but the French
guards fucceeded in procuring the faftty of the garri-
fon. Only feven prifoners were found in the Bailile.
A guard \vas placed in it, and the keys were fent to
the celebrated M. Briffot de Wanillc, xvho a few years
before had inhabited one of ite caverns.

The remaining part of this eventful day was fpent
at Paris in a mixture of triumph and alarm. In the
pocket of the governor of the Baftile a letter was found,
encouraging him to refiliance by the promife of fpeedy
fuccours, written by M. de Fleffelles, the prevot de
marchands, or chief city magillrate, who had pretend-
ed to be a moil zealous patriot. This piece of trea-
chery was punifned by inilant death ; and his bloody
head \vas carried through the city on a pole, along with
that of M. de Launay. At the approach of night a
body of troops advanced towards the city, at the Bar-
riere d'Enfer. The new national guard hurried thither,
preceded by a train of artillery, and the troops w ithdrew
upon the firll fire : barricadoes were everywhere form-
ed, the alarm-bells were rung, and a general illumina-
tion continued during the whole of this night of confu-
fion.

In the mean time, it was obvious that the new mini- a 1
flry were entering upon a difficult fcene of a6lion,niftry ap-
where one falfe Hep might lead to ruin, and where '"'"""'•
their oivn plan of conduft ought to be maturely digeil-
ed. Marflial Broglio was made minillcr of war, the
baron de Breteuil prefident of finance, M. de la Gale-
ziere comptroller-general, M. de la Porte intendant of
the war department, and M. Fouloii intendant of the

navy ;

559

F R A

[ I

Kr.uice. luivv ; but thefe were only meant to acl as o.Ticial me i,

^— ~v— ^ under the Count d'Artois, and the other leaders of the

'7°9' ariilocracy. To thefe leaders there did not even remain a

, .'''? choice of di^hcullics : no refource was left but that of
Their iitua- . , ... ' , • i n- i i i

diffi- overawnig by military power the natiojial allembly and
cult, and tli^ capital, and of riiking the defperate meafure of a
tlwir con- national bankruptcy, which the court liad not formerly
du;l bid. ciared to encounter, and to avoid which it had convok-
ed the rtates-general. No trace remains, however, of
any attempt to put this criminal, but lall refource, in
execution. The evening after the departure of M.
Neckar was fpent by the court of Verfailles in fealling
and joy, as if a vidory had been gained. The courtiers
of both fexes went round among the foldiery, ftriving
to fecure their fidelity by care.Tes, largefles, and every
Ipecies of flattering attention. The miniftry not only
Irtilcd to fupport the Prince de Lambeiq in the poll
^vhich he had been fent to occupy, but they fulTered
the whole of the I3tli to pafs in indecifion, while the
capital was in a llate of rebellion, while an army was
formally muftering within its walls, and the names of
the principal nobility were put up in lills of profcrip
tions. They received the news of the capture of the
Ballile with, confulion and dilm.iy, which were increa-
fej, if polTible, by information given by Marlhal Brog-
lio, that the troops refufed to ad againlt Paris or the
national aflembly. In this perplexity they adopted the
miferable device of concealing from the king the flate
oi public affairs ; and that unfortunate prince was thus
pe.haps the only perfon out of millions around him who
remained ignorant of the convulfions in which his coun-
try was involved.

At length, at midnight, the Duke de Liancouit
forced his way into the king's apartment, and told him
of the revolt of his capital, of his army, and of the fur-
render of the fortrefs of the Ballile. The Count d'Ar-
tois, who was pre.'cnt, ftill attempted to retain the mo-
narch ur.der his fatal delufion ; but the Duke de Lian-
court turning round, exclaimed, " As for you, Sir,
your life can only be faved by inftant flight ; I have
feen with horror your name in the bloody lilt of the
profcribed." Accordingly the count, with the mem-
bers of his (l)ort-lived adminiftration and their adhe-
rents, fled to the frontiers. And thv

covered Europe with blootllhed and mourning. This
minillry had, no doubt, many dilhculties to contend
againll : but an accurate attention to their conduft ex-
cites a fulpicion which, while it exculpates them from
many intended crimes that have been laid to their
charge, at the fame time does little honour to their ta-
lents. It is this, that they had come into office without
having formed any clear plan of condud ; that they
were men ailing without deciiion and at random, and
confequently became the fpuit of thofe events which
they wanted Ikill and vigour to direft or controul. By
their introduction into otiice, ar.d their mifconduft while
in it, the royal authority fell proflrate before the popu-
lar party in the national aflembly. The nobles and
the clergy ftill remained, but confounded in one aflem-
bly with the more numerous order of the tiers etat ; and
no longer rallying round a throne that was too feeble
to afford protection, they foon yielded to that fierce
and levelling fpirit of democracy that now rofe around
them.

17 ] F R A

But the pertbn ot" the moiarch was ftill beloved. — F.-.i.ic.

Early next morning the king went to the alTembly, but "^

with none of the ufual folemnities. He " regretted the ' /^9'
commotions of the capital, difavowed any knowledge [-, ^*'
of an intention againll the perfons of t!;e deputies, and „o'cs to"tl<>
intimated tliat he had commanded the removal of the aflemblv.
troops." A deep and expreflive filence prevailed for a
few moments ; this "as fucceeded by vehement and uni-
verfal Ihouts of applaule. The king arofe to depart,,
and inftantly the whole aflembly crowded around, and
attended hint to his palace. The queen appeared at a
balcony with th' ;auphin in her arms ; the mufic play-
ed the pathetic ir of Oti pcut-on Sire micux qu'au fcin
Je fafamille. Tht: eiithuliafm of loyalty communicated
itlelf to the furvoniding multitudes, and nothing was
heard but acclamati.);'.? of joy. 04^

On the following day, the king declared his refolu- ^'•'' "^"
tion to vifit the city of Par's in perfon. Accordingly ^t'' "''" /•
that prince, who never wmted perianal courage, how-x>j,i, ;„
ever deficient he might be in 'political ftedfaftnefs, fet perfon ;
out, attended by fome members of the aflembly and bv
the militia of Verfailles. He was met by the celebra-
ted M. de la Fayette, at the head of a body of the na-
tional guard, of wliich he had now been chofen com-
mander in chief. M. Bailly, in whofe perfon the an-
cient office of mayor of Paris had been revived, recei-
ved the king at the gates, and delivered to him the
keys. All this while no (hout was heard from the crowd
of innumerable fpeclators but that of Vivc la nation.
The king advanced to the Hotel de Ville, where the
new cockade was prefented to him, which he put on,
and prefented himfelf with it at a window. At the
fight of tliis badge of patriotifm an univerfal fhout of
Vive le Roi burll forth from every quarter ; and he re-
turned to Verfailles amidft general triiunph and ap-
plaufe. .^i

Much confufion llill prevailed in the capital; but In which
there was more appearance of regularity than could have !;'"'^'' '^°.°"
been expefted at the conclufion of fuch important "^""jj"^.
events. This arofe from a cafual concurrence of cir-
cumftances. To conduct with eafe the elcftions to the
ftates-general, Paris had been divided into 60 diurifts,
each of which had a feparate place of meeting. The
people did not elect the members to the ftates-general ;
but they chofe delegates, who under the name of elec-
tors, voted for the members. At the commencement,
of the difturbances, the electors, at the requeft of their
fellow-citizens, afTumed a temporary authority; of which,
hovvever, they were ioon wearv, and as foon as pollible
procured the public eleftion of l 30 perfons as munici-
pal orficers tor the government of the city. The citi-
zens having got the habit of aflembling in their dillritls,
grew fond of it : they aflcmbled frequently, made rules
for their own government, and fent commiffioncrs to
communicate with other diftrifts. 'J"he tumultuous na-
ture of thefe meetings, and the vehemence of debate
which prevailed in them, will bcft be conceived from
the ludicrous contrivance of one of their prefidents,
who ftationed a drummer at tlie back of his chair, and
when the confufion and noife became altogether ungo-
vernable, gave the fignal for beating the drum, which
fpcedily overponered every other noife. Thefe meet-
ings, however, gradually ripened into clubs, in which
much dexterity and intrigue were exerted.

The whole of the late miniftry efcaped excepting I\I.'
Foulo.k. -

'789-

Fite of M
ioulon,
and Ber-
thier.

Confequei;
cesof M.
Neckar's

F R A [III

Foulon. His character, it may well be imagined, was
exticmely unpopular ; for he is faid to have affeited,
that he would " make the people of Paris eat hay."
He liad retired to the country, but was feized by his
o-.\ n vaffals, and brouglu to Paris v-ith a bundle of hay
tied to his baclv. In fpite of every effort made by IVI.M.
Bailly and Fayette to procure him a fair trial at leaft,
lie ulis carried to the P/ace tie Greve, and hanged at a
lamp-iron by the enraged multitude. His fon-in-law
M. Berthicr, attempting to defend himfelf againft a
firailar fate, fell, covered with wounds. Their heads
xvere carried round on poles-, and thus the populace
became habituated to the fight of blood and murder :
they were even taught by popular fongs to glory in
fuch adions, and particularly by the well known long
Ca-ira.

In confequence of an invitation from the king, M.
Neckar returned to France. He was received by the
afTembly with great applaufe, and in Paris with infinite
folemnity and triumph. He here, however, committed
a political error that made fome noife. In deploring
the late excefles and murders, and taking notice of
the arreft of M. Bezenva), an officer of the Swifs
guards, he requefted of the eleclors at the Hotel de
Ville, in a folemn harangue, that the paft fliould be for-
gotten ; that profcriptions ihould ceafe, and a general
amnefty be proclaimed. la a moment of enthufiafm
this was agreed to, and the eleclors decreed what un-
quellionably exceeded their powers. The diflrifts of
Paris were inllantly in commodon ; the eleiftors alarm-
ed, declared that they only meant that " henceforth the
people would punifh no m.an but according to law ;"
and at the fame time, to prove that they themfelves
were free from ambition, they formally renounced all
their own powers. The aflembly took up the que-
flion. Lally Tolendal, Mounier, Clermont Tonnerre,
Garat junior, and others, declared that no perlbn ought
to be arrerted \nthout a formal accufation ; while
Mirabcau, Robefpierre, Barnave, and Gleizen, alleged,
on the "contrary, that the people were entitled to lay
hold of any man who had publicly appeared at the
h.ead of their enemies. The debate ended, by admitting
the explanation of the electors, and by a declaration
that it was the duty of the aflembly to fee juftice exe-
cuted in all cafes.

The commotions and enthufiafm of the capital ^vere
fpecdily communicated to the provinces. In every
quarter the people feized upon all the arms that could
be found, and the military uniformly refufed to acl
reach to the againft them. Many afls of outrage were committed
provinces, in Brittany, at Strasbourg, in the Lionnois, and elfe-
where, in which the nobility \vere the fufi'erers. The
mifchiefs that occurred were ufually magnified at a dif-
tance j but that very circumftance was an additional
evil. For example : It was Hated in the National Af-
fembly that M. de Mefmay, lord of Quincey, invited a
number of patriots, among whom were the officers of
a neighbouring garrifon, to a fplendid entertainment at
his houfe, to celebrate the happy union of the three
orders : 'I hat in the midil of the feafl the mafter of the
hrfjufe contrived to v\ ithdraw uinioticed, and to fet fire
to a train pre^aoufly laid, which communicated with a
quantity of gunpowder in the cellars, in contequence
of which the whole company, by a fudden explofion,
'.vere blonn into the air. It ivas found oa inquiry,

The cora-
motiors,
&c. of the
apital

5 ] F R A

that there was not one word of truth in the whole ftory. Fiance.
But before this inquiry could be made, all France '— — v— •
had refounded with accounts of the pretended bloody 17^9-
tragedy •, and the whole nobility of the kingdom fuffer-
ed in a lels or greater degree, from the prejudices ex-
cited by this unhappy report, the origin of which has
never been well explained. It would be vain to ftate all
the idle rumours to which at this time the blind credu
lity of the multitude gave currency. At one time, tlic
Arillocrates were cutting down the green corn ; at an-
other time they were burying flour in common ftwers,
or cafting loaves into the Seine. One report was no
fooner proved to be falfe than anotlier arofe, and tlie
whole nation was agitated by fufpicion and alarm. The
National Aflembly were engaged in framing their cele-
brated declaration of the rights of m;.n, which was to
form the bafis of the new conilitution, when the alarm-
ing accounts, received from aU quarters, of the (late of
anarchy into which the kingdom was falling, obliged
them fuddenly to turn their attention to objccls of
praftical neceffity. Tlie privileged orders found them-
felves become the objects of univerfal jealcuf'y and ha-
tred ; and that fomething muft inilantly be done to lave
their families and property, which were menaced on
every fide with perfecution and pillage. Regarding the
popular torrent as no^v become irrelillible, to fave fome-
thing they refolved to facrifice a part. 3+7

On the afternoon fitung of the 4th of Auguft, the^'*^^"""'^^
Vifcount de Noallles, fcconded by the Duke d'Aguil-^j^j j^^^
Ion, opened one of the moil important icenes in thed' Aguilloo
French Revolution, or in the hiftory of any country, propofe
Thefe noblemen ftated, that the true caufe of the com-'''^*
motions which convulfed the kingdom exiiied in the mi-
feiy of the people, who groaned under the double op-
preflion of public contributions and of feudal fervices.
" For three months (faid M. de Noallles) the people
have beheld us engaged in verbal difputes, ivliile their
own attention and their willies are direded only to
things. \\'liat is the confequence ? They are armed to
reclaim their rights, and they fee no profpecl of obtain-
ing them but by force." He therefore propofed to do
juliice as the (hortell ^vay of reftoring tranquillity, and M*
for that purpofe to decree, that henceforth every tax ^^^j^^"'
Ihould be impofed in proportion to the wealth of the^^p *_
contributors, and that no order of the ftate iTiould be tion to the
exempted from the payment of public burdens ; that wealth o"'
feudal claims Ihould be redeem.ed at a fair valuation j'"**^""'''-
but that fuch claims as confifled of perfonal fervices on " °'^*"
the part of the vafl'al fliould be abollflied without com-
penfation, as contrary to the imprefcriptible rights of
man. The extenfive poiTelTions of the noblemen who
made thefe propof'ls added mu h luftre to the diflnte-
refted facrifice which they afforded. Their fpeeches
were received with the moll enthufiaftic applaufes by
the Aflembly and the galleries, and their piopofals
^^'ere decreed by acclamation without a vote. No na-
tion is fo much led by the influence of fudden emotions
as the French. The patriotic contagion no\r fpread
faft through every breaft, and a conteft of generofity
enfued. The hereditary jurifdicfions poflefTed by the
nobles within their own territories were next facriticed.
All places and penfions granted by the court were fup-

prefTed, unlefs granted as the reward of

of:

-"The game-

luaJ fervices. The game laws, which condemned the laws 8tc.
huihandraan, under fevere penalties, to leave his proper- aboliihed.

F R A

[ I

France, tv a prey to infiuite multitudes ot animals rclerveJ tar
*"~~^'^~' paftime, had alvvays been numbered among the kvcre
'7 "9" grievances of the French iicatantry. Tiiefe werethcie-
fore renounced, along with t!-.e exclufive rights of rab-
bit warrens, fillieries, and dovecote;. The fale of offi-
ces was abolidied, and the fees exae^ed from the poor,
2;s together with the privilege of holding a plurality of
M.myan- livings, were relinquiihed by the clergy. The deputies
cient privi- ^f (i,g p^/^ tfEfal, or privileged provinces, with the
vo^jnurilv <52puties of Dauphine at their head, next came forward,
f'arrender- and offered a furrender of their ancient privileges, re-
el, queuing that the kingdom might no longer remjin par-
celled out among D.iuphinois, Bretons, Provenciux,&c.
bat that thev (liould all form one great mafs of French
citizens. They were followed by the reprefentatives of
I'aris, Marfeilles, Lyons, Bourdeaux, Strasbourg, &c.
■who requelled leave to renounce all their feparate pri-
vileges as incorporations, for the fake of placing every
man and every village in the nation upon a footing of
e [aality. Thus the AlTembly proceeded, till every
member had exhau'led his imagination upon the fubject
o: reform. To clofe the whole, the Due de Liancourt
propofed that a folemn Te Deiim {hould be performed,
that a meJal fhould be ftruck in commemoration of the
events of that night ; and that the title of RESTORER
OF Gallic Liberty ihould be beftowed upon the
reigning monarch. A deputation was accordingly ap-
pointed to wa't upon the king, refpeiElfully to inform
251 him of the decrees.
Tithes anJ_ Several Hicceeding days were neceflriry to form into
reveiijes of j^^^.^ jjj^ decrees of the 4th Augu.1, and commitees were
'•J in If'' appointed to make out reports for that purpofe. One of
thefe reports having included the tithes and revenues of
the clergy among the abufes that were to be done away,
;i id having propofed in lieu of them to grant a certain
ifipend to the different minifters of religion to be pay-
able by the nation, the clergy attempted to make a
Hand in defence of their property, and violent debates
riifued. In thefe they were ably fapported by the Abbe
•Sieves : but as the clergy had formerly deferted the
nobles, fo they w-ere now in their turn abandoned to
their f_;e by the hereditary ariftocracy. The popular
■ partv had long regarded the wealth of the church as
an eafy refource for fupplying the wants of the ilate. —
Xever %vas there a more complete proof of the influence
of opinion over the afrairs of men. The Catholic
clergy of France, though po'.leflsd of more property
tliaa they enjoyed at the time when princes took up
arras or laid thera down at their command, now found
lo few defenders, that they were terrified into a volun-
tary furrender of all that they and their predeceflors
had poiTcXed for ages. In their overthroiv, they fcarcely
eiioyed even the barren honour of having fallen the
iaft of thofe pririleged orders that fo long had ruled
over this ancient kingdom. Tliey and the nobles, and
the king, ftill pofTeiTed tlicir former titles and nominal
dignity ; but all of them were no-f fubdued, and at the
mercy of the commons of France, .who fpeedily dif-
iTiIiTed them at their pleafure.

As a ihort feafon of t.-anquilllty in the Court and the

National AlTembly fucceeded thefe great popular facri-

5?J ficcs, the King laid hold of it as a fit opportunity for

■*"*■""' the appointment of a new miniilry. They confided of

,' '^ ^■'" the archbifhop of Vienne, the archbiftiop of Bour-

' dca-;>r, !VI. Ncckar, the Count de St Priell, Cyunt de

19 ] F P. A"

Montmorin, the Count de la Luzerne, and the Count rr.r.c*.

de la Tour du Pin Paulin. M. Ncckar, as rainillcr of v— — '

finance, having Hated the dillreffed fituation of the re- 'T^Q-
venue, prefented the plan of a loan of thirty millions ^yj^^^'^^j
of livres. But M. Mirabeau, from a fpirit of rivalihip, as great dij-
it would feem, to M. Neckar, prevailed with the Af-ficuliyia
fembly to alter and to narrow the conditions of it in railing rac-
fach a degree that very few fubfcribers were found, and"'^-'^'
the loan could not be filled up. This failure involved
the AfTembly in a confiderable degree of unpopularitv ;
in confequence of which they allowed M. Xeckar ti>
prefcribe his own terms for the purpofe of obtaining a
loan of eighty millions. But the happy inftant of pub-
lic confidence had been allou-ed to pals away, and this
loan was never more than half filled up. Recourl'e was
next had to patriotic contributions ; and great numbers
of gold rings, filver buckles, and pieces of plate, were
prefented to the AfTembly. The royal family them-
felves fent their plate to the mint, either to give counte-
nance to thele donations, or, as M. Neckar has fince
afferted, through abfolute necelfity, for the purpofe of
fupporting themfelves and their family. The confufiou
into which the nation had been throA'n by the late
events had produced a fufpcnfion of the payment of all
taxes. There exirted, in facf, no efficient government ;
and if fociety efcaped entire diflblution, it was merely
in confequence of thole habits of order which are pro-
duced by a flate of long continued civilization. The
bufinefs of government could not be tranfaded without
money, and many vain efforts were made by the mini-
ftry to procure it. At length M. Neckar was driven
to the defperate refource of propofing a coinpu/fory loan,
or that every indivndual polTeffed of property fliould ad-
vance to the ftate a fum equal to one-fourth of his an-
nual income. This bold propofition was fupported by
Mirabeau, and adopted by the AiTembly ; but it does
not appear to have ever been effeftually executed.

In the mean time, the AiTembly was bufily occupied Difcu'ifion
in framing the celebrated declaration of the Rights of on the
Man, which was a'terwards prefixed to the new conlu Riglt' 'f
tution. This was followed by the difcuilion of a point ^^''"'
of much delicacy and dilhculty ; viz. What (liare of !e-
gillative authority the king ought to polTcfs under the
new conrtitution ; whether an abfolute negative or veto, .pj-,^-
3 fufpenfive veto, or no vtto at all ? This quellion opera- j^intr's v:«f.-
ted like a touchllone for trying the fentiraeuts of eve-
ry perfon ; and the afiembly, confiding of I 2C0 men,
was now feen to arrange itfelf into two violent contend-
ing faftions. The debates were vehement and tumul-
tuous, and continued for many days. As the afft-mbly
fat in public, and as multitudes of people of all dcfcrip-
tions were admitted into the galleries, and even into
the body of the hall among the members, many inde-
cent fcenes took place in confequence of tiie interfe-
rence of the fpeftators to applaud or ccnfure the fenti-
ments which were delivered. 'I'hus the public at large
became fpeedily intercfted in the diicuflion ; the chy of
Paris took a fide in oppofition to the "oeto, and thr
whole empire was thrown into agitation by new and
fpeculative qucUions. The dlllinouilhed place which
France holds among the nations of Europe rendered
thefe Angular events and difcuflions the objeft of uni-
verfal attention. The contagious love of novelty fnread
rapidly abroad, and gave rife to that well-fbundtd 'y\-
loufy on the part of the monarchs of Europe, whi< It

F R A

[ I20 ]

F R A

r nance.
1789.

V/as rpeedily to burfl: forth in a bloody tempelL — lu
the pre.ent cafe, the people of Paris became molf eager-
ly intererted. Rumours of plots were fpread through
the couritry, and a new llorm \vas obvioufly gathering,
ivhen the queflion was thus got quit of. M. Mounier
remarked, that the executive power could pofiefs no
negative againft the decrees of the prelent aifembly,
which had been nominated by the nation witli fupreme
powers for the exprefs purpof.' of framing a conftitu-
tion, which was to remain binding over all orders of men
ip the flate ; and with regard to future legillatures, the
king declared by a meffage, that he wiflied to poffefs the purpofe of preventing any attempt of this nature.

-;5
Oifcuflion
cbout the
legiHative

ther it
ought to
confift cf
one or tivc
/•bambers.

culating a report that a plot ior conveying the king to France,
Metz was already ripe for execution. '

From the period of the defeftion of the French '7°9'
guards, who were now in the pay of the qapital, thcp }^^
protection of the royal family had been entrufted to (-es of their
the militia or national guard of Verlailles, together ".u' ail jea-
with the regiment of the gardes du corps, which v,-as loufies.
compofed entirely of gentlemen. Upon the circula-
tion of the report of the intended flight of the king,
the French guards began to with to be rellored to
their ancient employment of attending his perfon, for

lO more than a fufpenfive veto. It
the popular Mirabeau concluded a fpeech

rkable that
favour of
the abfolute veto of the crown ivith thefe words,
" That it would be better to live in Conftantinople
than in France, if laws could be made without the
royal fanftion." This political adventurer is, however,
accufed of having taken care to circulate in Paris a re-
port that he had oppofed the veto with all his influ-
ence ; and to give credit to the ftory, he is fald to have
quitted the aflembly jull before the divifion, that his
vote might not appear on record againfl It.

The month of Augull was fpent in the debates about
the veto ,■ and in the beginning of September a neiv

conftitutional queftion was prefented to the aflembly by national guard of Verfailles, requefl:ed the aid of an
one of Its numerous committees. This was. Whether additional regiment. The regiment of Flanders
the legiflative body ought to confill of one or of two accordingly fent for : its arrival caufed

This idea was eagerly cheriflied by the capital j and,
in fpite of every etTort ufed by M. de la Fayette, the
obvious appearance of approaching difturbances could
not be prevented. The popular party law the advan-
tages which they would derive from placing the aflem-
bly and the king in the midft of that turbulent metro-
polis which had given birth to the revolution, and
upon the attachment of which they could moll fecurely
depend. Every encouragement was therefore given
by the moft acllve leaders of what was now called the
Democratic party to the projeft of ellablifliing the court
at Paris. The minifliy were under no fmall degree of
alarm ; and the count dT.flaing, who commanded the

fmall de

'57
The royal
lanction
granted to
the decrees
of the 4th
Augull,

.58
State ot

chambers ? Mounier, Lally Tollendal, Clermont
Tonnerre, and others, ^vho were zealous lovers of
freedom upon ■\vhat were then accounted moderate caufe.
principles, fupported eagerly the idea of eftablifliing
two independent chambers in imitation of the Britilh
conftitutlon ; but they were deferted both by the de-
mocratic and ariftocratic parties. The flrft of thefe re-
garded .m upper heufe or fenate as a refuge for the old
urillocracy, or as the cradle of a new one ; while the
higher nobles and clergy feared left fuch an arrange-
ment might prevent the future re-eftablifliment of the
ancient divifion Into three orders. Of 1 coo members
who voted, only 89 fupported the propofal for dividing
the legiflature into two chambers.

Soon after this, the king gave his fanftion to the
important decrees of the 4th of Auguft, but not with-
out fome heCtation, and exprefling doubts of the wif-
dom of fome of them In a letter to the aflembly. At
the fame time the inviolahilhy of the perfon of the mo-
narch was decreed, the indivifibility of the throne, and
its hereditary defcent from male to male in the reign-
ing family. — But we ftiall not here attempt to enter
into a detail of the various articles of the new confti-
tution as connefted with the circumftances under which
they became the fubjefl of debate. We Ihall only flate
thofe more remarkable circumftances which tend to af-
certain the peculiar changes which the fentiments of
the nation underwent In the progrefs of a revolution
the moft remarkable that occurs in human hiftory.

In confequence of the debates upon the quelllons of the deflTert ; and they,
the veto and the two chambers, the minds of parties the health of the_King, Q^i
had become much Irritated. Paris wore the fame
threatening afpedl that it had done in the months of
June and of July preceding ; and every thing fcemcd
tending towards an important crifis. The ariftocratic
party accufed their antagonifts of a defign to e.xcite
jiew infurreftlons j and the charge was retorted, by clr-

ree of anxiety •, and every effort was inftantly made
gain over both officers and foldlers to the popular

On the firft of Oclober the garde du corps, probably
for the purpofe of ingratiating themfelves v\ith the new-
ly arrived regiment, and perhaps to attach them more
fteadily to the royal cauie, invited the officers of the
regiment of Flanders to a public entertainment. Seve-
ral officers of the national guard, and others of the mi-
litary, were Invited. The entertainment was given In
the opera houfe adjoining to the palace ; feveral loyal
toafts were drank : but it is aflerted, that when the fa-
vourite popular toaft The Nation was given, it was
rejefted by the gardes du corps. In ordinary cafes,
fuch a trifling circumftance as this, or even any other
of the tranfaftions of a night of feftlvity, would juftly
be regarded as unworthy of notice in recording the
more remarkable events in the hiftory of a great na-
tion ; but fuch was now the Angular ftate of affairs,
that the moft trivial occurrences were inftrumental, by
their combination. In the production of important con-
fequences. The queen, having feen from a window of
the palace the gaiety ivhlch prevailed among the mili-
tary, prevailed with the king, who was jult returned
from hunting, to vifit them along with herfclf and the
dauphin. Their fuddcn appearance in the faloon kin-
dled in an inftant the ancient enthuflafm of French
loyalty. The grenadiers of the regiment of Flanders
along with the Svviu chaflcurs, had been admitted to

■ — ■ • 11 as their oll'.ccrs, drank

1, and Dauphin, with their

fwords drawn. The royal family having bowed with po-

litenefs to the company, retired. — Of all nations, the

French are moft liable to the influence of fudden Im-
preffions : the mufic played the favourite .^ir, 0 Ricard !

0 mon Rrii! Pi/nivcrs t^abandonne, " O Richard ! O my

king I the world abandons thee." In the eagernefs of

loyalty,

F R A

[ I

.""• loyally, tiic national cockade, wliich had been adopt-
** ed by fome of the gardes du corps, was tlivown afide,

' ' *9- and white cockades were fupplicd as quickly as they
could be made by the ladies of the court.

\\'hen thefe events were next day*rcported at Paris,
accompanied by a multitude of exaggerations, they
gave rife to the moft violent alarm. The capital was
at that time fuffering all the horrors of famine ; and in
fuch a fituation, the news of a feaft which others have
enjoyed, feldom gives much pleafure to hungry men.
To the former report of an intended fliglit on the part
of the royal family, it was now added, that a counter
revolution was fpcedily to be attempted by force of
arms ; and that the prefent fcarcity was artificially cre-
ated bv tlie court for the purpofe of reducing the peo-
ple to lubmitTion. Their arillocratic antagonills have
llnce aiTerted, that the famine was indeed artificial ; but
that it u-as created by a portion of the violent party in
the national affembly, which was then denominated the
Cahal, whofe object was to excite commotions as the
means of procuring an opportunity of fetting the duke
of Orleans at the head of the Hate, either as regent, or
in fome other form. To this lail party Mirabeau is
faid to have belonged.

For four days no notice was taken in the affembly of
what had pafled at the entertainment given by the gardes
du corps. On the 5th of OcT:ober i\I. Petion mentioned
it for the firrt time, and a \'iclent debate cnfued ; during
which Mirabeau rofe and exclaimed, " Declare that the
king's perfon aluiie is facred, and I myfelf will bring
forward an impeachment ;" thereby alluding to the
conducl of the queen. While this debate was pro-
ji^c ceeding at Verfailles, the city of Paris was in com-
A ajuiti- motion. A vafl multitude of women of the loweif
tude of rank, with fome men in women's clothes, had affem-
thTloneft ^^^ ^^ ^^^ Hotel de Ville, and were calling aloud for
Tank marcli ^rn'is and bread. They refolved to proceed inftantly
to Ver- to Verfailles to demand bread from the king and from
!j.;iet, the national affembly. La Fayette oppofed them in

vain ; for his own foldiers refufed to turn tlieir bayonets
againll the women. Upon this one Staniflaus Mail-
lard, who had dirtinguillied himfelf at the taking of the
Baftile, offered himfelf as a leader to theinfurgeuts. He
had the addrefs to prevail with them to lay afide fuch
arms as they had procured ; and he fet out for Ver-
iailles about noon with as much order among his fol-
lowers as could well be expected from fuch an aiTem-
blage. Either becaufe the pafTion for going to Verfailles
had fuddenly become too infectious to be refilled, or
becaufe tlie multitude already gone thither was now nc-
counted dangerous, the mayor and municipahty of Pa-
ris thought fit to givt orders to la Fayette inllantly
to fet out for that place at the head of the national
guard.

In the mean time, Maillaid approached Verfailles
with his tumultuous troop ; he arranged them in three
divifions, and perfuaded them to behave with tolerable
decency. The king was himting in the ^\oods of
Mendon when he was informed of the arrival of a moft
formidable band of women calling aloud for bread.
.: : " Alas 1 Creplicd he) if 1 had it, I fliould not wait to
<l be aflted." Mailiard entered .the affembly accompa-
nied by a deputation of his followers to ftate the ob-
. j_,_ jecl of their journey. The affembly, to pacify jheni,
fent a deputation of their own numbei along \s'ith them to
Vol. IX. Pan I.

21 ] F 11 A

lay their complaints before the king. His m::}cfty recti- Kr.>.i ce,
ved the whole \viih great politenefs, and readily agreed ■= ^^ '
to go into any meafures for the fupply of the capital '7°9-
that could be fuggefted. The rcpoit of tliis behaviour,
had fuch an cffett upon the multitude collefled around
the palace, that they began to difptrfe ; but they were
fpeedily fuccceded by another crond not Icfs numerous.
A fudden refolution of flight feems now to have been
propofed by the court ; for the king's carriages were
brought to the gate of the palace which communicates
witii tiie orangery : but the national guard of Verfailles
refufed to allow them to pafs, and the king himfelf re-
fufed to remove, or to allow any blood to be fl;ed in
his caufe. ,5,

La Fayette with his army at length arrived about I-a Fayette
10 o'clock at night, and found the affembly in a very'""'' *"'
unpleafant, fituation. Their hall and galleries "'616^"^"^^^
crowded by the Parifian fiih-women and others of the Vi-rlailles
mob, who, at every inllant, interrupted the debates, at night.
La Fayette %vaited upon the king, and informed him
of the proceedings of the day, planted guards in eve^y
quarter ; and after a fcanty banquet had been procured
for the multitude, he prevailed with the affembly to
clofe their fitting for the night. In this lail part of
his conduft M; la Fayette has been much cenfured,
and probably not without reafon ; for it could fcarcely
be expected that fuch a night would be fpent in peace
by the immenfe affemblage of turbulent characters that ,5, .
were now brought together. All was quiet, however, Defperate
till about fix in the morning of the 6th, when a great •''tt^'"l>' ""
number of women and defperate perfons rulhed forward '* l"'^'^"'
to the palace, and attempted to force their way into it.
T\vo of the gardes du corps were killed ; the crov.d
afcended the llaircafe leading to the queen's apartment,
but were bravely refifted by 1\I. Miemandre a fentintl,
who gave the alarm, and defended his port till he fell
covered with wounds, of ivhich, however, he afterwards
fortunately recovered. 'I'he ruffians, reeking with his
blood, rulhed into the chamber of the queen, and pier-
ced with bayonets and poniards the bed whence this
perfecuted woman had but jult time to fly almoft naked,
and, thiough ways unknown to the murderers, had efca-.
ped to feek refuge at the feet of the king, who was al-
ready alarmed, and had gone to feek her. jj^

The tumult became more violent every moment, and The royai
fudden death fecmed to threaten the royal family -, butf-^""')' '*'
la Fayette was by this time at the head of his troops, p*^ '^
whom he befccched earnefUy to fave the gardes du
corps from maffacre. In this he was fucccfsful ; fome
that had been taken prifoners were furroimdcd by the
grenadiers of the French guards who protected thera,
and the retreat of the whole corps was eafily fecured.
The crowd was fpeedily driven from the different quar-
ters of the palace, wliich they were already beginning
to pillage ; and the royal family ventured to fliow them-
felves at a balcony. A few voices now exclaimed,
Le Roi a Paris, " the King to Paris." The fhout be-
came general ; and the king, after confulting with la
Fayette, declared that he had no objection to take up
his rtfidencc at Paris, provided he was accompanied by
the queen and his children. When the propofal was
reported to the affembly, the popular leaders expreffed
much fatisfaiftion. They ordered a deputation of ico
members to attend the king thither ; they voted the na-
tional affembly infeparable from the king. His luaiefty

z66
Triumph
of thspo.
pillar par-

567
The afl'cm-
blv holds
its'firft fef-
u.m at Pa-

F R A [I

fct out Rl tv/0 o'clock a prlfor.er in the cuflody of the
ab. Two gentk-m'jn were felefted from his body
guard, and, with all the parade of an execution, be-
headed in the court of his palace. Their heads were
ftuck upon fpears, and led the proceffion ; vvhilft the
royal captives who followed in the train, and beheld
this fpeftacle, were conduced fo llowly, that a fliort
journey of twelve miles was protradled to fix hours.
The king, the queen, and their children, were lodged
in the old palace of the Louvre, while Moniieur went
to reiide at the Luxemburg. The city was illumina-
ted, and the evening fpent in triumph by the Pari-
iians.

The removal of the king to Paris was regarded as a
triumph by the popular party. The higher order of
nobles confidered it as completely ruinous to their
hopes ; and even many men of talents, fuch as Mounier
and Lally Tollendal, whom ^ve cannot avoid regarding
as friends to the popular caufe in its outfet, now re-
garded every prolpeft of attaining a happy conftitution-
al freedom as at an end, as the national reprcfentatives
mull be for ever expofed to the infults, and overawed by
the influence, of a turbulent capital. Many members of
the r.ffembly took refuge in foreign countries, and ufed
every effort to excite the other nations of Europe to
hoilility againll France. As the duke of Orleans had
been regarded as a chief agent in promoting the late
diflurbances, the marquis de la Fayette waited upon
him, and inllfted upon his leaving the kingdom for a
time. The duke was overawed, and, on pretence of
public bufinefs, went to England, where he remained
for feveral months.

On the 19th of Oftober, the National AiTembly
held its iirft feflron in Paris. The king was clofely
guarded in his own palace ; and no apparent oppofition
now flood in the way to prevent the popular party from
giving to their country fuch a conftitution as they might
judge expedient. Much, however, was yet to be done,
and many diificulties remained, refulting from the ha-
bits of men educated under a very diiferent order of
things. Two days after the Aflembly came to Paris,
a baket was publicly executed by the mob, upon a falfe
accufation of having concealed a quantity of bread. —
Wliilc the Affembly ^vas at a dilfance, events of this
nature had been little attended to, and the leading party
avoided attempting to check tliele ebullitions of popular
violence, from which they had derived lo much advan-
tage ; but that jj'arty was now all powerful, and lb fla-
grant an offence committed againfl the law v\'as regard-
ed as an infult upon the fovcreignty of the National
Aflembly. Two leaders of the mob ^ve^e therefore
tried and publicly executed, and a fevere law was
faffed, of the nature of the Britifli riot aft, authorifing
the magiflrates to aft by military force againft any mul-
titude of perions that fhould refufe to difperfc. Thus
the peace of the capital was fecured for feveral months •,
but in the country at brge no fmall degree of anxiety
and trouble (fill fubfifted. The fame fufpicious temper
wbich had prevailed at Paris agitated the provinces
with the dread of plots and monopolies of grain. Add
to this, that the nobltfle in the country were by no
means iatisfied with the liberality with which their re-
prcfentatives had on the 4th of Augurt voted away
their privileges and their property. This produced
violent jealoufies between the peafants and theii lords,

22 J

I' R A

and gradually conveyed to every corner of the kingdom Fiance,
the political ferment which had commenced at Paris. >r— J

The National Affembly being now, however, in to- ^7^9-
lerabie fecurity, proceeded in the arduous attempt of '^^^
forming a free conftitution for the great empire of j^Jj^ jj"?'
France. The Abbe Sieyes prefented a plan forded into *
dividing the kingdom into 83 difiartmen:%, of about 83 depart-
3 24 fquare leagues, and of each department into feve- '"s»ts.
ral dijlrifis, and each diftrift \vas fubdivided into cantons
of four fquare leagues in extent. Thus the whole of
the ancient divilions of the kingdom into governments,
generalities, and bailiwicks, was in an inftant oblite-
rated. An attempt was alfo made to fimplify in an
equal degree the relative fituation of individuals in civil
life, by a decree which put an end to all diftinftion of
orders and immimities, fo far as any privilege whatever
was concerned. At the fame time, a bold and moll im-
portant meafure was adopted, which has fince proved
the organ of thofe terrible efforts which France has ^^
been enabled to make againft the reft of Europe. This The clmrch
was the confifcation of the whole of the lands belong- lanils con.
ing to the church, for the purpofe of fupplying the ''''*'^'''
exigencies of the ftate. In this tranfaftion, all regard
to juftice was thrown aiide. The lands of the church
were as certainly the property of the then pofleffors of
them as any entailed eftate among us is the property of
him who occupies it. The ftate may have had a right
to appropriate to itfelf the church lands upon the death
of the incumbents ; but it might with equal juftice, and
perhaps greater propriety, have feized the enormous re-
venues of the duke of Orleans, as have confifcated a
fingle acre belonging to the moil ufelefs abbot without
his own confent. This nefarious meafure was pro-
pofed by the bilhop of Autun, M. Talleyrand Peri-
gord, a man of no religion, who had been promoted to
the bench in a moll irregular manner to ferve this very
purpofe. The mode in which this property was to be
expended was by iffuing affignments {ajjignats) upon it ;
which affignments were to be received by the ftate for
the payment of taxes, or for the purchafe of church
lands when fet up to fale. A provifion was at the
fame time made for the national clergy, who were for
the future to be paid by the ftate. On the day follow-
ing that on which this important meafure was adopted,
a decree was paffed, I'ufpending the parliaments of the
kingdom from the exercife of their funftions.

Decrees, in which the interefts of fo vaft a multitude Fmitlefs
of individuals were involved, could not be carried into attempts
effeft without much murmuring and oppofition. 'f he"'^'*'^ P^''"
parliaments, in particular, began to exert themfelves '"""^"'^
with vigour, and, by protells and other publications,
attempted to invalidate the decrees of the Affembly as
illegal ; but thefe privileged bodies, who had often
been accuiloraed to contend with fome fuccefs againft
the defpotic adminiftration of their country, and on
that account had been for ages the objefts of public ap-
plaufp, now found themfelves utterly forfaken, and un-
able to refift the mandate of a popular Affembly. Af-
ter a few fruitlefs ftruggles, they were all of them vui-
der the necelTity of lubmitting to their fate.

Nothing remarkable now occurred for fome time. — iMunicipii-
The AiTembly proceeded to organize the kingdom by litie>efta-
the eftablilhment of municipalities, and by reforming ''lflied,&'.
the jurifprudence of the country. It is to be obfervcd,
kowcver, that when the parliament of Paris was abo-

liihed.

F R A

Monafte-
ries fup-
prefled,
and their
lands con.
fifcated.

March
15th.

The Red
Book, or
liftofpen-
fions and
donaticiis,
puWinied.

■• lillicJ, tlic Chatelet, being the fccond court in that
~ city, was retained for the purpofe of tr)ing thofe pcr-
foiis who had become inoft obnoxious by their attach-
ment to the royal caufe. This court Iiad the fpirit to
acquit the Baron de Bezenval, Marfhal Broglio, and
the Prince de Lambef<]. But having incurred much
popular odium on this account, thty were guilty of the
unworthy mcannefs of condemning to death the Mar-
quis de Favres, for a pretended coiifpiracy (of which
no tolerable proof was ever brought) to maflTacre La
Fayette, Bailly, and Neckar, and to convey the king
to Peronne.

During the whole of this vsinter the king had been
very ilriftly watched by numerous guards placed around
his- palace, infomuch that the other nations of Europe
conlldercd him as in a ftate of captivity. To do away
tliis imprefTion, if poffiblr, and to make their king ap-
pear a voluntary agent in the raealiires that had lately
been adopted, was now regarded as a matter of fome
importance. Every effort was therefore made to pre-
vail with him to come to the Afl'embly fuddcnly, and,
as it were, of his own voluntary motion, there to de-
clare his adherence to the meafures which had lately
been adopted. For lome time he relilled this propo-
fal ; but at length, on the 4th of February, he did
fuddenly appear in the National Affembly, where he
complained of the attempts that had been made to (bake
the new conftitution. He declared his wilh " that it
ftiould be univerfally known that the monarch and the
reprefentatives of the nation were united, and their
wilhes were thefame ; that he would defend the co'nfti-
tutional liberty of the ftate ; that, in conjunflion with
the queen, he would early form the fentiments of his
fon for that new order of things which the circumftan-
ces of the empire had introduced." This declaration
difpirited the ariftocratic party in no fniall degree, and
nicreafed that unhr.ppy tendency of looking for aid
from foreign countries which they had always been too
apt to indulge.

On the 13th of February, monaftic eflabiiflmients
were fupprefled, and their lands confifcated ; but the
prefent friars and nuns were allowed penfions for their
fubfiftence, and t'j continue the obferv-ance of their mo-
nadic vows, if they thought fit. We may obfer^'e here,
that, in confequence of die evacuation of the monafte-
ries, it is probable that about this time the Brclon com-
mittee began to affume the appellation of the Jacobin
Club, from the hall belonging to the Jacobin friars at
Paris, in which their meetings were new held.

An event occurred at this time which tended in no
fmall c'-.gree to increafe the odium under which the old
government already laboured. This was the publication
of the Red Boot, or lilt of penfions and donations grant-
ed by the crown. In confequence of the mofl prefTmg
inflances, it had been communicated by M. Neckar to
a committee of the aflTembly, after many entreaties,
and the moll folemn promiles of fecrecy It afforded,
however, too ftriking an advantage to the popular party
not to be made ufe of, and in a few days M. Neckar,
to his no fmajl furprife, faw this regiflcr publicly fold
by every bookfeller in Paris. He ought not, indeed,
to have been furpiifed ; and the giving up of this lift is
one of the many proofs which the tranfadions of that
period afford of his great unfitnefs for the oflice which
he held. With much indignation, honever^ he de-

[ 123 ]

F R A

mandtd why the committee had publiflied it without Frjrcc.

the permillion of the Affembly or the king ? But he " '^

was told by the committee, that " as to the Affembly, ^79='-
they were lure of its apjjrobation ; and as to the king, Eft^-dttf if
they were not his reprefentatives." 'I'o give an idea ofpubllci-
the e.Ttift of this puljlication, it is only neceffary to re-''o»-
mark, that, under the lliort adminiftration of M. Ca-
lonne, the two brothers of the king had received from
the public treafury, independent of their legitimate in-
come, nearly tv.o millions (lerling, and that 6oo,cool.
had been granted to an individual, becaul-- he v as the
hurtiand of Madame de Polignac. M. Neckar's oppo-
fition to this publication tended in no fraall degree to
injure his po])u!Hrity, and the rclt of tV.e miniftry be- 575
gan to lofe the confidence of the public. Indeed, at >>".i M.roiii
this time, fertile caules of alarm pre\'ailed on all lides. '^ ""^'^ °'
The clergy were attempting to re\-ive in the provinces '''^'^"'
the ancient animofities between the Roman Catholics
and the Proteftants, afcribing the late decrees of the
Affembly to the latter. The German princes ivho pof.
feffed property in the north of France were complain-
ing loudly of the violation of their rights by the aboli-
tion of the feudal fyftem, although the National Af-
fembly had voted to them a compenfation. The molt
melancholy intelligence was received from their colonies
in the Well Indies. In regulating thefc, the Affembly
had not recognized the right of the free negroes to en-
joy the fame privileges with other citizens ; at ths
fame time, they did not go the length of denying thcfc
privileges. This uncertain condud produced infinite
calamities. The whites contended with thofe common-
ly called people of colour. Thefe again fometimes flood
in oppofition to the free negroes, or to the llaves ; and
hence it fometimes happened that no lefs than three ho-
llile affemblies were held at the fame time in the fame
colony, which made war upon each other with the moll
inveterate fury. Each party found proteftors in the
National Affembly of the parent ilate. Thofe who
favoured or oppofed the exiftence of dillinftions at
home, in general followed out the lame principle with
regard to the colonies. 276

On the 1 4th of May, M. de Montmorency commu- debate ort
nicated to the National Affembly the preparations for 'o^/*"""'
war in which England and Spain were engaged. This declare
brought forward the conllitutional quelhon, " Who peace and
ought to polTefs the power of declaring peace and war ' "''■■-
The Count Clermont Tonnerre, Meffrs de Serent, Vi-
rieu, and Dupont, fupportcd the royal prerogative ;
w hile on the other fide, the exclufive right of the legilla-
tive body to exercife this iraportiint prerogative was
fupportcd by Meffrs d'Aiguillon, Garat jun. Freteau,
Jellot, Charles Lameth, Sillery, Petion, Robefpierre,
&c. M. Petion propofed a decree " that the Frenck
nation renounced for ever all idea of conqueft, and con-
fined itfelf entirely to defenfive war ;" which was puffed
with univerfal acclamation. 'J'he Count de Mirabeau
at length fuccefsfully propofed that peace and war Ihould
be declared by the kinj» and the legillative body in con-
jundion ; and the decree that was paffed on the liibjedt
is a llrangc farrago of contradidions and abfurdities. It
enjoined the king to " guard the Ilate from external
attacks." But how could this be done, without repel-
ling any attack that might be made upon it r This,
however, he could not do, without prcvioufly inform-
ing the National Affembly j and if that body clianced
^ 2

F R A [12

1; .nee. not to be fitting at the time, he was bound to Ic-t tlie

'^ tr/emy advance without oppofition till he had convened

^79=- his orr tors, difperfed over 20,oco fquare leagues, and

277 liftened to their metaphyfical <]uibbles in Paris.

Farce adled q^ ^Jj^ j g,]j Jy^g^ ^ very lingular farce was acted
in the Afferably. A Pruffian refugee, who called him-
felf Anacharlls Clouts, and who ivas ftruggling hard to
lefugce, bring himfelf into public notice, on an evening fitting
^'^^ (which, it is to be obferved, was generally ill attended

by the perfons of the highell rank), introduced to the
Aflembly a number of perfons dreffed in the different
habits of all the different countries that could be thought
of. In a formal harangue, he told the Affembly that
he ivas come, as the oratur of the human race, at the
head .of the reprefentatives of all nations, to congratu-
late them upon the formation of their new conftitution.
He was anfwered by the prefident with abundance of
folemnity, and retired with his motley grcupe. This
fataftical piece of folly, which in any other country
than France would fcarcely, perhaps, have excited a
Imile, was treated by the Aflembly in a ferious light.
Alexander Lameth propofed, that the figures of diffe-
rent "nations exhibited in chains at the feet of Louis

278 XIV. (hculd be dellroyed as an infult upon mankind.
Ahiilaion ]y[_ Lambel, a lawyer, at this moment propofed the
"f ^^,"^^^^' alolhion of all hereditary titles. He was fupported by

La Fayette, St Fargeau, and the Vifcount de Noailles.
The decree was pafled, along with another fupprelhng
all armorial beatings. It is our intention at prefent ra-
,ther to ftate fafts than to hazard any political opinion
concerning the wifdom or folly of the tranfactions which
we record. It may here, however, be remarked, that
no part of the proceedings of the French National Af-
fembly was received by perfons of rank upon the Con-
tinent of Europe with f6 much indignation as this. —
The feudal fyftem had been overturned, and the pro-
perty of the church wrefted from it, with little com-
parative notice ; but when thofe nominal dillinflions
v.-ere attacked which antiquity had fanflioned, and per-
fonal vanity rendered dear, the furrounding nations were
inftantly alarmed, and beheld with terror the levelUng
precedent. We may likewife add, that no part of
their proceedings was more inimical to rational and prac-
tical freedom. To preferve a perfeft equality of ranks
is impolTible. In a commercial nation, induftry will
procure wealth, and wealth will every where procure
dependents. Now nothing more contributes to keep
within fome tolerable bounds the infolence of newly
acquired wealth, than the rank attached to birth and no-
bility, which time and prejudice have confpired to make
refpedlable. It is not a little remarkable, that of all the
King's miniflcrs, Neckar alone, a plebeian, a republi-
can, born and bred in a democracy, advifed his majelly
to refufe his affent to this foolilh decree, as a violent
but ufelefs encroachment upon the prejudices of a
x19 powerful order of the flate.
Propoial to In the mean time, the capital was entirely engroiTed
tomrr.emo- by hurry and buftle. M. Bailly had propofed a plan
rate tl.e ts-f^^ commemorating the annlverfary of the taking of
jBjlhk '"'^^ the Baftile. It was adopted, becaufe it flattered the
VLinity of the people, by prefenting them with a fplen-
did fpeclacie in commemoration of their own exertions.

. The army had been mucTi diforganifcd ; and- it was

tefolvejj to attempt to unite all its branches, as well as
t}ic wbole departments of the Ilate, iii one C02r.r.ijn at-

4 ] F R A

tachment to the new order of things, by collcCliug into France.

one place deputations, for the purpofe of fwearing fide- '' — ^

lity to the new conftitution. In the middle of the '/PO-
Champ de Mars an altar was eredled, at which the ci- ^-^^^^^
vie oath, as it was called, was to be taken. Around ti thrcon-
the altar an amphitheatre was thrown up capable of con- fcJcration,
taining 400,000 fpeclators : 2000 workmen were em-
ployed in this operation ; and the people of Paris fear-
ing left the plan might not be completed, affifted in
the labour. All ranks of perfons, the nobles, clergy,
and even ladies, with the eagernefs for novelty fo pe-
culiar to that people, united their efforts. Crowds of
foreigners as well as natives hurried to the capital to be
prefent at this folemnity, which was called the Confede-
ralioTi. The long-expected 14th of July at length ar-
rived. At fix o'clock in the morning t!ie proceflion
was arranged on the Boulevards, and confiftcd of the
electors of the city of Paris, the reprefentatives of the
commons, the adminlftrators of flie municipality, a bat-
talion of children, with a ftandard, infcribed " The
hopes of the nation ;" deputies from the troops of
France wherever quartered, and of every order, along
with deputies from all the departments ; to the'fe were
added immenfe detachments of the military, and of the
national guards, along with an almoft infinite multitude -
of drums, trumpets, and mufical inftruments. The pro-
ceflion was extremely fplendid, as every diftriil had its
peculiar decorations. The national affembly paiTed
through a grand triumphal arch, and the king and
queen, attended by the loreign minifters, were placed
in a iuperb box. After a folemn invoceition to God,
the king approached the altar, and, amidft the deepeft
iilence, took the following oath : " I the king of the
French do fwear to the nation, that I will employ the
whole power delegated to me by the conftitutional law
of the ftate, to maintain the conlUtution, and enforce
the execution of the law." The 'prefident of the na-
tional affembly then went up to the altar, and took the
civic oath, " I fwear to be faithful to the nation, the
law, and the king ; and to maintain with all my powers
the conftitution decreed by the national affembly, and
accepted by the king." Every member of the affembly
Handing up, faid, " That I fwear." La Fayette then
advancing, took the oath for himfelf; the other depu-
ties of the national guards pronouncing after him,
" That I fwear ;" and thefe words were folemnly pro-
nounced by every individual of this immenfe affembly.
Te Deum was then fung. The performance was fublime
beyond the powers of defcription. Never perhaps be-
fore was there fuch an orcheftra, or fuch an audience ;
their numbers baffled the eye to reckon, and ther.- ftiouts
in full chorus rent the Ikies. It is impoffible tg enu-
merate all the means which wert employed to add fplen-
dor to this day. It ended with a general illumination,
and no accident difturbed the public tranquillity/ ,jj

The aflembly now proceeded in the formation of the The foU
conftitution with confiderable tranquillity; which, how- '*'*''* ^'
ever, was difturbed by an unhappy event at Nancy. ^^f\ \
Moll of the officers of the army were unfriendly to ,1,^ cor'fe-
the late revolution, and ever\' means had been employed qi;ences.
by them to difgull the foldiers with it. At Nancy,
in particular, neceffaries had been denied them, and th.eir
pay was'kept back, under pretence that this was the
will of the national affembly. Driven to defpuir, the
regimeuts in garriCon threv; cff their allegiance, and di-

mandcd

F R A

[ I

lejves th-
kingdom

without
being re-
greeted.

1" .--e. mondeJ louJly the regimental accounts. They feized
» at the fame time the military cheil, and lent a deputa-

' 790' tion to ftate their cafe at Paris to the national alTembly.
But the otHcers were before-hand, and prepoiTclTed the
minifter of war againft them ; upon whofe reprefenta-
tion a decree was paffed, authorifmg the commander in
chief of the province, M. Bouil'.e, to reduce the infur-
gents by force. This was no fooner known, than the
national guard of Nancy affembled, and fent a deputa-
tion to give a fair ftatement of fafls. Eut Bouille,
without waiting the refult of an explanation, haftened
to Nancy at the head of all the troops he could fudden-
ly coUeft ", and having fallen upon the regiments of
Chateauvieux and Meftre de Camp, after putting an
immenfe multitude to the fword, he took 400 pri-
foners.

The king's regiment was prevented from acling
againft Bouille by the intrepidity of a young oflicer of
the name of DeJJilles, \vho, however, died of tae wounds
which he received on tlie occalion. The news of thefe
events filled Paris with indignation. The aflembly af-
terwards reverfed its own decrees againll the infurgents
at Nancy. Public honours were decreed to the me-
mory of Delfilles ; but Bouille could not be punillied,
582 becaufe he had only acted in obedience to authority.
M. Ncckar 1\\, Neckar's popularity had been gradually decli-
ning, as he was unwilling to go all the lengt'ns that the
ruling party willied. He gave in his refignation on
the 4th of September, and fpeedily tliereafter left the
kingdom. He was regretted by no party. He was
regarded, on the one fide, as having conducted the king-
dom to its ruin, by the concellions which he originally
advifed the king to make in favour of the ikrs etat ;
while he was defpifed by the oppofite party as a luke-
warm politician, of narrow- views, and a feeble mind.
He departed, however, with the unblemilhed reputa-
tion of Itricl integrity. M. Neckar does not leem to
have penetrated deeply into the characters of men, or
to have had any conception of the efiecls of that ter-
rible and reftlefs energy which is called forth in a na-
tion which attempts to make important changes in its an-
cient manners and government. Having no concep-
tion of the important era which was about to open
upon that country of %vhich he was the miniller, he
was far from being qualified to direcl or controul it
amidft the convulfions tvhich it was delfined to en-
counter. Unable to brook the lofs of his popularity,
he peeviflily retired to SwilTerland, where he publillied
a work, which (hows to the conviclion of every unpre-
judiced reader the integrity of the French king, and
the mucked projefls of the leading democrates, whom
he himfelf had armed with power.

The remaining part of this year was occupied in at-
tempts to introduce fome degree of fubordination into
the navy of France, which had been much diforganized,
and in farther regulating the affairs of the clergy. It
was now declared, that fuch clergymen as tliould not
take the followirjg oath, which had been prefcribed
fome months before, (liould be confidered as ejefted
from their benefices : " To watch carefully over the
faithful in the parifh or diocefe which ivas cntnilled to
his care ; to be faithful to the nation, the law, and the
king ; and to maintain to the utmoft of his poiver the
new confiitution of France, and particularly the decrees
iclative to the civil conftitu'ion of the clergy." This

25 ] F R A

decree rende-'cd the fituilion of confcicntious men ex- France.

tremcly perplexing ; efpccially as the pope teilificd in *~~^

marked terms his difapprobation of the oath. The
people were reduced to the dilemma of chooiing be-
tween their new political and their old religious preju-
dices, and the refult was extremely unfavourable to the
interell of religion.

The aiTembly commenced the new year with a decree, ^ ' ? ''
announcing the termination of its felfion, v.-hich was to Hoftile^ap-
take place as foon as it ftiould have finiihed the difcuf-pearances
fion of a lift of conftitutional articles. In the mean'"Germa-
time, on the fide of Germany, Spain, Italy, and Savoy, "y' ^^'
hoftile appearances began to be exhibited, and bodies
of troops advanced around the French frontier. The
emperor Leopold was, however, too cautious to an-
nounce his intentions ; and the king foon communica-
ted a letter from him, containing proteftations of ami-
cable difpofitions, but adding, that " the innovations
occanoned by the decrees of the 4th of Auguft ought
to be done away." The king treated this merely as
an official meafure on the part of the emperor, that he
might not appear to renounce the claims of certain Ger-
man princes connected with Lorraine and Alface. But
the affembly exprefTed fome alarm, and voted an aug-
mentation of the national force. About this period
feveial new efforts were made by the difaffecied clergy
in various parts of the kingdom to excite difturbances, ,5-
which it is unneceffary to mention in detail. On the 20Lh OepatTure
of February the public attention was roufed by a cir-"' '"f
cumrtance that in any other ffate of affairs would have "-^ %
been accounted unimportant. The king announced to oj.;,-,
the aiTc-mbly, that his aunts,, the daughters of Louis XV.
had that morning left Paris ; but as he did not aprrs-
hend that the exifting laws laid them under any re-
ftraint in this refpeft, he had not oppofed their depar-
ture. After, fome debate, the aiTembly agreed that the
king had judged well ; and thefe princeiTes were left to
purine their journey to Rome, which they reached af-
ter fome delays occafioned by the jealoufy of certain
municipalities through which they paffed. Thus the
kingdom was gradually deferted by every branch of the
royal family, excepting the king and his eldeft brother
Monfieur. The affembly, however, continued its la- ^ic
hours with confiderable qiiietnefs. In the- end of the Dj»th of
month of March died the celebrated M. de Mirabeau,^^'"'-*^'-**
at the age of 42 years ; a man who.'e integrity has for
many good reafon» been much fufpe61ed, but whofe po-
litical addrefs and^ intrepidity;, and whofe fplendid
powers of eloquence, have been feldom equalled. He re-
ceived from his countrymen at his death marks of re-
fpeft unparalleled in modem hiitory. During his (hort
illnefs, his door was bcneged by anxious citizens. A
mourning of eight days was decreed by the affembly,
and alfo a grand proeelUon, which was attended by all
the public funftionaries. He was the firft who was
interred in the new magnificent Pantheon, confecrated '
to the reception of the remains of illuftrious men. But
his aflics were afterwards removed, in confequenre of
very clear proofs that he. had not been incorruptible by
money. ,87

During the whole of this fpring, much fear was en- \n ciei-
tertaincd that fome attempts at a counter revolution g''""' "T
were about to be made. The emigrant army aflembled ' ^^^ "*
on the borders of Alface was reviewed by the piince of ,,uf,icrs of
Condc. Their utiifonn was black, faced with yellow, Alface,

with

rnrcc
1791.

Je:..l. ufy of
till '.foli-

ar) left
ll- kine

289

Beh^ivloiir
of Bouille

■n,c king
queen, and
royal fami-
!v, leave
Faris.

291
Monfieur
and ma-
ciame ar-

F R A

with a death's liead, furroundcci by a laurel v.-re:)tb, on
one cuff, and a fuoi-d on -tlic ether ; ivitli the motto,
" Conquer or die." The king was alio furrounded by
crou-ds of no'ijuring priells and other dil'affected per-
fors. Thus, that, popular jealoury which iij every period
of the revolution has ftrikingly marked the French
charafter, was kept on the alarm. On the l8lh of A-
pril, therefore, when the royal family ivas preparing to
go to St Cloud to pal's lome days, a report was inftant-
ly fpread that the king was about to fly from the coun-
try. The carriages were immediately furrounded by
people. La Fayette drew out the national guard, but
they refufed to'aft. " We know (exclaimed they)
that we are violating the laws, but the fafety of our
country is the firll law." The king inllantly went to
the ailembly, and with much fpirit complained of the
infult. He was anfwered refpedlfully by the prefident,
and continued hi> jouniey. As the royal family had
enjoyed a confiderable degree of freedom for fome time
p.-ll, which was demonftrated by the unfuccefsful oppo-
fition made to this journey — the prefent opportunity
was embraced for intimating to foreign courts his ac-
ceptance of the conftltution ; and all obnoxious perfons
were difmiffed from about his perfon. The breach of
difcipline on the part of the national guard on this oc-
cafion ^vas fo much refcnted by La Fayette, that he
refigned his coimnand. Paris was thrown into con-
fternation ; and it was not till after the mod univerfal
folicitation that he was prevailed upon to refurae his
office.

About this time M. de Bouille, to whom the protec-
tion of the frontiers was entrufted, was employing, as
it is no^v laid, every means in his power to render the
country defencelefs. The garrifons were left unprovid-
ed ; difunion was fpread among the national troops ■,
thev were removed from the frontiers, and their place
was occupied by foreigners, wherever it could be done.
The emigrants abroad, and their friends at home, were
lying in wait for an opportunity of revolt ; — when fud-
deniy, on the 21 11 of June, it was announced from the
Thuilleries, that the king, the queen, the dauphin, with
monfieur and madame, had quitted the palace and the
capital, without leaving any information of their inten-
tion or their route. The emotion excited by this
news among the multitude was a mixture of ccnfter-
nation and rage. The national affembly, however, aft-
ed ^-ith much coolnefs. They inllantly took upon
themfelves the government, and decreed their fittings
permanent. They lent meflengers, at the fame time,
in all direftions, to attempt to lay hold of the fugitives.
Thefe had taken different routs. Monfieur and ma-
dame arrived fafely at Bruffels on the 23d. The king,
queen, and their children, when they came to a confi-
derable diftance from the capital, were furnifhed by
Bouille with a guard of dragoons, under pretence of
protefting treafure for the pay of the troops. At the
dillance of 156 miles, and when only a few leagues
from the frontiers, they were arreiled at St Menehould
by the pollmafter, M. Drouet, formerly a dragoon in
the regiment of Conde. At half pall feven o'clock in
the evening the carriages (lopt to change horfes at his
houfe ; he thought he recollecled the queen, and ima-
gined that the king's face refembled the impreflions
ftamped upon affignats. The efcort of dragoons in-
creafcd the fufpicion. He fuffered them to depart at
3

[ 126 ]

F Pv A

1 1 o'clock without notice ; but taking a companion Frar.cf .
with him, he went by a Aorter road to Varenncs. '^~~

With the adiftance of the pollmafter there he gave the ^79'-
alarm, and overturned a carriage on the bridge, which xhs^k^ng
detained the royal travellers till the national guard of and queen
the place had affembled, and the arrell was efteftedancfttd at
w^ithout bloodlLed. They were brought back to Pa- V'arennes^
ris by a deputation from the affembly. At his depar-
ture, the king had imprudently left behind him a me-
morial, in which he declared, that he never had thought
any facrifice too great for the refioration of order ; but
that the deibuclion of the kingdom, and the triumph
of anarchy, being the only reward of all his efforts, he
thought it neceffaiy to depart from it. He then takes
a review of the faults of the new conllitution, the
grievances he has fulieied ; and protefts againft every
thing that he had been compelled to do during his cap-
tivity. _ _ 293

Different parties were vety differently affefted by this Confequen.
ill-conducled and unfortunate dight of the king. A^esofthis
fmall republican party had already begun to appear, Jj?^"^^""*'
and during tl>e king's abfence, attempts were made to
induce the public at large to coiifider the royal au-
thority as no neceffary part of a free conllitution. But
the minds of men were by no means prepared for the re-
ception of thi^ new doflrine. The idea, however, ha-
ving been thus publicly propofed, left fome impreflions,
which in time contributed to give rife to important
events. By far the greater number of leading men,
however, were at prefent convinced, that it was impol-
fible to conduft a great empire like France, well and pro-
fperoufly, without the afliftance of an hereditary chief.
They therefore determined to pafs over the affair with
as much filence as poflible, and to hallen the period
when their new conftitution (liould be complete. But
there is reafon to believe, that this journey was at the
long-i-un highly inftrumental in producing very fatal ef-
fecls to the perlbnal fafety of tlie monarch. _

His flight feemed a fignal for emigration. Many-
of the ariftocratic party fent in refignations of their
feats in the national alTembly. Troops were levied on
the frontiers in the king's name ; v.ho took care, how-
ever, to difavow any connexion with luch a procedure.
Bouille emigrated, and afterwards lent to the affembly
a furious threatening letter : " You fliall anfwer (fnys
he) for the lives of the king and of the queen to all the
monarchs of the univerfe. Touch but a fingle hair of
their heads, and not one flone Ihall be left upon anotlier
in Paris. I know the roads. I ivill conduft the fo-
reign armies. This letter is but the forerunner of the
maniferto of the fovereigns of Europe."

A confiderable calm throughout France followed
thefe events, and it might be regarded as in a flate of
tranquillity. It contained, indeed, parties entertaining
much aniinofity againft each other, and many citizens had
withdrawn to foreign countries ; but the peace was not
broken, and moderate men hojied that much prorperity
would follow from the late agitations. But this calm
was delufive ; and in the midll of it thofe projedls were
formed which were afterwards to prove fo fatal to the j^^
peace of France and of Europe. Towards the clofe of Treaty ci
this fummer, a convention took place at Pilnitz in Sax- Pilnitz.
ony benveen the emperor Leopold and the king of
.Pruflia. Its objeft was not known at the time, but it
gradually came into view, and is now by many undcr-
^ ■' ftood

F 11 A [I

■ France, flood to Lave been intended for the purpofe of conclud-
^" » ing a league for the invafion of France, the neiv-model-
^79^' ling of its government, and the partition of fome of its
faireft provinces. The following paper has been re-
peatedly publilhed as the copy of a treaty concluded
and figned at Pavia, and is generally undcriiood to have
been identical with, and therefore known by, the name
of the Treatij of Pilnilz. We are far from vouching for
its authenticity. It may have been fabricated by the
French alTembly, to unite all parties in the nation agair.ll
the foreign powers which threatened to invade them.
Bat in ftating the events of this revolution, it is per-
haps flill more TiecelTary, for the purpofe of rendering
the aftions of men comprehenfible, to give an account
of %vhat was at the time believed to have occur-ed, than
it now is to afcertain what was aftually true.

Partilion Treaty between the Courts in Concert, concluded
and figned at Pavia, in the Month ofjulij 179 1.
His majefty the emperor will take all that Louis XIV.
conquered in the Auftrian Netherlands, will give them
to his ferene highnefs the eleftor Palatine ; fo that
thefe new poJelTions, added to the Palatinate, may here-
after have the name of Aujlrafia.

His majeliy will preferve for ever the property and
pofleirion of Bavaria, to make in future an indivifible
mats with the domains and hereditary pofleffions of the
houfe of Aullria.

Her ferene highnefs the archduchefs Maria Chriftina
fhall be, conjointly with his ferene highnefs her ne-
phew the archduke Charles, put into hereditary poffef-
fion of the duchy of Lorraine.

Alface (hall be reftored to the empire ; and the bi-
(hop of Stralhourg, as well as the chapter, (hall recover
their ancient pri\ileges, and the ecclefiaftical fovereigns
of Germany (liall do the fame.

If the Swifs Cantons confent to accede to the coali-
tion, it may be propofed to them to annex to the Hel-
vetic league the bilhopric of Porentrui, the defiles of
Tranche Comte, and even thofe of Tyrol, with the
neighbouring bailiwicks, as well as the territory of Ver-
foy, which interfeiJts the Pays de Vaud.

Should his majeily the king of Sardinia fubfcribe to
the coalition. La BrelTe, Le Bu;^'ey, and the Pays de
Gex, ulurped by France from Savoy, (liall be rellored
to him.

In cafe his Sardinian majefty can make a grand di-
verfion, he (hall be fuffered to take Dauphine, to belong
to him for ever as the neareft defendant of the ancient
dauphins.

His majefty the king of Spain fhall have Rou(rdlon
and Beam, with the idand of Corfica; and he (hall have
the French part of the iiland of St Domingo.

Her majefty the emprefs of all the Ru Jias (hall take
upon herfelf the invafion of Poland, and at the fame
time retain Kaminiech, with that part of Podolia which
borders on Moldavia.

His majefty the emperor (hall oblige the Porte to
give up Choci'im, as well as the fmall forts of Servia,
and thofe on the river Lurna.

His majefty the king of PrulTia, by means of the
above-mentioned invafion of the emprefs of all the Ruf-
fias into Poland, lliall make an acquifition of Thorn
and Dantzic, and there unite tlw Palatinate on the eafl
«o the coDfines of Silefia.

27 J F R A

His majeliy the king of Pru(ria (hall befidcs acquire France.

Luface ; and his ferene highnefs the elector of Saxony " v '

ftiall in exchange receive the reft of Poland, and oc- I79''
cupy the throne as hereditary fovereign.

His majefty the prefent king of Poland ftiall abdicate
the throne on receiving a fuitable annuity.

His royal highnefs the eleftor of Saxony (liall give
his daughter in marriage to his ferene highnefs the
youngelt ("on of his royal highnefs the grand duke of
all the Ruflias, who will be the father of the race of the
hereditary kings of Poland and Lithuania. (Signed)
Leopold. Prince Nassau. Count Florida Blan.

CA. BlSCHOFFSWERDEIi.

In the mean time, the national alTembly was haften- The'nen-
ing fatt to the completion of the new conftitution. It conftitiition
was finilhed on the 3d of September, and prefented to '^""<^'"'**'*
the king. It begins with the following declaration oV'^^^l **"
the rights of a man and a citizen: and thereafter follow "^"^ ^
the different branches; the chief of which are here tranf-
lated.

I. All men are bom, and remain, free and equal in
rights : fecial diftinflions cannot be founded but on
common utility.

II. The end of all political affociations is the prc-
fervation of the natural and imprefcriptible rights of
man : thefe rights are Uberty, property, fecurity, and
refiftance againft oppreflion.

III. The principle oi fovereigntij refides efTentially
in the nation : 710 body of men, no individual, can exer-
cife an authority that does not emanate exprefsly from
that fource.

IV. Liberty confifts in the power of doing every
thing except that which is hurtful to another : hence
the exercife of the natural rights of every man has no
other bounds than thofe that are neceffary to en lure to
the other members of fociety the enjoyment of the
fame rights : thofe bounds can be determined by the
law only.

V. 1 he law has a right to forbid thofe aftions alone
that are hurtful to fociety. Whatever is not forbidden
by the law, cannot be hindered; and no peifon can be
conrtrained to do that which the law ordaineth not.

VI. The law is the expreflion of the general will :
all the citizens have a right to concur perfonally, or by
their reprefentatives, to the formation of the law : it
ought to be the fame for all, whether it proteft, or
whether it punifti. All citizens being equal in the eye
of the law, are equally admilhble to dignities, places,
and public offices, according to their capacity, and
without any other diftindion but that of their virtue
and their talents.

VII. No man can be accufed, arretted, or detained,
except in cafes determined by the law, and according
to the forms which the law hath prefcribcd. Thofe
who folicit, dilpatch, execute, or cauie to be executed,
arbitrary orders, ought to be punifticd ; but every citi-
zen that is fummoned or feizcd in virtue of the law,
ought to obey inftantly — he becomes culpable by re-
fiftance.

VII r. The law ought to eftablilli fuch ponilhments
only as are ftriftly and evidently nccelTary ; and no
perfon can be punifhed but in virtue of a law efta-
blifhed and promulgated prior to the offence, and le-
gally applied.

IX, Every man being prefumed innocent till fuch

lime

F R A

t 12

Tiarc?. time as lie- has been declared guilty, if it fliall be deem-
-—^'—' e(j abfolutely neceflai-y to arreft a man, every kind of
*79'- rigour employed, not neceffary to fecure his pcrfon,
ought to be feverely repreflfed by the law.

X. No pcrfon (hall be inolefted for his opinions, even
fuch as are religious, provided that the manifeftation of
thofe opinions does not difturb the public order efta-
blifhed by the law.

XI. The free communication of thought, and of
opinion, is one of the mod precious rights of man.
Every citizen, therefore, may freely fpeak, Avrite, and
publilh, his fentiraents ; fubjeft, however, to anfwer
for the abufe of that liberty, in cafes determined by the
la«-.

X II. The guarantee of the Rights of Man and Ci-
tizens, involves a neceHity of public force : this force is
then inftituted for the advantage of all, and not for the
particular utility of thofe to whom it is confided.

XIII. For the maintenance of public force, and for
the expences of adminiilration, a common contribution
is indifpenfably neceffary ; this contribution Ihould be
equally divided amongft all the citizens, in proportion
to their abilities. '

XIV. Every citizen has a right, by himfelf, or by
his reprcfentatives, to decide concerning the neceffity
of the public contribution ; to confent to it freely, to
look after the employment of it ; to determine the
quantity, the diftribution, the coUeftion, and duration.

XV. The fociety has a right to demand from every
public agent an account of his adminiftration.

XVI. Every fociety, in which the guarantee of
rights is not aflured, nor the feparation of powers deter-
mined, has no conflkution.

■ XVII. Property being a right inviolable and facred,
no perfon can Ije deprived of it, except %vhen the pub-
lic neceffity, legally afcertair.ed, (hall evidently require
it, and on condition of a jufb and previous indemnifica-
tion.

The conftitutibn guarantees, as natural and civil
rights,

1 . That all citizens are admiffible to places and em-
ployments ivithout any diftindlion, but that of ability
and virtue.

2. That all contributions (hall be divided equally
among all the citizens, in proportion to their means.

^. That the fame crimes (hall be fubjefl to the fame
punilhments, without any diftindion of perfons.

The conftitution in like manner guarantees, as natu-
ral and civil rights.

Liberty to all men of going, (laying, or departing,
without being arrefled, or detained, but according to
the forms prefcribed by the conftitution.

Liberty to all m.en of fpeaking, writing, printing,
and " publidiing their thoughts, without having their
writings fubjefted to any examination or infpeclion be-
fore publication ;" and of exercifing the religious wor-
ihip to which they are attached.

Liberty to all citizens of alTembling peaceably, and
without arms, complying with the laws of police.

Liberty of addrefling to all conftitutional authorities
petitions individually fign^d.

Th"? conftitution guarantees the inwolability of pro-
perty, or a juft and previous indemnity for that of
whicl; public neceffity, legally prov'cd, (hall require the
facrifice.

3 ] F R A

A public iiiftruftion (hall be created and organized, I
common to all citizens, gratuitous with regard to thofe ^~
parts of tuition indilpenfable for all men, and of which
the eftabliihment (hall be gradually diftributed in a pro-
portion combined w ith the divifion oT the kingdom.

" The kingdom is one and indi\'irible ;" its territory,
for adminiftration, is diftributed into 83 departments,
each department into diftricls, each diilricl into cantons.
Thofe are French citizens.
Who are born in France, of a French father ;
Who having been bom in France of a foreign fa-
ther, have fixed their refidence in the kingdom ;

Who having been born in a foreign country, of a
French father, have returned to fettle in France, and
have taken the civic oath :

In fine, who having been born in a foreign countr}',
being defcended in whatever degree from a Frenchman
or Frenchwoman, who have left their country from re-
ligious motives, come to refide in France, and take the
civic oath.

The right of French citizenlhip is loft,
I ft, By naturalization in a foreign country ;
2dly, By being condemned to penalties which involve
the civic degradation, provided the perfon condemned
be not re-inftated ;

3dly, By a lentence of contumacy, provided the fen-
tence be not annulled ;

4thly, By initiation into any foreign order or body
which fuppofes either proofs of nobility " or diftiaclions
of birth, or requires religious vows."

" The law confiders marriage only as a civil con-
tracl."

The fovereignty is one, indivifible, " inalienable, and
imprefcriptible," and it belongs to the nation : no fec-
tion of the people, or individual, can arrogate the ex-
ercife of it.

The nation, from which alone flow all powers, can
not exercile them but by delegation.

The French conftitution is reprefentative : the rc-
prefenlatives are the legiflative body and the king.

The National Aflfembly, forming the legiflative body,
Is permanent, and conufts of one chamber only.

It (hall be formed by new elections every Xwo year>.

The legiflative body cannot be diflfolved by the king.

The number of reprefentatives to the legiflative bouy

(hall be 745, on account of the 83 departments of

which the kingdom is compofed ; and independent of

thofe that may be granted to the colonies.

The reprefentatives (hall be diftributed among the
departments, according to the three proportions of land,
of population, and of the contribution direct.

Of the 745 reprefentatives 247 are attached to the
land. Of thefe each department fliall nominate three,
e.xcept the department of Paris, which Uiall nominate
only one.

Two hundred and forty-nine reprefentatives are at-
tached to the population. The total mafs of the aftive
population of the kingdom is divided into 249 parts,
and each department nominates as many of the depu-
ties as it contains parts of the population.

Two hundred and forty-nine reprefentatives are at-
tached to the contribution direft. The fum total of
the direft contribution of the kingdom Is likewlfe di-
vided into 249 parts ; and each department nominates
as many deputies as it pays parts of the contribution.

In

F R A

[ 129 ]

F R A

Fiance. In order to form a legillative national aflViiibly, tlie
~~>' "^ ai5Hve citizens (liall convene, in primary affemblits, eve-
^79l- ry two years in the cities and cantons.

" The primary afltmblies ihall meet of full right on
the firll Sunday of March, if not convoked fooner by
the public othcers appointed to do fo by the law."

To be an aclive citizen, it is neceffary,

To be a Frenchman, or to have become a French-
man ;

'j'o have attained 25 years complete •,

To have refided in the city or the canton from the
time determined by the law -,

To pay in any part of the kingdom a direft contri-
bution, at lealt equal to the value of three days labour,
and to produce the acquittance ;

Not to be in a menial capacity, namely, that of a fer-
vant receiving wages ;

To be infcribed in the municipality of the place of
his relidence in the lift of the national guards j

To have taken the civic oath.

The primary aflemblies fliall name eleftors in the pro-
portion of the number of adive citizens refiding in the
city or canton.

There ihall be named one eleftor to the affembly, or
I'.ot, according as there (hall happeji to be prefent 1 00
wrtlve citizens.

There fhall be named two, ^vhen there (hall be pre-
fent from 151 to 250, and fo on in this proportion.

The electors named in each department fliall con-
vene, in order to choole the number of reprelentatives,
\vhofe nomination fliall belong to their department, and
a number of fubftitutes equsJ to the third of the repre-
fentatives.

" The aflemblies (ball be held of full right on the
lall Sunday of March, if they have not been before
convoked by the public oflicers appointed to do fo by
law."

All aftive citizens, whatever be their ftate, profef-
fion, or contribution, may be chofen reprefentatives of
the nation.

Excepting, neverthelefs, the miniflers and other a-
gents of the executive power, &c.

The members of the legiflative body may be re-eleft-
ed to a fubfequent legillature, but not till after an in-
terval of one legiflature.

No aclive citizen can enter or vote in an aflembly
if he is armed.

The reprefentatives fliall meet on the firft Monday
of May, in the place of the fittings of the lait legifla-
ture.

The royalty is indivifible, and delegated hereditarily
to the race on the throne from male to male, by order
of primogeniture, to the perpetual c.vclufion of women
and their defcendants.

Nothing is prejudged on the effeft of renunciations
in the race on the throne.

The perfon of the king is inviolable and facred ; his
only title is king of the French.

If the king put himfelf at the head of an army, and
direft the forces of it againfl the nation, or if he do not
oppnfe, by a formal aft, any fuch enterprife undertaken
in his name, he fliall be held to have abdicated.

If the king having gone out of the kingdom, do
not return to it, after an invitation by the legiflative
body, within the fpacc which (hall be fixed by the pro-
VOL. IX. Part I.

clamation, " and which cannot be lefsthan two months,"
he fliall be held to have abdicated the royalty. '

After abdication, exprefs or legal, the king fliall be
in the<:lafs of citizens, and may be accufed and tried
like them, for afls poilerior to his abdication.

The nation makes provilion far the fpleiidour of the
throne by a civil lift, of which the legiflative body (hall
fix the fum at the commencement of each reign, for
the whole duration of that reign.

The king Is a minor till the age of 18 complete;
and during his minority there (hall be a regent of the
kingdom.

The regency belongs to the relation of the king,
next in degree according to the order of fucceflion to
the throne, who has attained the age of 25 j provided
he be a Frenchman refident in the kingdom, and not
prelumptive heir to any other crown, and have previ-
\ ioufly taken the civic oath.

The prefumptive heir fliall bear the name of Prince
Royal.

" The members of the king's family called to the
eventual fuccelTion of the throne, ihall add the deno-
mination of French Prince to the name which fliall be
given them in the ci\il aft proving their birth ; and
this name can neither be patronymic nor formed of
any of the qualifications abolilhed by the prefent conlli-
tution.

" The denomination of prince cannot be given to
any individual, and (hall not carry with it any privilege
or exception to the common right of all French citi-
zens."

To the king alone belong the choice and difmiiTion
of minirters.

" The members of the prefent national alTembly, and
of the fubfequent legiflatures, the members of the tri-
bunal of appeal, and thofe who fliall be of the high
jury, cannot be advanced to the miniftry, cannot receive
any place, gift, penfion, allowance, or comrailfion of
the executive power or its agents during the conti-
nuance of their funftions, or during two years after
ceafing to exercife them : the fame fliall be obferved re-
fpefting thole who (hall only be infcribed on the lift
of high jurors as long as their inicription (hall con-
tinue."

No order of the king can be executed if it be not
figned by him, and counterfigned by the minidcr or
comptroller of the department.

In no cale can the written or verbal order of a king
flielter a minifter from refponfibility.

The conftitution delegates exclufively to the legif.a-
tive body the po^vers and functions following ;

To propofe and decree laws — The king can only
invite the legiflative body to take an object into con-
fideration ;

To fix the public expencts ;

To eftablilh the public contributions, to determine
the nature of them, the amount of each fort, the dura-
tion, and the mode of coUeftion, &c.

War cannot be refolved on but by a decree of the
national aflembly, palTed on the formal and nccelTary
propoiition of the king, and fanftloned by him.

During the whole courfe of war, the lejjiflative body
may require the king to negotiate peace ; and the king is
bound to yield to this requilition.

It belongs to the legiflative body to ratify treaties of
R peace,

F R A [ r

Fiar.ce. peace, alliance, and commerce j aiid no treaty fliall have
"^ effeft but by thi? ratification.

'9 • The deliberations of the legiflative body fhall be
public, and the minutes of the fittings (hall be printed.

The legidative body may, however, on any occafion,
ionn itfelf into a general committee.

The plan of a decree (hall be read thrice, at three
Intervals, the fliortell of which cannot be lefs than eight
days.

The decrees of the legiflative body are prefented to
the king, who may refufe them his confent.

In cafe of a refufal of the royal confent, that refiifal
is only fufpenfive. — When the two following legifla-
tures ihall fuccelTively prefent the fame decree in the fame
terms on which it was originally conceived, the king
(hall be deemed to have given his fanclion.

The king is bound to exprels his confent or refufal
to each decree within two months after its prefenta-
tion»

No decree to which the king has refiifed his confent
can be again prefented to him by the fame legiilature.

The fupreme executive power refides excluCvely in
the hands of the king.

The king is the fupreme head of the land and fea
forces.

The king names ambalTadors, and the other agents
of political negociations.

He beftows the command of armies and fleets, and
the ranks of marflial of France and admiral ;

He names two-thirds of the rear-admirals, one-half
of the lieutenant-generals, camp-marlhals, captains of
(hips, and colonels of the national gendarmerie :

He names a third of the colonels and lieutenant-co-
lonels, and a fixth of the lieutenants of (hips :

He appoints in the civil adminift ration of the marine,
the direflors, the comptrollers, the treafurers of the
arfenals, the mafters of the works, the under mafters
of civil buildings, half of the mafters of adminiftration,
and the under mafters of conftruftion.

He appoints the commilTaries of the tribunals :

He appoints the fuperintendants in chief of the ma-
nagement of contributions indireifl, " and the admini-
flration of national domains :"

He fuperintends the coinage of money, and appoints
olEcers entruftcd with this fuperhitendance in the ge-
neral commilTion and the mints.

The effigy of the king is ftruck on all the coinage
of the kingdom.

There is in each department a fuperior adminiftra-
tion, and in each diftri£l a fubordinate adminiftration.

The adminiftrators are fpecially charged with diftri-
buting the contributions direct, and with fuperintend-
ing the money arifing from the contributions, and the
public revenues in their territory.

The king has the right of annulling fuch aAs of the
adminiftrators of department as are contrary to the
law or the orders tranfmitted to them.

He may, in cafe of obftinate difobedience, or of
their endangering, by their afts, the fafety or peace of
(he public, fufpend them from their fundions.

'l"he king alone can interfere in foreign political con-
neftions.

Every declaration of war (hall be made in thefe
terms : Bi/ the king of the French in tiie name of the na-

30 ] F R A

Tlie judicial power can in no cafe be exeicifed eitlier Fraxce»

by the legiflative body or the king. ' w

Juftice (hall be gratuitoufty rendered by judges chofen 179' •
from time to time by the people, and inl\ituted by letters
patent of the king, who cannot refufe them.

" The public accufer fhall be nominated by the
people."

" The right of citizens to determine difputes defi-
nitively by arbitration, cannot receive any infringement
from the acls of the legiflative power."

In criminal matters, no citizens can be judged ex-
cept on an accufation received by jurors, or decreed by
the legiflative body in the cafe in which it belongs to
it to profecute the accufation. '

After the accufation (hall be admitted, the fafl (hall
be examined, and declared by the jurors.

The perfon accufed (hall have the privilege of chal-
lenging 20, " without afligning any reafon."

The jurors who declare the fact (ball not be fewer
than 12.

The applicau'on of the laiv fliall be made by the
judges.

The procefs (hall be public ; " and the perfon accu-
fed cannot be denied the aid of counfel."

No man acquitted by a legal jury can be apprehend-
ed or accul'ed on account of the lame fatl.

For the whole kingdom there fhall be one tribunal
of appeal, eftablilhed near the legiflative body.

A high national court, compofed of members of the
tribunal of appeal and high jurors, (hall take cogni-
zance of the crimes of minifters, and the principal
agents of the executive power j and of crimes which
attack the general lafety of the ftate, when the legif-
lative body (hall pafs a decree of accufation.

It (hall not aflemble but on the proclamation of the
legiflative body ; " and at the diftance of 30,000 toifes
at leart from the place of meethig of the legiflative
body."

The national guards do not form a military body,
or an inflitution in the ftate ; they are the citizens
themfelves called to aflift the public force.

Officers are chofen for a time, and cannot agairj
be chofen till after a certain interval of fervice as pri-
vates.

None (hall command the national guard of more than
one diftridl.

All the parts of the public force employed for the
fafety of the ftate from foreign enemies are under the
command of the king.

Public contributions (hall be debated and (ixed every
year by the legiflative body, and cannot continue in
force longer than the laft day of the folloiving feffion,
if they are not exprelsly renewed.

" Detailed accounts of the expence of the minifte-
rial departments, figned and certi(ied by the minifters
or comptrollers-general, (hall be printed and publiflied
at the commencement of the felfions of each legifla-
ture.

" The fame (liall be done with the ftateitients of the
receipt of the dilFerent taxes, and all the public reve-
nues."

The French nation renounces the undertaking of any
war with a view of making conquefts, and will never
employ its forces againft the liberty of any people.
The conrtituting national afferably declares, " That

the

791.

295
And ac-
cepted hy
Ibe king.

F R A [ I.

Frarce. tlic nation has the imprefcriptible right of changing
" its conftitution ; and neverthelefs confidering that it

is more conformable to the national interell to employ
only by means provided in the conftitution itfclf, the
right of reforming thofe articles of it, of which expe-
rience ihall have fliown the inconveniences, decrees,
that the proceeding by an aflembly of revifion (hall be
regulated in the form following :

" When three fuccelTive legiflatures ihall have ex-
prefled an uniform wilh for the change of any conftitu-
tional article, the re\-irun demanded ihall take place.

" The next legillature, and the following, cannot
propofe the reform of any conftitutional article.

" The fourth legillature, augmented with 249 mem-
bers, chofen in each department, by doubling the or-
dinary number which it furniihes in proportion to its
population, ftiall form the aiTembly of revifion."

The French colonies and poffelTions in Alia, Africa,
•ind America, " though they form part of the French
empire," are not included in the prefent conftitution.

With refpeft to the laws made by the national af-
fembly which are not included in the aft of conftitu-
tion, and thofe anterior laws which it has not altered,
they Ihall be obferved, fo long as they ftiall not be re-
voked or modified by the legillative power.

On the 13th of September the king announced, by
a letter to the prefident of the AiTembly, his accept-
ance of the conlHtution. This event was ordered to
be notified to all the foreign courts, and the AiTembly
decreed a general amneiTy with refpecl to the ever.ts of
the revolution. On the following day the king re-
paired in perfon to the National AiTembly •, and being
conduced to a chair of ftate prepared for him at the
iide of the prefident, he figned the conftitutional acl,
and took an oath of iidelity to it. He then withdrew,
and was attended back to the Thuilleries by the whole
297 AiTembly, with the prefident at their head. On the
The ai". joth of September, this National AiTemblv, which has
ioT^d ^^"'^^ ^^^" '^"°"'" ^y ^^^ "^™^ °^ ^^^ Conjiluent 4[fem-

biy, dilTolved itfelf, and gave place to the fucceeding
Legijlalive National AJfembly, which had been elected
according to the rules prefcribed by the new conftitu-
198 . tion.
Cliara(5ler On the charafter and the labours of the Confliluenl
IfthtclT ■^■^""'''V' we (hall only remark, that it contained many
ftituent af- ""^^ °^ talents, and, in all probability, a confiderable
fcmbly. number of men of integrity. 1%\ ards the clofe of its
felTion, it aiTumed a very ftriking charatler of modera-
tion, and appears to have been completely monarchical,
although its jealoufy of the ancient ariftocracy pre-
vented it from fufticiently guarding the throne againlt
popular violence : for a very ftriking defeft in the new
conftitution foon appeared. The king polTeiTed a velo,
or negative, upon the refolutions of the legiflative bo-
dy : but this negative he was bound to exerciie in
perfon, ^vithout refponfibility, and without the inter-
vention of his minilters. He had no fenate, or upper
chamber, to lland between him and popular violence ;
and there was fomething apparently abfurd in fetting
the vote of an individual in oppoiition to the colleftive
wifdom and will of a ^vhole nation. In confequence of
this, he was reduced to the hard alternative of yielding
to every vote of the National AiTembly, or of expoling
himfelf perfonally to public odium.

The new AiTembly was opened by tlie king on the

I J

7th of oaob

F R A

"ith much apparent union on all Tiir\rr

fides. His fpeech, recommending unanimity and conii- ""^
dence between the legiftative and executive powers, was '79'-
received with unbounded applauie. The charafter of yt,."^',^
the men who compofed the new National AiTembly was afiimbly
unaufpicious to the Court. At the commencement of opened by
the revolution, the great body of the people at a dif-''"^ '^'"S-
tance from the capital were little intereftcd in thofe prO" o,'',"^'^''
jecls of freedom which occupied the more enlightened members,
or more turbulent inhabitants of Paris. They had gra-
dually, however, been roufed from their lethargy. The
variety of powers conferred by the nen- conftitution up-
on the people at large, and the multiplicity of offices of
which it gave them the patronage, had kindled in the
minds of men a love of dominion, and a wilh to inter-
fere in public aiTairs. This attacheo them to the new
order of things. The love of power, which is the leall
difgxiifed palTion in the human heart, and equally ftrong
in the breaft of the meaneft and of the higheft of man-
kind, was thus, under the name of liberty, become a
leading paiTion throughout this wide empire. They
who flattered it moft, and were moll loud in praife of
the rights of the people, became fpeedily the favourites
of the public. 1'he confequence of this was, that the
new National AiTembly was cliielly compofed of coun-
try gentlemen, of- principles highly democratic, or of
men of letters who had pubhlhed popular books,
or conducted periodical publications. The members of
the Conftituent AiTembly had been excluded by their
own decree from holding feats in the new legillature. —
The members of the latter, therefore, had little regard
for a conlfitution which they themfelves had not framed,
and which was not protefted by the venerable fanflion
of antiquity. -oo

When this AiTembly firft met, it (liowed a very Their jca-
trirJing attention to formalities, and a peevilh jealoufy '^"'y °^.
of the minifters of the crown. In the mean time, the Jj^^'^f"'|Jg
treaty of Pilnitz, already mentioned, began to be ru- crown-
moured abroad, and France was thrown into a ftate of
anxious jealoufy for the fafety of its newly-acquired
liberties. Although the Pruifians and Germans (the
eleclor of Mentz alone excepted) all continued to
temporize, the northern powers, Sweden and Rulfia,
entered into ftrift engagements to reftore the old def-
potiim of France. On the 9th of November, a decree
was paiTed, that the emigrants who, after the firft of
January next, fhould be found alTcmbled, as at prefent,
in a hortile manner, beyond the frontiers, fhould be
confidered as guilty of a conlpiracy, and fufter death ;
that the French princes, and public fundionaries, who
fhould not return before that period, fliould be puniih-
able ui the fame manner, and their property forfeited
during their owni lives. On the 1 8th, a feries of fe-
vere decrees was alfo paiTed againft fuch of the ejefted
clergy as ftill reflifed to take the civic oath. To both
thefe decrees the king oppofed his veto, or negative. —
The moderate party, who were attached to the confti-
tution, rejoiced at this as a proof of the freedom of
their fovereign. But, on the other fide, it excited a
moft violent clamour, and became the means of exciting ^q,
new fufpicions of the wilhes of the court. At this Pacific an.
time anf^vers were received from the different foreign fwers are
courts to the notification fent them of the king's ac-j!'"^'^^'
ceptance of the new conftitution. Thefe were general- j^,-„
ly conceived in a flile of caution, and avoided giving po.vere.
R 2 open

F R A

[

1791

open oitence. The emperor even prohibited all affem-
blages of emigrants within his Hates ; and the king
intimated to the AlTembly that he had declared to the
eleftor of Treves, that unlcfs the emigrants fliould
ceafe before the 1 jth of January to make hoftile prepa-
_^oj rations within his territories, he would be coniidered as
But the the enemy of France. All this, however, did not pre-
^°^"y^'J'"ferve the court from fufpicion -, for although the diffe-
^ ^ ' rent foreign courts had openly declared pacific inten-
tions, yet the French emigrants boldly afferted, that all
Europe was aftually arming in their favour. Accord-
ingly they ceafed not to folicit their equals in rank,
who ftill remained within the country, to leave it to
join ivith them in what they called the roi/a/ caufe. —
The unhappy Louis, placed between a republican
party that was gradually gathering ftrength, and an
ariftocratical party that was routing Europe to arms
againft a nation of which he was the conlVitutioiuil
chief, and a combhiation of princes juftly fufpei^ed of
wilhing to feize upon a part of his dominions, flood in
a fituation which would have perplexed the molt Ikilful
rtatefman ; and it is no proof of incapacity that he fell
a facrifice to circumftances which might have over-
whelmed any known meafure of human ingenuity. Ad-
dreffes were crowding into the Aflembly, difapproviiig
The mi- the conduft of the court. M. Montmoriu refigned ;
M. Deleffart fucceeded him ; and M. Cahier de Ger-
ville became miniller of the interior. M. du Poitail
refigned alio, and M. Narbonne fucceeded him as mi-
niller of war. In the month of November, M. BalUv's
Bia,yoralty terminated-, and the once popular La Fayette
appeared as a candidate to facceed him. But he was
fuccefsfully oppofed by M. Pction, a violent Jacobin,
and a declared republican, who was eleftcd mayor of
Paris by a great majority.

At this period the moderate men, who were friends
of the conftitution, attempted to counteraft the influ-
ence of the Jacobin club by the cflablilliment of a fi-
milar one. It derived its name from the vacant con-
vent of the Foiiillans, in which it affembled. The moft
aiflive members of the Conftituent Aflembly belonged
to it, fuch as M. M. D' Andre, Barnave, the Lameths,
Du Port, Rabaud, Sicyes, Chapelier, Thouret, La-
bord, Taleyrand, Montefquieu, Beaumetz, &c. The
Jacobins contrived to excite a riot at the place of their
meeting, which was in the vicinity of the hall of the
National AflTerably. This afforded a pretext for ap-
plying to the Aflembly for the removal of the new club.
The Aflembly (liowed their difpofition, by complying
%vith this requeft.

At the end of this year, the kingdom of France
was by no means profperous. The public revenue had
fallen far (hort of the expenditure. The emigrant no-
bilitv had carried out of the kingdom the greater part
of the current coin ; and a variety of manufafturers,
who depended upon their oftentatious luxury, were re-
duced to much diftrefs. The difpofitions of foreign
courts appeared very doubtful. The new year, how-
ever, opened with delufive profjiefls of tranquillity. —
The German princes appeared fatisfied with the mode
of compenfation which the French had offered for the
lofs of their pofleflions in Alface and Lorraine. Tiie
prince of Lovvellein accepted of an indemnification —
Th(f princes of Hohenlohe and Salm-Salm declared
themfelves ready to treat upon the Hime terras. Prince

niftry
changed.

304
The Feuil.
larsella-
blifhed to
oppofe the
Jacobin

he^in.i.ng
of 1792.

2 1 F R A

Maximilian, and the dukes of Wirtemberg and Deux- France.

Ponts, freely negociated. It is unneceflary to ftate in " '

detail the fubterfuges employed, in the mean time, by ^79^*
the crafty Leopold, for amufmg the French with the
appearances of peace. M. Deleffart, minifter for fo-
reign affairs, fell a facrifice to them, and probably to
the undecided charafter of Louis. He w.as accufed
by M. Briffot of not having given timely notice to the
National Affembly of the difpofitions of foreign powers,
and of not preffing proper mealures for fecuring the ho-
nour and fafety of the nation. A decree of accufalion
pafled againd him in his abfence. H« ivas appreher.d-
ed, tried by the high national court at Orleans, and
executed In confequence of its fentence. 30S

The fudden death of Leopold on the firft of March ^'le'leatlv
gave rife to a tranlient hope that peace might ftill be p^^^r zviA
preferved. A fufpicion of poifon fell upon the French, murder of
but it was removed by the detail of his difeafe that was the king of
fpeedily publiflicd. On the 1 6th of the fame month, Sweden,
the king of Sweden ivas wounded by a nobleman of
the name of Ankerllrom, and died on the 29th. This
enterpriiing prince had overturned the conltitution of
his own country, and he had formed the projcft of con-
ducing in perfon his troops to the frontiers of France,
and of commanding or accompanying the combined ar-
mies of Europe in their attempt to avenge the caule of
infultcd royalty. It was in a great mealure to counter-
aft this fcheme that he was affaffinated. 307

The fudden fall, however, of thefe two enemies ra- The empe. -
ther accelerated than retarded the meditated hoftilities. J!"'''' fuc^^C
The young king of Hungary, who fucceeded to the av^°^!'s^'' ^
empire, made no fccrct either of his own intentions or warlike in-
of the exillence of a concert of Princes againlt F"rance. tentions.
M. Dumourier was now at the head of the war-oflice,
M. Roland was miniller of the interior, and M. Cla-
viere minifter of finance. The .lacobins were all-power-
ful. The court gave way to the torrent. The pro-
perty of the emigrants was confifcated, referving the
rights of creditors. 'J'he Imperial miniller. Prince
Kaunilz, demanded three things of France; I ft, The
rellitution of their feudal rights to the German princes;
2dly, To reflore Avignon to the Pope, the inhabitants
of which had fome time before thrown off their allegi-
ance, and prevailed with the Conftituent Affembly to
receive their country as a part of France ; and laftly,
Prince Kaunitz demanded, that " the neighbouring
powers fliould have no rcafon for apprehenlion from the
prefent weaknefs of the internal government of France."
On receiving thefe demands, the king propofed a decla-
ration of war, which was decreed by the National Af-
fembly on the 20th of April, againlt the King uf liun-
garij and Bohemia. 3=^*

The French immediately began the war, by attack- ^"^ .
ing in three different columns the Auftrian Netherlands. Ne,h^r.
M. Theobald Dillon advanced from Lille to Tournay, lands are
where he found a llrong body of Aufl rians ready to re- unfucccfs-
ceivc him. The national troops, unaccuftomed to fuf-'^""'"''"
tain the fire of regular foldicrs, were inllantly thrown ^j'^^^p^^j^Jj^
into confufion, and fled even to the gates of Lifle. The
cry of treafin refounded ou all fides ; and their com-
mander, an experienced and faithful ofticer, was mur-
dered by his own foldicrs and the mob. A fecond di-
vifion of io,oocmen, under Lieutenant-General Biron,
took poffefiion of Q^uiverain on the 29th, and marched
towards Mons. General Biron was here attacked by

the

F R A

C 133 1

Two par-
ties ill Pa-
lis at this
period, an

the c .nfe-

France. the Auflrians, whom he repulfej. Heaiing, however,
■ ' of the defeat of Dillon, he retreated. A tliird party

^79*- advanced to Fumes, but afterwards withdrew. La
Fayette at the lame time advanced towards Bouvines,
half way to Namur, frivin which he afterwards retreated.
The whole of thei'e expeditions were ill contrived, in as
much as they divided the French undifciplined troops,
and expofed them in fmall bodies to the attack of ve-
teran forces. The Auihians were fome time before
they attempted to retaliate. At length, however, on
the nth of June, they attacked M. Gouvion, who
commanded the advanced guard of La Fayette's army
near Maubeuge. M. Gouvion ^vas killed by a rolling
bullet ; but La Fayette himlelf having come up, the
Aullrians abandoned the field. In the mean time,
-op matters Were haftening in Paris towards a violent crifis.
Two parties, both of which were hoftile to the prefent
conftitution, had gradually been formed in the ftate.
The one wilhed to give more effeftual fupport to the
royal authority, by eifablifliing a fenate or /;t'0 cham-
quences. htrs, to prevent the king's vote from being the iole
check upon popular enthufiafm. The other party
wilhed to fet afide royalty altogether, and to hazard the
bold experiment of converting France into a republic.
Thefe lalt were fupported by fhe Jacobin club, which
had now contrived to concentrate in itfelf an immenfe
mafs of inriuence. Innumerable popular focieties were
el^ablilhed in every town and village throughout the
provinces. With thefe a regular correfpondence was
kept up by writing and by emiiTaries. Thus fchemes
and notions were inftantaneoufly propagated through a
great empire, and all the violent fpirits which it con-
tained ivere enabled to act in concert : But the more
immediate engine of the republican party confifted of
the immenfe population ot the metropolis, whom they
now endeavoured to keep in conftant alarm. For this
f-iurpofe they alleged, that an Aujlrian Committee, that is
to fay, a confpiracy in favour of the enemies of the
country, exiftcd among the friends of the court. M.
M. Genfonne and Briffot even oifered in the afferably
to prove the exiftence of this pretended Aulfrian com-
mittee. A report was next circulated, that the king
intended to abfcond from the capital on the 23d of
May. His majefty publicly contradicted thefe accufa-
tions as calumnies, but they made no fmall imprelTion
upon the minds of the public. New decrees were now-
made againfl the refraclory clergy, but thefe liis m,ajefly
refufed to fanftion. A propofal was alfo made «nd de-
creed in the affcmbly to form a camp of 20,000 men
under the walls of Paris, and that for this levy every
canton in the kingdom fhould contribute one harfeman
and four infantry. The national guard of Paris dif-
liked the propofal, and the king gave to it his negative.
Indeed at this time the king feems to have come to a
rcfolution of Handing out againft the Jacobin party, to
vhich he had for fome time yielded. The minillry
were therefore difmilTed, excepting I\I. Dumouricr, and
others were appointed in their Head. By this event
Dumourier loft the confidence of the Jacobin club. He
faw his error, refigned his office, and joined the array.
In the mean time a decree had been paffed, authorifing
the manufadlory of pikes for the purpo(e of arming
cheaply the lower clafs of citizens. All means were
tifed to render the king odious by innammalcry writirgs

F R A

and harangues-, and In both of thefe t'nc noted inctn- Frincf.
diary Marat took the lead. *— v— '

On the 2Qth of June M. Roederer, the procureur '79'-
general fyndic informed the national affenibly, that, ,„-^'° ,
1 r -1111 !• f 1 'An armed

contrary to law, lormidable bodies ot armed men were mob mnrch-
preparing to prefent petitions to the king, and to the es through
national aflismbly. A part of them fpeedily appeared'*"' alTem-
with St Huruge and Santerre a brewer at their head.^'^' *"'
They marched through the hall in a proceflion that
lafted two hours, at four o'clock in the afternoon, to
the number of about 40,000. They furrounded the
Thuilleries. The gates were thrown open ; and on an
r attempt to break the door of the apartment where tin;
king then was, he ordered them to be admitted. His
filler the priuccfs Elizabeth never departed from his
fide during four or five hours that he was furrounded
by the multitude, and compelled to liften to every in-
dignity. All tliis while Petion, the mayor of Paris,
was unaccountably abfent. He at length, however,
arrived, and alfo a deputation from the alTembly. The
queen, with her children and the princefs de Lamballe,
were in the mean time in the council-chamber, where,
tliough protecfed from violence, they were yet expofed
to much infult. At laft, in confcquence of the approach
of evening, and of the entreaties of Petion, the multi-
tude gradually difperfed. 3' '

The indignities fuffercd on this day by the royal fa- Tj.'<^ """f^
mily were in fome refpeds not unfavourable to their "^||^'j^j^^j^|.^
caufe. A great number of the moft refpedablc inha-are alliam-
bitants of the capital were afliamed of fuch proceedings. eJ of fuch
They complained of them Xeverely in a petition to the conduft.
aflembly, and addrefliss to the fame purpofe were re-
ceived from feveral departments. The direftory of the
department of Paris, at the head of which xvere M.
Rochefoucault and M. Talleyrand, publilhed a declara-
tion difapproving of the condudl of the mayor, and of
M. Manuel the procureur of the commune, whom they
after^vards fufpended from their offices, although they
were fpeedily reftored by a decree of the alTembly. At
the fame time, La Fayette leaving his army fuJdenly,
appeared on the 26th at the bar of the national aflem-
bly. He declared that he came to exprefs the indig-
nation which the whole army felt on account of the
events of the 2Cth : he called upon the aCfembly to
punifti the promoters of thefe events, and to diifolve the
factious clubs. The fuddeu appearance of La Fayette
threw the Jacobins into conllernation, and from that
period they never ceafed to calumniate him. 311

On the I ft of July, on the motion of M. Jean dc The king
Brie, the alTembly ordered a proclamation to be ™^''e,of_^Pj;'j^^^*
that the country was in danger. On the 6th, the k>ngj"ainft
gave intimation that the king of PrulTia was marching France,
with 52,000 men to co-operate againft France. The
French arms were at this time fomewhat fuccefsful in
the Auftrian Netherlands •, but the cabinet fpeedily
thought it neceffary to order the armits to retreat : a
meafure which was afterwards publicly cenfured by
Marflial Luckncr. _ 313

On the 7th, a Angular fcene occurred in the nation- Moderate
al alTembly. At the inftant that M. BrilTot was about [P'^hj^of
to commence an oration, M. Lammourette biftiop of^^ Lyonn.
Lyons requcfted to be heard for a few minutes. He
expatiated on the necelTity of union among the members
of the affembly,and of facrihcing their padions ai>d pre-
judices

F R A

[ 13

3"4

Maiufello
of the
duk- of
Bijnfwick

But advan-
tageous to
the republi
can party,
who re-'
folve to de-
pofe him.

judices on the altar of their country. He couc'.aded an
animated addrefs with thefe words, " Let all who hold
in equal deteftation a republic and two chambers, and
who widi to maintain the conftitution as it is, rife !"
The words were fcarcely pronounced when the \vhole
affembly darted from their feats. Men of all parties
folemnly embraced each other, and protefted their ad-
herence to the conllitution. A deputation announced
this happy event to the king ; who immediately carae
and congratulated them in a Ihort fpeech, which was
received with infinite applaufe. The only good effect,
however, produced by this temporary agreement was,
that the fertival of the 1 4th of July, which was cele-
brated with the ufual magnificence, paffed over in tran-
quillity.

On the 25th of July, the duke of Brunfvsick ilTued
at Coblentz his celebrated manifefto. It declared the
purpofe of the intended invafion of France to be the re-
lloration of the French king to full authority. It de-
clared the national guard of France refponfible for the
prefervation of tranquillity, and threatened with the pu-
nilhment of death, as rebels to their king, thofe who
fhould appear in arms againll the allied powers. All
men holding offices, civil or military, ^vere threatened
in the fame manner, as well as the inhabitants of all
cities. The city of Paris in particular, and the national
affembly, ^vere declared refponfible for every infult which
might be offered to the royal family. It was declared,
that if they were not immediately placed in fafety, the
allies were refolved to inflid " on thofe who fliould de-
ferve it the mod exemplary and ever memorable aven-
ging punilhments, by gi^'ing up the city of Paris to
military execution, and expofing it to total deftruClion ;
and the rebels who (hould be guilty of illegal refiftance
Ihould fuffer the punifliments which they ihould have
deferved." This fanguinary and imprudent manifefto
operated as a warrant for the deftruclion of the luifor-
tunate Louis XVI. It left no middle party in the
nation. All ^vho wilhed to preferve freedom in any
form, and all who loved the independence of their
country, ^vere inftantly united. At the fame time, the
reproaches caft on the king by the Jacobins now gained
univerfal credit. The kings of Pniffia and of Hungary
told the French nation, that their monarch %vas fecretly
hoftile to the conftitution ; and the reftoration of him
and his family to defpotic power was made the fole
pretence for a bloody and dangerous war.

The republican party faw the advantage which they
had now gained, and refolved upon the dcpofition of
the king. The chief engine which they meant to em-
ploy in this fervice confifted of about 1500 men, who
had coine to Paris at the period of the confederation on
the 14th of July, and therefore caWed fcri/eres, and who
■were alfo fometimes denominated Marfeillois, from the
place from which the greater number of them carae.
Next to thefe, dependence was placed in the populace
of the fuburbs of the capital. The defigns of the re-
publicans were not unknown to the court, and both
parties were forming plans of operation. It is faid
that the royal party intended that the king and his
family (liould fuddenly leave the capital, and proceed to
as great a diftance as the conftitution permitted. The
republicans are faid to have intended to feize the perfon
of the king, and to confine him in the caftle of Vin-
cennes till a national convention (hould decide upon his

^4 ] F R A

fate. Both allegations are probably true. Every motive France.
^vhich can influence the mind of man muft have induced ' '' ''
Louis to wilh to be at a diftance from the faftious and '"P^*
fanguinary capital. And the lubfequent conduft of the
republicans authorife us to believe them capable of the
worft crime that was laid to their charge. ^j-

Various charges had been brought forward in the af- La Fayette
fembly againft La Fayette, and the 8th of Auguft ivas accufed and
appointed for their difcuflion. In the mean time, on ^"^lu'tt^"-
the 3d of Auguft, Petion the mayor, at the head of a
deputation from the fedions of Paris, appeared at the
bar, and in a folemn fpeech demanded the depofition of
the king. The difcuflion of the accufation againft La
Fayette ^vas confidered as a trial of ftrength between
the parties : he was acquitted, however, by a majority
of nearly 200; and the republican party, defpairing of
carrying their point by a vote of the national affemoly,
refolved to have recourfe to infurredion and force.

On the evening of tlie 9th of Auguft, about 1 500 Horirid plot
gentlemen, ofticers of the army, and others, repaired to of the re-
the palace, refolved to protect the royal family or to publicans,
die in their defence : added to thefe w^ere 700 Swifs
guards, -ivith a body of cavalry amounting to about
1 000. Rlandat, the commander of the national guards,
a man who was firmly attached to the conftitution, had
procured 2400 of that body and 12 pieces of cannon.
With fuch a force, it has been generally thought that,
by vigorous and fteady councils, the palace, ^vhich is a
kind of caftle, might have been fuccefsfully defended ;
and what is now called a revolution might have born
the name of a rebellion. Meanwhile the affembly de-
clared its fittings permanent. Petion was at the palace
late on the evening of the 9th. Some apprehenfions
were entertained, or pretended to be entertained, for his
fafety (for the \vhole of this bufinefs was, on the part
of the republicans, the moft infernal plot), and a depu-
tation from the auembly brought him away. At mid-
night the tocfin or alarm bell was founded, and the
drums beat to arms through the city. At this inftant
a number of the moft active leaders of the republican
party affembled, and elected a new common council or
commune. The perfons thus irregularly chofen inftantly
took poffeflion of the common hall, and ^rove out the
lawful members ; who, with that weakncfs with which
men are apt to ftirink from ftations of refponfibility in
perilous times, readily gave place to the ufurpers. The
new commune fent repeated meflages to M. Mandat,
requiring his attendance upon important bufinefs. He
was occupied in arranging the troops in the beft order
around the palace ; but lufpecting nothing, he went to
the common hall, and was there aftoniftied to find a dif-
ferent affembly from what he expeded. He was
abruptly accufed of a plot to maffacre the people, and
ordered to prifon ; but as he defcended the flairs, he
was ftiot ^vith a plftol, and Santerre was appointed in
his ftead to command the national guard.

On this eventful night no perfon in the palace went
to bed. About fix o'clock in the morning of the loth
the king defcended into the gardens to review the
troops. He was received with Ihouts of Vhe le roi, ex-
cepting from the artillery, who ftiouted Vive la nation.
The lung returned to the palace, and the multitude
continued to collect. The national guard feeraed un-
determined about what they \vere to do, as they affem-
bled in divifions near the palace ; and had a fteady re-
fiftance

iI9
The royal
family fly
for fate I y
to the hall
of the na-
tional af-
femblv.

A bloody
confliA in
the palace,
in which
mod of the
Swifs-

32»
The royal
authority
fufptndcd,
»nd royal
family im-
prifoncd.

F R A [I

finance been made from within, it is probable tlicy
would have joined the royal party. But towards eight
o'clock M. Roederer procured admittance to the pa-
lace, and told the king that armed mukitudes were al-
fembling in hoftile -array around the Thuilleries ; that
the national guard was not to be depended upon ; and
that, in cafe of reCftance, the whole royal family would
moll certainly be malTacred. He thtrefore advifed the
king to feek protecKon in the hall of tlie national af-
■fcmbly. With tliis ad\-ice the king, with his ufual fa-
cility of temper, was ready to comply ; but the queen
oppofed «ith vehemence the humiliating propofal. Be-
coming gradually, however, alarmed tor the fafety of
her children, llie gave her conl'eut ; and the king and
queen, the princefs Elizabeth, with the prince and
princefs royal, went on foot to the hall of the aflembly.
" I am come hither (faid his majelty) to prevent a
great crime. Among you, gentlemen, 1 believe mylelf
in fafety." By an article of the conllitution the alVem-
bly could not deliberate in prefence of the king. The
royal family were, therefore, placed in a narrow box fe-
parated from the hall by a railing, where they remain-
ed for I 4. hours without any place to which they could
retire for refrelhment, excepting a very fmall clofet ad-
joining. Here they fat liltening to debates, in which
tlie royal character and oiHce were treated with every
mark of infult.

When the king left the palace of the ThuiUeries,
he unfortunately forgot to order it to be immediately
furrendered. He recoUefled this as foon as he reached
the aflembly, and lent orders for this purpofe ; but it
was no^v too late. The infurgents amounted to about
20,000 effecl:ive men. They were drawn up in tolera-
ble order by Wellerman a Prullian, and had about 30
pieces of cannon along with them. The gentlemen
within the palace, who had aflembled to protect the
king's perfon, were now difpiritcd, and knew not what
part to act. The commander of the Swifs, M. Affry,
was abfent, and the captains knew not what to do -, and
the national guard had no leader in confequence of the
death of Mandat. About nine o'clock the outer gates
were forced open •, and the infurgents formed their line
in front of the palace. A bloody combat commenced
chiefly between the IMarfeillois and the Svvifs. After
a brave refiltance of about an hour, the Swifs were over-
po^vered by numbers, and gave away. All of them that
could be found in the palace were maflacred ; fome
even while imploring quarter on their knees. Others
efcaped into the city, and were protected by indi\idu-
als. Of this brave regiment, however, only 200 furvi-
ved ; but every human being, even the loweft fervants
found in the palace, were put to death. The Swils
taken prifoners in various quarters were conducted to
the door of the alTerably, and taken by a decree under
the proteiSion of the itate. But the fanguinary multi-
tude indited upon putting them to inltant death ; and
the aflembly would, in all probability, have been unable
to protect them, had not the Marfeillois interfered in
their favour.

'I'he fufpenfion of the royal authority was now de-
creed, and the nation was invitetl to eleft a Convention
to determine the nature of its future government. On
this uncommon occafton all Frenchmen of 21 years of
age were declared capable of ele£ling, and of being
elected, deputies to the new national Convention. Com

35 ]

F R A

miflioners were, in the mean time, lent on the fame France.

evening to give to the armies a falfe and favourable ac- ' ^ '

count of thefe tranla6tions. The royal family were ^792'
fent to the old palace of the Temple in the midft of the
city, to remain there under a Itrift guard j and all per-
fons of rank who had been attached to them were fei-
zed and committed to the different prifons. -j2

To give an idea of the temper of the people of Pa- Bloody
ris at this time, it is proper to remark, that at the fame^^'^f'"' °;
inltant when the multitude with a bloody fury was maf-g^pPJ°''''*
facring the menial iervants in the palace, and could &.c. '
fcarcely be reltrained from offering violence to the
Swifs who were made prifoners, they would fuffcr no
act of pillage to pais unpunilhtd. Several attempts of
this kind were accordingly followed by the inflant
death of the criminals. The plate, the jewels, and
money found in the Thuilleries were brought to the
national aflembly, and thrown down in the hall. One
man, whofe drefs and appearance belpoke extreme po-
verty, call upon the table an hat full of gold. — But the
minds of thefe men were elevated by enthuliafm ; and
t!;ey conceived themfelves at tliis moment the cham-
pions of freedom, and objects of terros to the kings of
the earth. _ _ 3,3

In the mean time, the fituation of France was ex- Critical (i-

tremelv critical, and it appeared very doubtful if the'^^"°," *?'

Ill c ■T 1 rr 1 1 the whole

neiv convention would ever be lunered to auemble.j^;„ Jq[„_

La Fayette had accidentally got fpeedy notice of the
events of the l =th of Augufl. He advifed the magi-
Itrates of the town of Sedan to imprifon the commilfion-
ers from the national alTcmbly when they ihould arrive
there •, which was accordingly done. He, at the fame
time, publilhed an addrefs to his army, calling upon -j^
them to fupport the king and the conllitution j but La Fayette'
finding that they were not to be depended upon, on the\*"t'«'''**» '
19th of Auguft he left the camp in the night, accompa-'J'°™^' .
nied only by his ftaff and a few fervants. They took f^j^j^j
the route of Rochefort in Liege, wliich was a neutral characlcr.-
country ; but were met by a party of the enemy, who
took them prifoners, and La Fayette was detained for
feveral years in PrulTian and Aullrian dungeons. The
fevere treatment of this man was probably a confider-
able error in policy on the part of the allies. His fide-
lity to his king is very generally admitted ; though fome
have entertained Itrong i'ufpicions of his having afted a
very bale part to that unfortunate monarch ; and in the
Britilh houfe of commons he has been called an abandon-
ed mffian. The expreflion is certainly too llrong. His
errors lecm to have been thole ol the head rather than of
the heart; and at all events, he Ihould have been protected
by the allies, if for no other rcafon than to encourage
fubfequent defertions among the oflicers of the republi-
can army.

To return from this digreflTion. The commiffioners
were foon fet at liberty at Sedan, and received with ap-
plaufe by the army of La Fayette. General Arthur
Dillon at firlt entered into the I'cntiments of La Fayette ;
but the politic Dumouritr diverted him from his pur-
pofe, and by this means regained his credit with the
Jacobins, and was appointed commander in chief. The
other generals, Biron, Montefquieu, Kellcrman, and
Cuftine, made no oppofition to the will of the national
aflembly.

Meanwhile, the combined armies of Auftria and
PrulTia had entered France. The duke of Brunfwick's

army

F R A

I 136 ]

F R A

(792.

France
in great

3»7
Horrid
maflacres.

•snny was-sbcve 50,000 ftrong. General Clairfait had
joined liim with 1 5,000 Auftrians, and a confiderable
body of Heflians, along with 20,coo French emigrant;. •,
sitnounting in all to 90,000 men. To oppofe thefe,
D-jmourier had only 17,000 men colkfted near the
point from which the enemy were approaching in
Luxembourg. The French emigrants had given the
duke of Brunfwick fuch an account of the diftrafted
flate of their own country, and of the pretended difaf-
feflion of all orders of men towards the ruling faftion
in P.^ris, that no refiflance of any importance was e\--
pecled. When the combined troops, confiding either
of Heady Aullrian or Hungarian battalions, or of thofe
well difciplined Pm^Tians which the great Frederick
had inured to the bell mihtary difcipline, were reviewed
in Germany before letting out on their march, it is
fa!d that the fpeftators, among whom the French caufe
was not unpopular, beheld them with anxiety and re-
gret, ar.d pitied the unhappy country againft which
this irrefiftble force was directed. The foldiers and
their officers regarded themfelves as departing for a
hunting match, or an excurlion of pleafure ; and many
of the ufu^l accommodations of an army were ill attend-
ed to, fuch as hofpitals, &c. The beginning of their
progrefs Into France juftified thefe expeftations. Long-
wy Surrendered after a fiege of 15 hours, although well
fortified, poffeffed of a garrilbn of 3 500 men, and de-
fended by 71 pieces of cannon. The news of this
event irritated the aflembly fo much, that they decreed,
that, when retaken, the houfes of the citizens ihould
be razed to the ground ; and, diftrullful of the officers
of the army, they decreed that the municipal officers of
a town (liould hereafter have power to controul the de-
liberation of the council of ^var. Verdun ^vas next
fummoned •, and here the municipality compelled the
governor M. Beaurepaire to furrender. That officer,
difappointed and enraged, fliot himfelf dead with a pl-
flol in prefence of the council, and on the 2d of Sep-
tember the Pruffian troops entered the town.

The news of this fecond capture, and of the ap-
proach of the PruiTians, fpread an inftant alarm
through Paris. It was propofed to raife a volunteer
army, which ffiould fet out immediately to meet the
enemy. The common council, which was no\\- led bj
Jlobe'fpierre, Danton, Marat, and others of tlie molt
fanguinary characler, ordered the alaiTngunsto be fired,
and the populace to be fummoned to meet in the
Champ de Mars to enroll themfelves to march againft
the enemy. The people afftmbled, and either in con-
fequence of a premeditated plan, or, which is not very
probable, of an inftantaneous movement, a number of
voices exclaimed, that " the domeftic foes of the na-
tion ought to be deftroyed before its foreign enemies
were attacked."

Parties of armed men proceeded ^vithout delay to
the prifons where the non-juring clergy, the Swifs offi-
cers, and thofe confined fince the 10th of Auguft on
account of practices againft the ftate, were detained in
cuftody. They took out the prifoners one by one,
gave them a kind of mock trial before a jury of them-
felves, acquitted fome fe'.'.-, and murdered the reft. A-
mong thefe laft was the vrincefs de Lamballe. She
was taken from her bed before this bloody tribunal, and
maffacred ; her head v.-as carried by the populace to the
Xemple, to be feen by the qvieen, whofc friend {he was.

Thefe maflacres lafted for two days, and upwards of Frsi-.-;
1000 perfons were put to death. There is fcarce any ' ' ^
thing in hiflory that can be reprefented as parallel to ^79"
them ; they were committed, it is fald, by lefs than
300 men, in the midft of an immenfe city, whicli
lieard of them with horror, and in the vicinity of the
national aflembly, which, by going in a body, could
have put an end to them. But fuch was the confutun
and difmay of thefe two difgraceful days, that no ni;:n
dared to liir from his own houle ; and every one belie-
ved that the whole city, excepting his own ftreet, was
engaged in malTacre and bloodlhtd. The national
guards were all ready at their refpedive pofts, but no
man direfted them to aft : and there is too much rea-
fon to fufpeft that Santerre and the chiefs of the com-
mune connived, at leaft, at the tranfaftion. .
In the mean time. General Dumourier was taking state of
the beft raeafures to protraft the march of the enemy the French
till the army of Kellerman, confifting of 20,00c men, array, and
could join him from Lorraine, and that of BournonvlUe ""''"'^ "^
irom tlanders, amountmg to 13,000; togctner with ri^ r.
whatever new levies Luckner might be able to fend
him from Chalons. The foreft of Argonne extends
from north to fouth upivards of 40 miles ; it lay direct-
ly in the route of the duke of Brunfwick, who muft
either force his way acrofs it, or make a circuit of 40
miles by the pafs of Grandpre on the north, or by Bar-
leduc on the fouth. The pafs that lay direftly in his
route ivas that of Blefine. After fiuveying Dillon's
pofition here, he left a party of 20,coo men to ivatch
it ; and \vith the main body of his anny took the cir-
cuitous rout by Grandpre on the north. Here Du- xi^e p„f.
mourier waited to receive him, and ^vas attacked on the fians oblige
12th and 13th without fuccefs : but on the 14th, the li'm^o re-
attack of the Pruffians was irrefiftible, and Dumourier ^''^^^' **"*
retreating, gave up the pafs. On his march he was fo ^^^ y_
violently preiTed by the advanced cavalry of the Pi-uf- their ad-
Cans, that his army, at one time, was fcized with a pa- vantage,
nic, and tied before 1500 men ; who, if they had pufli-
ed their advantage, might have dilperfed it. On the
15th, however, Dumourier encamped at St Menehould,
and began to fortify it. Bournonville's army joined
Dumourier on the 17th. The duke of Brunfwick
formed a plan of attacking Kellerman before his junc-
tion could be completed. That general arrived on the
1 9th witliin a mile of Dumourier's camp ; the project-
ed attack took place ; the Pruffians manoeu^Ted with
their ufual coolnefs and addrefs j they attempted to
furround Kelierman's army, but this could not be ac-
compliftied. The French troops preferved excellent
order, while the national vivacity was conftantly lho^^■-
ing itfeli in their Ihouts and patriotic fongs : 400
French were killed, and 500 ivounded ; the lofs of
the Pruflians was much greater : and, in the face of
the enemy, Kellerman joined Dumourier at tlie end of
the engagement without oppofitlon. At the time that
the attack was made on the anny of Kellerman, an at-
tempt was made to force Dillon's camp at Biefme by
the 20,000 men that had been left in its vicinity, but
without fuccefs ; and this large detachment was thus
prevented from crofting the foreft of Argonne and join-
ing the duke of Brunfwick. It is to be obferved, that
in thefe engagements the French owed their fuperiority
chiefly to the excellence of -their artillery ; a circimi-
ftance which ferved to convijice their enemies that they

had

F R A [ r

liad to contend with regular military bodies, and not
' with undifciplined multitudes, as they expefted.

The duke of Bninfuick encamped his army at La
Lun, near the camp of Dumourier. And here the
Pruflians began to be in extreme dillrefs both from
ficknefs and famine. No temptation could induce the
inhabitants of the country to carry provifions to the
hoftlle camp, uhile at the fame time the French army
was abundantly fupplied.

Bournonnlle, with a body of 4C00 men, intercepted
fcveral droves of cattle and other convoys of provifions
dellined for the Pruflians. The rain fell in torrents,
and the roads were uncommonly deep. Expofed to the
cold, the moillure, and want of pronlions, the PrulTians
ralhly ate great quantities of the grapes of Champagne.
'i'he confequence of this was, that an epidemical diilem-
per commenced and fpread through the army to fuch an
extent, that 10,000 men at one time were unfit for duty.
The duke 01 Brunfuick, however. Hill commanded a
force much more numerous than that of Dumourier ;
and he has been much cenfured for not attacking his
camp, and forcing him to engage. It has been faid
that the veteran and numerous force which he com-
manded would have marched to certain vidlory a-
gainft the raw troops that oppofed them •, that, ha-
ving defeated Dumourier's army, there was nothing
to oppofe their, march to Paris. But the duke of
Brunfwick had entered France upon the fuppofition,
that in its prefent diftracled llate no regular army could
be brought into the field againll him, and that the
people at large were hoftile to the ruling failion. The
contrary of all this had turned out to be true. He
found himfelf in the midl\ of an holtile people, and op-
pofed by fldlfu! military chiefs. A defeat in fuch a
fituation would have brought certain ruin to his array ;
and even the lofs fuilained in the acquifition of a victo-
ry miglit have proved equally fatal. The remains of
the French army would not fail to hang upon his rear ;
and from the difpofition of the people it appeared ira-
polfible to afcertain to what amount that army might
be luddenly increafed. After propofmg a truce, there-
fore, which lafted eight days, he commenced his retreat
touards Grandpre, and no advantage was gained over
him in the courfe of it. Verdun was retaken by the
French on the 12th of October, and Long-\y on the
18th ; the fiege of 'I'hion^'ille was af the fame time raifed.
That fmall, but ilrong fortrefs, under the command of
General Felix Wimpfen, had held in check an army of
15,000 men.

While the Pruflians were advancing from the north-
eaft, the Auftrians under the duke of Saxe Tefchen
. laid fiege to Lille. The council-general of the com-
mune anfwered the furamons of the beiiegers thus : " We
have jurt renewed our oath to be faithful to the nation,
and to maintain liberty and equality, or to die at our
port. We will not perjure ourfelves." Such was the
cant of thefe men who had already perjured themfelves
by contributing to overturn the conftitutioi\ which they
had repeatedly fworn to defend. The Auilrian batte-
ries began to play upon thetomi on the 29th, and were
chielly direfted againft that quarter which was inhabi-
ted by the lower clafs of citizens, for the purpofe of ma-
king them mutinous and feditious. This procedure was
ill judged. The lower claflfes of mankind are alway.s
much accuflomed to hardlhips, and they go fartheft in

Vol. IX. Part l.

o7 ] F R A

Ripport of any ejithuriadic principle lliey liavc been Tialic-.
perfuaded to adopt. Accordingly, though a great part <r—~<

of the city was reduced to a he;ip of ruins, the citizens '792-
of Lille became daily more obflinate. They received
each other into the houfes that were ftill ftaiiding, and
every vault and cellar was occupied. Although up-
wards of 30,000 red-hot balls and 6000 bombs were
thrown into the city, bcfides the efforts made by an im-
raenfe battering train of artiUeiy, yet tlie lofs both to the
garrifon and people did not exceed 500 perfons, moft of
whom were women and cliildren. After a fortnight
of fruitlefs labour the Aulbians ralftd the fiege.

War had been declared againft the king of Sardiiiia War dxf-
on account of the thre.itening appearances exhibited inclarcJ .■<-
that quarter. On the 20th of September General >i?'"1 '.l"^
Montefquieu entered tlie territories of Savoy, and "aSj'"!;"!^
received at Chambery and throughout the whole javoy t.i'.
country with marks of unbounded welcome. On the ken, fcc.
:9th General Anfelm, with another body of troops,
took pofTetrion of Nice and the country around it. O.i
the 30th General Cuftine advanced to Spires, when he
found the Aullrians drawn up in order of battle. He-
attacked and drove them through the city, taking 3000
of them prifoners. The capture of Worms fucceeded
that of Spires ; Mentz furrendercd by capiculation ; and
Franckfort fell into the hands of the French on the 23d.
Out of this lall place, however, they were afterivards
driven on the 2d of December. ^.^

On the 20ta of September tlie French National Con- The n»-
'iiention affembled. It was found to contain men of all ti^inai con.
charafters, orders, and ranks. . Many diftinguidied ^^^_^'jj^^ "'^^
members of the ConJJitiiting Aflcmbly were eleftcd into " '
it, and alfo feveraj. that had belonged to the Legi/lalive
Aflembly ; even foreigners were in\'ited to become
French legitlators. The famous Thomas Paine and Dr
PriefUey of England were elefled by certain depart-
ments ; but the latter declined accepting. Clouts, a
Pruflian, whom we formerly noticed as bringing a de-
putation to the bar of the conftituent affembly, coirfift-
ing of perfons reprefenting all the nations of the earth,
w^as alfo chofen. The general afpecl of the new conven-
tion fhowcd that the republican party had acquired a de-
cided fuperiority. On the firft day of meeting M. Collot ^, ^l^_
d'Hcrbois, who had formerly been an aftor, afcendcd^rets the e-
the tribune, and propofed the eternal abolition of roy-\.e.xm\a.ho-
alty in France. The queftion was carried by acclama- htion of
tion, and the houfe adjourned. Meflages were fent to [p'*">' '"

,, r 1 •' ■ . 1 , II France,

all parts ol the country to intimate the decree, and by

the influence of the Jacobins they were everywhere re-
ceived uith applaufc. It was next day decreed, that
all public acts (hould be dated by the year of the French
republic ; and all citizens were declared eligible to all
the vacant otiices and places. The rage of republica-
nifm foon went fo far, that the ordinary titles of Mon-
fieur and Madame were aboliflied, and the appellation
of Citizen fubllituted in their Head, as more fuitablc to
the principles of liberty and equality. — It may be re-
marked, that in this lafl trilling circumftance an at-
tachment to the form of fpeech to which they had been
accuflomed appears even in its abolition : For, al-
though the Roman cnrators addrelTed their countrymen
when aflcmbled by the honourable appellation of Citi-
zens, yet they never, in accolVmg an individual, called
him Citizen Cato, or Citizen Cxfar, accordi:>g to th:
mode nov,- adopted in France.

S It

1792.

pofite frj
tions in i

F R A [13

Trance. It ivas foon dilcoyered that tlie leading republicans
~ had divided into two oppofite faclions. The one of
thefe was called GiromliJU, becaufe Vergiiiaud, Gen-
fonne, Guadet, and fome others of its leaders, were mem-
.. bers from the department of La GIrondc. The celc-
he brated Condorcet belonged to thispiiny ; and tlicy were
J"- fometimes denominated B/-;'//o'/.v.'t.r, fmni 7\I. Eriflot de
Warville their principal leader, 'i'iicy iupported tile
niiniftry now in office, at the head of which was Ro-
land ; and the majority of the convention was obvioully
attached to them. In oppoiition to theie was the
fmaller party of the Mountain : fo called from its mem-
bers ufually fitting in the convention on the upper leats
of the hall. They were men poffefled of kfs perfonal
refpeclabillty, and fewer literary accomplilhments, but
of daring and fanguinary characters, whom the revolu-
tion had brout^ht Into ijublic ni ticc At

this party were Danto:
dinate to thefe were C.
lin de Thionville, bt \
bot, CoIIot Y)-A / .
CEglantlne, \\. .

Thefe two \. •:'.'-.
ters in the man;.
the 2d and _^a
the majority
murderers to t

Xainft ths
emigrants,
&c.

3.39
Battle of
Jemappe,
and furrc
de
Auftrian
Nether-
lands.

the

le head of

rie ; and Inbor-

'.'hiiriot, Mer-

i -. ni.Tallns, Cha-

Legetidre, Fabrc

, :ri 0.., MiriiuaUicresof

V ,.:.,., :.s, with
I . :-, '■. . . i ; I iunig the
/lit tl:e queliion v. as ahvays eluded
by the other party, with the afliftance of the Jacobin
club and of the popuiace.

On the 9th of Oclober it was decreed, that all emi-
grants, -when taken, ihould fuller death ; and on the 1 jlh
of Nove.liber, in confe<]uence of an inlurreiSiion in tb.e
duchy of Deax F-nts, ,-,A .:, , ,'".,,;!, ,,1 on tlie part of
theinfurgentst«thcr(;:r, . : 1 ;.•. 'lie following de-

cree was pailed : '■ 'I'lic 1 . . .: ■, iitlon declare, in
the name of the Freiu U iL.tiuii, iii.it iluy \vlll grant fra-

ternitv ani.

ilTiilii

pcnp,

With t<l

procure Ji'icrt\ ; aiul tluy charge the r\ecutn-c powcr
to fend orJ-.vi to the i^cncrals lo give adillancc to luch
people as have fuffered, or are now fuffering, in tile
caufe of liberty." Of this decree foreign nations, with
great reafon, complained much, as will ihortly appear.
To return to the military affairs of the ne^v repub-
lie. On the 12th of Oclober General Dumourler
. came to Paris, and was Ipcedily lent to commence a
winter campaign in the Netherlands. He fuddenly at-
taclied the Auftrians at the village of Bofiu, and drove
them from theif ground. On the 5th of November he
came in fight of the enemy upon the lieights of "je-
mapfie. Three rows of fortifications arofe above each
other, defended by 100 pieces of cannon. Their rigKt was
covered by the village and a river, and their left by
thick woods. The French were by their o-ivn account
30,000, whilft others with great probability of truth
compute them at double that number, and the number
of the Auftrians was at leafl 20,000. At feven in the
morning of the following day a heavy cannonade com-
menced on both fides, and at noon a clofe attacii was
determined on by the French, whofe right wing was
commanded by Generals Bonrnonville and Dampierie
and the centre by Generals Egalile (fon to the duke
of Orleans who had affumed that name), Stetenboffe,
Defporets, and Drauct. The mufic played the popu-
lar march of the Marfellois, and the foldiers rufted on
with enthufiafm, lhoutin<: " Vive la nation." The en-

! ] FRA

gagement was warm and bloody ; the French were France,
twice repulfed •, but their impetuofity was at lall irre- '■~~v— '
fillible, and about two o'clock the enemy fled from '79^'
their laft entrenchments. The lols on both fides
was very great, that of the Auftrians amounting to
40C0. This viftory was declfive of the fate of the
Netherlands. Rlons and BrulTels furrendered to Du-
mourler J Tournay, IMalines, Ghent, and Antwerp,
were taken pofl'eflion of by General Labourdonnaye ;
Louvain and Namur were taken by General Valence ;
and the whole Auftrian Netherlands, Luxembourg only
e.xcepted, fell into the hands of the French : Liege
was taken on the 28th of November after a fucceisiul
engagement, in which the Auftrians loft 5 or 600 men
and an immenfe train of artillery.

France was now in a fituation not unufual in the hi- violent
ftory of thofe nations that either are free, or are at-contells be.
tempting to become fo; fuccefsful in all quarters abroad, '^Y^*'''''
butdiftrafted by faaions at home. The two parties ^^7"^^"°
in the convention were engaged in a Itruggle, which Mountain,
daily became more implacable. The party called the
Muiintain did not helitate about the nature of the means
they were to employ to bring about the ruin of their
antagonifts. They are even fuipeflied of having, through
the medium of Pache the war-miniftcr, retarded the
fupply of the armies, to render the ruling party odious
by want of furccfs. Thev \vere for Ibme time, how-
ever, uniuitiiiiate in this relpecl ; and the daily news of
viclorics fiin|)ortcd with the public the credit of the
Girondills. j'v ir-u- lubjecl was therefore fallen upon,
which ^v,l^ I'lj i|uJ! ion, how the dethroned king was
to be dil, olrtl I r Tiic moderate party wilhed to fave
him •, and tlii^ isv;. a iiifticient reafon for their antago-
nifts to refolve upon his ruin. A committee was ap-
pointed to give in a report upon his condufl. A va-
riety of accur.iliuns \vere brought againft him ; and the
coiivtntii)n infamuuliy rcfolved to a61; the part oF ac-

It was on tlie iitli of December when the ill-fated The kiri;
monarch was ordered to the bar of the convention : thel'roughii^
a6l of accufation was read, and the king was fummon- '^"'''•
ed by the preildent, Barrere, to anfwer to each feparate
charge.

I'rcf. " Louis, the French nation accufes you of
liaving committed a multitude of crimes to eftablifli
your tyranny, in deftroying her freedom. You, on the
20th of .June 1789, attempted the iovereignty of the
people, by fufpending the afiemblles of their reprefen-
tatives, and expelling them \vith violence from the places
of their fittings. This is proved in the proeefs verbal
entered at the 'l'enni--court of Vcrfailles by the members
of the conftiiuLiit uirenibly. On the 23d of June you
ivanted to ilicliiti: l.i'.vs to the nation; you furrounded
their repiefentativi.^ with troops; you prefented to
them two royal declarations, fubverfive of all liberty,
and ordered them to feparate. Your own declarations,
and the minutes of the aflcmbly, prove thefe attempts.
What have you to aiifwer ?"

Louis. " No laws were then e.xiffing to prevent mc
from it."

Pre/. '• You ordered an army to march againft the
citizens of Paris. Your fatellitcs have flied the blood
of fcvcral of them, and you \vould not remove this army
till the taking of the Eaftile and a general infurre<Jli<m
announced to you that the people were viiSorious. I'he
■ fpeei;hes

F Tv A [ 1

fpeeches you made on the gth, 12th, nnt! 14th of July
' to the deputations of the conftituent aflembly, ihew what
^vere your intentions ; and the maflacres of the Thuille-
rics rife in evidence againft you. — What have you to
anfwer ?"

Louis. " I was mafter at that time to order the
troops to march j but I never had an intention of flied-
ding blood."

Pre/. " After thefe events, and in fpite of the promifes
which you made on the 15th in the coiiftituent affem-
biy, and on the 17th in the to«ni-houfe of Paris, you
liave perfifted in your pvojefts againft national liberty.
You long eluded the execution of the decrees of the
llth of Auguft, rcfpeding the abolition of perfonal
fervitude, the feudal government, and tythes : you
long refufed acknowledging the rights of man : you
doubled the number of the life-guards, and called the
regimer.t of Flanders to Verfailles : you permilled, in
orgies held before your eves, the national cockade to
be trampled under foot, the white cockade to be hoift-
ed, and the nation to be llandered. At laft, you ren-
dered neceflary a freih infurreftion, occafioned the death
of feveral citieens, and did not change your language
till after your guards had been defeated, when you re-
newed your perfidious promifes. The proofs of thefe
fafts are in your obervations of the 1 8th of Septem-
ber, in the decrees of the nth of Auguft, in the mi-
nutes of the conftituent alfeml-'-y, in the events of Ver-
ikiiles of the 5th and 6th of October, and in the con-
verfation you had on the fame day with a deputation of
the conftituent aflembly, ivhen you told them you would
enlighten yourfelf v.ith their councils, and never re-
cede from them. — What have you to anfwer ?"

Loiiu. " I have made the obfervations which I
thought juft on the two firft heads. As to the cockade,
it is falfe ■, it did not happen in my prefence."

Pre/. " You took an oath at the federation of the
14th of July, which you did not keep. You foon
tried to corrupt the public opinion, with the aftiftance
of Talon who acted in Paris, and Mirabeau who was
to have excited counter-revolutionary movements in the
provinces. — \Miat have you to anfwer f"

Louis. " I do not know what happened at that time ;
but the whole is anterior to my acceptance of the con-
ftitution."

Pre/. " You la\'illied millions of money to eifecl this
corruption, and you would even ufe popularity as a
means of enflaving the people. Thefe fafts are the re-
fult of a memorial of Talon, on which you have made
your marginal comments in your own hand-writing, and
of a letter which Laporte wrote to you on the 1 9th of
April ; in which, recapitulating a converfation he had
with Rivarol, he told you, that the millions which you
had been prevailed upon to throw away had been pro-
duiftive of nothing. For a long time you had medi-
tated on a plan of efcape. A memorial was delivered
to you on the 28th of February, which pointed out
the means for you to efifeft it ; you approve of it by
marginal notes. — What have you to anfwer ?"

Louis. . " I felt no greater plcafure than that of re-
lieving the needy : this proves no delign."

Pre/. " On the 28th a great number of the nobles
and military came into your apartments in the caftle of
the ThiiiUeries to favour that efcaf e : you wanted to

39 1 F R A

quit Paris on the loth of April to go to St Cloud. —
What have you to anfwer r"

Louis. " This accufation is abfurd."

Pre/. " But the refiftancc of the citizens made you
fenfible that their diftruft was great ; you endeavoured
to difcard it by communicating to the conftituent af-
fembly a letter, which you addreffed to the agents of
the nation near foreign powers, to announce to them
that you had freely accepted the conftitutional articles,
which had been prefented to you; and, notwithftanding,
on the 21ft you took flight with a falfe paflport. You
left behind a proteft againft thefe felfTame conftitutional
articles ; you ordered the minifters to fign none of the
afts iffued by the National Aflembly ; and you forbade
the minifter of juftice to deliver up the feals of ftate.
The public money was laviflied to infure the fuccefs of
this treachery, and the public force was to protedl it,
under the orders of Bouille, who ftiortly before had
been charged with the mafiacre of Nancy, and to whom
you wrote on this head, " to take care of his popula-
rity, becaufe it would be of fervice to you." Thefe
faiils are proved by the memorial of the 23d of Febru-
ary, with marginal comments in your own hand-^vri-
ting ; by your declaration of the 20th of June, ^vholly
in your own hand-writing ; by your letter of the 4th
of September 1790 to Bouille ; and by a note of the
latter, in which he gives you an account of the ufe he
made of 993,000 livres, given by you, and employed
partly in trepanning the troops who were to efcort you.
— What have you to anfwer ?"

Louis. " I have no kno^vledge whatever of the me-
morial of the 23d of February. As to what relates to my
journey to Varennes, I appeal to my declaration to the
coramiiTaries of the conftituent aflembly at that period."

Pre/. " After your detention at Varennes, the exer-
cife of the executive power was for a moment fufpend-
ed in your hands, and you again formed a confpiracy.
On the 17th of .July the btood of citizens was ftied in
the Champ de Mars. A letter, in yoiu- own hand-
writing, written in 1790 to La Fayette, proves that a
criminal coalition fubfifted between you and La Fayette,
to which Mirabeau acceded. The revifion began under
thefe cruel aufpices ; all kinds of corruj'tions were made
ufe of. You have paid for libels, pamphlets, and newf-
papers, deigned to corrupt the public opinion, to dif-
credit the affignats, and to fupport the caufe of the emi-
grants. The regifters of Septeuil fliew what imnienfe
fums have been made ufe of in thefe liberticide ma-
noeuvres.— ^\niat have you to anfwer ?

L^ouis. " What happened on the 17th of July has
nothing at all to do with me. I know nothing of it."

Pref. " You feenied to accept the cotiftitution on the
1 4th of September ; your fpeeches announced an inten-
tion of fupporting it, and you were bufy in overturning
it, even before it ivas completed. A convention was
entered into at Pilnitz on the 24th of July, be'lween
Leopold of Auftria and Frederic -William of Branden-
burgh, who pledged themfelves to re-ereft in France
the throne of abfolute monarchy, and you were filent
upon this convention till the moment when it was known
by all Europe. — What iiave you to anfwer ?"

Louis. " I made it known as foon as it came to my
knowledge ; befides, every thing that refers to this lub-
iei5l concerns the minifter."

S 2 Pre/.

F R A [ 140 ]

Pftf. " Aries had hoifted the ftandard of rebellion •, part of thofe people,
you favoured it by fending three civil commiffaries,
who made it their bufinefs not to reprefs the counter-
revolutionifts, but to juftify their proceedings. — What
have you to aniiver ?"

Louis. " The inftruftions which were given to the
commiffaries mull prove what \vas their miffion •, and I
knew none of them w hen the minillers propofed them
to me."

Pre/. " Avignon, and the county of VcnailTin, had
been united with France ; you caufed the decree to be
executed •, but a tnonth after that time ci%'il war defo-
lated that country. The commiffaries you fent thither
helped to ravage it. — What have you to anfwer ?"

Louis. " I do not remember what delay has been
caufed in the execution of the decree ; befides, this oc-
currence has no perfonal reference to me ; it only con-
cerns thofe that have been fent, not thofe who fent
them."

Pre/. " Nimes, Montauban, Mende, Jales, felt great
fliocks during the firlt days of freedom. You did nothing
to flitle thofe germtns of counter-revolution till the mo-
ment when Saillant's confpiracy became manitelfly no-
torious.— What have you to anlwer •"'

Louis. " I gave, in this refpecf, all the orders which
were propofed to me by the minillers."

Pre/. " You fent 22 battalions againft the Marfeil-
lois, who marched to reduce the counter-revolutionifts
of Aries. — What have you to anfwer ?"

Louis. " I ought to have the pieces referring to this
matter, to give a juft anfwer."

Pre/. " You ga'.e the fouthern command to Wit-
genffein, who wrote to you on the 21ft of April 1792,

F R A

after he had beea recalled : ' A few inllants more, and
1 fliall call around the throne of your majefty thoufands
of French, who are again become worthy of the wiflies
you form for their happinefs.' — What have you to an-
fwer ?"

Louis. " This letter is dated fince his recall ; he
has not been employed fince. I do not recollefl this
letter."

Pre/. " You paid yoiu" late life-guards at Coblentz •,
\he regifters of Septeuil atteft this ; and general orders
figned by you prove that you fent confiderable remit-
tances to Bouille, Rochefort, Vauguyon, Choifeul,
Beaupre, Hamilton, and the wife of Polignac. — What
have you to anfwer ?"

Louis. " When I firft learned that my life-guards
■..fferatled beyond the Rhine, I flopped their pay : as
to the rell, 1 do not remember ?"

Pre/. " Your brothers, enemies to the l^ate, caufed
the emigrants to rally under their banners : they raifed
regiments, took, up loans, and concluded alliances in
your name : you did not difclaim them^ but at the mo-
ment when you were fully certain that you could no
longer crofs their projefts, your intelligence with them
by a note, written by Louis Stanillaus Xavier, figTied
by your two brothers, was conceived in thefe words :

' I wrote to you, but it was by port, and I could
fay nothing. We are two here, who make but one ;
one in Icntiments, one in principles, one io zeal of
ferving you. We keep filence ; becaufe, were we to
break it too foon, it would injure you : but we fliall
fpeak as foon as we (hall be certain of general fupport,
and that momsjit is near, if ive are fpoksu to or. :hs

fliall hear nothing ; but if on Franc*.

your part, we will lillen : we fliall purfue our road ^— '

rtraight. It is therefore defired that you will enable us 1792.
to fay fomething. Do not ftand on ceremonies. Be cafy
about your fafety : we only exifl; to ferve you ; we are
eagerly occupied with this point, and all goes on well ;
even our enemies feel themfelves too much iuterefted iu
your prefervation to commit an ufelefs crime which
would terminate in their o^vn dellruftion.

' L. S. Xavikr and
' Ch.\rles Philippe.'
" What have you to anfwer ?"

Louis. " 1 diio%vned all the proceedings of my bro-
thers, according as the conftitution prefcribed me to do,
and from the moment they came to my knowledge. Of
this note I know nothing."

Pre/ " The foldiers of the line, ivho were to be
put on the war eftablifliment, confifted but of 100,000
men at the end of December, you therefore neglefled
to provide for the fafety of the Hate from abroad. Nar-
bonne required a levy of 50,000 men, but he flopped
the recruiting at 26,000, in giving affurances that all
was ready ; yet there was no truth in thefe affurances.
Servan propofed after him to form a camp of 20,000
men near Paris ; it was decreed by the legiflative affem-
bly ; you refufed your fanftion. — What have you to
anfwer f"

Louis. " I had given to the minifters all the orders
for expediting the augmentation of the array : in the
month of December laft, the returns were laid before
the affembly. If they deceived themfelves, it is not
my fault,"

Pre/ " A flight of patriotifm made the citizens re-
pair to Paris from all quatters. You iffued a procla-
mation, tending to flop their march ; at the fame time
our camps were without foldiers. Dumourier, the fuc-
ceffor of Servan, declared that the nation had neither
arms, ammunition, nor provillons, and that the polls
were left defencelefs. You waited to be urged by a re-
queft made to the minlfter Lajard, when the legiflative
affembly wiflied to point out the means of providing
for the external fafety of the ftate, by propofmg the
levy of 42 battalions. You gave commiffion to the
commanders of tht troops to dilhand the army, to force
whole regiments to defert, and to make them pafs the
Rhine, to put them at the difpofal of your brothers,
and of Leopold of Auftria, ^vith whom you had intel-
ligence. This faft is proved by the letter of Toulou-
geon, governor of Franche Comte. — What have you
to anfwer ?"

Louis. " I know nothing of this circumftance j
there is not a word of truth in this charge."

Pref. " You charged your diplomatic agents to
favour this coalition of foreign po\vers and your bro-
thers againfl France, and elpecially to cement the peace
between Turkey and Auftria, and to procure thereby a
larger number of troops againft France from the latter.
A letter of Choifeul-Gouffler, arabaffador at Con-
ftantinople, verifies the faft^^What have you to an-
fwer ?"

Louis. " M. Choifeul did not fpeak the truth : no
fuch thing has ever been."

Pref. " The Pruffians advanced againft our fron-
tiers : your minlfter was fummoned on the 8th of July
to gi'.e an accQunl of the ftale of our political relations

ivItU

F R A [14

Frarce. with Pruflia ; }ou anfwercd, on the lOtli, that 50,0:0

""^'^"^ PrufTians were marching againft us, and that you gave

^lO^' notice to the legiflative body of the formal afls of the

pending hoftilitie?, in conformity to the conlUtution.

— What have you to anfwer ?"

Louis. " It was only at that period I had know-
ledge of it : all the correfpondence paffed with the mi-
nilters."

Pre/. " You entrufted Dabancourt, the nephew of
Calonne, with the department of war ; and fuch has
been the fuccefs of your confpiracy, that the ports of
Longwy and Verdun were furrendered to the enemy at
the moment of their appearance, — What have you to
anfwer ?"

Louis. " I did not know that Dabancourt was M.
Calonne's nephew. I have not diverted the ports. I
would not have permitted mylelf fuch a thing. I know
nothing of it, if it has been io."

Pre/. " You have deftroyed our navy — a vaft num-
ber of officers belonging to that corps had emigrated ;
there fcarcely remained any to do duty in the harbours ;
meanwhile Bertrand was granting paflports every day ;
and when the legillative body reprefcnted to you his
criminal conduft on the 8th of March, you anfwered,
that you were fatisfied with his fervices. — ^What have
you to aniwer ?"

Louis. " I have done all I could to retain the olTi-
cers. As to M. Bertrand, fince the legiilative alTembly
prefented no complaint againft him that might have
put him in a rtate of accufation, I did not think proper
to turn him out of office.

Pre/. " You have favoured the maintenance of ab-
folute government in the colonies ; your agents foment-
ed troubles and counter-revolutions throughout them,
^vhich took place at the lame epoch ^vhcn it was to
have been brought about in France, which indicates
plainly that your hand laid this plot. — What have you
to anfwer '"

Louis. " If there are any of my agents in the colo-
nies, "they have not fpoken the truth; I had nothing
to do with what you have juft mentioned."

Pre/. " The interior of the rtate was convulfed by
fanatics ; you avowed yourfelf their protector, in mani-
fefting your evident intention of recovering by them
your ancient power. — WTiat have you to anfiver r"

Louis. " I cannot anfwer to this j I know nothing
of fuch a project."

Pre/ " The legiflative body had pafled a decree
on the 29th of January againft the faftious priefts ;
vou fufpended its execution. — What have you to an-
fwer ?"■

Louis. " The conftitution referved to me the free
right to refufe ray fanftion of the decrees."

Pref. " The troubles had Increafed ; the minifter
declared, that he knew no means in the laws extant to
arraign, the guilty. The legillative body enacted a frefli
decree, which you likevWfe fufpended. — What have you
to fay to this ?"

[Louis replied in the fame manner as in the preced-
ing charge.]

Pref. " The uncitizcn-like condua of the guards
whom the conftitution had granted you, had rendered it
neceftary to dift)and them. The day after, you fent
them a Ic'.ter expreflive of your fatisfaftion, and con-

I ] F R A

tinued their pay. This facl is proved by the treafurer
of the civil lift — What have you to anfwer ?"

Louis. " I only continued them in pay till frefli
ones could be ralfed, according to the tenor of the de-
cree."

Pre/l " You kept near your perfon the Smfs
guards : the conftitution forbade you this, and the legi-
ilative aflerablv had exprefsly ordained their departure.
— What have you to anfwer ?"

Louis. " I have e.\ecuted all the decrees that have
been enabled in this rcfpeft.

Pre/. " You hud private companies at Paris, char-
ged to operate movements ufeful to your projefls of a-
counter-revolution. Dangremont and Gilles were two
of your agents, who had falaries from the civil lift.
The receipts of Gilles, who was ordered to raife a com-
pany of 60 men, fhall be prefented to you. — What
have you to anfwer r"

Louis. " I have no knowledge whatever of the pro-
jeifls laid to their charge : the idea »f a counter-revolu-
tion never entered into my mind."

Pre/ " You wiftied to fubom, with confiderable
funis, feveral members of the legillative and conftituent
afl'emblies. Letters from St Leon and others evince
the reality of thefe deeds. — What have vou to an-
fwer ?"

Louis. " Several perfons prefented themfelves with'
fimilar decrees, but I have waved them."

Pref. " Wiio are they that prefented you with,
thofe projects r"

I^ciuis. " The plans were fo vague that I do not
recoUeft them now."

Pref. " Who are thofe to whom you gave" money ?"

Louis. " I gave money to nobody."

Pref. " You futfered the French name to be re-
viled in Germany, Italy, and Spain, iince you omitted
to demand fatisfaclion for the bad treatment which the
French fuffered in thofe countries. — What have you to
anfwer ?"

Louis. " The diplomatical correfpondence will proTe •
the contrary j befides, this was a- concern of the mini-
Iters."

Pre/ " You re\ie«ed the Swifc on the loth of
Augurt at five o'clock in the morning ; and the Swifs
were the firft who fired upon the citizens."

Louis, " I went on that day to review all the troops
that were alTembled about me ■, the conftituted authori-
ties were with me, the department, the mayor, and mu-
nicipality ; I had even invited thither a deputation of
the national aflembly, and I afterwards repaired into
the midll of them with my family."

Pre/ " Why did you draw troops to tiie caftle r"

Louis. " All the conftituted authorities faw that
the -caftle was threatened •, and as I was a conftituted
authority, I had a tight to defend myfelf."

Pre/ " Why did you fummon the mayor of Paris
in the night between the 9th and loth of Auguft to
the caftle ?"

Louis. " On account of the reports that were circu-
lated."

Pref " You have caufed the blood of the French
to be ftied."

Louis. " No, Sir, not I."

Pre/. " You authorized Septeuil to carry on a
confideritblr '

F Pi A [ 14

confiderable trade in corn, fugar, and coffee, at Ham-
' burg. This fact is proved by a letter of Septeuil."
Louis. " I know nothing of ^vhat you fay."
¥ref. " Wiy did you afHx a 'i'cto on the decree
which ordained the formation of a camp of 2o,0C0

Ljiiis, " The conllitution left to me the free right
of rtfufing my fanclion of the decrees j and even from
that period I had demanded the affemblage of a camp
at SoilTons-"

Prejident, addreffing the convention. " The que-
ftions are done with." (To Loius) — " Louis, is there
any thing that you wifli to add ?"

Louis. " I requeft a communication of the charges
^vhich I have heard, and of the pieces relating thereto,
and the liberty of chooiing counfel for my defence.

Valaze, who fat near the bar, prefented and read to
Louis Capet the pieces, viz. The memoir of Laporte
and Mirabeau, and fonie others, containing plans of a
counter-revolution.

Louis. " I difown them."

Valaze next prefented feveral other papers, on wliich
the ad of accufalion was founded, and aiked the king
if he recognized them, Thefe papers were the follow-
ing :

Vala'ze. " Letter of Louis Capet, dated June 29th
1790, fettling his connexions with Mirabeau and La
Fayette to effecl a revolution in the conftitution."

Louis. " I referve to myfelf to anftver the con-
tents"— (Valaze read the letter.) — " It is only a plan,
in which there is no quellion about a counter-revolu-
tion ; the letter was not to have been ient."

Valaz-e. " Letter of Louis Capet, of the 2 2d of
April, relative to converfations about the Jacobins,
about the prefident of the committee of finances, and
the committee of domains ; it is dated by the hand of
Louis Capet."

Louis. " I difo^vn it."

Vala%e. " Letter of Laporte, of Thurfday morn-
ing, March 3d, marked in the margin in the hand-wri-
ting of Louis Capet with March 3d 1 791, implying
a pretended rupture between Mirabeau and the Jaco-
bins."

Louis. " I.difown it."

Va/aze. " Letter of Laporte without date, in his
hand-writing, but marked in tire margin by the hand
of Louis Capet, containing particulars refpefting the
laft moments of Mirabeau, and exprefling the care that
had been taken to conceal from the knowledge of men
fome papers of great concern which had been depofited
with Mirabeau."

Louis. " 1 difown it as well as the rell."

Vala%e. " Plan of a conftitution, or revlfion of the
conftitution, figned La Fayette, addrelTed to Louis Ca-
pet, April 6th 1790, marked in the margin with a line
in liis own hand-writing."

Louis. " Thefe things have been blotted out by the
conftitution."

Va/aze. " Do you know this writing ?"

Louis. " I do not."

Fa/aze. " Your marginal comments :"

Louis. " I do not."

Va/aze. " Letter of Laporte of the 19th of April,
marked in the margin by Louis Capet April 19. 1791,
mentioning a converfation with Rivarol."

2 ],

Louis

Va/az
1791, in which it fei

F R A

I difown it."

" Letter of Laporte, marked April 1 6. "~
complaints are made of Mira-
beau, the abbe Perigord, Andre, and Beauraetz, who
do not feem to acknowledge facrifices made for their
fake."

Louis. " I difown it like^vife."

Va/aze'. " Letter of Laporte of the 23 d of Febru-
ary 1791, marked and dated in the hand-writing of
Louis Capet ; a memorial annexed to it, refpecling the
means of his gaining popularity."

Lourj. " I know neither of thefe pieces."

Va/aze. " Several pieces without fignature, found
in the caftle of the Thuilleries, in tlie gap which was
fliut in the avails of the palace, relating to the expences
to gain that popularity."

Vrejidcnt. " Previous to an examination on this fub-
je<El, I wifti to afk a preliminary queftion : Have you
caufed a prefs with an iron door to be conftrutled in the
caftle of the Thuilleries, and had you your papers
locked up in that prefs •?"

Louis. " I have no knowledge of it whatever."

Va/aze. " Here is a day-book ivritten by Louis
Capet hinifclf, containing the penlions he has granted
out of his cofFer from 1776 till 1792, in wliich are
obferved fome douceurs granted to Acloque."

Louis. " This I own, but it confilis of charitable
donations which I have made."

Va/aze. " Different lifts of fums paid to the Scotch
companies of Noailles, Gramont, Montmorency, and
Luxembourg, on the 9th of July 1791."

Louis. " This is prior to the epoch when I forbade
them to be paid."

Pre/. " Louis, where had you depofited thofe pie-
ces ivhicli you own r"

Louis. " With my treafurer."

Va/aze. " Do you know thefe penfion-lifts of the
life-guards, the one hundred Swifs, and the king's guards
for 1792 V

I^oim. " I do not."

Va/aze. " Several pieces relative to the confpiracy
of the camp of Jales, the original of which are depo-
fited among the records of tjie department of L'Ar-
dcche."

Louis. " I have not the finalleft knowledge of
them."

Va/aze'. " Letter of Bouille, dated Mentz, bear-
ing an account of 993,000 livres received of Louis Ca-
pet."

Louis. " I difovm it."

Va/aze. " An order for payment of 168,000 livres,
figned Louis, indorfed Le Bonneirs, with a letter and
billet of the fame."

Lovis. " I difowTi it."

Va/aze. " Two pieces relative to a prefent made
to the wife of Polignac, and to Lavauguyon and Chol-
feul."

Louis. " I difown them as well as the others."

Va/aze. " Here is a note figned by the two bro-
thers of the late king, mentioned in the declaratory
aa."

Louis. " I know nothing of it."
Va/aze. " Here are pieces relating to the affair of
Choifeul-Gouffier at Conftantinople."

Louis. " I have no knowledge of them."

Va/aze,

F R A

nate his
fel;

But 11 ..un-

death by a
. niajo.

Valaxe. " Here is a letter of tlic late king to the
bifliop of Clermont, with the aiifwtr of the latter, of
the i6th of April 1751."

Louis. " I ditown it."

Prijident. " Do you not acknowlcge your ivrit-
ing and your fignet ?"

Louis. " I do not."

Prefident. " The feal bears the arms of France."

L'luis. " Several perfons made ufe of that feal."

Valaze. " Do you acknowledge this lill ofXums
p.iij to Gilles ?"

Louis. " I do not."

Valaze. " Here is a memoiandum for indemnifying
the civil lift for the military penlions ; a letter of Dii-
freine St Leon, which relates to it."

Louis. " I know none of thofe pieces."

When the whole had been inveftigated in this man-
ner, the prefident, addrefling the king, faid, " I have
no other queftions to propole — have you any thing
more to add in your defence ?" — " I defire to have a
copy of the accufation (replied the king), and of the
papers on which it is founded. I alfo defire to have a
counfel of my own nomination." Barrere informed
liim, that his two firft requefts were already decreed,
and that the detennination refpeSing the other would
be made kiio\vn to him in due time.

It would have been an excefs of cruelty to refufe a
rcqueft lb reafonable in itfelf ; it was therefore decreed
that counfel ihould be allowed to the king, and his
choice fell upon M. M. Tronchet, Lamoigiion Male-
(hcrbes, and Defeze ; he had previoully applied to M.
Target, \vho excufed himfelf on account of his age and
infirmity. On the 26:h of December, the king ap-
peared for the lalt time at the bar of the convention ;
and M. Defeze read a defence which the counfel had
prepared, and which was equally admired for the folidity
of the argument and the beauty of the compofition.

When the defence was finilhed, the king aiofe, and
holding a paper in his hand, pronounced in a calm man-
ner, and with a firm voice, what follo^vs : " Citizens,
you have heard my defence ; I now fpeak to you, per-
haps for the laft time, and declare that my counfel have
iiiTerted nothing to you but the truth ; my confcience
reproaches me with nothing. I never was afraid of ha-
ving my conduft inveftigated ; but I obfervcd with
great uneafinefs, that I was accufed of giving orders for
ilicdding the blood of the people on the 1 cth of Auguft.
1 he proofs 1 have given through my whole life of a
contrary difjjofition, 1 hoped v.-ould have faved me from
fuch an imputation, which I now folemnly declare is
entirely groundlef?."

I'he dlfcuffion was fatally cldfed on the J 6th of .Ja-
nuary. After a fitting of n«;ar 34 hours, the punifli-
ment of death was awarded by a fmall majority of the
convention, and feveral of thefe differed in opinion from
the rert, refpecting the time when it Ihould be inflifted ;
fomc contending that it (hould not be put in execution
till after the end of the war, while others propofed to
take the fenfe of the people, by referring the fentence
to the primary aflemblies.

ivi. Defeze then folemnly invoked the alTembly in
the name of his colleagues, to confidcr by what a fmall
majority the punifliment of death ^vas pronounced
againft the dethroned monarch. " Do not afflicl;
France (added this eloquent advocate) by a judgment
that will appear t»rriblc to her, when five voices only

[ H3 ]

F R A

were prefumed fufficient to carry it." He appealed to Francf.
eternal juftice, and facred humanity, to induce the con- ^^~^
vention to refer their fentence to the tribunal of the '793-
people. " You have either forgotten or dcftioyed (dud
the celebrated M. Tronchet) the lenity vvliich the law
allows to criminals, of requiring at leaft luio-tliirds of
the voices to conftitute a definitive judgment."

Tlte fentence was ordered to be executed in twenty-
four hours. _ -344

The king and his family had been forfome time kept And cxc-
feparate from each other ; but he ^vas now allowed to fee "^u'-'J-
them, and to choofe an eccleiialtic to attend him. Tiie
meeting, and, above all, the feparation from his family,
was tender in the extreme. On Monday the 2 1 ll J a-
nuary, at eight o'clock in the morning, the unfortunate
monarch ^vas fummoned to his fate. He afccnded the
fcalFold with a firm air and Hep. Raifing his voice,
he fald, " Frenchmen, I die innocent ; I pardon all my
enemies ; and may France" — at this inftant the inhuman
Santerre ordered the drums to beat, and the execu-
tioners to perform their office. When they offered to
bind his hands, he ftarted back as if about to refill ;
but recollected himfelf in a moment, and fubmittcd.
When the inftruraent of death defcended, the prieii ex-
claimed, " Son of St Louis, afcend to heaven." The
bleeding head w'as held up, and a few of the populace
iliouted Vive la Repuhliquc. His body ivas interred in
a grave that was filled up with quicklime, and a guard
placed around rill it fliould be confumcd. ~^-

Thus fell Louis XVL He poffefled from natuve-Charsctfr
a good underftanding, which, however, was blunt- °'^ '*"*"""
ed by the early indulgences of a court. He had an"nj°j't.
ftrong fenfe of juftice, and his humanity was perhaps
e>:ireme. One defeft rendered his virtues of little va-
lue, which was the pofleffion of an irrefolute and un-
fteady character. Unambitious, and eafily advifed, he
was without difficulty induced to change his purpofes,
efpecially by his queen, whofe connexion with the
houfe of Aulfria had always tended to render his coun-
fels unpopular. Whether he was or was not conneftcd
with the foreign invaders of his country, pofterity mull
decide ; but all men of fenfe and moderation muft be
convinced that he was murdered by a band of ruffians.
Indeed a fentence fo infamous, and in all refpefls u;i-
juft, is not to be found in the records of hift ory. The
greater part of the charges brought againft him were
trilling. Thofe ^vhich feem to be of importance relate
to conduifl authorized by the conftitution under \vhicli
he adled ; and that conftitution declared his perfon in-
violable. The fcvereft puniffimcnt that he could incur
by law, was not death, but depofition ; and there is no
doubt, that in putting him to death the French nation
broke the focial compad which their reprcfcntatrves
made with him. In a political view, this tragical event
was injurious to the republican caufe throughout Eu-
rope. No man out of France ventured to juftify it ;
and in all countries it excited the moft violent indigna-
tion againft the rulers of the new republic. _ ^

New enemies were now haftei.ing to join the gener.il Riipj'.frc
league againft France. We do not mean here to enter «-:,f, Great:
into a detail of the political ftruggles that occurred in Britiin.
any other country, than that in the narrative of whofc
revolution we are now engaged. It will therefore only
be ncceffary to remark in general, that the Britilh go-
vernment at this time thought itfelf endangered Ivy the
propaoalion of thofe fpeculative opinions which h:.d
"ovtrtuni'.d

F R A

overturned the French monarchy. Alnioft all the men
of property in the kingdom concurred with the miuidry
in thinking a war with Fiance neceflary for the pur-
pofe of fecuring the conlHtution at home. After tli^
loth of iVuguil the Britilh miniller had been recalled ;
but the new republic llill fuffered the former ambaffa-
dor from France, M. Chauveiin, to remain in England.

Grc>un.^ ot
the quirrel
oB.tlie part
of Great
Britain.

144 ] F R A

of the lotii of Auguft 1792 firom giving to the
French nation proofs of his attachment to the concert '
of crowned heads ; that he had drawn into the fame
lake the iludtholder of the United provinces ; that,
contrary to the treaty of 1783, the Englifli minilhy
had granted proteiflion to the emigrants and others who
have openly apipeared in arms againft France ; that they
The oftenfible grounds of quarrel on the part of have committed an outrage againll the French rcpub-

Gieat Britain were chiedy two; the decree of the 15th
of November 1792, by v.hich it was truly obferved that
encouragement to rebellion was held out to the fubjefls
of every liate, and that war was thereby \vaged againft
every eftabliihed government. Of this decree the French
executive council gave explanations, denying the fair-
jiefs of the interpretation put upon it, and alleging,
that the intention of the convention was only to give
aid to fuch countries as /irii/ alreadij acquired their free-
dom, and by a declaration of the general will requefted
aid for its prefervation. But this explanation cannot be
admitted. The decree exprefsly fays, that the French
iiation vnAgrant ajjijlance to a/iivho ivi/h to procure liber-
ty ; and when it is confidered what their notions of li-
berty are, it cannot be doubted but that their intention
■^vas to excite rebellion in foreign nations. The fecond
point of difpute referred to the opening of the Scheldt.
This river runs from Brabant through the Dutch territory
to the fea. The Dutch had ihut up the mouth of it, and
prevented any maritime commerce from being carried on
by the people of Brabant by means of the river. To ren-
der therafelves popular in Brabant, the French had de-
clared, that they would open the navigation of the
Scheldt. But Great Britain had fome time before bound
herfelf by treaty with the Dutch to alTift them in ob-
Ilrucling this navigation, and now declared to the
French, that the projeft of opening the Scheldt mull be
renounced if peace with Great Britain was to remain.
The French alleged, that by the law of nations navigable
rivers ought to be open to all who refide on their banks;
but that the point was of no importance either to
France or England, and even of very little importance
to Holland ; that if the people of Brabant themfelves
hole to give it up, they would make no objeifl:

lie, by ordering the ambaflador of France to quit Great
Britain ; that the Englilh have Hopped divers boats
and veffels laden ivith corn for France, whilft, at the
f.me time, contrary to the treaty of 1786, they con-
tinue the exportation of it to other foreign countries ;
that to thwart more efficacioufly the commercial tranf-
aflions of the republic with England, they have by an
aft of parliament prohibited the circulation of aflignats.
The convention therefore declare, that in confequence
of thefe acls of hollility and aggreflion, the French re-
public is at war with the king of England and the
lladtholder of the United Provinces.

'J'he abfurdity of pretending that any treaty with
France made in 1783 could be violated by protefllng
the emigrants who tied from the fury of the convention,
mull be obvious to every reader. The convention was
itfelf a rebellious ufurpatlon of the government with
which fiich a treaty was made. The prohibition of
alfignats was certainly contrary to no la\v, and was fanc-
tioned by every motive of expediency, unlefs the con-
vention could prove that all nations were bound by
the law of nature to rifli their own credit upon the
credit of the French republic.

About a fortnight after this abfurd declaration againft And agaisft
Britain, war was likewife declared againft Spain; andSpair>.
in the courfe of the fummer France was at war with
all Europe, excepting only Swifferland, S\veden, Den-
mark, and Turkey.

In the mean time General Dumourier, who was pro- procrrcis of
ceeding agreeably to his orders, made an attack upon Dumourier
Holland ; but in doing this he difpcrfed his troops in
fuch a manner as to expole them much to any attack
on the fide of-Gennany. He commanded General Mi-
randa to invert Maeftiicht, while he advanced to block

34s

It has been thought remarkable, that the Dutch gave up Breda, and Bergen-op-zoom. The firft of thefe places,

348
War decla-
Ecd againft
the kirg of
Engiand
and ftadt-
holdfr of
Holland,

hemfelves no trouble about the matter. They did not
alk the afliftance of England ; and with that coolnefs
which is peculiar to their character, the merchants in-
dividually declared, that if the Scheldt was opened, they
could manage their commerce as well at Antwerp as
at Amflerdam. But in all this there is nothing
Jlrange. Among the Dutch were many republicans,
who wilhed for the downfal of the lladtholder. Thefe
rejoiced at every thing which diftreflied him, or had a
tendency to render his office ufelefs in the eyes of the
people. Others, who thought differently, were afraid
to fpeak their fentiments, as Dumourier was in their
neighbourhood with a viftorlous army. The refult of
the whole was, that M. Chauveiin was commanded by
the Brillfh government to leave this country. U'he
French executive council gave powers to another mini-
■fter, IM. Marct, to negociate, and requelled a paffport
for him ; but he was not fuffered to land. The haughty
republicans having thus far humbled therafelves before
the Britilh government, at lalt, on the ift of Febru-
ary 1793, on the motion of Briffot, the national con-
vention decreed, among other articles, that " George
king of England had never ccafed fince the revolution

viz. Breda, furrendered on the 24th of February ; Klun-
dert was taken on the 26th ; and Gertruydenberg on the
4th of March. But here the triumphs of Dumourier
ended. The fieges of Williamftadt and Bergen-op- jj,
zoom were vigoroufly but unfuccefsfully prefled. On He is de-
the ift of March General Clairfait having paffed the'<^3t«<l-
Roer, attacked the French polls, and compelled them
to retreat with the lofs of 2000 men.

The following day the archduke attacked them anew
\vith confiderable fuccefs. On the 3d .he French were
driven from Aix-la-Chapelle, with the lofs of 4000 men
killed and 1600 taken prifoners.

The fiege of Maellrlcht was now raifed, and the
French retreated to Toiigres, -where they were alfo at-
tacked, and forced to retreat to St Tion. Dumourier
here joined them, but did not bring his army along
witli him from the attack upon Holland. After Tome
Ikirmiflies, a general engagement took place at Neer"-
windcn. It was fought on the part of the French
with ^reat obllinacy ; but they were at length over-
powered by the number of their enemies, and perhaps
alfo by the treachery of their commander. This de-
feat was fatal. The French loft 3000 men, and 6000
immediatclv

F R A

France, immediately deilrtcJ and went home to France. Dumou-
^"■~'- rier continued to retreat, and on the 2zd he was again

'793* attacked near Louvain. He now, through the medium
j'-'" of Colonel Mack, came to an agreement with the Im-
the allies ; penaliUs that his retreat fliould not be Terioully inter-
rupted. It was now fully agreed between him and the
Imperialiibjthat while the latter took pofleffion of Conde
and Valenciennes, he Ihould march to Paris, diflblve
the convention, and place the fon of the late king up-
on the throne.

The rapid retreat and fuccefTive defeats of General
Dumourier rendered his conduct fufpicious. Commif-
fioners were fent from the executive power for the pur-
pofe of difcovering his defigns. They diffembled, and
pretended to communicate to him :i Icherae of a coun-
ter-revolution. He confeffed his intention of dilTolving
the convention and the Jacobin club by force, which
he laid ^vould not exill three weeks longer, and of re-
liering monarchy. On the report of thefe commif-
fioners the convention lent Bournonville the miniller of
war to fuperfede and arreft Dumourier, along with Ca-
mus, Blancal, La Marque, and ^uinette, as commif-
fioners. The attempt on the part of thefe men was
at leal! hazardous, to fay no more of it ; and the rel'ult
was, that on the firrt of April Dumourier fent them
, , prifoners to General Clairfait's head quarters at Tour-
tnt h'6 ar- nay as hoftages for the fafety of the royal family. He
my r. fufe nest attempted to feduce his army from their fidelity
to adt with fQ ^]^g convention ; but he fpeedily found that he had
much millaken the character of his troops. Upon the
report that their general was to be carried as a criminal
to Paris, they were feized with fudden indignation ; but
when they found that an attempt >\as making to pre-
vail with them to turn their arms againll their coun-
Proclama- ^T' ^^^''" fentiraents altered. On the 5th of April two
tionsofthe proclamations were ilTued ; one by General Dumouiicr,
Imperial and the other by the prince of Saxe Cobourg, declaring
commander {}j3f f}jgj^ only purpofe was to rellore the conllituiion
of 1789, 1790, and 1791. Prince Cobourg announ-
ced that the allied powers wilhed merely to co-operate
with General Dumourier in giving to France her con-
ftitutional king and the conllitution (lie had formed for
herfelf, declaring, on his word of honour, that he came
not to the Fre.ich territory for the purpofe of making
conquelts. On the fame day Dmnourier went to the
advanced guard of his own camp at Mriulde. He there
learned that the corps of artillery had rifen upon their
general, and were marching to Vah-iiciennes ; and he
loon found that the whole army had determined to
Hand by their country. Seven hundred cavalry and
800 infantry was the whole amount of thofe that de-
ferttd with Dumourier to the Auftiians, and many of
them afterwards returned.
Stotof- i^y the defection of Dumourier, however, the whole

,, army of the north was dillblved, and in part dilbanded,
: oil. i;i prefence of a numerous, ^vell-difclplined, and victo-
rious enemy. The Prudians vvere at the fame time ad-
var.cing on the Rhine with an imraenfc force, and about
to commence the fiege of Mentz. In the interior of
t.' :■ republic more ferious evils if pcjlTible were arifing.
In the departments of La Vendee and La Loire, or
t!;e nrovinces of Brittany and Poitou, immcnfe multi-
tudes of emigrants and other royalifts had gradually af-
tembled in the courfe of the winter. They profelTed
to acl in the name of Monfieur, as rf^ge-.t of France.
Vol. IX. Part I.

[ 145 ] F R A

About the middle of March they advanced againil France.
Nantz to the amount of 40,000. In the beginning ^~~v— J
of April they defeated the republicans in two pitched '793'
battles, and poflelTed themfelves of 50 leagues of coun-
try. They even threatened by their own efforts to 35«
Ihake the new republic to its foundation. On the 8th ^""?"'* ''f
of April a congrcfs of the combined po^vers alTembled [^'in//""
at Antwerp. It was attended by the prince of Orange rjoivers.
and his two fons, with his excellency Vander Spiegel,
on the part of Holland ; by the duke of York and
Lord Auckland on the part of Great Britain ; by the
prince of Saxe Cobourg, Counts Metterinch, Staren-
berg, and Mercy Dargenteau, with the PrulTian, Spa-
nilh, and Neapolitan envoys. It was here determined
to commence active operations againft France. The
prince of Cobourg's proclamation was recalled, .and a
icheme of conquelt announced. 357

CommiiTioners from the conversion now fet up thejhc repub-
ftandard of the republic anew, and the fcattered bat-""." ^'"^
talions flocked around it. General Dampierre was ap- femblcd"
pointed commander, and on the 13th he was able to
refift a general attack upon his advanced polls. On
the 14th, his advanced guard yielded to luperior num-
bers, but on the 15th was victorious in a long and
well-fought battle. On the 23d the Aultrians were
again repulfed, and on the ill of May General Dam-
pierre ^vas himfelf repulfed in an attack upon the
enemy. On the 8th another engagement took place, in
\vhich the French general was killed by a cannon ball.
On the 23d a very determined attack was made by the
allies upon the French fortified camp of Faraars, which
covered the town of Valenciennes. The French were
overcome, and in the night abandoned their camp. In
confequence of this the allies were enabled to commence
the fiege of Valenciennes ; for Conde had been block-
aded from the I ft of April.

About the fame time General Cuftine on the Rhine
made a violent but unfuccefsful attack upon the Pruf-
fians, in confequence of which they were foon enabled -c^g
to lay fiege to Mentz. The Corfican general Paoli Revolt uf
revolted at this period ; and the new republic, aflaulted^*"''-
from without by the whole Itrength of Europe, was un-
dermined by treachery and faction within, ^.p

While the country was in a ftate verging upon utterState of
ruin, parties in the convention were gradually waxing I' '""^'' '"
more fierce in their animofity •, and regardlefs of what j,""^'^"^
was pafTing at a ditlaucc, they feefned only anxious fortj^jpj™ tri-
the extermination of each other. In the month of u . . eita-
March, the celebrated RcvJulionary Tribunal \\i'i efta-l^l'fl":"!-
blidied for the purpofe of trying crimes committed a-
gainit the ftate ; and the Girondift party, the mildnefs of
whofe admlnirtration had contributed not a little to in-
creafe the evils of their country, began to fee the ne-
celfity of adopting meafures of feverity. But the pub-
lic calamities, which now rapidly followed each other in
fucceirion, were afcribed by their countrymen to their
imbecility or perfidy. This gave to the party of the
Mountain a fatal advantage. On the 15th of April
the communes of the 48 feflions of Paris prefented a
petition, requiring that the chiefs of the Girondifts
therein named Ihould be im-^eached and expelled from
the convention. This was followed up on the 1 11 oP
May by another petition from the fuburb of St Anioiiie.
The Girondift party in the mean time impeached Ma-
rat, but he was acquitted by the jury at his tri-' i he
X Mountain,

F R A

1793-

3«o
The Moun.
tain patty
get the up-
per hand.

361^
Several c\.
•ties and dc.
partments
revolt in

Mountain, by the afliflance of the Jacobin club, had
now acquired a complete afcendancy over the city of
Paris. The Girondifts or Briflbtines propofed there-
fore to remove the convention from the capital ; and to
pre\'ent this, the Mountain refoU'cd to make the fdir.e
ufe of th.e people of the capital agaiiifl the Girondill
party that they had formerly done againft the monarch
on the 1 0th of Auguft. It is umieceffary to ftate in
detail all the tumults tliat occurred either in Paris or in
the convention during the remaining part of the month
of May. On the 3 irt, at four o'clock, in the morning,
the tocfin ^vas founded, the generale was beat, and the
alarm guns fired. All tvas commotion and terror. The
citizens fle^v to arms, and affembled round the conven-
tion. Some deputations demanded a decree of accufa-
tion againft 55 of its members. The day, however, was
fpent v.-ithout decifion. On the afternoon of the ill
-of June an armed force made the fame demand. On
the 2d of Jime this was repeated, the tocfin again
founded, and an hundred pieces of cannon furrounded
the national hall. At laft Earrere mounted the tri-
bune. He was confidered as a moderate man, and re-
fpecled by both parties ; but fte now artfully deferted
the Gitondills. He invited the denounced members
voluntarily to refign their charafter of reprefentatives.
Some of them complied, and the prefiJent attempted
to diflblve the fitting ; but the membeis wei-e now
iraprii'oned in their own hall. Jlenriot, commander of
the armed force, compelled them to remain ; and the
obnoxious deputies, amounting to upwards of 90 in
number, were put under arreft, and a decree of denun-
ciation againft them figned.

It is obvious, that on this occafion the liberties of
France were trodden under foot. The minority of the
national reprefentatives, by the affiftance of an armed
force raifed in the capital, compelled the majority to
fubmit to their meafures, and took, the leading members
prifoners. Thus the city of Paris affumed to itfelf tlie
whole powers of the French republic ; and the nation
T.as no longer governed by repiefcntativcs freely chofen,
but by a minority of their members, whofe fentiments
the city of Paris and the Jacobin club had thought fit to
approve of. Human liiftoi7 is a mafs of contradiflioiis.
The Mountain party came into power by preaching li-
berty, and by violating its fundamental principles. How
far the plea of political neceflity may cxcufe their con-
duft, we (hall not venture to decide explicitly. Certain
it is, however, that they foon coitimenced, both at home
and abroad, a career of the moft terrible energy that
is to be found in the annals of nations.

The firft relult of their victory in tr.e capital was ca-
lamitous to the republic at large. BrilTot and fome
Other deputies cfcaped, and endeavoured to kindle the
flames of civil war. In geweral, however, the influence
'of the Jacobin club, and of its various branches, was
fuch, that the north of France adhered to the conven-
tion as it ihxjd ; but the fouthern departments were
fpeedlly in a ftate of rebellion. The department of
Lyons declared the Mountoi/i party outlawed. Mar-
feilles and Toulon followed the example of Lyons, and
entered into a confederacy, which has fnice been known
by the appellation of Taderahfm. The departments of
La Gironde and Calvades broke out into open revolt.
In fiiort, the whole of France was in a ftate of violent
convulfion. Still, however, the er.thufiallic garrilbns

[ 146 1

F R A

of Mentz and Valenciennes proteiSed it againft tl;e ira- Fr.wcc.
mediate entrance of a foreign force, and allotved leifure '-^-v— J
for one of its internal faftions to gain an afcendancy, ^19l-
and thereafter to proteft its independence. In the
mean time, the political enthufiafm of all orders of per-
fons was fuch, that even 'the female fe.\ did not efcape ,(;j
its contagion. A young woman of the name of Chnr-Mariit mur-
lotte Corde, in the beginning of July, came from the '^'^''^d b_v a
department of Calvades to devote her life for what Ihe ^^ °"*"'
thought the caufe of freedom ;.• J of her country. She
requefted an inter^aew with Marat, the moft obnoxious
of the Mountain party. Having obtained it, and con-
verfed with him calmly for fome time, ihe I'uddenlv
plunged a dagger in his breaft, and walked carelel^'v
out of the houfe. She was immediately feized and
condemned. At the place of e.xecution Ihe behaved
with infinite conftancy, (houting Vive la rsbublique. The
remains of Marat were interred with great fplendor,
and the convention attended his funeral. His partv
perhaps derived advantage from the ii>anner of hi-;
death, as it feemed to falten the odious charge of affaf-
fination upon their antagcnifts, and gave them the ap-
pearance of fuflering in the caufe of liberty. The
truth is, that aflaffination was fanftioned by both par-
ties under pretence of defending the liberties of the re-
public. ^6i

One of the firft: afts of the Mountain junto after The repuh-
their triumph was to finilh the republican conftitution.'"^"." ™°*'»
Previous to their fall, the Girondifts had brought for- "'J'"^ ^^'
ward the plan of a conftilution, chiefly the work of tjitMoun-
Condorcet ; but it was never fandioncd by the conven- t.iir..
tion, and was too intricate to be praftically ufefuL
The new conllitution now framed, which ivas after-
wards fanftioned by the nation, but \vas never pat
in practice, abolillied the former mode of electing
the reprefentatives of the people through the medium
of eleBorul alfemblies, and appointed them to be choie:;
immediately by the fnimari/ affemblies, which were
to confift of from 200 to 6ao citizens, each man vo-
ting by ballot or open vote at his option. There was one
deputy for every 40,000 individuals, and population w?s
the fole bafis of reprefentation. The eleftions were to
take place every year on the I ft of May. Eledoral affem-
blies were, however, retained for one purpofe. Every
200 citizens in the primary aftemblits named one elector ;
and an affembly of all the elcdors of the department was
afterwards held, which elccled candidates for the executive
council, or miniftry of the republic. The legillative body
chofe out of all this lift of candidates the members of
the executive council. One half of this council was re-
newed by each legifiature in the laft month of the M-
fion. Every law, after being paffed by the legillative
body, was fent to the department. If in more than half
of the departments the tenth of the primary aiTemblies
of each did not object to it, it became cffedtuaL Trial
by jury was eftabliftied. National cenventions might be
called for altering the conftitution, and were to be call-
ed, if required by the tenth of the primary afTembhts
of each department in a majority of the departments.

The publication of this conftitution procured P.o
fmall degree of applaufe to the convention and the
Mountain party. The rapidity with which it was
formed (being only a fortnight) feemed to caft a juft
reproach upon the flownefs of their antagonifts, and it
was regarded j.s a proof of rhcir being decidedly fe-

prwers di

their fu-
ture pro-
ceedirg.

S6S
Unfortu-
nate com'
quences c

the

F R A [14

rloas in the caufe of republicani&n. No regard, liou--

■ ever, was paid to it by the convention, which declared
itfelf permanent, nor indeed did it feem poflible to carry-
it into execution.

We liave mentioned that Conde was inverted from

. the bcjjinning of April. It did not yield till the loth
of July, when the garrii'on was lo much reduced by fa-
mine and difeafe, that out of 4000 men, of which it
originally confuted, only 1 500 were fit for fervice. The
eves of all Europe were in the mean time fixed upop.
the fiege of Valenciennes. Colonel MoncriefT had con-
tended, that batteries ought immediately to be phiced
under the walls without approachin"; it by regular pa-
rallels j but the Imperial engineer ftir Ferraris alferled,
that the work of the great Vauban muft be treated with
more refpeft ; and his opinion was adopted by the
council of war. The trenches were opened on the
14th of June. Few fallies were attempted by the gar-
rifon, on account of the fmallnefs of their number.
The itihabitants at firft wiihed to furrender ; but the
%'iolence of the bombardment prevented their alTem-
bling or giring much trouble on that head to General
Ferrand the governor. Much of the labour of the
fiege confided of mines and countermines. Some of
thele having been ruccefsflilly fprung by the allies, the
to\\-n was furrendered on die 27th of July by capitula-
tion to the duke of York, who took poffeilion of it in
behalf of the emperor of Germany. The fiege of
Mentz was at the fame time going on. It fuffered
much from famine. At lall, after an unfuccelsful at-
tempt by the French army on the Rhine for its relief,
it furrendered on the 22d of July.

At the termination of thefiegeofValenciennes it would
appear that the allied powers ivere at a lois how to pro-

' ceed next. The Auftrian commanders are laid to have
prefented two plans : The firll was to penetrate to Pa-
ris by the aliiftance of the rivers which fall into the
Seine ; the other was to take advantage of the conller-
nation occaConed by the furrender of Valencient\e«, and
with 50,000 light troops to penetrate fuddenly to Paris,
•while a debarkation ihou'd be made on the coall of
Brittany to afhft the royaliils. 1 he propofal of the
Brhilh miniftry was, however, adopted, which was, to
divide the grand army, and to attack We.1 Flanders,
beginning with the fiege of Dunkirk. This determi-

- nation proved ruinous to the allies. 'I'he French found
means to vanquiih in detail that army, which they
could not encounter when united.

It has been faid that the duke of York was in fecret
correfpondence with Omeron the governor of Dunkirk ;
but the latter was removed before any advantage could
be taken of his treachery. On the 24th of Auguil the
duke of York attacked and drove the French outpofls
into the town, after an aftion in which the Aullrian
General Dalton was killed. A naval armament was
« xpefled from Great Britain to co-operate in the liege,
hut it did not arrive. In the mean time, a ftrong re-
publican force menaced the covering army of the allies,
which was commanded by General Frcytag. He was
foon attacked and totally routed. The fiege was rai-
fcd. The Britilh \oi\ their heavy cannon and baggage,
I'ith feveral thoufand men ; and the convention, belie-
ving that their general Houchard could have cut off
the duke of York's retreat, tried and executed him for
this negleft of duty.

] F R A

Prince Cobourg and General Clairfait in the mean France.

time unfuccefsfully attempted to befiege Cambray and " '

Bouchain. Q^uefnoy was, however, taken by General *79j-
Clairfait on tlie l Ith of Sc])ten-iber ; and here finally
terminated for the prefent campaign tlic fuccefs of the
aliies in the Netherlands.

A confiderable part of the French army of tiic
no;th took a flrong pofition near Maubeugc, where
they were blockaded by Prince Cobourg ; but upon
the 15th and l6th of Oilober he was repeatedly at-
tacked by the French troops under General Jourdan,
who fucceeded Houchard. The French had now re-
covered tl'.eir \4gour. They brought into the field a
formidable train of artillery, in which were naany 24
pounders. Commiffioners from the convention ha-
rangued the foldie-s, threatened the fearful, and ap-
plauded the brave. Crowds of women, without confti-
fion, went through the ranks, diilributing fpirituous li-
quors in abundance, and carrying off the wounded.
The attacks were repeated and terrible on both fides ^
but the Aullrians had considerably the difadvantage,
and Prince Cobourg retired during the night. The
French now menaced maritime Flanders. They took
Fumes and belleg •! Nieuport. A detachment of
Britilh Uoops ready to fail to the Weil Indies were
haftily lent to Ollend, and prevented for the prefent
the farther progrefs of the French.

Such was the multiplicity of the events that now oc-
curred in France, that it is difficult to ftate the out-
lines of them with any tolerable perfpicuity. We have
already mentioned the exteniive diflenfions that occur-
red throughout the repubhc in confequence of the tri-
umph of the Mountain party on the 3 I ft of May. The
depaitment of Calvades was firll in arms againlt the
convention under the command of General Felix Wimp-
fen ; but before the end of July the infurreclion was .gj
quieted, after a few flight flcirmiihes. But the foedera- Lyons be.
lifm of the cities of Marfeilles, Lvons, and Toulon, ftill''fg<:'l by
remained. Lyons was attacked 'on the 8th of Augt2ft[!'^^^^J°'""'-
by the conventional troops. Several aftions followed, tfonp,^ j^j
which were attended with great lofs both on the parttakea.
of the alTailants and of the befieged. The city was re-
duced almoft to ruins ; but it held out during the
whole month of September. The befirging general
Kellerman ^vas removed from his command, on account
of his fuppofed inactivity ; and the city lurrendered on
the 8th of Odober to General D Jppet, a man who had 3SS
lately been a phyfician. Such was the rage of party Unreleet-
zeal at this time, that the walls and public buildings of'"S <^h»"e.
Lyons were ordered to be dellroycd, and its name ^

changed to that of Vi//e Affianchie. Many hundreds
of its citizens were dragged to the fcaffold on account
of their alleged treafonable refillance to the convention.
The victorious party, wearied by the llow operation of
the guillotine, at lall deftroyed their prifoners in multi-
tudes, by firing grape-fliot upon them. Such indeed
was the unrelenting charadler of the Mountain at this
time, not only here but through the whole republic,
that they themfelves pretended not to excufe it, but
declared that terror was with them the order of the
day. 169

In the end of July General Cartaux was lent agaiiiftThc Mar-
Marfeilles. In the beginning of Auguft he g»'"ed '""||°^ 0^'^'-
fome fuccefles over the advanced focderaUll troops. On ^^;j '° "
the 24th he took the town of Aix, and the Marfeillois
T 2 Submitted.

1793-

Touloncon-
ditionally

■in Lord

37 «
wLo is at _
ler\gt}i obli

Proceed-
ings of the
loyaliftsin
La Veiflei

F R A [148

fubmitted. But the leading people of the important
town and h?.rbour of Toulon entered into a negocia-
tion, and fiibmitted to the Britilh admiral Lord Hood,
under condition that he lliould preferve as a depoiit the
town and (hipping for Louis XVIL and under the fli-
pulation thnt he fhould aflifl in relloring the conftitu-
rion of 1789. 'J'he fiege of Toulon \vas commenced
by General Cartaux in the beginning of September.
It continued without much vigour during that and the
whole of the fucceeding month. Neapolitan, Spanilli,
and Englifli troops, were brought by fea to affift in its
defence. In the beginning of November, General Car-
taux was removed to tire command of the army in Italy,
:md General Dugommier fucceec'. d him. General O'
Hara arrived \\ith reinforcements from Gibraltar, and
took upon iiim the command of the town, under a
commiflion from his Eritannic ninjefty. On the 30th
of November, the garrifon made a powerful fally
to deftroy fome batteries that were creeling upon
heights which commanded the city. The French were
I'urprlfed, and the allies fucceeded completely in their
objeft ; but, elated by the facility of their conqueft, the
allied troops rufhed fonvard in purfuit of the flying
enemy, contrary to their orders, a -J were unexpected-
ly met by a Ifrong French force that was drawn out to
proteft the fugitives. General O'Hara now came from
the city to endeavour to bring off his troops with regulari-
ty. He was wounded in the arm and taken priloner. The
total lofs of the allies in this affair was eftlniRted at nearly
one thoufand men. The French had no'vv muftered in
full force around Toulon, and prepared for the attack.
It was begun on the 19th of December in the morn-
ing, and was chiefly direfted againlt Fort Mulgravc,
defended by the Britifli. Tliis fort was protefted by
an entrenched camp, 13 pieces of cannon, 36 and 24
pounders, &c. j mortars, and 3000 troops. Such was
the ardour of alTault, that it was carried in an hour,
and the whole garrifon was deftroycd or taken. The
allies now found it impoflible to defend the place ; and
in the courfe of the day embarked their troops, after
having fet on fire the arfcnal and Ihips. A fcene of
confufion here enfued, fuch as has not been known in
the hiftory of modern wars. Crowds of people of eve-
ry rank, age, and lex, hurried on board the iliips, to
avoid the vengeance of their enraged countrymen.
Some of the inhabitants began to fire upon their late
allies ; others in defpair were feen plunging into the
fea, making a vain effort to reach the (hips ; or putting
an end at once to their own exifteiif e upon the fliore.
Thirty-one (hips of the line were found by the Britilh
at Toulon ; thirteen were left behind ; ten ^vere burnt ;
four had been previoufly fent.to the French ports of
Breft and Ro»hefort, with 5000 republicans who could
not be trufted ; and Great Britain finally obtained by
this expedition only three (hips of the line and five
frigates.

On the fide of Spain the war produced nothing of
importance ; and in the mountainous country of Pied-
mont it \vent on flowly. Nice and Chamberry were
ftill retained by the French ; but more terrible fcenes
were ading in other quarters. In La Vendee a moll;
bloody war was perfiOed in by the royalifts. In that
quarter of the country the language of the rell of France
"is little underflood. The people were fuperllitious, and
had acquired little idea of tlie new opuiions that h?d

1793-

F R A

lately been propagated in the reft of the empire. They
were chiefly headed by priefts, and regarded their caufc
as a religious one. Their mode of warfare ufually \vas,
to go on in their ordinary occupations as peaceable citi-
zens, and fuddenly to afl'emble in immenle bands, info-
inuch that at one time they vvere faid to amount to
150,000 men. They befisged Nantz and the city of
Orleans, and even Paris itfeif v.as not thought altoge-
ther fafe from their enterprifes. The war was incon-
ceivably bloody. Neither party gave quarter ; and La
Vendee proved a dreadful drain to the population of
France. On the 28th of June, the conventional gene-
ral Biron drove the royallfls from Lucon ; and Nantz
was relieved by General Beyfler. After fome fuccefs.
General Weflerman was furprifed by them, and com-
pelled to retreat to Parthenay. In the beginning of
Auguft the roydifls were defeated by General Rollig-
nol ; but on the loth of that month, under Charette
their commander in chief, they again attacked Nantz,
but fuftered a repulfe. It would be tedious to give a
minute detail of this obfcure but cruel war. The roy-
alifl;s were often defeated and feemingly difperfed,
but as often arofc in crowds around the aftonilhed re-
publicans. At laft , however, about the middle of Oc-
tober, they were completely defeated, driven from La
Vendee, and forced to divide into feparate bodies. One
of thel'e threw itfeif into the illand of Noirmoutier,
n'here they were fubdued ; another took the road of
Maine and Brittany, where they (Iruggled for fome
time agahilf their enemies, and were at laft cut to
pieces or difperfed.

The royalirts had long expefted afl"iftance from Eng-
land ; and an armament under the earl of Moira was ac-
tually fitted out for that fervlce, but it did not arrive till
too late, and returned home without attempting a land- -j,
ing. — 'I'hc IVIountaIn party always difgraced their fuc- Horrid
celes by dreadful cruelties. Humanity is fliocked, and^J^"«^^y of
hillory would almoll ceal'e to obtain credit, were wt
Hate in detail the unrelenting cruelties which were exer-'
cifed againft the unfortunate royalills, chiefly by Car-
rier, a deputy from the convention, fent into this quar-
ter \vk\\ unlimited powers. Multitudes of prilbners
were crowded on board veflels In the Loire, after which
the veffcls vvere funk. No age or fex was fpared ;
and thefe executions were performed with every circum-

. the Mou
liii party.

(lance of wanton barbarity and infult. 374

On the fide of the Rhine a great variety of events Progrefs of
occurred durinsj the months of Augufl; and September.*!'"^ ""'?'""
p ,1 . 1 1 • V- L .1 the Rhine.

Several engagements at firif took place, m which the

French were, upon the whole, fuccefsful. In Septem-
ber, however. Landau was invefted by the combined
powers ; and it was refolved to make every polTible ef-
fort to drive the French from the ftrong lines of Weif-
fembourg, on the river Lauter. On the 13th of Oc-
tober, the Auflrian general Wurmfer made a grand
attack upon thefe lines. The French fay that their
generals betrayed them, and fuffered the lines to be ta-
ken almoft without refiftance. The general of the al-
lies confeflcd that the lines might have held out for
feveral days. The French retreated to Hagenau, from
which they were driven on the i S'h ; and fuffered two
other defeats on the 25th and 27th. Some of the prin-
cipal citizens of Strafbourg now fent a private deputa-
tion to General Wurmfer, offering to furrender the
town, to be preferved as a depofit to be reftored to-

Louis

F R

[ 149 ]

F R A

France.

375
The Frenc
at lenifth
fuccefsful i

Louis XVII. General Wurmfer refufcJ to accept of
it upon tl'.efe terms, inlirting upon an abl'olute furrcn-
der to his Imperial Majerty. In confequence of the
delay occafioned by difagreement, the ncgociation was
difcovered, and the citizens of StralLourg engaged in
the plot were feized by St Juft and Lebas, commilTion-
crs from the convention, and brought to the fcafFold.
I'rodigious eft'orts «cre no'.v made by the French to
recover their ground in this quarter. General Irem-
bert was Ihot at the head of the army on the 9th of
November, upon a charge, probably ill-founded, of
treachery in the affair of the lines of WelfTembourg.
Oil the 14th, however, Fort Louis was taken by the
allies, not without fufpicion of treachery in the gover-
nor. But here the fuccefs of General Wurmfer might
be laid to terminate. On the 21(1 the republican ar-
my drove back the Auftrians, and penetrated almoft to
Hagenau. An armv from the IMofelle now advanced
to co-operate with the army of the Rhine. On the
1 7th the Pmfhans were defeated near Sarbruck. Next
day their camp at Bliefcaftel was ftormed, and the

, French advanced to Deu.x Fonts. On the 29th and
30th the French were repulfed with great lofs in tvvo

'violent attacks, made on the duke of Brunfwick near
Lautern. But it now appeared that the French had
come into the field with a determination to conquer
whatever it might cotl. Every day was a day of battle,
and torrents of blood ivere flied on both fides. The
allies had the advantage of poffefflng the ground, which,
in that quarter, at fuch a late feafon of the year, is very
ftrong on account of its inequalities and moi-all'es. la
military (kill, the French officers and thofe of the allies
were perhaps nearly equal ; but the French army was
by far the moft numerous ; and although not a match
in point of difcipline, yet it derived no fmall fuperiority
from the enthuiiafra with which the troops were ani-
mated. On the 8th of December, under the command
of General Pichegru, the French carried the redoubts
which covered Hagenau by means of the bayonet.

This modern inftrument of deftruftlon, againft which
no defenlive weapon is employed, is always moft fuccefs-
ful in the hands of the moft intrepid ; and it was now a
dreadful engine in the hands of French enthuiiafra. —
The fineft troops that ever Europe produced were un-
able to ■withftand the fury of the republicans, \vhic1i
feemed only to increafe in proportion to the multitude
of companions that they loft. On the 2:d the allies
were driven with immenfe llaughter from Hagenau, not-
withftanding the immenfe works they had thrown up
for their defence. The entrenchments on the heights
of Reilhoffen, Jauderftioffen, &c. were confidered as
more impregnable than thofe of .Temappe. They were
ilorraed by the army of the Mofelle and the Rhine,
under Generals Hoche and Pichegru. On the 2 ^d and
24th, the allies were purfued to the heights of Wrotte.
On the 26th, the entrenchments there were forced by
tl'.e bayonet, after a defperate conflict. On the 27th,
the republican army arrived at Weiffembourg in tri-
umph. General Wurmfer retreated acrofs the Rhine,
and the duke of Brunfwick haftily fell back to cover
IMcntz. The blockade of Landau, which had lafted
four months, was raifed. Fort Louis was evacuated
by the allies, and Kaiferflatern, Germcrlhcim, and
Spires, fubmitted to the French. — During this laft
month of the year 1793, the lofs of men ou both fides

in this quarter rvas immenfe, and unexampled in the France.

hiflcry of modern war. It is even faid that it might ' " '

amount to more than 70,000 or 80,000 men. '793*

Thus far we have attended to the military affairs of yj^J^^ j-
the republic for fome time part. Very violent efforts for°so"f the'
were in the mean time made at Paris by the new admi- Mountain
niftration, eftablillicd under the aufpices of the Jacobin party,
club, and of the parly called the Mountain. The new
republican conditution had been prefcnted to the people
in the primary affemblies, and accepted. The bufmefs,
therefore, for whicb the convention w'as called toge-
ther, that of forming a conftitution for France, was
at an end ; and it \vas propofed that they ftiould dif-
folve themfelves, and order a new legillative body to af-
femble, according to the rules' prefcribed by that con-
ftitution. This was, no doubt, the regular mode of
procedure ; but the ruling party confidered it as hazar-
dous to convene a new affembly, poffefling only limited
powers, in the prefent diftracled ftate of the country.
It was indeed obvious, that France at this time ftood in
need of a diclatorfliip, or of a government poffeffed of
more abfolute authority than can be enjoyed by one
that acts, or even pretends to aft, upon the moderate
principles of freedom. It was therefore determined
that the convention fhould remain undiffolved till the
end of the war ; and that a revolutienanj government,
to be condufted by its members, ftiould be eftablilhed,
with uncontrouled powers. Committees of its own
body were felefted for the purpofc of eondufting every
department of bufinefs. The chief of thefe commit-
tees was called the committee of public fafety . It fuper-
intended all the reft, and gave to the adminiftration of
France all the fecrecy and difpatch which have been ac-
counted peculiar to a military government, together
^vith a combination of ikill and energy hitherto un-
known among mankind. A correfpondence was kept
up with all the Jacobin clubs throughout the king-
dom. CommilTioners from the convention were fent
into all quarters, with unlimited authority over every
order of perfons. Thus a government poflelTed of infi-
nite vigilance, and more abfolute and tyrannical than
that of any fingle dcfpot, was eftabliftied ; and the
whole tranfaftions and reiources of the ftate were .
knoivn to the rulers. On the 23d of Auguft, Barrere, France de-"
in name of the committee of public fafety, procured creed to be
the celebrated decree to be paffed for placing the whole '" * ^^'^^ °f-
French nation in a f.ate of rcquifition for the public ■■'^<1""'"0"-
fervice. " From this moment (fays the decree) till that
■(vhen all enemies ihall have been driven from the terri-
tory of the republic, all Frenchmen Ihall be in perma-
nent readinefs for the fervice of the army. The young
men fliall march to the combat ; the married men fliall
forge arms, and tranfport the provifions ; the women
fliall make tents and clothes, and attend in the hofpi-
tals ; the children fliall make lint of old linen ; the old
men fliall caufe themfelves to be carried to the public
fquares, to excite the courage of the warriors, to preach
hatred againft the enemies of the republic ; the cellars
ihall be walhed to procure faltpetrc j the faddle-horfes
(hall be given up to complete the cavalry j the unmar-
ried citizens, from tlie age of 18 to 25, fliall march
firft, and none fliall fend a fublkitute ; every battalion
fliall have a banner, with this infcription, The French
nation rifen againfl tyrant u" The decree alfo regulates-
tlic mode of organi»ing this maf<. A decree more ty-
raimic^

■»793-

General
Cuftine
tried aud
executed.

379

3S0
Execution
of the head
of the Gi-
roodift
party,

Executions
become
prodigioufly
common.

333
Anewtable
of weights
and mea-
fures efta.
bliflied.

F R A [I

raniiical than this was ne^er made by an eaftarn defpol ;
and when it was firft publifned, foreigners were at a
lofs whether to regard it as a fublime effort of a power-
ful government, or as a wild projecT: which could pro-
duce notliing but confufion. The effefts of it, how-
ever, have been truly terrible. We have already men-
tioned ibme of them in the bloody contefl: which oc-
curred upon the Rhine, and Europe \vas loon dellined
to bear witnefs to ftill more extraordinary events.

In the end of July, General Culline was brought to
trial, and executed, in confequence of a variety of ac-
cufations of infidelity to his trull and difrefped to the
convention. The queen was next brought to trial be-
fore the revolutionary tribunal, on the 15th of Octo-
ber. The charges againll her were very various ; but
the chief tendency of them was to prove that (he had
always been hollile to tlie revolution, and had excited
all the efforts that had been made by the court againll;
it. On the l6th of Otiober, this beautiful woman,
whom fortune once placed fo high, ended her days on
a fcaffold, after a mock trial, iu which no regard was
paid either to juflice or decency. She behaved with
much dignity and compofure, and appeared deeply im-
preffed with a lenfe of religion. The members of the
■ convention who had been at the head of the Girondift
party, and had either been detained in prilbn fince the
31ft of May, or feized in the departments to which
they had retired, were afterwards brought to trial.
On the 30th of Odober, 21 of them were executed,
viz. Briltot, Vergniaud, Genfonne, Duprat, Lehardi,
Ducos, Fonfrede, Bolleau, Gardien, Duchatel, Sillery,
Fauchet, Dufriche, Duperret, La Source, Carra, Beau-
vais, Mainville, Antiboul, Vigee, and Lacaze. Seven-
ty-one were ftiU detained in confinement. The duke
of Orleans was afterwards condemned, on a charge of
having afpired to the fovereignty from the beginning of
the revolution. His execution gave fatisfadlion to all
parties. His vote for the puniihment of death upon
the trial of the late king had done him little honour
even in the opinion of the Mountain, and had rendered
him odious to all the rell of mankind.

The execution of perfons of all ranks, particularly
of priefts and nobles, became now fo common, that il
would be ill vain to attempt to give any detail of them.
Every perfon brought before the revolutionary tribtuial
was condemned as a matter of courfe. The Jacobins
feemed infatiable in their thirft after blood, and the
people at large appeared to regard their condudl v.uth
unaccountable indifference.

When the human mind is once roufed, its aftivity
extends to every objedl. At this time a new table of
weights and mealarcs was eftablilhed by the conven-
tion, in which the decimal arithmetic alone is employ-
ed. The court of Spain had the liberality, notwith-
llanding the war, to fuffer M. Mechain to proceed in
his operations for meafuring a degree of the meridian
in that country. He carried on his feries of triangles
from Barcelona to Perpignan -, and from tliis place the
menfuration was continued to Paris. M. de Lambre,
and his pupil M. le Francois, alfo meafured a degree of
latitude in the vjchiity of the metropolis. In all, 12
degrees of the meridian were meafured ; of which the
mean is 57027 toifes, and by this the univerfal llandard
of meafurc is calculated. M. M. de Borda and Caflmi
tktcnnined the length of a pendulum that ftvings fc-

50 ]

F R A

conds, in -vacuo, and m a mean temperature at Paris, to
be 3 feet and 8,c6 lines. M. M. Lavoifier and Hauy
found that a cubic foot of dillilled water at the freezing
point weighs m vucw) 70 pounds and 60 gros French
weight. We tliall infert a table of the meafures and
weights now eftablilhed.

LoxG Measure.
Metres. French Tcifc:.

10,000,000 =r a quadrant of the meri-
dian which is the prin-
ciple on which the new
meafure is founded
100,000 rr an hundredth part of
quadrant, or decimal Ji
gree of the meridian
1000 =: a milliare, or mile
100 =z a ftadiuml Agrarian
10 ^ a perch J meafure

Teet. L
I r: a metre, or reclilineal

unit 3 (

T% or 0.1 =: a //fc/TOe/rf, or palm o ;
^■j- or o.ci rr a centremetre, or di-

5132-13:

V 5 '3 243
1 5-I3.24

.■//. Li.

H.44

8.34.-

4-43-J
•443

Sq. Fed.

9483'

9483.1
948.31

git O

1^'^g^ or o.COi ^= a viillemetre o

SuFERFici.iL Measure.
Sq. Metres.

10,000 ■=■ an are, or fuperficial unit, being
a fquare the fide of which is 1 00
metres in length
I coo r= a deciare, or tenth of an are ; a
fuperficies an hundred metres
long, and ten broad
ICO :::: a centiare

Measures ok Capacity.
Cub. decimetres. Paris Pints. Paris Bit/?.'.

J 000 =: the cubic metre, or cade

or tun I0jl4 78.9

100-=. dedicade,ax fctier ioJt 7.89

10 := centicade, or bulhel 10^ .789

I =: cubic decimetre, or pint i,'^ -3789

Weights.
Cuh. decimetres
of water.

icoo=zthe weight of a cubic mttre, or
cade of water, is called a bar or
millier 2044.4

1 00 rr ■!%■ of a bar, or decibar, or quintal 204.44
10 =: T^TT of a bar, or centibar, or decal 20.44^

French. Pounds.

I =r the ivcight of a cubic

decimetre of water

is called a grave, or

pound

.1 . ^z-i's of a grave, or dc-

cigrave, or ounce
.01 =-r^ of a grave, or
centigrave, or dram
.001 r: the weight of a cubic
centimetre of water,
is named a gravet,
or maiile
.0001 =: decigravet, or graiti
,00001 zz ccntigravet

. gros. grains

18.841

a.18841
A

F R A

[

T:in-e. A piece of filver coin ■weighing a c^»tigrc•Je, a:id a
''~'''~~^ franc of filver, according to the fonner llandard, will
' . 93' be »vorth 40 fols 10] deniers. The milliare, or thou-
fand melres, is fubtlituted for the mile ; and tlic are
for the aqient in land-meafure. The latter two are
to each other as 45 to 25. The aftronotnical circles
Avith which M. M. de Borda and Calhni mnde the ob-
ftrvations, arc divided according to this plan. The
(juadraht contains 1 00 degrees, and each degree 100
minutes. Hence the minute of a great circle on our
globe is equal to a milliare, or ne\v French mile. If,
for the reduftion of this meafure, we eilimate the Paris
toife, according to the comparilon made with the llandard
kept in the Royal Society of London, at 6.3925 Englifli
feet, the milliare or minute will be equal to 1 093.633
3S4 yards, and the metre 3.280899 feet.
rew ka- At the fame period a new kalendar Avas formed. —
ndar ]jy jj jjjg year is made to begin with the autumnal

^^^ ' equinox, and is divided into 1 2 months. Thefe are
called Vindcmiaire, Brumaire, Frimaire,Nivofe, Ventofe,
Pluviofe, Germinal, Floreal, Pralrial, Meffidor, Theriui-
dor, and Fruclidor. The months confifl; of 30 days
each, and are divided into three decades. The days of
each decade are known by the names of Primidi, Duo-
di, Tridi, &c. to Decadi ; and the day of rell is ap-
pointed for every tenth day, inftead of the feventh.
The day (which begins at midnight) is dilfributed into
ten parts, and thefe are decimally divided and fubJi-
vided. Five fapernumerary days are added every year
after the 3 cth of Fruflidor. To thefe is given the ab-
fard appellation of Sans Culotides, a word borrowed
from a term of reproach (^fans ciilotte'), ^vhich had
often been bellowed on the republican party from the
meannefs of their rank and fortune ; but which that
party no^v attempted to render honourable and popu-
lar. The childilh folly of this innovation lias Ihuck
every perlon with furprife, as it can ferve no good pur-
pofe whatever. It is a wonderful inftance of the way-
wardnefs of the human mind, which can occupy itielf
one moment with deeds of favage barbarity, and tlie
next -ciih a matter fo unimportant as the artificial
.J. di\-ifion of time.
*ray'of . The religion of France had been gradually lofing its
Jtgion. influence : and on the 7th of November, Golset, bilhop
of Paris, along with a great multitude of other eccle-
f.aftics, came into the hall of the convention, and folemn-
ly refigned their funclions and renounced the Chriftian
religion. All the clergymen, ivhether Proteliant or
Catholic, that were members of the convention, follo^ved
this example, excepting only Gregoire, whom we for-
merly mentioned as having been one of the firft priefts
that joined the Tiers F.lat after the meeting of the
States General. He had the courage to profefs hirafelf
3 Chrillian,jlthough he faid that the emoluments of his
Lilliopric were at the fervlce of the republic. With the
acclamations of the convention, it was decreed that the
only French deities hereafter (hould be Liberty, Equali-
ty, Reafon, &c. and they would feera to have confe-
crated thefe as a kind of new objecls of worlhlp. —
\\T>at political purpole the leaders in the convention in-
tended to ferve by this proceeding does not clearly ap-
pear ; unltf*, perhaps, their objed was to render the
Krer>rjh manners and modes of thinking fo completely
new, that it fhould never be in their power to return to
rhe (la*c from which they had jufl emerged, or to unite

I ] F R A

in intercourfe with the other nations of Europe. Tlie France,
populace, however, could not at once relinquiih en-' ^ *'
tirely the religion of their fathers. The commune of ^794-
Paris ordered the churches to be Ihut up, but the con-
vention found it neceffary to annul this order ; and
Robefpierre gained no fmall degree of popularity by
fupporting the liberty of r-ligious worihip on this
occafion. Hebcrt and Fabre d' Eglantine, who led the
oppofite party, haftened their own fall by this ill-judged
contempt of popular opinion. 3S6

For, now that the republic faw Itfelf fucccfsful inOi"*"'''

all quarters, when the Mountain party and the Jacobins !f'"w^"
1 J • 1 1 J J t r 1 • the Moun-

had no rival at home, and accounted themlelves m nOtjinjnd
immediate danger from abroad, they began to fplit intojicobin?.
faRions, and the ficrcell jcaloufies arofe. The Jacobin
club was the ufual place In which their contelis were
carried on ; and at this time Robefpierre afted the part
of a mediator between all partk>. He attempted with
great art to turn their attention from private animofitics
to public affairs. He fprcad a report that an invafion
of Great Britain was I'peedily to take place. He there-
fore propofed that the Jacobin club lliould fet themfelves
to work to difcover the vulnerable parts of the Britilli
conllitution and government. They did fo : They
made fpeeches, and WTote effays \vIthout number. And
in this «ay was the moft fierce and turbulent band of
men that ever perhaps exifted in any country occupied
and amufed for a very confiderable time. Wliat is no
lefs lingular, a great number of Britifli fubjecls favour-
ed the plans of thefe reforming Atheills, and, under
the fpecious appellation of the Friends of the People,
afted in concert with the French Jacobins. 387

The winter paffed away in tolerable quietnefs, and no A. provi-
military enterpiife was undertaken either by the allies j]^"^'|^^^^^
or by the French. On the ill of February, Barrere ,„""„ q,- " '
afferted in the Convention that the confederate powers the repub-
ivcre \s\V\\\f^ proviftonallij to acknowledge the French He by the
republic, to confcnt to a cellation of hoftilities for two *"'" "^f^*
years, at the end of which a lading peace (hould bej[^'^ ^^^^.^j^,
ratified by the French people. But this propofal the,ion.
convention declared itfelf determined to reject, as af-
fording to the other nations of Europe the means of 3SS
undermining their new government. In the mean time, Vigoroui
the revolutionary government was gradually becoming "^^JJj°^.^^°
more vigorous. Tliirty committees of the convention ^^j, govcm-
managed the whole bufinefs of the Hate, without fliaring nunt.
much of the direft executive government, which reded
in the committee of public fafcly. Thefe different
committees w-ere engaged in the utmoft variety of
objeds. The ruling party had no competitors for
power. Without confufion or oppofition, therefore, .
the moft e-xtenfive plans were rapidly carried into cfled.
The convention was Utile more than a court in which
every prujedt was folemnly regiftcrcd. In the fame fc!-
(ion IQ decrees would fometimcs be paffed upon objeds ,39
the moft widely different. I'he finances were under Manage-
one committee, at the head of wiiich was Cambon. — ment of
This committee found refourccs for the moft lavilh cx-^^'^ ^^^
pendlturg. The alfignals were received as money 0,1,^, re-
throughout the ftale ; and thus a paper mill was faid tor,urccsof
have become more valuable than a mine of gold. Their il": natioov
credit was fupported by an arbitrary law regulating the
maximum or higheft price of all provifions, and by the
immenfe mafs of wealth which had come into the hands
of the convention by feizing the church lands, and by
confifuitiitg .

F R A

39»
DilTenfionJ
ofthcja-

conSfcating the property of royalills, emigrants, and
perfons condemned by the revolutionary tribunal. So
unequally had property been divided under the ancient
government, that by means of thefe confifcations about
leven-tenths of the national territory was fuppofed to
be in the hands of the public. To this -iv-as added the
plunder of the churches, confifting of gold and iilver
faints, and utenfils employed in divine worfliip, along
with other articles of lefs value ; among which may be
mentioned the innumerable church bells, which were re-
garded as fufRcient for the manufaclure of 15,000 pieces
of cannon. Thefe refoiu'ces formed a mafs of property
fuch as never was poffefled by any government.

Other committees were engaged in very different ob-
jefls. Highways were conftruCifed, and canals planned
and cut throughout, the country. Immenfe manufafto-
ries o*' arms were everywhere eftablilhed. At Paris
alone 1100 mufkets were daily fabricated, and 100
pieces of cannon caft every month. Public fchools
were alTiduoufly inftituted, and the French language
taught in its purity from the Pyrenees to the Rhine.
The French convention poffefled immenfe refburces,
and they did not hefitate to lavilh them upon their
fchemes. Every fcience and every art was called upon
for aid, and the moft accomplidied men in every pro-
feflion were employed in giving fplendour to their coun
try. The chemifts, in particular, gave effential aid by
the facility with which they fupplied materials for the
manufaclure of gun-powder ; and in return for their
fervices, Lavoifier, the greatell of thsm, fuffered death
by a moll iniquitous fentence. Not fewer than 200 new
dramatic performances were produced in lefs than two
years ; the objeft of which was to attach the people to
the prefent order of things. The vigour with which
the committees of fubfillence exerted themfelve? is par-
ticularly to be remarked. As all Europe was at war
with France, and as England, Holland, and Spain, the
three maritime power-, were engaged in the conteft, it
had been thought not impoffible to reduce France to
great diftrefs by famine, efpecially as it was imagined
that the country had not refources to fupply its immenfe
population. But the prefent leaders of that country
afled with the policy of a befieged garrifon. They
feized upon the whole provifions in the country, and
carried them to public granaries. They regillered the
cattle, and made their owners refponfible for them. —
They provided the armies abundantly, and, as the people
were accurately numbered, they dealt out in every diftritl,
on ftated occalions, what was abfolutely neceffary for fub-
fiftence, and no more. To all this the people fubmitted ;
and, indeed, throughout the whole of the mixed fcenes
of this revolution, the calm judgment of the hiftorian is
not a little perplexed. We cannot avoid admiring the
patience with which the people at large endured every
hardlhip that was reprefented as neceffary to the common
caufe, and the enthufiaftic energy with which they la-
vilhed their blood in defence of the independence of
their country. At the fame time, we muft; regard with
indignation and difguft the worthlefs intrigues by means
of which the fanguinary faclions in tlie convention and
the capital alternately inaffacred each other.

During the winter the diffenflons of the Jacobins
ftill increafed. They were divided into two clubs, of
which the new one affembled at a hall which once be-
longed to the Cordeliers. The leaders of it ivere He-

2 ] F R A

bert, Ronfin, Vincent, and others ; but the bid focietj' F:ire-.
retained its afcendency, and Robefpierre was now de- '~~~^-~-^
cidedly its leader. This extraordinary man had gradu- ^794-
ally accimiulated in his own perfon the confidence of the
people and the direftion of the government. As the
committees were above the Convention, which was be-
come little more than a filcnt court of record, fo the
coranaittee of public fafety was above the other commit-
tees. Robefpierre was the leader of this ruling com-
mittee. Barrere, St .lull, Couthon, and others of its
members, only acted a fecondary part. They laboured
in the bufinels of the ftate, but the radical power was
^\-ith Robefpierre. He iurroundcd the members of the
Convention with fpies. He was jealous and implacable,
and fet no bounds to the Ihedding of blood. On the
25th of March he brought to trial the following active
Jacobins, who were condemned and executed on the
following day : Hebert, Ronfin, Momoro, Vincent,
Du Croquet, Koch, Col.- I^aumur, M. M. Bourgeois,
Mazuel, La Boureau, Ancard, Le Clerc, Proly, Def-
fieux, Anacharfis Cloots, Pereira, Florent, Armand,
Defcombles, and Dubuiffon. Not fiitisfied with this, on
the 2d of April he brought to trial nine of thofe who
had once been his moft vigorous aiTociates, Danton,
Fabre d'Eglantine, Bazire, Chabot, Philippeaux, Ca-
mille Defmoulins, Lacroix, Delaunay d' Angers, He-
raidt de Sechelles, who, along with Wefterman, were
executed on the evening of the jth. 351

Still, however, the preparations for the enfuing Prepara-
campaign were proceeding with unabated vigoiu-. Xhe"™"*"^
committee for military afiairs, at the head of "'hich ' J/^"^"
were Camot, La Fitte, d'Anifli, and others, was bufy 17,°^, and
in arranging along the frontiers the immenie force which plan of th«
the requifition had called forth. Plans of attack and^''"^*'
defence were made out by tliis committee ; and when ap-
proved by the committee of public fafety they were fent
to the generals to be executed. On the other fide, the
allies were making powerful preparations for another
attempt to fubjugate France. The emperor himfelf
took the field at the head of the armies in tile Nether-
lands. The plan of the campaign is laid to have been
formed by the Auttrian colonel Mack. Weft Flanders
was to be protefted by a ilrong body of men ; the
main army was to penetrate to Landrecies, and getting
within the line of French frontier towr.s, it was to cut
them off from the interior by covering the country from
Maubeuge to the (ea. The plan wa bo/(/. It belongs
to military men to judge whether this v. as not its only
merit. Wlien attempting to put it in execution, the
allies mull have been ill informed of the immenfe force
which the French were collecting againll them. Even
the town of Lifle alone, which is capable of containing
a numerous army within its walls, and which was to be
left in their rear, ihould have fcemed an infurmountable
objeftion to the plan. .j,.

On the i6th of April the Auftrian, Britifli, and State of
Dutch armies affembled on the heights above Caleau, ''" ''''"^^
and were reviewed by the emperor. O:; the following '"™"'"'
day they advanced in eight columns againft the French,
drove in their whole polls, and penetrated beyond Lan-
drecies ; which place the P'rench attempted to relieve,
but without fuccefs. The allied army now amounted
to 187,000 men, who were difpolcd in the following
manner; 15,000 Dutch and 15,000 Auftrj^rrs, under
the prince of Orange and General Latour, formed ihe

liege

Suc.-ef* 0
Piche?ru
in Welt

F R A [I

fiege of Laiulrecies ; ij.ooo Britifh, and 15,CC0 Auftri-
"" ans, commanded by the duke of York and General Otto,
encamped toivards Cambray. The emperor and the
prince of Saxe-Cobourg, at the head of 60,000 Auf-
trians, were advanced as far as Guife ; i 2,000 Helfi-
ans and Aullrians under General Worms ivere llation-
ed near Douay and Bouchain ; Count Kaunitz with
15,000 Auftrians defended the Sarabre and the quar-
ter near Maubeuge ; and, laflly, General Clairfait, with
40,000 Auftrians and Hanoverians, protected Flanders
from Toumay to the Tea ; 60,000 PrulTians, for whom
a fubfidy had been paid by Great Britain, were expeft-
ed in addition to thefc, but they never arrived.

The French now commenced their aclive operations.
Oil the moniing of the 26th of April they attacked
the duke of York near Cateau in great force. After
3 fcvere contlicl they %vere repulfed, and their general
Chapuy was taken prifoner. At the fame time they
attacked the troops under his Imperial majefty, but
were there alio repulfed in a (imilar manner ; lofing in
all 57 pieces of cannon. On the fame day, however.
General Pichegru advanced from Lilie, attacked and
defeated General Clairfait, took 32 pieces of cannon ;
and, in the courfe of a few days, made hlmfelf mailer
of Vervic, INIenin, and Courtray. On the :9th of
April, the garrifon of Landrecies furrendered to the al-
lies. WTien this event was knoivn in the convention,
u excited a confiderable degree of alarm. It was, how-
ever, the laft effeftual piece of fuccefs enjoyed by the
allies during this difaftrous campaign. General Clair-
fait was again completely defeated by Pichegru in a
general engagement ; and it was found necelTary to
fend the duke of York to his affillance. This move-
ment was no doubt unavoidable j but the eSecl of it
was, that it fplit down the allied army into a variety
of portions, capable of carrying on a defultory war-
fare, but unfit for the vigorous objects of conqueft. On
the loth of May the duke of York was attacked near
Toumay by a body of the enemy, whom he repulfed j
but he was unable to join Clairfait, upon whofe de-
ftruftion the French were chiefly bent : for at the
fame time that the duke of York was occupied by the
attack upon hirafelf, Pichegru fell upon Clairfait with
fuch irrefiftible impetuoilty, that he was compelled to
retreat in confufion, and a part of his army appears to
have fled to the neighbourhood of Bruges. While Pi-
chegru was thus advancing fuccefsfully in Weft Flan-
ders, General Jourdan advanced in Eaft Flanders from
Maubeuge, croffed the Sambre, and forced General
Kaunitz to retreat. On the i 8th, however. General
Kaunitz fucceeded in repulfmg the enemy In his turn,
and they re -croffed the Sambre with confiderable lofs.

The allies now found that no progrefs could be made
in France while General Pichegru was advancing fuccefse
fully and occupying Weft Flanders in their rear. The
emperor, therefore, withdrew the greater part of his
army to the neighbourhood of Toumay, and refolved
to make a grand effort to cut off the communication
between Courtray and Lifle, thus to prevent complete-
ly the retreat of Pichegru. On the night of the i6th,
the army moved forwards in five columns for this pur-

pn'.e.

Clairfait was at the fame time direfted to crofs

5.3 ] F R A

day, the divifion under the duke of York was over-
powered by numbers and defeated. The progrefs of^
the relt of the columns was Hopped, and Clairfait
completely defeated. In the confufion of the day,
when attempting to rally the different parts of the di-
vifion which he commanded, the duke of York was fe-
parated from his own troops by a party of the enemy's
cavalry, and only efcaped being made prifoner by the
fwiftnefs of his horfe. The plan of the allies being
thus frufirated, their army withdrew to the neighbour-
hood of Tournay.

Pichegru fpeedily attempted to retaliate againft the
allie<;. On the 22d of May he brought down at day-
break his whole force againft them. The attack was
commenced by a heavy fire of artillery, and all the ad-
vanced polls were forced. The engagement foon be-
came general ; the attacks were repeatedly renewed
on both fides ; the whole day ivas fpent in a fuccef-
fion of obftinate battles. All that military fkill could
do was performed on both fides. The French and
the allied foldiers fought \vith equal courage and
equal difcipline. At nine o'clock in the evening the
French at laff reluctantly withdrew from tlie attack.
The day on which a vanquilhed enemy flies from the
field is not always that on which the vitlory is won.
In this engagement the French were unfuccefsful in

the Lys, to effect a general junction, if poffible, and
coinr'etc the plan. The attempt during that evening
feemed to nromife fjccefs j but, In the courfe of next
Vol., IX. Parti.

their immediate object ; but the weight of their fire,
their fteady difcipline, and their violent obftinacy of
attack, raifed their military character high in the efti-
mation of the officers and foldiers of the allied army.
It was foon perceived, that in addition to thefe they
poifcfTed other advantages. Their numbers were im-
menfe ; they implicitly obeyed their generals ; who,
being men newly raifed from the rank of fubalterns,
as implicitly fubmltted to the directions of the com-
mittee of public fafety. A combination of efforts was
thus produced whofe operation was not retarded by
divided counfels. On the other fide, the numbers of
the allies were daily declining ; their leaders were in-
dependent princes or powerful men, whofe fentiments
and Interefls were often very hoftile to each other, and
their exertions were confequcntly difunited.

On the 24th the French again crolfed the Sambre,
but were driven back with much lofs. On the 271)1
an attempt was made to befiege Charleroi, bit the
prince of Orange on the 3d of June compelled them to
raife the fiege. On the 1 2th a timilar attempt was -p-
inade, and they were again repulfed. In Weft Flan- He lays
dcrs, however, Pichegru" was fufliciently ftrong to com- '""^S'^ '^
nience the fiege of Ypres. He was foon attacked by l"^*^^' *"
General Clairfait for the purpofc of relieving it, but
without fuccefs. — Ypres was garrifoued by ycoo men ;
leinforcements were therefore daily lent from the grand
i;rmy to Clairfait for the purpofc of relieving it. It is
unneceffary to mention the bloody contefts in which
that unfortunate general was daily engaged with the
French. It is fudicicnt to fay, that they were uni-
formly unfuccefsful, and were the means of wafting, -yfi
in a great degree, the armies of the allies. Ypres held Takes it.
out till the 17th of June, when It capitulated: and fuch
was the difcipline of the French army at this time, that
no notice could be obtained, for feveral days, of that
event. But in confequence of this and of other events,
the duke of York found it ncceffary to retreat to Oude-
narde ; for Jourdan, after ftorming the Auftrian camp
U of

F n A

[ 15

1794.

Chade'roi
farrender.
ed, r-nd the
Aurtrmrs
de&atea.

„ 393
Further
fucceffes cf
the French
ia Flander-.

4C0
foifira
fub-t- ■
by Grcai
BrUain.

of Betignies, now advanced with fuch flrength upon
Charleroi in the eafl: that its immediate fall vas fear-
ed. As this would have enabled the two French ar-
mies to encircle the whole of Flanders, the prince of
Cobourg advanced to its relief. Charleroi furrendered
Et difcretion on the 35th. This cLicumftance was not
known by the prince of Cobourg when he advanced on
the 26th to attack in their entrenchments the army that
covered the fiege near Fleurus : but the covering army
being by this time reinforced by theacceffion of the be-
fieging army, the allies were repulfed. Jourdan then
drew his men cut of their entrenchments ; and, in his
turn, attacked the Auftrians. He was three times re-
pulfed, but was at laft fuccefsful : the lofs of the van-
quillied army is faid to have been prodigious •, but no
regular accounts of it have been pubHihed. The French
unqueftionably exaggerated their own fuccefs, when
they faid that it amounted to 1 5,coo men.

The allies no\v retreated in all quarters. Nieuport,
Ofteud, and Bruges, were taken ; and Toumay, Mons,
Oudenarde, and BrulTels, opened their gates. At tliis
laft place the French armies of Eaft and Weft Flan-
ders united. Landrecies, Valenciennes, Conde, and
Q^uefnoi, were fruitlefsly left with garrifons in them.
The allied troops, evacuating Namur, formed a line
from Antwerp to Liege to proteft the coimtry behind.
The French advanced in full force, and attacked Ge-
neral Clairfait, cut to pieces half the troops tliat
now remained under him, and broke the line. The al-
lies retreated before them. The duke of York was joined
by fome troops under the earl of Moira that with much
difficulty had made their way to him from Oftend ; and
rath thefe .and the Dutch troops he retired to the
neighbourhood of Bergen-op-zoom and Breda for the
proteflion oF Holland. The prince of Cobourg eva-
cuated Liege, croffed the Maefe, and placed a garri-
fon in Maellricht. He foon, however, fent back a part
of his troops to the neighbourhood of Tongres ; for
here, to the aftoniftiment of all Europe, the French
armies made a voluntary paufe in their career of \-ic-
tory, and ceafed to purfue their retiring foes. Sluys
in Dutch Flanders was the only foreign poft that they
continued to attack, and it furrendered after a fiege of
21 days.

On the Rhine the war was equally fuccefsful on the
part of the French. On the 12th, 13th, and 14th of
July, repeated battles were fought ; in ivhich the
French enjoyed their ufual fuccefs. They had nume-
rous armies in every quarter. Their mode of fighting
was to make full preparation for accompli Ihing their
objefl, and to fight in great bodies day after day till it
was obtained. The Palatinate was thus overrun, and
Treves taken, by General Michaud. Flanders and the
Palatinate have always bceT» accounted the granaries of
Germany ; and both of them, at the commencement of
the harveft, now fell into the hands of the French.

During the courfe of this fummer Corfica was fub-
dued hy Great Britain ; and the whole of the French
Well India illands, excepting a part of Guadaloupe,
yielded to the Britirti troops under the command of Sir
Charles Grey and Sir John Jarvis. On the firrt of June
the Britilh fleet, under the command of Earl Ho^ve,
j!;ained a mod fplendid viftovy over the French fleet to
the wcftuard of Ufliant. 'J'he French committee of
fafety were known to have purchafed in America iaa-

4 ] F R A

inenfe quantities of grain and other ftores. Tliefe were France,
embarked on board 160 fail of merchantmen, convoyed ^"^"v~~^
by fix fail of the line. Lord Howe failed to intercept ' 794'
this valuable convoy. The French fleet failed at the. ■'*°,'. ,
fame time to proted it. On the morning of the zSth^faorv of
of May the fleets came in fight of each other. 1 he the Hritilh
Britiih admiral had previoully defpatched fix lliips of fl«;et un.
the line under Admiral Montague to intercept the''^'' ^"■''^
French convoy, while he Ihould engage and detain the '*'^'
grand fleet. The French dilpatched eight fail to de-
feat this attempt. In the courfe of the 29th Lord
Mowe got to windivard of the French tleet. His
force was 25, and theirs was 26, fail of the line. The
following day he bore doivn upon them, and broke
their line. The engagement was one of the fevereft
ever fought. The French admiral, in lefs than an hour
after the clofe aftion commenced in the centre, crowded
oft" with 12 of his lliips. The Britiih fleet was fo much
difabled, or feparated, that feveral of the French dif-
mantled fliips got away under fails raifed on the flump
of their fore-mafls. Seven fail of the line, however, re-
mained in pofleflion of the Britifli, and two were un-
queftionably funk. In the mean time, Admiral Mon-
tague fell in with the French convoy, but it was now
guarded by 14 fail of the line. As he could not en-
counter fuch a force, he returned home, and it was fafe-
ly conveyed Into port. Thus, by one of thofe contra-
didions which fo often occur in human aff;drs, the Bri-
tiih fleet was viclorious, and the French were left in
fome meafure mafters of the fea. As this engagement
however teftified that the Britiih feamen had not loft
their ancient fuperiority on their own element, the
nation regarded the prefent victory as a pledge of its
independence, and very general rejoicings took place
in- confequence of it.

In the mean time, the revolutionary fyftem of go- The horrid
vernment in the hands of committees of the convention executions
at Paris,' and of committees of the popular focieties'" ^*"'
throughout the country, was arrived at its higheft pg^. '^o""""«"'
feclion, and proceeded without oppofitlon in its fevere
and fanguinary meafures.

On the loth of May Madame Elizabeth, fifter of the
late king, was facrificed by it in confequence of a decree
of the revolutionary tribunal. Multitudes of others of
every rank and fex were daily facrificed in a fimilar
manner ; the rich in particular were the great objcfls
of perfecution, becaufe the confifcation of their proper-
ty added to the ftrength of the ruling powers. But Imn.enVe
neither were the poor fafe from the bloody vigilance ofpo^er of
this neiv and Angular government. By the different '^P''^-
executions Robefpierre had contrived to deftroy every '''''^'^'^'
avowed rival. AH the conftituted authorities confifted
wholly of perfons nominated ivith his approbation ; and
as the committees which conduced the bufinefs of the
ftate were at his difpofal, his will was irrefiftible through-
out the republic. He met with no oppofition in the
convention ; for that body was no longer the turbulent
popular alTembly %vhich it had once appeared ; it was
little more than a name employed to give fome fort of
refpeilability to fuch fchcmes as were propofed to it. .^,

Amidll this accumulation, however, of fecmingly ir- Verging tc
refiftible authority, Robefpierre was at the brink of ruin.
ruin. The whole of the old Girondift parly was indeed
fubducd and filcnt ; but many members of the conven-
tion ftill remained attached to it. 'Xhe party of the
Mountain.

F R A [I

Mountain, by means of whom Robcfpierre li.id rifcn
■^ to power, with little fatisfaclion now found themfelves
not only difregaided, but ready at every inllant to fall
a facrifice to that lyftem of terror \vhich they had con-
tributed to ereft. Even the Jacobins themfelves, though
neither timid nor cautious in the fliedding of blood, be-
gan to murmur \vhen they (iiw that a\vful privilege con-
fined excluiively within a few hands, or rather monopo-
lized by an individual. In this llate things remained
for fome time ; and it appeared how poffible it is for an
individual to govern a great nation even while the whole
of that nation is hoftile to his power. The bauifliment
or imprifonment of all foreigners, which had long been
rigoroudy praiSlifed, prevents us from poffetrmg much
accurate information concerning the internal llate of
France at this period ; but it is certain, that one cir-
cumrtance in particular tended much to accelerate the fall
of Robefpierre. He had procured a decree to be paCTed,
authorifing the committee of public fafety to imprifon
at its pleafure, and bring to trial, any member of the
convention. All the indi\'iduals of that body found
themfelves placed by this decree in the hands of a man
^vhofe fevere and fulpicious temper they well knew.
Still, however, they were fo much fuvrounded by fpies,
that it was difficult to form a party or plan of opera-
tions ; even the majority of the committee of public fafe-
ty were among the number of the difcontented, but they
i dared not to withftand their chief. At laft, on the 25th
of July, the convention began to exhibit figns of agita-
tion. It was underftood, that in the coiirie of a few-
days Robefpierre would facrifice a number of the mem-
bers to his fufpicions. Oa the following day the fitting
of the convention was ftill more terapeltuous. In a long
fpeech Robefpierre defended his own conduft againll
thole who had reproached him with afpiring to the dic-
tatorlhip of France. He attacked the party whom he
ftyled Moderates, as wilhing to overturn the revolution-
ary government, and to reftore the feeble fylfem of the
Briiibtines. The refult of a long debate was, that Ro-
befpierre was apparently viclorious, and his fpeech was
ordered to be printed. On the 27th the convention
appeared ripe for a change : St Juft, a member of the
committee of public fafety, in attempting to defend
Robefpierre, was repeatedly interrupted ; and Billaud
Varennes ilood forward and enumerated the crimes,
and proclaimed the tyranny, of Robefpierre. The
fpeech was received with burfts of applaufe. Robe-
fpierre in vain attempted to defend himfelf; he was
filenced by (liouts of execration from every part of the
hall. Talljen feconded the former fpeaker ia his ac-
cufation. The fitting was declared permanent, and a
decree of arreft was palled againfl Robefpierre and a
younger brother of his, along with St Ju'.l, Couthon,
and Lebas. Thefe men left the convention, and found
fecurity in the hall of the commune of Paris ; where
the municipal officers agreed to prote^ and (land by
them. The tocfin was founded j the armed force was
under their command ; an infurredlion was therefore
attempted againft the convention : but the feftions of
Paris lefufed their fupport. Very few of the troops
could be collefted, and thefe were not firm ; the late
tyranny had become odious. The hall of the commune
was therefore fpeedily furrounded ; and about three o'clock
in the morning of the 28th Robefpierre and his affoci-
ates were made prifoners. They had been outlawed

F R A

tifyi
they we

1794.

43S

5S 1

by the convention on account of their rcfillance. They Fiance

were not thtittbrc tried, unlefs for the purpofe of iden- '

g their perfons ; and, in the courfe of that day,
ited : Co of the municipal officers were
alfo executed for joining in their rebellion ; and in this
way a ftorm palfed over, which at one time threatened
to involve the French capital in ruin, and filled all Eu-
rope with aflonilhment. Thus alfo terminated the ca-
reer of the molt extraordinary man that the French re-
volution had brought forward. His talents were un-
doubtedly confiderable, and his ambition knev; no
bounds, bidding defiance to the ordinary fteliags of hu-
manity. Had Dumourier pofleffed his cooluels and cap-
tion, or had he polVefied the military talents of Dumou-
rier, the convention would certahily have been over-
turned, and we Ihould have feen a fccond Cromwell on
the throne of his murdered fovereign.

After the fall of Robefpierre, the convention exhi- Th? fyftem
bited no fmall change of appearance. Inllead of that f terror
filence vihich formerly prevailed, all was buftle and S'^** P'**;*
noife; all accufed each other. There was no longer '"„'{|."j°'
any leader, and there was no formed party. The former tif.a.
fyllem of terror was declared tc be at an end, and a
new fyftem of moderatifm fucceeded. This was carried
to as great a height as the fyftem of terror had former-
ly been ; and all means were taken to render popular
the ftiU of their late tyrant. The committees were or-
ganifed anew, and their members ordered to be fre-
quently changed. The correfpondence between the af-
filiated Jacobin clubs was prohibited, and at lall the
Jacobin club itfelf was abolilhed. This lafl event was
accorapliftied with eafe ; and that fociety whicli had
been the great engine of the revolution, was itfelf with-
out refifrance overturned. Seventy-one deputies of the
Girondirt party, who had been imprifoned fince the 3 ill
of May 1793, were let at liberty. The name of Lyons
was rcllored to it. Some of the agents of Robefpierre
ivere punilhed, particularly the infamous Carrier, whole
cruelties in La Vendee we formerly mentioned. Still,
hoivever, the convention appeared fo little united and
fo little decided with regard to objecls of the firlt im-
portance, that in all probability they ivould not have
conducted the im.portant Ibuggle againft the nations
of Europe with more fuccefs than the Girondill party
had formerly done, if the revolutionary government
and the late fyllem of terror had not already accumu-
lated in their hands fuch vail rcfources, and traced out
fuch a plan of procedure, as rendered it an eafy matter
to preferve their numerous armies in the train of fuccefs
to which they were now habituated. ^07

The allies in their retreat had left ftrong garrifons The French
in the French towns which had furrendercd to them.'°""^,
Thefe were Conde, Valenciennes, (^uefnoi, and Lan- ™"|^^Jjj
drecies. They now furrendercd to the republican ar- i,y , he al-
mies with fo little rcfirtince, that the conduft of the em- lies furren.
peror began to be conlidered as ambiguous, and he wasil
fufpeded of having entered into fonie kind of com-°
promiie with the French. This idea proved erroneous ;
and as foon as the army which had beCeged thefe towns
was able to join the grand army under Pichcgru and
Jourdan, the operations of the campaign were refumcd
after a fufpenlion of almoft two months. The French
army divided itfelf into two bodies. One of thefe un-
der Jourdan advanced againft General Ciairfait, who
had fucceeded the prince of Cobourg in the command
U 2 i:i

: refill.

F R A [ r

Fraice. Jn the neig'iibourhood of Maeftriclit. On the 15th of
'—~v~—' September the French attacked the whole Aullrian
^794. pjijj ;„ an extent of five leagues from Liege to Mae-
"Furtber ftri<"hf. Or. tliat and the following day the lolTes u-ere
fucce'reiof nearly equal. On the 17th the French with 50 pieces
the FieiKb.of cannon attacked General Kray in his entrenched
camp before Maertricht. M. de Kray was already re-
tiring when General Ciairfait arrived with a ftrong re-
inforcement, and after a fevere combat the French
•were once more compelled to retire. On the 1 8th
-the French renewed the attack ivith tenfold fury upon
<very part of the Aurtriau line, and the whole was
•compelled to fly to the neighbourhood of Aix-la-Cha-
pelle. General Clairfait now chofe a ftrong poiition
on the banks of the Roer, ^vhere he even declared it
to be his wifli that he might be attacked. But by this
time the fpirit oi his army was humbled, defertions
became numerous, and the want of difciphne was ex-
treme. On the I ft of Oitober the French croflfed the
Maefe and the Pv-otr, and attacked the whole Auftrian
polls from Ruremond dorni to Juliers. After a bloody
engagement, the brave and active, though unfortunate.
General Clairfait was compelled hailily to crofs the
Rhine, with the lofs of 10 or i 2,cco men. The French
general did not attempt to crofs that river, but one de-
tachment of his army took poffelhon of Coblentz, while
others laid clofe liege to Venlo and Maeftrich^, wiiich
409 . foon furrendered.
^oore'fs m '^'^^ divifion of the French army, in the mean rime,
ihe'raH-' ""^er General Pichegru came down upon Holland,
tjueft cf and attacked the allied army under the duke of York
Holland. between Bois-le-duc and Grave. They forced the ad-
vanced poll of Boxtel. Lieutenant-general Abercroraby
was fent to attempt to recover this port on the 15th
■of September, but he found the French in fuch force
that he was obliged to retreat. Indeed the French
were difcovered to be no lefs than 8o,COC llrong in that
neighbourhood. The duke of York was unable to
contend againft a force fo fuperior, and retired acrofs the
Maefe with the lofs of fomewhat lefs than i 500 men.
Pichegru immediately laid fiege to Bois-le-duc. On the
3Cth of September, Crevecccur was taken, and Bois-le-
duc furrendered in 10 days thereafter. In it 408 French
emigrants were taken prilbners ; and thefe, as well as 700
that had been taken at Nieuport, 500 at Sluys, and
J 100 at Valenciennes, v/ere all put to death, agreeably to
-the rigorous law formerly made by the convention. The
French now followed the duke of York acrofs the
Maefe. Upon this the greater part of the allied army
under his royal highnefs eroded the Rhine and took poll
at Arnheim. The remaining part of the army fol-
lowed foon after, and Nimeguen was occupied by the
French on the 7th of November. The euke of Brunf-
wick was nC this time requefted to take the command
of the allied army, to proteiSl Holland, if polTible. He
<ame to Arnheim for that purpofe ; but after examining
the (late of things there, he declined the undertaking.
The allied troops had now fo often lied befce their
■viclorious and almoft innumerable enemies, they had
fo often been in want of every neceffary^ and had
been received fo ill by the inhabitants of the countries
throu^ which they paiTed, among whom the French
caufe was extremely popular, that they had loft that
regularity of conduct and difcipline which alone can
afford a ii-cure proiped of fuccefs in military afTjiirs.

56 ■] F R A

The French, on the contrary, ivell received, abounding France.
in every thing, and proud of fighting in a popular caule, *-— v— J
noiv acfled ^vith much order, and fubmitted to the Itrifteli ^ 794-
difcipline. In addition to all thefe advantages, the French- y°
leaders had the dexterity to perfuade the world that j^jp'jj^^
new and unknown arts were cmplo) ed to give aid to ar.d itate'
their caufe. At this period the u/e^rafi/ie was firftofthe
u'.ed for conveying intelligence from the frontiers to''"^"'^''
the capital, and from the capital to the frontiers, (See^™"*"
Telegraph). Balloons were alfo ufed by the French
during this campaign to procure knowledge of the po-
fition of the «nemy. An engineer afcended with the
balloon, which ^vas fullered to rife to a great height,
but prevented from flying away by a long cord. He
made plans of tlie enemies encampment ; and during
an attack he lent down notice of every hollile move-
ment. In the affairs of men, and more efpecially in
military tranfaclions, opinion is of more importance
than reality. The French foldiers confided in their
own officers as men poiTefled of a kind of omnifciencc,
while the allied troops, no doubt, beheld ^dth anxiety a
new contrivance employed againft them, whofe import-
ance would be readily magnified by credulity and igno-
rance. With all thefe advantages, however, after the
capture of Nimeguen, they once more made a halt in
their career, and abllained from the attack of Holland,
which now feemed almoft proftrate before them.

While thefe events occurred in the nortli, the French Their luc-
arms were fcarcely lefs fuccefsful on the fide of Spain, ceffes in
Bellegarde was taken ; in the Weftern Pyrenees, Fon-'^P^'"-
tarabia furrendered, and alfo St Sebaftian ; the whole
kingdom of Spain feemed panic ftruck. That feeble
government, with an almoft impregnable frontier, and
the moll powerful fortreffes, could make little rcfillance ;
and the dithcult nature of their country was their only
proteftion. The hiftory of this war is only a hiftory of
viclories on the part of the French. In the Eailern
Pyrenees, on the i 7th of November, the French gene-
ral Dugommier was killed in an engagement, in which
his army was fuccefsflil. On the 20th of that month
the French again attacked the Spaniards, and routed
them by means of the bayonet, without firing a fingle
mufket-ftiot. Tents, baggage, and cannon, for an ar-
my of jo,000 men, fell into the hand of the conquerors,
along with a great part of the province of Navarre.
Towards the end of the year, an army of 40,000 Spa-
niards, entrenched behind 80 redoubts, the labour of li.x
months, fiiffered themfelves to be completely routed ;
their general Count de la Union was found dead on
the field of battle, and the whole Spanilli artillery was
taken. In three days thereafter, the fort Fernando
de Figuieres, containing a garrifon of 9107 men, fur-
rendered, although it mounted J71 pieces of cannon,
and poflelTed abundance of proviiions. The French
continued their conquefts ; Rofas was taken, and the
whole province of Catalonia was left at the mercy of
the invaders.

The fuccelTes of this wonderful campaign were not The con-
yet terminated j and the lail part of them is perhaps the qjeft of
moft important, although no great effort was neceft'ary Hohai.d
to its execution. 'J"he winter now fet in with unconir*^'^'"^
raon feverity. For fome years paft the feafons of Eu-
rope had been uncommonly mild ; there had been lit-
tle froft in winter, and no intenfe heat in fummer. But
d'jring the late fcafon the weather had long been re-
markably

F R A [ r

Trin-i^. markably dry till the latter part of harveft, when there
' fell a coniiderable, though by no n;eans unutual, quan-

l '795- tity of rain. Towards the end of December a fevcre
frolt bound up the whole of the rivers and lakes of
Holland. The Waal was frozen over in the beginning
ff January ; a circumftance which had not occuired for
14 years paft. Taking advantage of this, the French
croil'ed that river, and with little oppolitiou feized the
important pafs of Bommell, which at other feafons is
fo llrong by its inundations. The allied army had been
joined by J 7,000 AulfriarhS, and had received orders to
defend Holland to the lail. They did lb, and were
fuccefsfu! in repulling the French for fome days between
the Wasl and the Leek; but the republican army,
amounting to 70,000 men, having at laft advanced in full
force, the allied trocps v.ere compelled to retire acrofs
the Yflel into Weftphalia. In the courfe of their march
through this defert country, in the midft of fevere froft
and a deep fnow, they are laid to have fuftered incredi-
ble hardlhips, and to have \o&. a very great number of
tnen. The French, in the mean time, advanced rapidly
acrofs the country to the Zuyder fea, to prevent the in-
habitants from living, and carrying off their property.
On the l6th of January 1795, a party of horfe, without
-lefiilance, took poffelTion of jVroilerdam. The other
towns furrendered at dilcretion. In coniequence of an
order from the llates general, the ftrong fortrefles of
Bergen-op-zoom,Williamlfadt, Breda, &c. opened their
gates to the French. The tleet and the ihipping were
fixed by the intenfe froft in their ftalions, and fell a prey
to the enemy ; who thus, with little effort, made a com-
plete conquefl of this populous and once powerful coiin-
try. The French were well received by the people at
large. The power of the ftadtholder had been fupport-
ed among them merely by the influence of PrulTia and
England. Through hatred to this cltice, which had
now become odious chiefly to the mercantile arilfccracy
of Holland, they were little attached to their allies, and
gave them, during the prefent war, as little fupport as
poflible. The fladtholder and his family new tied to
England. The French declared, that they did not
mean to make fubjecfs but allies of the Dutch, and in-
vited them to call together popular affemblies for fettUng
their oun government, under the proteftion of the
French republic.

Thus terminated a compaign, the moft aftoniilu'ng,
perhaps, that hasbeen known in the hiftory of mankind.
In tlie courfe of it, even before the conqueil of Hol-
land, the French had taken 20CO pieces of cannon and
60,000 prifoners. After that event, the conquered ter-
ritories added to them a population of nearly 14 millions
of people. Luxembourg and Mentz were the only
places on this fide of the Rhine that refifted them. The
former ivas clofely blockaded, for the purpofe of com-
peiHng it to furtender ; the latter was feveral times
^3 affaulted,but fuccefsfully held.ouu
The diet of At this period Europe feemed to be weary of fuch a
'Ratitbon bloody contefl, and the Diet of Ratifhon intimated its
peace. refolution to adopt fuch meafures as might tend to

bring about a general pacification. A treaty was con-
cluded between the grand duke of Tufcany and France.
The convention declared their readinefs to treat for
peace with any of the powero of Europe upon honour-
able terms. Great Britain and Auftria, however, feem-
.«d,lo be petfuswled, that an honourable and permanent

57 ]

F R A

pe.ace could not be obtained with France, while her Ft..rc<i.

government was fuljed to fuch perpetual changes. For ^ ' '

inltance, fuch was the enmity of the Mountnin party '71*5'
againft the Girondc, that any treaty entered into by
the lattrr would have been trampled upon by tlie for-
mer ; and fuch, it was obfeived, might continue to be
the afped of affairs in tliat dillrafted country for an in-
definite length of time. ,.

As the conftitution which had been framed in the A t.ew ron-
year 1793, during the tyrannical dominion of Robef- ''""^'°'»-
pierre was julfly deemed irapraclicable, a committee
was appointed to frame one entirely new. It wat; com-
pofed of Sieyes, Cambaceres, Merlin of Douay, Thi-
baudeau, Mathieu, Le Sage of Eure and Loire, and
Latouche. On the report of Cambaceres, the 19th of
April, that the committee thought that a ceniraiflion
ihould be appointed for this important hufinefs, a num-
ber of qualified perfons were accordingly chofen, while
all citizens were invited to communicate their fentimenta
upon the fubjecf, and the committee was to give orders
for the beft plan to be publilhed. The feelings of the
nation at large received additional gratification from
the conduct of the convention tov/ards Fouquier Tain-
ville the prefident, and i ; judges and jurors, of the re-
volutionary tribunal. They were fully convicted on
the 8th of I\Iay, and executed on the 9th, launched in-
to eternity amidll the jull execrations of a vail multi-
tude of fpeftators. .,^ ■

Although the Jacobins were defeated on the ift andl>!fvirrcc;i.-!n
2d of April, they did not confider themfelves as en-'''^'''-* i^-
tirely fubdued. They were plotting a more extenfive ^''''"^'
infurreftion^ which was not to be confined to the capi-
tal, and fixed on the 20th of May as the period, cf
revolt. On the morning of that day, the toclin was
accordingly founded, and drums beat to arms in the
luburb of St Antoinc, in which the Jacobins had al-
■ways enjoyed the greateft influence. Upon this the
convention met ; and although the infurreclion was faf
from being a fecret, the conmiittee of public fafety did
not appear to have taken any meafures to prevent it.
It was only at the moment when tlie infurgents were
approaching that General Hoche was appointed to the
command of the armed force, and lent to colleft the
military and citizens for the proteftion of the conven-
tion. The hall was prclently furrounded, the guards
were overpowered, and the mob forced their way into
the midil of the aflerably. The multitudes of women
who met upon this occafion Ihouted for bread, and the
conilitution of 1793. Vertiier the preiiJcnt, a man far
advanced in years, quitted the chair to BoifTy d'Anglas,
who kept it with commendable fortitude during the re-
mainder of the day. The mob had cockades with this
infcription upon them, " Bread, and the conilitution of
1793^" One of the party attached to the convention
imprudently tore oft" the liat of one of the infurgents,
whom the multitude attacked with fwords ; and as he
fled towards the chair of the prefident, he was killed by
by n muflttt Ihot. The majority of the members gr.!-
dually retired fnim tltis fccnc of lawlcfs inlrufion, and
left the multitude mailers of the hall. Four of the
members who remained efpoufed the caufe of the in-
furgents, whofe triumph, however, was of very Ihott
continuance. A large body of tlie military and the
peaceable citizens vanquilhed them in the evening, the
powers of the majority were retlorcd, and the four de-

P'ltie?

4' 7
Uefeat of
H,e>co.

418
Hope to b(
I'uccefifu!.

F R A [15

puties wlio efpoufed the cnufe of the moS ^vere ar-
refted.

It would appear that the convention and the citizens
of Paris now believed their triumph to be complete, as
no meafures were adopted by thera futP.cient to prevent
the repetition of a fimilar outrage. The Jacobin?,
however, were not yet determined to view tlieir caufe
as delperate, for next day they collefled in the fuburbs,
and in the afternoon made a feccnd attempt. The
Caroufal was taken by them without oppofition, when
they pointed fome pieces of cannon againft the hall of
the convention, the members of which being wholly
unprotcfted, endeavoured to gain over the mob by Hat-
tery, — by proniiCng them bread, and the conllitution of
1793, or whatever elfe they thought proper to demand;
and the prefident even gave the deputation the frater-
ral embrace. On the 23d the citizens affembled, and
went to the Thuilleries to defend the convention from
infult and violence. The military collefted in confider-
able force ; and the convention was at length encour-
aged to act on the offenfive. It was decreed that if the
fuburb of St Antoine did noL immediately furrender its
arms and cannon, with the m.urderer of Ferrand, it
would be declared in a ftate of rebellion. The generals
of the convention received orders to reduce it by force ;
and the infurgents finding themfelves unequal to the
conflicf, vi-ere forced by the inhabitants to make an un-
conditional furrender, to preferve their property from
the depredations of the military. The foldiers found
among the prifoners were put to death, on which oc-
cafion fix of the members were tried and condemned by
a military commilTion. Three of thera were guilty of
fuicide, and the other three were publicly executed.

In the fouthem parts of France, the Jacobins were
equally turbulent as their brethren in Paris, and form-
ed an infurreftion at 'i'oulon on the 2oth of May,
feizing on the gates, upon which they planted cannon ;
they fet at liberty fuch of their affbciates as had been
incarcerated, and detained the fleet which was about to
put to fea. From Toulon they proceeded to Marfeill-s,
at which time they were 3000 llrong, and had t 2 pieces
of cannon. On their march they were oppofed by
Generals Charton and Paftod, by whom they were de-
feated, 3C0 of them being fent prifoners to Marfeilles,
and Toulon was liberated.

The Mountain party, ivho were anxious to revive the
terrific reign and m.eafures of Robefpierre, were now
very much reduced, a'ld expofed in many places to
violent perfecution. Aflbciations were formed for the
purpofe of avenging the crimes they committed during
the continuance of their power. When we retiect on
the charafler of Robefpierre's government and what all
ranks of men fuifered under it, we muft confider it
truly aftonilhing that any number of men (liould hazard
their lives in attempting its reftoration. The party
was of courfe gradually abandoned by its adherents on
the fall of its tyrant, and it funk in the ertimation of
every one who examined it with attention. Still, how-
ever a fmall party remained, the members of which
were men of fuperior aftivity and enterprife. They
confided of ferocious republicans who thought they be-
licld the revival of royalty and ariftocracy in every at-
tempt to eflablifh a mild, fober, and regular govern-
ment. Yet, amidif the univerfal odium call upon them,
the Jacobins expected to rife once more into power ;

33 F R A

but what IS mofi fingular, the revival of their flrength France,
is to be dated from their unfuccefsful infurreclion jull ""^ — ^
now mentioned. Their want of popularity began to ^795'
affecl the convention, as the people remembered how
tam.ely that body fubmitted to the tyranny of Robef-
pierre, of ^vhofe power the majority of the members
had been the ferviie inllrumeins. The prefs therefore,
being new free, the moft hideous picture of their con-
duct was held up to the public. The greater part of
them now began to repent of their victory over the
Jacobins, as they forefaw that the confequences in the
end might prove fatal to themfelves.

On the 23d of June, Boifly d'Anglas prefented the j^r^^y'^^^
report of the committee relative to the plan of a newftitution,"
conftitution. It was, like its predeceffors, prefaced ivith
a declaration of the rights of man, confilting befides of
1 4 chapters on the following fubjects : — the extent of
the republican territories, the political Hate of citizens,
primary aflcmblies, electoral aflemblies, the legiflature,
the judicial authority, the public force, public inftruc-
tion, the finances, foreign treaties, the mode of revifing
the conftitution, 2nd an aft that no rank or fuperiority
(hould cxilt among citizens, but what might arife from
the exercile of public function";.

Tlie legiilature was compofed of tivo aifemblies, the Made up of
council of the Ancients, confifting of 250 members, astw-iaSem-
none but married men and widowers turned of ^.o'>''^s.
could be chofen members of it ; the other council con-
filled of 500 members, and enjoyed the cxclufive privi-
lege of propolliig the laws, while the council of Ancients
might reject or oppofe, without having power to alter
the decrees. The executive poiver was intrulted to
five perfons who were to be 40 years of age at leaft,
and to be denominated the Executive DireBory. The
two councils had the power of elefting its members,
the council of five hundred propofmg 10 times as many
candidates as could be chofen, and the council of two
hundred and fifty felecled the five members from among
thefe 50 candidates. One member of the diredtory was
to go annually out office, by which they were all
changed in the courfe of five years. In enatting laws
the directory had no vote, being appointed purely to
fu'jerintend the execution of them, regulated the coining
of money, and had the difpofal of the armed force.
The treaties made by the diieflory with foregn courts
were not binding without the fanftion of the legiilature,
and ^var could not be made without a decree of the
two aflemblies. The whole articles of the new con-
ftitution underwent a feparate difculTion, when they
were to be tranfmitted to the primary aflemblies for
their approbation. Prior to this event, however, it was
agreed on by a majority of the convention, in order to
avert the danger which now threatened themfelves,
from the lofs of public favour, that at the approaching
general eledion, the electors ihould be bound to return
two thirds of the prefent members, and if this failed,
that the convention themfelves might fill up the va-
cancies, i hefe decrees accompanied the conftitution ;
but at Paris the idea of re-elefting two-thirds of the
old members was lejccced with contempt, and the ab-
furdity of it pointed out with every expreflion of acri-
mo.ny. ^j,

The convention in the mean time did not fail to Freniom

publiih the approbation of the decrees by the primary ='l'ri<'s«>' '

aflemblies, as well as of the conftitution, although it is ''•*'""
' ° . . venuuii.

F R A

Trar.ce. ccrtaJn that vaft numbers had confounded the two to-
'""^ gather, and given their approbation accordingly. Such
'79 J* was the rage of many againrt the convention in confe-
quence of the decrees already mentioned, that it was
even propoled to try the whole members before a new
revolutionary tribunal, and punilh each in proportion
to his crime5. The fedions remonftrated againft the
decrees to the convention, and the more eager they ap-
peared in the buiinefs, the more perfuaded was the con-
vention of its OUT! imminent danger. Every remon-
ftrance, however, ^vas difregarded, and the contend-
ing parties fonned the refolution of fettling it by force
of arms. About lOO elcftors of Paris met in the hall
of the theatre in the fuburb of St Germain before the
day of meeting which had been appointed by the con-
vention, and having chofen De Nivernois for their pre-
fident, began their debates, abfurdly concluding that
the fovereignty was veiled in the hands of the eledors,
after thefe had been chofen by the primary fei5lions. A
body of troops was fent to diffohe them as an illegal af-
fembly, wliich ivas accompllrtied without any dilUculty,
the citizens not having been unanimous in their fenti-
411 raents refpeSing it.
Jacobins This, however, did not prevent the fedions from

courted by prefuming that bv fteadv perfeverance thev would be
theconven-5. ,, .'^, . - . - •, „ i i ' i

tion_ finally victorious, having always tound that tlie party

favoured by the co-operation of the Parifian populace,
had carried their point ever fince the commencement
of the revolution. The armed force with which the
convention was furrounded gave the people very little
alarm, as they endeavoured to perfuade themielves that
the military could never be brought to aft againft the
citizens. As the members of the convention alfo ap-
peared to fufpeft their fidelity, they applied for aflift-
ance to thofe very Jacobins whom they had humbled
on the 24th of May. If the feftlons of Paris detefted
the members for their connexion with the atrocities of
Robefpierre, the Jacobins admired them from this very
circumlfance ; a fet of reftlefs, bloody men, who were
never fatisfied with wars abroad nor revolutions at
home. Hundreds of them were relealed from prilon,
and put in a ilate of requifition for aOifting the legiflative
42'5 body.

The feftions of Paris having beheld the convention
furrounded by men who had juilly obtained the ap-
tion and*^"'?^^'^''""* '^^ terrorijis and men of blood, they exhibited
Parifians. a deCre of engaging them which was altogether un-
bounded. Their leader defigned to make the members
prifoners, till they could be conveniently brought to
trial, and in the interim conduft public aiTairs liy com-
mittee? of the feclioris, till a new legiflative body could
be chofen. General Miranda was to have the com-
mand of the armed force after the overthrow of the
convention, but as it was ftill problematical which party
v.ould be triumphant, he retired to the country till the
event (hould declare It, refolving to (liare the reward
of a conqueft to which he was to contribute nothing.
The fupcrior o;Tcers of the convention were unfaithful,
yet the fubalterns and foldiers might have continued
firm, to which they would, no doubt, be Ifrongly ex-
horted by their Jacobin auxiliaries. U'hat was greatly
in favour of the convention was, that the firll moments
of enthufiafra were permitted to pafs away, after which
the feftions exhibited a conduft both undecided and

[ 159 }

F R A

Struggle
between
the conven

Barras was appointed on the 4th of Oftobcr by the Fiance.

convention to the command of the troops, Generals * '

Menon, Raffet and fome others, having been difiniiled '795-
from office. Barras called in the aid of the moll able „ ''^*
officers, among ivhom we find Brune and Bonaparte, app"n,cd
and made fpeedy preparations for a vigorous defence, to ilic chief
Troops with cannon were planted in every avenue lead- '^""""»"'*
ing to the Thuilleries, and malked batteries were placed ""^ '*"; "*•
in fituatlons of a more retired nature, If any of thefe 'r°op,
fliould happen to be forced. The precaution was alfo
taken of tranfporting the provllions and military llores
to St Cloud, if the convention Ihould be obliged to re-
treat from Paris. On the 5th of Oclober both parties
continued on the defenfive for feveral hours, but about
three o'clock in the afternoon, overtures were made
by the general of the infurgents, Danican, in which he
declared that the intention of the citizens was for peace,
only they apprehended a maflacrc was to be begun by
the armed terrorills furrounding the convention, and
that if thefe were removed they would return to their
duty j but it was refolved to try the ilTue of the dif-
pute at the point of the fword, as the Jacobin party in
the convention were now more fully perfuaded of ulti-
mate fuccefs. On this occafion the armed Jacobins
without are generally underilood to have been the firft
aggreflbrs. The citizens on the fouth fide of the river
made an effort to reach the convention by the Quay
de Voltaire, but were completely prevented by the
cannon of the convention, while the confUft was ex-
tremely obfllnate on the other fide of the river, near
the convention. After an engagement of four hours
continuance, the feftions ivere repulfed, and driven to
the pofl of St Roch, which being alfo taken after an
obllinate refiflance, the infurgents fled to their head
quarters at the feftion of Le Pelletier ; but the troops
of the convention were, about midnight, in poffeffion of
the whole city. ^ij

The vlftors attributed this infurreftlon to the in- The violent
fluence of the royalifls ; and ^vhether they were right f^'^^'""*
in their judgment or not, it is certain thst the caufe of?P'i"a(i ^
royalty %vas now become lels odious to the people in ge-
neral than the bloody extravagance of republlcanifm ;
but the mob in faft feem to iiave looked no farther
than the difarming of the Jacobins, and obtaining new
reprefentatives, The attempt failed, and the Mountain
were again at the head of the flate. The fittings of
the convention were terminated on the zyth of Ofto-
ber, and was fucceeded by the new legillature in terms
of the cont^itutlon. Among its laft decrees, was one
granting a general amnelly for all crimes and pro-
ceedings of a revolutionary nature, but the emigrants,
tranfported priells, and every one concerned in the laft
infurreftlon, were excluded from the benefit of it. The
agents of Robefpierre in Paris and the departments were
liberated from prifon, and promoted to lucrative offices
under the new government. ^js

The next ftep of the new legillature was to divide Mcaiutei oC
itfelf into two councils, and proceed to the eleftion of "'"=.'"''"
an executive dircftory. The council of five hundred "''^'' * ""'
was bound to prcfent to the other council 50 candi-
dates, of which a hll was accordingly made out, con-
fining of no more than five whom they wilhed to be
chofen, the other 45 confiding of obfcure pcrfons, far-
mers and pcafants, which left no more power to the
council of ancients than the form of an eledion, which

mull.

F R A

1795-

4'7
Treaty c
peace wi
Pniffia.

Death of

xvn.

mufl fall on Sieyes, Barras, Reubell, Li Rcveillere
Lrpaux, and Letourneur de la Maiiche, none of the
rell being qualified for the office. The intriguing
Sieyes, hoivever, did not deem it prudent to venture
on the poiTeffion of power ; and on his declining to ac-
cept of this new dignity, Carnot was appointed in his
ftead. The form of government now eflabliflied did
r.ot promife to be produftive of much happinefs or traiT-
quilhty, as the moft important offices in the ftate ivere
filled by men whom the people could not endure. The
members too of the executive direftory, except only
Reveillere Lepaux, had always been connected with
the Mountain party, and they employed the Jacobins
in almoft every official department, ivhich could not
fail to render the government peculiarly obnoxious. It
%vas feared that a directory chofen by the Jacobins, and
new legillators appointed by the people, might one
day be the means of totally fubverting the conflitution,
wliich aftually took place.

On the loth of April a treaty of peace with the
king of Pruflia uas prefented to the convention, in order
to be ratified. By \-irtue of this treaty, it was agreed
that the republican troops fliould be immediately with-
drawn from the territories of Pruffia on the right bank
of the Rhine, having power to retain, till a general
peace, the territories which France then pofleffed on
the left bank of that river. There was to be a mutual
exchange of prifoners of \var, and the intercourfe be-
tween the two countries was to be placed in its former
fituation. Meafures were alfo adopted to fliift the
theatre of hoftilities from the northern parts of Ger-
many. At the fame time the king of S\veden acknow-
ledged the French republic, whole ambaffador was re-
ceived at Paris with great folemnity. Another treaty
was concluded with Pruffia in the month of May,
which had a fpecial reference to the line of neutrality.
The cantons of Switzerland followed the example of
the king of Sweden, and a treaty of peace was con-
cluded at Bade on the 2 2d of July, between the repub-
lic and the court of Spain, in confequence of which
France gave up all the conquefts ihe had made in that
country, and the original frontier was reftored ; in re-
turn for which the republic received all the Spaniffi part
of St Dcmingo. In this treaty the Dutch republic
was included, and the mediation of the king of Spain,
in favour of Portugal and the Italian princes, was ac-
cepted by France.

On the 9th of June, the dauphin, the heir to the
throne of the unfortunate Louis XVI. and his only fon,
died in the prifon of the temple, where he was confined
with his ilrter (ince the death of the king. Some think
that his death was the confequence of difeafe, although
it is much more probable that he was poifoned, fince
there is no crime in the annals of human depravity
\vhich the French rulers would have trembled to per-
petrate, of which the numerous murders already detail-
ed a.*lbrd indubitable evidence. His death, however,
interefted the Frer.ch nation fo deeply in favour of his
barbaroufly ufed family, that the convention found it
prudent to liberate the princcfs. The committee of
public fafety propofed to the emperor to give her up in
exchange for the commiffioners whom Dumourier had
fent prifoners to the Aullrians, together with Semon-
vir.e and Marat, who ^vere feized on their way to Tur-
key as envoys extraordinary from the French republic.
4

[ 160 J F R A

The propofal was agreed to, and the exchange took France;
place at Bafle in Switzerland. '— v^

If Britain was unfortunate in her affairs on the conti- ^19S-
nent, ffie flill retained her fuperiority on the watery . 4^9 .
element. A fleet under Admiral Hotham engaged a pejior'by "
French fleet on the 14th of March, and took two failiea.
of the line, the Ca Ira and Cenfeur ; but this was
nearly counterbalanced by the lofs of the Berwick and
lUullrious. Three French flilps of the line were cap-
tured by Lord Bridport on the 23d of June, in an at-
tack on the enemy's fleet off Port L'Orient, the reft of
the fleet effeiSling its efcape. As Britain thus evinced
upon all occafionsher fuperiority by fea, advantage was
taken of this circumftance to fend affiiflance to the roya-
lills in the weftern departments, which unfortunately
for them came too late, for the convention had offered
them a treaty which was accepted and figned at Nantz
on the 3d of March, on the one part by deputies from
the convention, and on the other by Charette, Sapi-
neau, and other chiefs of the infuxgents of La Vendee,
and by Cormartin, as reprefentatives of the party called
Ckouans ornight owls. Stoftlet fubmitted to the repub-
lic on the 20th of April The countenance given by
Britain to the royalifts made them difregard thefe trea-
ties. The troops fent to their aid were ccmpofed of
emigrants in the pay of Great Britain, and a number
of prifoners who agreed to join the royal caufe. Puifaye
commanded this motley army, and Count de Sombreuil
afterivards joined him with an inconfiderablc reinforce-
ment. This expedition arrived in the bay of Quiberon
on the 25th of June. Arms were put into the hands of
the inhabitants of the country, but it was foon found
that they could not be of much advantage to regular
troops. A rcfolution was therefore adopted to withdraw
the emigrant army within the peninfula of Quiberon,
the fort of w'hich name %vas taken on the 3d of July,
the garrifon of which confifted of about 600 men, and
was afterwards occupied by the emigrants. All the
pofls without the peninfula were carried by an army
under General Hoche, the emigrants and Chouans ef-
caping into the boats of the Britilb fleet, or flying for
protection under the cannon of Quiberon fort. The re
publicans then began to ereft formidable works on the
heights of St Barbe, which commanded the entrance of
the peninfula. To prevent thefe operauons, a fally on
the 7th was made from the fort, but without effedl,
and another with flill greater force had no better fuc-
cefs. The whole forces in the peninfula amounted, in-
cluding Chouans, to about i 2,0 co men, 5000 of whom
were lent to make an attack on the heights of St Barbe,
where the republicans were entrenched in three camps,
two of which were taken without difficulty ; but as the
emigrants ruffied forward to attack the third, a malked
battery was opened upon them «nth grape fliot, in con-
fequence of which a dreadful daughter enfued, and very
few of the emigrants would have effected their efcape,
had not the fire from the Eritiffi fliips compelled the re-
publicans to abandon the purfuit. 43a

it was now evident that a complete and ultimate fai- ^
lure would be the fate of this expedition, and defertion

the Qui:

among the emigrants became very irequent, efpecially ,ti:ion.
thofe who had been liberated from prifon on condition
of ferving againft the republic. The weather was very
tempclluous on the evening of the 20th, which induced
the eniigrar.ts to indulge in a fatal fecurity. The troops

of

F R A [ 1

of tHe republic were conducted in filence along an un-
■' guarded quarter of flie ihore, and I'urprifed one of the
ports, where they found the artiOerv men alleep. They
extinguilhed the lanthorn which was intended to give
the Britilh fleet the alarm, and feized on their matches.
Some of the emigrants threw down their arms and join-
ed the republicans, while others maintained an obrtinate
contell before they furrendered. Count de Sombreuil
was taken and put to death, together with the bilhop
of Dol and his clergy, none being fpared but fuch as
pretended that their appearing againll the republicans
was purely owing to compulfion.
il But to return to the affairs on the continent. *The
fort of Luxembourg furrendered on the 7th of June, ^-
ter ha\-ing been beiieged fmce the preceding campaign,
ivhich put the Frencl) in poflertion of the whole left
bank of the Rhine, Mentz only excepted, becaufe the
Aullrians could conveniently fupply it with every ne-
celTary from the oppofite bank of the river. The repub-
licans therefore determined to crofs the river, to invelt
it on every lide ; but for Tome time the attempt was de-
layed, till the refult of the Q^uiberon exoedition ihould
be fully kno'.vn. The paffage of the Rhine at Duffel-
dorf was etTecled by General Jourdan in the month of
Auguft, as commander of what was denominated the
army of the Sambre and Meufe. Having driven three
Aui^rian polls before him, he croiTed the Maine, and
inTefted Mentz and Caflel, and Pichegru at the fame
time took poiTeflion of Manheim, having crofled the ri-
ver near that city with the army of the Rhine and Mo-
felle. A ftrong detachment of this anny having driven
Marfhal Wurmfer from an important poft, began to
plunder, and confequently run into confiifion, of ivhich
the Aullrians took a proper advantage, returned to the
charge, and the republicans were vanquilbed. Jourdan
was purfued by Clairfait to Dufleldorf, where the for-
mer general made a ftand, and Pichegru recroffed the
Rhine near Manheim, leaving a garrifon- in that city of
8000 men, which, after a vigorous liege, furrendered to
the Auftrians ; and the republicans were driven from
the vicinity of Mentz. Little more was either loft or
won by the contending parties at this time, and they
mutually agreed to an armiftice of three months.

The landgrave of HelTe Caifel entered into a treaty
of peace with France on the 28th of Auguft, which
vias agreed to, on condition that he would furnifti Bri-
tain with no more troops during the war. Peace upon
fmiilar terms was granted to the elecior of Hanover ;
and the duke of Wirtemberg and fome other princes of
the German empire began to treat ; but the negocia-
tions ^vere l)rcken oS in cont'equence of the reverfe of
fortune which the French now experienced.

The direftory, however, ftill refolved to profecute
the war with vigour, and therefore made vaft prepara-
tions during the winter for another campaign. The
Mountain party being again pofTelTed of power, foon
began to difcover their reftlels, turbulent difpofition,
^vhich could not long fubmit peaceably to any govern-
ment whatever, and became difgufted with that very
direflory which they themfelves had eftabliihed. They
were perpetually dillurbing the public tranquillity. The
people of Paris, after the 5th of Oclobcr, durft not op-
e'ily avow their abhorrence of the Jacobins, but it was
u:iderftood that their wearing green cravats was a
token of contempt. This piece of drefs was prohibited
Vol. IX. Pan 1.

61 ] F R A

by the director)' as a mark of attachme:.t to royalty. Fr.n.-.
Of this they were foon afliamcd, and recalled their cdiil "^
in a few weeks. In the fouthcrn parts of France, the ■795>
prefent authority of the Jacobins produced very ferious
effefts.. Freron, by wliom they had been ab.indoned
after tlie death of Robefpicrre, returned to their caufc
before the 5th of Oclober, and was fcnt to Toulon with
full powers of adminiftration. He difmilTcd the muni-
cipality which had been chofen by the people, rellored
the Jacobin elubs, and every perfon whom he fufpeiled
he caufed to be imprifbncd. The diicftory ^vas alarm-
ed at the numerous complaints whicli were made from
every quarter againft the conduit of thofe turbulent
and bloody men, and refolved to obtain the confidence
and afteclions of the people by deferting them entirely.
Freron was recalled from Toulon, and more moderate
men were made choice of to fucceed the reftlefs, fangui-
nary Jacobins. wlil-'h*

The direclory alfo made a public declaration that its^j^fj^^., "
confidence had been abufed. The police minifter was againft the
charged with the remo\-al from Paris of the members Jjcabiiu.
of former revolutionary tribunals, and fuch as were ac-
tive leaders of the Jacobins. Ten thoufand men, called
the /egion of police, ivho afted againft the Pariiians on
the 5th of Oftober, and were decidedly the favourers
of the Jacobins, received orders from the direftory and
legidative body to join the armies on the frontiers,
which orders they refufed to obey, but were compelled
to fubmit by the interference of other troops brought
from a diftant quarter to pro^Hde againft that event,
'\ his led the violent Jacobins to concert a plan for the
ruin of the direflory and the majority of the councils,
^vho had now abandoned them. But as they were a
confiderable time in being ready for action, their de-
figns were difcovered and completely defeated. The
guards were increa'ed on the loth of May, and bodies
of cavalry were ftationed round the Luxembourg and
Thuillerics. The council of five hundred was inform-
ed by the direftory, that a terrible plot was ready to
burft forth on the enl'ulng morning. The confpirators
at the ringing of the morning bell, were to proceed in
fmall parties of three or four men each, to the houfes
of thofe perfons whom they had fingled out for dellruc-
tion. Having murdered thefe, they were then to unite
in one body againft the directory, whofe guard they
conceived themfelves qualified to vanquifti. The Jaco-
bins in the mean time had nominated a new directory
and legillaturc, from among the moft turbulent and
abandoned of their own perfuafion. Some of tl-.c lead-
ers of this confpiracy were arretted, amor.g whom was
Drouet the poftmafter of Varennes, who ftopped the
unfortunate Louis on liis way to the frontiers, and ivlth
him ten others, ^vho \vere condemned at Vendome, but
Drouet made his efcape. .,^

Thefe defeats which the Jacobins ex-perienced, and Moiler.ite
the difgrace into which they were again brought, dc-pa">-
termincd the moderate party in the two councils to at-
tem])t to procure the repeal of the concluding decrees
of the convention, wh.ich had granted tliem an amnefty,
and Confirmed the laws againft emigrants, excluding
their friends from fucceeding them. A number of
days were employed in the difcuflion of thefe topics,
but the moderate party gained nothing in favour of the
emigrants, and nothing againft the Jacobins but this,
that fuch as owed their prefervation to the amncftv,
X lh...iM

F R A

Frr.nce. fhould not be deemed competent to hold any public of-

'~~' fices.
1 790- Another matter of no lefs a ferious nature now called
Deplorable ^"""^ '^^ attention of the republican govemmeni, which
flate M the was the deplorable ftate of the finances. While the
finances. tyrannical ufurpation of Robcl'pierre continued, terror
fupported the credit of the KlTifTiat<:, which joined to
the fale of the church land?, and the property of the
emigrants, furnifhed ample relources in the mean time ;
and no provifion was at all thought of fa;- future exi-
gencies. If money was wanted, more alhgnats were
fabricated, and no enquiry was made concerning the
public expenditure, as no taxes were demanded fiora
the people. The direclory complained to the councils
of the great diftrefs under which they laboured, and of
the want of fufHcient funds to meet the unavoidable ex-
pences of the enfuing campaign. A law was in confe-
quence pafied on the 25th of March, giving authority
to difpofe of the remainder of the church lands at the
value formerly fixed on them, which was 22 years pur-
chafe. A nen- paper currency, termed mandats, was
to be received in payment, but government had now
loft its credit. Thefe rapidly loll a great part of their
value, wliich mcreafed the demand for national proper-
ty ; and to prevent this, the legiflature decreed thut
one-fourth of every purcfcaie (hould be paid in calh,
which prevented the fale of the national property, and
the circulation of inandats.
'♦J7 During their preparations for the approaching cam-

Jnflitute P^'S"^* "^^ directory attempted to render themlclves po-
eftablilhed. pular at home, by the ellablifhment of the National
Injlititte, or fociety of men of letters under the protec-
tion of government. Every man of erudition ivho had
efcaped the bloody perfecution of the IMountain paity,
was invited to be a member. It was opened on the
4th of April, in the hall of the Louvre, wlien the am-
bafladors of Spain, Pniffia, Sweden, Deiunaik, Hol-
land, America, Tufcany, Genoa, and Geneva, were
prefent, and the members of the diredlory in their robes
of ftate. T!ie prefident expreflcd the determination of
the executive power to afford every encouragement to
the improvement of literature and the arts; and the pre-
fident of the inflitutc replied that it was the determina-
tion of the members to endeavour to give luftre to the
republican government by the exercifc of their talents,
and by publications. The fpeeches were cnlhufiaftical-
ly applauded by 1 500 fpeiflators, and the general ex-
peflation wa--. that France was now to enter on a ca-
reer of glor\ and profperity wliolly unprecedented.
*S° . About this time an approach towards a I'cgotiation
ith France was made on the part of Great Britain, by
JlrWickham. ambaiTador to the Swiis Cantons; and en
the 8th of March, a note was communicated to M. Bar-
thelemy, arabaffador from the French republic. It was
afked, whether France would be willing to lend minifters
toacongrcfs to negotiate peace with his Britannic majeliy
and his allies ? Whether France would be inclined to
communicate the general grounds on which (he would
be willing to conclude peace, that hi^ majcily and his
allies might coniider them in co".cert f Li.Uly, whetiier
France wr.uld defire to communicate any other mode ot
accomplifliing a peace ? Whatever anfwer ftiould be re-
turned was to be tranfmitted to the Briiilh court; but it
was at the fame time declared that Mr Wickham had
no authority to difcufs thcfe iubjecls. An anfwer was

162 J F R A

f- returned on tlie 26th of the fame month, by Barthelemy Trarce.
in the name of the direflory, complaining of the infin- '

-Topoul of
peace bj
JJiitam.

cerity of the Britifli court, as its ambaffador had no au- '79°"
thority to negotiate, and that the propofal of a congrefs
made negotiation endlefs. It ilated tije wilh of the di-
reiStory to obtain peace, but tliat no portion of terri-
tory would be reUnquilhed, which formed part of the
republic by the conllitutional decree. To this note no
reply was made; but it was complained of to the foreign
minifters relident at the court of London, and confider-
ed as leaving Brit.ain no other alternative than the pro-
fecution of the war, at once both juft and neceflary. 439

Dtiring the winter feafon, the directory found means '^°'!^'''''
to reduce the weftern departments to proper fubje6lion.l"(j^^^^^
The expedition from England bad tempted the royalifts
once more totiy their fortune in the field of battle ; but
after a number of defeats, their leaders Charette and
Stoftlet were apprehended, and put to death on the 29th
of March, which tended to furprefs the infurgents in
every quarter. Domeftic enemies being thus iuLdued,
the republican government was enabled to make the
more vigorous exertions on the frontiers. Their miU-
tary force ^vas divided into three arnyes ; the army of
the Sdmbre and Meufe under Jourdan ivas principally
ftationed about D-.iifeldorf and Coblentz ; the army of
the Rhine and IMofelle, commanded by the celebrated
General Moreau, ftationed on the Upper Rhine, and
from Landau to Treves ; and the third army occu^:.;d
the Italian coaft from Nice tov.ards Genoa, the com-
mand of which was beftov.ed on Bonaparte, a native of
Corfica, and one of the moft extraordinary men that
ever lived in any country, as our readers will perceive
in the fequel.

The army of Italy about this time was 56,000 ftrong,
which Bonaparte, at his arrival, found very ill equipped,
and in a ftate of mutiny for want of pay a'ld neceffaries.'^f'.'ij'g'j
^^'iflling them to prepare tor immediate afticn, he ad-^fltaly
dreffed them in the following manner : " If we are to
be vanquiftied, \ve have already too much, and if we
conquer, we fliall want nothing." He was anticipated
by the enemy. The Auftrians employed in the defence
of Italy under Beaulieu were more numerous than the
army of Bonaparte, to which were added 6c,ooo re-
gular troops belonging to his Sardinian majtliy, the
militia of the country, and about 2500 Neapolitan ca-
valry. On the 9th of April the campaign was opened
by General Beaulieu, who attacked a poft called VoJtri,
in the poffelTion of the republicans, fix leagues fiom
Genoa. I hey defended themfclves till the evening,
after which tliey retreated to Savona. Next day Beau-
lieu fucceeded in all liis attempts, till he reached Mon-
tenotte, the laft republican entrenchment, which con-
tained 1 500 men. Rampon, their commander, prevail-
ed with them in a moment of enthufiafm, to fwcar that
they would not furrender, in confequence of which they
fucceeded in arrefting the progrefs of tlie Auftrian gc-
reral for the remairiing part of the day. '1 he right
iving of the French army was, during the night, ftation-
ed in the rear of the redoubt of Montenotte, under La
Harpe, while Bonaparte, MalTcna, Berthier, and Sali-
eetti, advanced by Ahara, to take the enemy on their
Hank and rear. Powerful rehiforcements were in the
mean time fent to Beaulieu, who, on the morning of tlie
1 Ith again made an attack on La Harpe ; but the ap-
proach of Maflena (con made the Auftrians and Sardi-
nians

440

onaparte
akes the

F R A

[ 163 j

F R A

1796-
441

n^files of
Millcfimo
forcfd by

f44^
JJego re-
taken by
Bonaparte

44^
Armirtice
with S;-.r.

iiians give Uav on all fides. Tivo of t'.-.eir generals
were wounded, 2500 were made priioners, and the re-
publicans purlued them beyoiid Cairo, which, on the
following day, fell into their hands.

General Angereau, on the I3tb, forced the defiles of
Millelinio ; and by a rapid movement General Piovera
was furrounded at the head of 15CO grenadiers", but
inlleaJ of furrendering, this brave otlicer forced his way
through the enemy, and entrenched himlelf in the ruins
of an old caftle at the top of the hill. Angereau, with
his artillery, endeavoured to dlllodge him ; after which
lie arranged his troops into four column;, and made an
attempt to carry Provera's entrenchments by llorm,
which proved unfuccefsful, but the French hid two
generals killed, and .Toubert was wounded. The ad-
verfe armies faced each other on the 14th, while a di-
vifion was left to continue the blockade of Provera.
The Aulliians made an unfuccefsful attack on the re-
publican centre, while MalTena turned the left flank of
their left wing in the vicinity of Dego, and -t-a Harpe
turned the right flank of the fame wing. One column
kept in check the centre of the Auftrians, another at-
t?.cked the flank of their left wing, and a third column
gained its rear. The republicans took Soco prifoners,
una General Provera at lalt lurrendered.

General Beaulieu, after he was defeated at Millefimo,
made an effort fimilar to thofe which have been fre-
quently found to change the fortune of war. With
70CO of his beft troops he made an attack upon the
village of Dego, where the republicans after their
fuccels were indulging in fecuiity. He made himfelf
mailer of the village, and the troops having rallied
under Maflena, that general employed the greater part
of the day in his efforts to retake it. The republicans
were three times repulfeJ, but Bonaparte having ar-
rived in the evening with reinforcements, the poll was
retaken, and 1400 men were made prifoners. Bona-
parte was now, by delign, between the Auftrian and
Sardinian armies, his right wing being fecured by the
\illage of Dego againit the etforts of Beaulieu, while
he could aft agaiiill the Piedmontefe troops with the
greater part of his force. Angereau powerfully fe-
conded his exertions, who had opened a communication
with the Tanaro, « here Serrurier was approaching the
to^vn of Ceva, in the vicinity of which there was a
Piedmontefe entrenched camp of 8ooo men. The re-
doubts covenng this camp were, on the i6th, attacked
by General Angereau, capturing the greater part of
them, on which the Piedmontefe evacuated Ceva during
tiie night, and, on the 17th Serrurier entered it in
triumph. Count Colli repulfed Serrurier on the 20th ;
but Bonaparte, on the 22d, defeated him at Mondovi.
The flying army endeavoured to make a fland at Fof-
fano, its wings being at Coni and Cherafci, which latter
place was taken by MalTena on the 25th, when Foffano
was taken by Serrurier, and Alba by Angereau.

Prior to thefe movements, an aimillice was rcquefled
by Count Colli on the 23d, which General Bonaparte
granted, on condition that the fortrelTes of Coni, Ceva,
and I'ortona, fliould be given up to him, with their
magazines and artillery, and that he fliould have per-
miflion to croU the Po at Valentia. The armiftice was
figned on the 29th of April, and a deilnitive treaty was
concluded at Paris on the 1 7th of May. The condi-
tions, in fo far as they concerned his Sardinian majefty,

were unqueftionahly humiliating. The duchy of Savoy Fr.nrf.

was given up to France for ever, as were alfo the ccun- ' ^

ties of Nice, Jende, and Bretueil. An amnefty was '79^-
granted to all his fubjeds who were perfecutcd for poli-
tical opinions, and he agreed that the French troops
lliould have free accefs to Italy through his territory.
He was to erecl no fortrefles on the fide of France, to
demolifli thole of Brunette and Sufa, and confefs that
his conducl to the laft republican ambaffador had been
difrefpedful. ^^^

The republican army, in the mean time, advanced ^ lutiml
towards the Po ; but Beaulieu was deceived refpefting'^'^^'y-
one article of the armiftice, which granted permiflTion
to Bonaparte to crofs that river at Valentia. Con-
cluding that the republican chief ferioufly intended to
crofs at this place, he made every poiTible preparation
to oppofe him, while Bonaparte haflily penetrated into
Lombardy, and, on the 7th of May, was 60 miles down '
the river to Placentia before the enemy could obtain
information of his route. He paifed the river without
difficulty. Six thoufand infantry and 2003 cavalry
were difpatched by Beaulieu to oppofe the palTage of
Bonaparte acrofs the river xvheu it was too late, by
whom they were met and defeated on the following
day, at the village of Forabio. As 5000 more ad-
vanced to the afliltance of thefe, they were repulfed by
La Harpe, at w hich time that uflicer was killed. An
armiftice was granted by General Bonaparte on the ()th
to the duke of Parma, on condition that he paid
2,coo,oco of French money, and delivered io,coo
quintals of wheat, 5000 quintals of oats, and 20C0 oxen
tor the ufe of the army. He likewife agreed to give up
20 of his beft paintings, to be made choice of by the
republicans. This laft meafure was ftrongly objefled
to by feveral men of literature and artifts as foon as it
was known ; but the directory difregarded every remon-
flrance, and gave orders for fimilar ftipulations to be
inferted in every fubfequent treaty. ...

As General Beaulieu was forced to abandon the Po, Vjftory at
he crolTed the Adda at Lodi, Pizzighitine, and Cre-I-<"li,
mona, leaving fome troops to defend the approaches to
Lodi, which were attacked by the advanced guard of
the republicans on the roth, who drove them into the
town, and purfued them fo rapidly, that there wr.s no
time left to break down the bridge over the Adda.
Here the Auftrians defended the palTage with 30 pieces
of cannon, and the republican oiT.cers, after holding a
confultation, were of opinion that the bridge could not
be forced. Bonaparte, however, having demanded ot
his grenadiers whether they were v.illing to make the
attempt, they commended the propofal, on which he
formed them into a clofc column, when they availed
themfelves of the darknefs occafioned by the finoke of
the enemy's artillery, and reached the middle of the
bridge unpcrceived, where 700 of them perilhed by the
Auftrian cannon : but a number of republican ollicers
tlcw to the head of the column, urged on the brave
foldiers, broke into the Auftrian rinks, and made them
iiy in all direflions. 446

It appears that nothing more was expefted frotn the Ami confe-
campaign of Bonaparte in Italy, than to induce the dif- ?"=n<:«5 "f
ferent princes aod ftatcs to abandon the coalition againft
France, which every one of them affifted either with
troops, or with money and provifions. He made him-
felf raafter of Ferr.ua, Bologna, and Urbino, granting
X 2 to

F R A

[ 1

the Fre;
in Ger-
many.

44S
■Deleat of
I he arch-

to Ills Hulinefs and the duke of IModcna an armiftice
' on the uiual term^, we mean large conlrihutions, paint-
ings, and curiofilies. The Neapolitan cabinet «as fo
terrified in confequence of his march into the Roman
tenitory, that it requefted a peace ; and Bonaparte
agreed to an armiflice without any of the humiliating
conditions den::anded from the other ftatcs of Italy.
He next proceeded to Leghorn, in the neutral ftate of
Tufcany, in order to drive out the Englilh, and confif-
rate their property. In this manner did he finilh the
talk afTigned him, before the commencement of the
campaign on the Rhine. It is true that Mantua was
fiill in poffeffion of the Imperial troops ; but it was in a
flate of fiege, and the rell of Italy ivas fubraiirire to the
French repuljlic.

With a view to' leiTen the exertions of the republicans
, in Italy, the conteft in Germany was renewed by the
Aultrians. General Jourdan was of confequence in-
formed, that the armiilice would terminate, and the war
be renewed, on the 3 ill of May. Jourdan at this tim.e
Lad to contend with General Wartenfleben, while the
archduke was at the head of the army in the Hundl-
ruck, to oppofe General Moreau on the Upper Rhine.
A fragiilar ftratagem diftinguiihed the commencement
of the campaign on the part of the French, with a vitw
to decoy the whole of the Auftriarr forces to the Lower
Rhine, that an opportunity might thus be afforded to
General Moreau of fuddenly entering Suabia, and car-
rying the \var to the hereditary territories of Auflria.
jourdan began to make vigorous exertions, and Moreau
remained inr.ftive. The lines of DulTeldorf were left
on the 31ft of May by the left wing of Jourdan 's army,
under the command of General Kleber, ivho defeated
the Aultrians in marching towards the Sieg. Ad-
^■ancing ivith his centre and right wing, Jourdan forced
tiie Auftrian polls on the Nahc, effeifled the paffage
of the Rhine, blockaded Ehrenbreitftein, and haftencd
forward as if he defigned to form the fiege of Mentz.
Thefe movements brought the archduke into the pe-
rilous (ituation of having Moreau in his front, and
Jourdan in his rc?r. He therefore eroded the river in
hafte, leaving the fortreffes of Mentz and Manheim to
retard the progreis of Moreau. The archduke at-
tacked the advanced guard of General Jourdan, which,
after an obftinate and bloody condidf , he forced to re-
tire. Jourdan, upon this, retired to his former pofitions;
and Kleber, on the 20th, entered the lines of DulTeldorf,
from which he had taken his departure.

The archduke had no fooner withdrawn from the
Palatinate to force Jourdan down the Rhine, than Mo-
reau marched fpeedily towards Stralhurgh, by which
the hoflile armies feeraed as faft ns p.-fTible to be llying
from each other. The pafifage of the river oppofite to
Kehl %7as effcfted by Moreau on tlie 24th of June,
which was attended with confiderable difficulty, a fudden
fwell having prevented the Auftrians from being taken
Uy furprife, which appears to have been the primary
intention of the republican commander. The entrench-
ments on the iflands occupied by troops, were iniiantly
carried at the point of the bayonet, and 2600 republi-
cans effected a landing on the oppofite (hore, where
they were cxpofed to the Auilrian rjnnon from the
camp of Willfedt, and to the cannon of the fort ; (fill,
liovjcver, they maintained their ground, and likewife
afted on the offenfwe, till the boats returned with rein-

64 ] F R A

forccments, when the fort and redoubis were carried Francf.
by ftorm, and the Auftrians retreated towards Offen- ^■^— '
burgh. 1796.

In confequence of the archduke's departure to the ^„n1''
Lower Rhine in purfuit of General Jourdan, and the .leltaifd'
detachments fcnt to Italy to check the viftorious career ^>y Moreau
of Bonaparte, General Moreau was in a fituation for
entering Swabia with a fuperior force. On the 26th of
June he fucceeded in compelling the Auftrians to aban-
don their camp at Wiliiedt, and next day proceeded
inth his army in three columns, again!! another body of
15,000 men before Offenburgh. A detachment from
General Wiirmfer was fent to their aff.llance, but thcfe
being defeated on their march by two republican co-
lumns, and Offenburgh was evacuated curing the night.
The m.ountain of Knubis was feized on the 2d of July
by a body of French under General Laroche. This is
the loftiell point in that ridge of mountains denominated
the B/act Forefl. The Auftrians were next day driven
from the^jafs of Friedenftadt, after an obftinate reiiil-
ance, by which their communication with the emigrants
under the Piince of Conde was entirely cut off. The
Auftrians ^vere attacked at Raftadt on the 8tli by the
left wing of the republican army, commanded by the
gallant General Delfaix, and, after a moft obftinate re-
iirtance, were obUged to retreat to Ettingen.

The archduke noiv arrived with his army on the The Fre .ch
Lower Rhine, leaving Wartenfleben to check the pro- enter
grefj of General Jourdan, %vho began to aiS; upon the I" '^"'''^o"-
o2enfi%-e as ioon as the archduke departed. General
Kleber, as before, fet off from the lines of Duffeldorf,
and the centre and right wing croffed the Rhine in th.e
vicinity of Coblentz. The French forced the pofts of
Ukareth and Altenkirchen, and the whole army under
General Jourdan -croffed the Lahn on the 9th of Julj ,
and next day Wartenlleben ^vas defeated ^vith great
(laughter, and the lofs of 5C0 men taken prifoners ; and
the republicans entered Frankfort on the 1 2th. 'I'he
t\vo imperial armies ^vere now not far from each other,
being in the centre between thofe of Moreau and Jour-
dan. Had the archduke found it practicable to refift
for a little one of thefe two armies of the French by a
detachment, while he rulhed upon the other with the
main body of his army, it is not improbable that an end
might thus have been put to any further invafion of the
Germanic empire ; but the activity of the republican
oihcers was not fo eafily checked, tior could their pro-
grcfs be arrefted by any partial exertions. His laft re-
fource, therefore, was to give battle to Moreau, which
was moft obrtinately fought on both fides.. The French,
in their endeavours to force the heights of Rollenfolhe,
ivere four times repulfed, and, after a moft terrible
{laughter, they carried the field at the point of the
baj'onet.

In confequence of the lofs they fultained at the battle ih^arch-
of Ettingen, the two imperial armies retired eaftvvard, .lake re-
the archduke retreating through Swabia towards Ulm,"'^^'*
where he had magazines. At every poit of any ftrcngth ''"■""eh
he made a ftand, in order to obftruft General Moreau's
progrefs as much as pofTible. Wartenfleben, in his re-
treat through Franconia, made a fimilar oppofition to
the march of Jourdan. The archduke was forced by
Moreau to crofs the Neckar, and afterwards the Da-
imbi}, by which means the whole circle of Swabia was
in the rear of the republicans. Wartenfleben was forceii'

i-abia.

F R A (■ 1

Fir.nce. tc retreat throay,'i AfcliafTcnbourg, WaitiLarg, Sclnvein-
*~~"v~~' lurt, and r.as obliged to crofs the Rediiitz, in oi\Ier
1796. to Ihun the army of'Jourdan, which was prelling 011 his
rear. Jourdan continued to advance, till his right
wing, commanded by General Bernadotte, was polled
at Neumarck, his advanced polls at Tcining, and the
inain body of the army purfued Wartenlleben beyond
the Nab, having arrived at Amberg on the 2 2d of
45J Augud.
J ■''^ .^ The three republican armies commanded by Moreau,

Germany. Bonaparte, and Jourdan, were poflelTed of the whole
country from the fro^tiers of Bohemia to the Adriatic,
excepting only a part of the mountains of Tyrol,
uhich caufed an alarm through the whole of Ger-
many. The payment of 4,300,000 of French money
procured a peace for the duiie of Wirtemberg ; and the
circle of Swabia obtained, on condition of paying
12,000,000 of livrcs, and delivering 8400 horfes,
5000 oxen, 100,000 quintals of wheat, 50,000 quin-
tals of rye, ico,oco facks of oats, 100,000 pairs of
(hues, and a large quantity of hay. Peace was granted
to the margrave of Baden upon iimilar terms. N;go-
ciations were alfo entered into by the elector of B 1-
varia and the circle of Franconia, havi.ng ottered large
fums in order to procure it. Even the diet of Ra-
tilbon lent a deputation to the republican generals to
tre.it for a neutrality. Spain mide a treaty with France,
both oifenfive and defenlive, and war was in confequence
foon after declared againrt Great Britain.
The h^ufe Bonaparte was detained ftill in Italy, whereas had it
ofAuftria been in his power to crofs the Tyrol at Infpruck, and
in danger, reach the Danube, it is more than probable that the
emperor of Germany would have been obliged to ac-
cept of a peace upon any terms ivhich the conquerors
thought proper to propofe. He was now abandoned
by every mernber of the coalition, Britain alone except-
ed, whofe pecuniary aid enabled him to extricate him-
lilf from the dangers which furrounded him. A com-
mand of money raifed one army after another to check
tlie career of Bonaparte in Italy, while his German
armies were recruited by exteniive levies, and mercenary
troops belonging to the ftates which had made peace
with France.
' j^ The archduke Charles having received ftrong rein-

,. t;.(, forcements, came to the refolution of oppofing Moreau
.:;e. at Umertneim. A defperate battle was of confequence
fought, of 1 7 hours continuance, when one of the wings
of the Auftrian army fucceeded in gaining about four
leagues of territory in the rear of the republican army ;
but as the archduke was informed that Wartenlleben
could not maintain his ground againll the efforts of
General Jourdan, he deemed it prudent to retreat, and
adopt new roeafures. On the 17 th of Augutl, he left
General La Tour to be a check upon RIoreau, and
crofling the Danube at Ingollladt, he marched to the
relief of General Wartenlleben, and with united forces-
determined to fall upon Jourdan. On the 23d he made
an attack upon Bernadotte at Teining, ^vhonl he com-
pelled to retreat towards Nuremberg. 1'hc archduke
was now on the right of Jourdan, and Wartenlleben
was in front of him, which induced the French com-
mander to retreat on the 24th. Such was the llate-
of the French finances at the beginning of this cam-
paign, that the armies of Jeurdan and Moreau were
under the neceffity of plundering ^vherever they came^

65 ] F R

to fupply their immediate wants.

larly the cafe with Jourdan's army, xvhich when it be- "
gan to retreat, fuffered almoft as much from the ex- I'jg^i
alpcrated inhabitants as from the oppoling array. The
archduke and Wartenflcben having united their forces,
the fcjriner was enabled to difpatch General Nauendorf
with reinforcements to La Tour, to keep Moreau in
check, while he continued his purfuit of Jourdan to-
wards Wurtzburg, where the French made a Itand, and
a fevere engagement took place on the 3d of Sep-
tember. In this. General Jourdan was the greatell
iuil'ever, and he continued his retreat during the night.
Having croffed the Lalin, he made a feeble refiftance,
and marched along the banks of the Rhine, till his
army, on the i 7th, arrived at Coblentz and Duffeldorf,
trom which it had formerly departed.

The army of Moreau was now in a fituation ex- MoitL'-:
tremely perilous, yet he maintained his poljtion till the Situation
17th of September, the very day on which Jourdan *'.'S'''y "i-
reached Dull'eldorf ; but he was obvioufly in a waver-""'"
ing condition as to his future movements, and one of
the greatell generals Europe ever beheld was now at
a lois what Itep to take. He made an unfuccefsful ef-
fort to draw the archduke from the purfuit of Jourdan.
Many attacks were made upon him, but without effeft ;
and the Audrian generals gave way to him \vherever
he turned. But finding that the retreat of Jourdan
was irretrleveable, and that General Bonaparte was llil!
detained in Italy, he finally refolved to retreat. To
prepare for this arduous undertaking, he had croffed the His^un-
Lech, which he fuddenly repaffed, as if fully determin- paralleled
ed to penetrate farther into Auflria, and compelled La retreat.
Tour to fall back to Landlherg. Having thus obtain-
ed a free paffage for his future movements, he began his
ever memorable and unexampled retreat, paffing be-
tween the Danube at Ulm and the lake of Conftance,
while La Tour continued preffmg upon his rear. The
pafies of the Black Foreft ^vere occupied by numerous
bodies of Aullrians and armed peaiinitry, while his
right tlank was haraffed by Generals Nauendorf and
Pttrafch, at the head of 24,000 men. He turned once
more upon La Tour with terrible impetuofity, defeated
him, and took 5000 prifoners, whom he was able to
carry to France. He after this continued his retreat,
checking Nauendorf and Petrafch with the right wing
of his army under General Deffaix, and the reft of the
army cleared the paffages in front, till he reached the
Valley of Hell, a narrow defile extending for fomc
leagues between lofty mountains, and in particular parts
of it not more than a few fathoms broad. This paf-
fage was forced by the centre of his army in a mafs,
and the wings oppofed the enemy under Nauendorf and
La Tour. After this dreadful effort, he arrived at
Fribourg on the 13th of Oftober. The archduke on
his arrival fiom the purfuit of Jourdan, forced him to
abandon his pofitions on the Swabian fide of the Rhine,
Kchl excepted, and a temporary fortification at Hun-
ingtn, called a bridge-head. ^^j

As the French frontier at this time was in a defence- I^ren'cli
lefs fituation, the Imperial troops took adv.iiuage of jt'"""'.'' »'
to crofs the Rhine at Manheim, and to march in dif-|,'^'^'""°^f,.
ferent detachments to WcilTemburg, Seltz, Hagenau,"^ ' ^
and nearly to the very gates of Strall)urgh, levying
contributions, and demanding hollages wherever they
came. When thcfc detachments were recalled, tlie
?rchduk«

F R A

Trance, arcliduke formed the rcfolution of termhiatlng the
""T ' campaign by the reduction of Kehl and the fortification
79°- at Hunin^en, which he »ound to be no eafy ta(k. At
both thcfe places a communication was open with the
French fide of the river, and the divinons of General
Mori.au's army did duty at them alternately. Much
of the winter was fpent by the Auilrians in endeavour-
ing either to carry them by ftorm, or to reduce them
in confequcnce of a regular liege. The French at lall
agreed to evacuate Kehl on the loth of January, and
the fortification at Huningen was furrendered in the
438 month of February.
Bonaparte Although the republicans in Germany experienced
Tictonous yg^y confiderable reverfes of fortune, as we have jull
now feen, yet Bonaparte in Italy continued viftorious.
Having laid all Italy under contribution, he enjoyed
the means of preferving a fecure and lleady difcipline
over a well paid army. The mode of fighting which
he adopted in all defperate cafes, was that of the clofe
column ; the favourite method of Epaminondas and
Guftavus Adolphus. The ftile, too, in which he ad-
drefled his army before any great aftion, was well a-
dapted to infpire them with enthufiafm. His fpeech to
his army when he firll entered Lombardy, deferves to
be remembered. " Soldiers, you have rutlied hke a
torrent from the furamit of the Appenines, you have
driven back and difperfed all who oppoled your march.
Your fathers, your mothers, your wives, your fillers,
your fweethearts, rejoice in your fuccefs, and boalf with
pride of being related to you. But remains there no-
thing more for you to effeft r Shall pofterity reproach
us with having found a Capua in Lombardy f But I
already fee you ruftiing to arms ; an unmanly repofe
fatigues you, and the days loil to glory are loft to your
felicity. But let the people be tranquil ; we are the
friends of all nations, and more particularly of the def-
cendants of the Brutufes, the Scipios, and the illullrious
pcrfonages whom we have chofen as models. To re-
ftorc the capitol, to replace with honour the flatues of
the heroes who rendered it renowned, and to roufe the
Roman people, become torpid by fo many ages of
ilavery, fuch will be the fruit of your viftories ; they
will form an epoch to pofterity, and you will have the
immortal glory of renovating the faireft portion of
Europe. The French nation, free and refpeded by all
the world, will give to Europe a glorious peace. You
riill then rttum to your homes, and your fellow-citizens,
who, when pointing to you, will fay, " He was of the
army of Italy."
4S9 . Bonaparte took up the firft part of the month of July

Manlua '" commencing a regular fiege againft Mantua, expeft-
ing to be mafter of that city towards the end of the
month. In this, however, he proved too fanguine, for
the military efforts of Auftria were very great, and the
pecuniary aid of Britain was not refufed. Twenty
ihoufand troops were fent from the Rhine, befides vaft
numbers from different quarters, fo that he was obUged
to raife the fiege, and provide for his own fafety in the
beft manner he could. Maflcna was driven from his
poll at La Corona on the 29th of July, while 1 5,000
Auftrians drove the republicans from Salo, and next
from Brefcia, with the whole of the ftores and maga-
zines belonging to the army of General Bonaparte.
The Imperial troops, however, committed a fatal blun-
der in their plan of operations, by dividing into two
2

I 166 ]

F R A

1796.

4S0

parts an army which, when united was a match for tlie
enemy, and placing Bonaparte between them. Of this *■
blunder the republican chief was fully aware, and did
not fail to take ad\antage of it. He uaexpecledly rail-
ed the fiege of Mantua, and leaving a fmall body of
troops to check the Aulhiaiis, he marched rapidly weft-
ward, and retook Brel'cia, with the magazines and hof-
pitals, on the 1 ft of Auguft. As he had the mafs of
his army with him, he exceeded his enemies in numbers
wherever he attacked them. Forming a large body oc
his troops into clofe columns, the Auftrians extended
their line with the view of furrounJing him, being not
yet acquainted u-ith his manner of fighting, by which
means he penetrated their line in all direftions, and
threw them into the greateft confufion. He made 4000
prifoners, and took 20 pieces of cannon. A divifion of
them finding Salo in poffeffion of the republicans,
wandered about in fearch of a road, bv which to make
their efcape, when they fummoned Lonado to furrender,
believing that the bulk of the French army had gone in
fearch of Wiurmfer to give him battle. This was in-
deed the cafe ; but Bonaparte was in Lonado with no
more than 1 100 men. Although this event no doubt
gave him much uneafinefs, yet with great prefence of
mind he threatened to dellroy their whole di\'ifion for
infulting the French army, by fummoning its com-
mander in chief to furrender. The Auftrian officers
believed that the whole army was in the place, fo that
by this fingular ftratagem 4000 men were induced to
throw down their arms.

Marftial Wurmler was attacked by Bonaparte on the Oeit

?th and 6th, and driven from Pefchiera and the river Wurmfer.
Mincio. The Auftrians were obliged to quit Verona
on the yth, and again to betake themlelves to the
mountains of Tyrol ; lofing in a conteft of fix da^s up-
wards of 20,000 men, but fortunately three-fourths of
them were priioners. The fiege of Mantua was again
begun by the French, whofe works the enemy had de-
ft roved in their abfence, and taken 140 pieces of can-
non into tlie city which they had left behind. Ey this
lofs, the French could not undertake a regular ftege,
and General Wurmfer was in a condition to attempt the
relief of it by the beginning of September. Bonaparte
having been appriled of his approach, left troops behind
him to carry on the blockade, while he directed his
march northward with the main body of his army, drove
the Auftrians from St Marco and Roveredo to the pafs
of Galliano, where they made a ftand. Here an en-
gagement enfued, in which the Auftrians loft 6000
men taken prifoners, and the French entered Trent in
triumph. Inftead of retiring from the hero who had
vanquilhed him, Wurmfer threw himftlf into Baflano,
upon the Hank and rear of Bonaparte, and then march-
ed with rapidity towards Mantua. He endeavoured to
make a ftand at Baftano, but was defeated, with the lofs
of 5000 men taken prifoners. He crofted the Adige
at Porto Legnago, and entered Mantua with no mure
than 8500 men, infantry and cavalry. Great as this
veteran's lofs was, it had the effeifl of detaining Bona-
parte in Italy, to watch the numerous garrifon of
Mantua. He expefted that its numbers would very
foon reduce it by famine to the neceflity of capitulating,
but in this he found himfelf difappointed, as the flefti of
the 4500 horfes which Wurmfer carried into it, af-
forded fubfiftence to the troops for a long time.

Such

F R A

Such was tlie fame of Bonaparte

1796.

46J
The Auf-
trians par-
tblWfuc-

[ 1
jenci:)], on
account of the vidories he obtained over the Aullrinns,
that his countrymen, the Corficans, difcovered an in-
clination to throw oft" the Britifli yoke, and be united
to France. They became of courfe fo mutinous, that
the viceroy deemed it neceffary to evacuate the ifland,
tiie fubmilFion of Italy to the republic having grcsay
diminillied its value. The imperial lubjetb in Italy, to-
j^elher with the inhabitants of Bologna, Ferrara, and
Modena, now began to form themfelves into republics,
under the patronage of General Bonaparte •, they fent
deputies to the convention, raifcd troop?, and «bolirtied
all orders of nobility.

The emperor foon after endeavoured to relieve Man-
tua, by fending another army into Italy, under the
command of General Alvinzi, who having croflcd the
Piava, was met by the republicans, aud compelled to
repafs the river. Davidovich with his divilion having
driven the French down the Adige towards Verona,
General Bonaparte found it necefl'arvto concentrate his
forces. He therefore left General Vaubois as a check
to the progrefs of Dividovich, and marched in perfjn
againll General Alvinzi, and was met by the Auftrians
at the village of Arcole. As this village could not be
turned fpcedily, on account of a canal, the French
were obliged to attempt the pafiage of a narrow bridge
in the face of the Auftrian fire. Their ollicers ruftied
to the head of the column which had undertaken it, but
in vain endeavoured to rally them. Angereau advan-
ced to th.e end of the bridge with a fiandard ; but he
■ivas followed by none, Avhen the commander in chief
haftened to the bridge, and exclaimed, Grenadiers, fol-
low your general 1 They followed till within 30 yards
of the bridge, when they were intimidated by the tre-
mendous fire of the Aurtrians, and Bonaparte judged
it proper to fall back. In the evening General Suieux
took the village at the head of 2000 men, but again
left the Auftrians in the poffeffion of it. On the 16th
of November a defperate engagement took place in the
vicinity of Arcole •, and next day the Auftrians prefTmg
OT the cenHe of the republican army, were unexpected-
ly taken on their flank by the left wing of the enemy,
•ivhich ivas lying in ambufcade. Bonaparte fent a party
of horfe and 2 j trumpeters round to the rear of the
Auftrians, who concluded, from the terrible noife, that
they were furrounded, and lied on all fides in the utmoft
confufion.

Having driven Alvinzi acrofs the Brenta, Bonaparte
returned ; the poiitions of Rivoli and La Corona were
refuraed, and Davidovich driven back into Tyrol. Ge-
neral \Vu' mfer llill defended Mantua during the re-
maining part of the year ; fo that nothing farther may
be laid lo have been gained by fo many viftories, but
to confider Bonaparte as their only invincible com-
mander.

Diu-ing thefe tranfaclions in the field of battle. Great
Brltoin made a laudable effort to negotiate with France.
PafTports were obtained from the direflory, and Lord
' Malraclhury fit out as ambaffador to Paris. He began
the negotiation with De la Croix, the minilfer for fo-
reign affairs •, but his lordthip foon found that the di-
rcflory had no fcrious intention of concluding a treaty
with Britain. While the Britilh rainiftry, as individuals,
did not approve of a peace at that time, yet officially
ihey confidered it as proper, if it could be obtained up-

57 ] F II A

on honourable terms. It v/as propofcd by Lord Malmef- France,
bury, that the principle of mutual rellitutions fhould be 'T"'
agreed upon as the bafis cf the treaty, and the directory ' 79^-
wilhed tliat the objccls fliould be fpccified. Lord
MahTiefl)ury therefore faid, that the French ihould give
up the Auitrian Netherlands, for which Britnin would
give up the foreign fettlements belonging to the repub-
lic. Many of the Dutch poUeirions abroad were alfo
to be relinquiihcd, on condition that the authority of
the liadiholder fliould be acknowledged. He was next
required to give in tile ultimatum of his conditions in 24
hours ; and on complaining of this demand, he was in-
formed on the 1 9th of December, that the directory
would agree to no conditions repugnant to the Frcncli
conftitution ; and he was informed that his farther refi-
dence at Paris was unneccflary. .<;.

During this year Great Britain maintained her ac-C.ipeot'
cuiforaed fuperiority at fea. The Cape of Good Hope ^"od Hope
was taken by Admiral Elphlnlione on the loth of Sep- '?''" ^'''
1 1 ■ u 1 A i_ 1 • *1=^ IJri-

tember 1795, which the Dutch were extremely anxious ,;(],.

to recover, for which purpofe they advanced money to
the French to fit out a fquadron to combine with them
in an attempt to reduce it. Seven (hips of wir were
fent to retake the Cape, under the command of Admi-
ral Lucas, but having been caught between tuo fires,
he could not effect his efcape, and therefore he iurren-
dered to the Britilh admiral without firing a gun. ^55

Although Britain was fuperior by fea, yet an inva- The French
fion of Ireland was attempted by the French in the cnd"^?'^ ^"

of 1706; but as folly feemed to have concerted the "."'''*^'^ .

1 • p r I • 'i-«i 1 1 attempt ca

plan. It was 01 conlequence abortive. 1 he whole was Ireland,
committed to one man. General Hoche, v.nthout any
fecond to occupy his place on the event of an accident.
The difaffefted party in Ireland had received no infor-
mation of their approach, and the tleet was fent towards
a part of the country where the people were not very-
much difpofed to receive them. In this expedition 18
fail of the line, 13 frigates, i 2 floops, and tranfports
with 25,000 men, were employed. It was detained for
fome time when ready for faihng, in confequence of a
mutiny. Hoche fet fail on the icth of December, but
in working out of Brcif, a Ihip of the line was loll, and
fome more of them confiderably damaged. The frigate
Tvhich had on board the commander in chief was fepa-
rated from the fleet by a gale of wind, in confequence
of which, ^vhen moft of the fleet arrived at Bantry
Bay, they were without inllruitions how to proceed.
The officers and troops \viflied to land, but Admiral
Bouvet refufed to comply. After remaining for fome
days on the coaff, he failed for France, and reached
Breft with part of the fleet on the 31ft. General
Hoche reached Bantry Bay when it was too late, and
confequcntly could not land. One fliip of the line and
two frigates foundered at fea, a frigate was captured by
the Britifli, and a ftiip of the line was run afliore, to
prevent her from being taken. gg

In the beginning of the year 1797, the archduke Advantsne?
Charles was dill employed in his endeavours to reduce Rained by
Kehl, and the fortifications oppoiite to Huniiigcn, Mo-'^'^ '^"'-
reau being flill his antagonift. General Hoche was ap-"^'*"*"
pointed to fuccecd .Tourdan on the Rhine, and Bona-
parte was flill engaged in the ficge of Mantua, while
powerful efforts were making to recruit the army of
Alvinzi. The youth of Vienna were rcquefled to grant
their affiflance, ^vhen 6000 of them volunteered their

T R A

[ J

France, lervices for Italy. General Alviiizi's army ^vas now
''"""■^ 50,000 ilrong, nith which he continued to alarm the

^797' republicans in all directions, in order to conceal from
them the plan of his future operations. Bonaparte \%'as
IHII at Bologna, to prevent the efcape of General Wurm-
ler by that quarter, which he underllood, by an inter-
cepted letter, was his delign. Having been informed
of the approach of the Auftrian army, he haifened to
Mantua, and from that city to Verona, where the
centre of his line ^vas oppofed to Alvinzi,; but as the
Auftrians continued to attack all quaitsis at once, he
could not penetrate the defign of their commander. On
the 13th of January the movements of the enemy be-
came more ferious on the lower part of his line near
Porto Legnago ; but in the evening being informed
that the upper extremity of it under Joubert, had been
attacked by vailly luperior numbers, there he concluded
that the Auftrians were in greatell force. Still the
Auftrians perlilled in the abfurd plan of dividing their
army — an abfurdity which melancholy experience had
not taught them to correft. Ten thoufand troops, in-
cluding the Vienna volunteers, received orders to pro-
ceed to Mantua by Porto Legnago, at the lower end
. of the republican Une, while Alvinzi in perfon advanced
againft Joubert, who was forced to retreat, and was re-
duced to fuch a fituation, that the capture of his whole
divifion on the following day (the 1 4th) feemed highly
probable.

4°7 Bonaparte having received information refpefting the

ic) are fl^jg ^f affairs, left Verona on the 13th, having order-
ed Maflena to follow him with the centre to Rivoli as
fail as poffible. On the 14th, at the break of day, the
divifion of Joubert made an attack on the Auftrians, at
ivhich they were very much iurprifed, not knowing
that Bonaparte had arrived with reinforcements. The
fuperior numbers of the Auftrians defeated all the en-
tleavours of the French troops to turn their divifions ;
and the two wings of the republican army were driven
back upon the centre in confiderable confufion. Al-
vinzi engaged the centre, which with difficulty main-
tained its ground ; and the Auftrian wings advancing
on both fides, entirely furrounded the French. The
viftory feemed already won, and it is even reported
that General Alvinzi fent a courier to Vienna, to an-
nounce the approaching capture ot Bonaparte and all
his army. There can be no doubt that the republican
chief was now greatly alarmed, yet he ftill confidered
it in his power to make a laft effort. Forming three
ftrong columns, he difpatched them againft the right
wing of the Auftrians, which they penetrated at various
points, and made it fly in fuch contufion that, having
met a party of republicans which had not arrived in
time to join the army, 40CO Auftrians laid down their
arms, and lurrendered themlclves priloners of war.
Bonaparte apprehending that this part of his line was
no longer in danger, left JouLcrt to profecute the vic-
tory, and went to oppuie tlie march of Provera. A
party under General Murat having continued their
march all the night of the 14th after the battle, feized
on Montebaldo in the rear of the polltion at Corona, to
which part of the Auftrians retreated, while Joubert
on the following morning attacked them in front. Be-
ing thus furrounded, they ivere thrown into confufion,
6000 of them were taken prifoners, and numbers pe-
riled in attempting to crofs the Adige.

68 ] F R A

During this bloody eonflitb on the upper part of this Fr.\noe.
river. General Provera forced his paflage acrols the v— — '

lower part of it near Porto Legnago, and obliged the *797-
republican general Guieux to retreat to Ronco. As, ,T'^ \
Provera was marching rapidly to Mantua, General Au- ^j Mantu'j.
ge:cau ('.".me up with his rear, and made 2COO prilon-
ers; out the Auftrian general reached the neighbour-
hood of that city on the 15th, which was blockaded at
St George and La Favourite. He fummoned the re-
publican commander here to furreiider, but he having
refuliid to comply, Provera endeavoured, without iuc-
cefs, to carry it by affault. He next made an attack
upon La Favourite, and was feconded by Wurmfer with
the troops in the garrifon, who had perceived his arri-
val ; but as Bonaparte had arrived with reinforcements,
General V'/urmfer was defeated, and Provera being
furrounded by the French, lurrendered himfelt and his
troops as prifoners of war. In coniequence of ihele en-
gagements at Ri,voli and Mantua, the Auftrians loft
23,000 men taken prifoners, and 60 pieces of cannon.
The furrender of Mantua was now inevitable, on ac-
count of abfolute famine, and therelore it capitulated
on the 2d of February. That Bonaparte might allow
the French emigrants to elcape, he allowed General
Wurijifer to feleft and take out of the garrilon 700
men who were not to be examined, nor viewed as pri..
foners of war, and the general himlelf was to depart un-
conditionally. -

The moft a£live and vigorous preparations were mak-xht- pope's
ing by the emperor and the French, for recommencing forces fub-
their bloody conteft on the German frontiers, and there- ''"f''-
fore it was of importance for Bonaparte to leave Italy
in his rear in a ftate of tranquillity. - He lent General
Victor on the ift of February, together with the Lor//-
hard legion, to enter the papal territories; and alter
the fusrender of Mantua, General Bonaparte followed
in perfon. The Lombard legion, after ftonning the
entrenchments of the pope's troops, made looo of them
prifoners, and took all their cannon. General Colli
had carried away moft of the treafure from the chapel
at Loretto ; but the republicans ftill found articles of
gold and iilver worth a million of livres, and the image
ot the virgin was fent to Paris as a curioiity. At 'J o-
lentino the republican chief was met by a meflenger
from the pope with an overture of peace, and a treaty
was concluded on the jpth. The pope promiied to
pay 15,000,000 of livres, and to deliver 800 cavalry
horfes, with a like number of draught horfes aud oxen.
He alfo agreed to pay 300,000 livres to the family of
the French ambafl'ador Balfeville, whom the rabble had
murdered at Rome, and to make an apology by his mi-
nifter at Paris for that event. .,3

The French having been lo unfortunate in their in- Rcintorce.
vafion of Germany by the way of Svvabia and Fran- mtnts fent
ccnia, now determined to make their principal at-'"''""*"
tempt from Italy under the command of General Bona-*^
parte. Vail bodies of troops were therefore detached
by the directory from ihofe who had ferved under Mo-
reau, and fent as fecretly as pofllbl* towards Italy by
the way of Saviy. The impending danger was how-
ever perceived by the court of Vienna, and there.*ore
gave the command on the fde of Italy to the archduke
Charles, he being the only Auftrian who had hitherto
been fuccclsful againft the republicans. The war was
noiv about to be carried into new territories, v\here a

foe

F R A

[ 169 ]

F R A

France, foe had fcarctly e\er been fecu by the houfc of Aullria.
^■"~» It was neceflary that Bonaparte fliould once more force

*797' his way over the Alps, that immcnfc chain of moun-
tains which rifes in the neighbourhood of Toulon, and
ftrelchhig northward, obtains the names of Pieclmoht
and Savoy. It then takes an eafterly direction, form-
ing the countries of Switzerland, Tyrol, Carinthia, and
Carniola. Tlit three lall of thefe paffing along the A-
driatic, conflitute the frontier, in this quarter, of the he-
reditary ftates of Aurtria. The fertile and level coun-
try, which belonged to Venice, lies between the moun-
tains and the fea. It is crofTed by many ftreams which are
increafcd by the melting fnows of the Alps, and whofe
peculiar charadleriftic is this, that they are greatelt in
471 fummer, and leaft in winter.
Error cf Tile archduke, inftead of making a ftand in the de-

''?'i^.''"'^* files of the mountains, ^vas fent into the plain to guard
o .cnn.. ^j, ^ paii'ages of the rivers ; a very important blunder
^vhich entered into the plan of defence adopted by the
council of war at Vienna.
Progreis of While Bonaparte continued to advance to the terri-
BonaparteN tories of the pope, the arrangement of the Auftrian
"■ny- army was going fonvard along the eaftem bank of the

Piava, The republicans were on the oppofite fide, and
Bonaparte, after quitting the papal territories, hailened
to join them. Having effected the paffage of the Piava
on the I 2th of March, the Auilrians retired, fkirmilh-
ing for fome days, till they crofled the Tagliamento,
where they halted with their whole force. The repub-
lican army reached, on the 17th, Valvefone, on the op-
pofite fide of the river, which after fome hefitation they
determined to crols. The ftreara having been dimini.fh-
ed by the froft, the French crofTed it in columns at dif-
ferent points. Joubert ^vith the left wing received or-
ders to pafs along the valley of the river Drave, be-
yond the higheft chain of the Noric Alps. MalTena at
the head of the centre divifion, paffed into the defiles of
thefe mountains, and the right divifion, commanded by
.. Bonaparte, marched along the coall of the Adriatic.

Surrender On the 19th, the town of Gradifca, on the river
of Cradifca. Lifonzo, furrendered to the right wing of the army;
and its garrifon, coniilling of 3ODO men, were made
prifoners. The fame divifion entered Goritz on the
2 111, where it found the principal magazines and hofpi-
tals belonging to the Auilrians. Triefte was taken on
the 23d, and materials ivorth 2,COO,ooo of livres were
fent oft" by the French from the quickfilver mines of
Ydria. On the 24th a large body of Auilrians w-as
confined by Maflena, and a part of the right wing
commanded by General Guieux ; but they having pro-
cured reinforcements from the archduke, engaged the
French next day, and were defeated, havhig loft 5000
prifoners and 400 baggage waggons. Equal fuccefs
attended the left wing under Joubert, Baraguay, D'
Hilliers, and Delmas. Four thoufand Auftrians were
taken on the banks of the Lavis, and they were defeat-
ed at Clauzen, with the lofs of Ijoo prifoners. This
divifion then directed its march eaftward, along the val-
ley of the Drave towards Clagenfurt, the metropolis of
Carinthia, where it was met by General MalTena, that
officer having obfigcd the archduke to evacuate his head-
quarters, and proceed nearer to the capital of the em-
pire, which now began to be in danger. In 1 5 days
General Bonaparte took 20,000 prifoners, and eifefled
the paffage of the Alps, after which there was no place
Vol. IX. Part I.

of fufficitnt llrength to arreft his progrefs to Vienna. Fran-r.
Yet it muft be confelTed that his owii iituition was not ' >'~~^
free from danger, and therefore he pinidcntly ernbraced * 797-
this moment of unprecedented fuccefs to make overtures
of peace. He wrote to the archduke on the Jifl of
March, deprecating the contumance of the war, and
entreating him to ufe his influence for putting a period
to its ravages. This prince evafively replied, that it did
not bel^jig to him to invelligate the principles on which
the war was carried on, and that he had no power to
negotiate. 474

The Auftrians raifed the peafantry in the Tyrol, to''^I'"' ''J'^-
harafs the rear of the French army, by which they^'y-
gained fome advantages under General Laudohn, and
drove out the repubhcan troops which had been left at
Botzen and Bri.\en. The people of the Venetian ftates
afted a firailar part againit the troops left in them, and
with the alliftance of 10 Sclavonian regiments, they
murdered every Frenchman they could find, not fparing
even the fick in the hofpitals, of whom 500 were mai-
facred at Verona. The Auftrians attempted to fur-
round the invading army ; but Bonaparte knew that
the embarraflraent of the court of Vienna was at leaft
equal to his own. He was at the head of 95,000 men,
hitherto irrefiftible ; and the Auftrians could not but
know that to furround his army was not to vanquifti it,-
on which account he pt-ifilled in advancing. On the
2d of April, after a bloody conflift, he forced the
llrong defiles between Fieifach and Newmark, making
6co prifoners. His advanced guard reached Hunfinark
on the 4th, where they again defeated the Auftrians,
which induced the cabinet of Auftria to treat for peace,
there being no place where the army of the arcbduke
could make a ftand, till it came to the mountains in
the neighbourhood of Vienna. Bellcgarde and Mo;
veld requefted a fufpenfion of hoftihties from Bona-
parte, while care was taken to remove the pus'ic trea-
fure and eftefts into Hungary. The French command-
er contented, on condition of getting pofl'eflion oi
Gratz and Leoben, about jO miles from Vienna. This
was on the 7th of April, and the armiftice which \;d>
to expire on the 13th, was afterwards renewed for a
longer period. A preliminary treaty followed this on
the 19th, by which the French were to retain the Aid'-
trian Netherlands, and the republic ot Lombardy
(hould be called the Cifalnine republic, comprehendirig
the Milanefe, Mantua, Modena, Fcrrara, and Bolog-
na. Bonaparte confented to return to Italy, if his army
ftiould be fupplied with provifions during its march, ap.d
all farther difputes were to be fettled by a definitive treaty
of peace. He brought an accufation againft the Vene-
tian government for conniving at the murder of the
French during his abfence, and having polTelTcd hira-
felf of the city and territories, he dilTolved that ancient
ariftocracy. _ 475

During the approach of Bonaparte towards Vienna, P' a'-t ^"' -
the repubhcan armies on the Rhine were prefling on the \^'^^^ "'^"
Auftrians, that they might not have it in their power f) ""c ^.wi
to fend reinforcements againft him. An armiftice was Aullria.
offered by the Auftrians, but fince the French required
Ehrenbrcitftein as a compcnfation, both parties rcfolv-
ed to profecute the war. The left wing of the army of
General Hoche proceeded from Dufleldorf, while the
centre and right wing crofTed the river near Coblcntz.
On the 1 8th of April a fierce conteft took place bc-
Y tweca

476
Changes in
the direc.
tory.

477
Keu- :;lan
of Saance ;

meafuifs ii
the piiefls.

479
The roya!-

fiefh cou-
rage.

F R A [ I'

tween the hoftile armies near tlie Lalin, in which the
Auftrisiis loft 40CC taken prifbners. General Moreau ha-
ving forced the paflage of the Upper Rhine near Strafburg,
attacked and carried the village of Dierftieim. Next
day the contlid was renewed with fuch vigour on the
part of the republicans, that the fort of Kehl was tak-
en, and 5000 Auftrians ivere made prifoners. They
were next purfued towards the Danube, when all mili-
tary operations were inftantly fufpended by meflengers
difpatched through Germany from the archduke and
Bonaparte, with the joyful news that peace was con-
cluded. On the arrival of thefe meflengers, the army
of General Hoche was making a defperate attack upon
Francfort on the Maine, which General Warnecht was
employing every effort to protefl. Both armies fud-
denly received the neivs, the hollile troops threw down
their arms, and congratulated each other on the happy
event.

A conteft of an alarming nature was now fall ap-
proaching between the legillative and executive branches
of the French government. A third part of the legifla-
tivt body was now to be changed. On the 19th of
IVIay, I..etourneur weiH out of the direftory by lot ; on
the 2cth the new third took their feats, and on the 21ft
Earthelemy was chofen a member of the direiflory in
the room of Letourneur. Pichegru, Jourdan and Wil-
iot, \vere among the members of the new third, fo that
a decided majority of both councils was of the moderate
party ; and two members of the diredory, Camot and
Barthelemy, were underftood to be men of the fame de-
fcription. Every meafure was adopted which tended to
render the Mountain party odious, or embarrafs the
direftorv.

Gilbert Defmolieres, on the 14th of June, brought
up a report from a committee on the ftate of the finan-
ces, in which he inveighed againft the prodigality and
profufion of the diredlory and its agents in the ftrongeft
language. A new plan of finance was propofed by the
fame committee on the i?.th, which went to take from
the direclory the adminilhation of the public money.
On the preceding day Camille Jourdan prefented a re-
port of great length on the fubjefl of religion,- wherein
he infifted on the impropriety of forbidding its ceremo-
nies to be publicly difplayed, and the iniquitous nature
»t that periecution which its minifters Jiad fuffered, be-
caufe they cculd not take the oaths prefcribed by the
legillatute. The council of five hundred decreed, on
the 15th of July, that all the laws againft refradtory
pjieils Ihould be repealed ; and on the following day a
decree requiring from them an oath of fidelity to the
conllitution, was carried by a majority of no more than
iix members. Emery, a new member, propofed the re-
peal of thofe laws by which the property of emigrants
had been confifcated, and that their relations fhould be
ccnfidcred as competent to fucceed them. Such as had
fled into foreign countries from Toulon and other parts
of the nation, received encouragement to return home,
and allowed to cherifli the expectation that their names
would be expunged from the lift of emigrants.

The difcuflion which thefe topics underwent made
the directory and the councils profeffed enemies to each
other. The latter wiflied ■the former to be changed be-
fore the expiration of the legal time, and the direclory
wiftied to d' pr'\e many new members of their feats who
had been eUfted by the i^eopie, As Bairas vras lathcr

?o ] F R A

the moft odious member of the direftory, an effort was F.anc

made to deprive him of his feat, under the pretence that ^

he was lefs than the legal age of 40; but his colleagues ^79',
maintained that he was bom in the j-ear 1755, and it
feems no proof of the contrary could be produced.
Still the dkeclory did not want a number of adherents.
The refolution of the councils in favour of the priefts
liad the appearance of a counter-revolution, which indu-
ced the royalifts torefume courage, and journals were ra-
pidly publiihed in defence of their caufc. The councils
received information on the 20th of July, that a divi-
fion of the army under General Hoche was within a
few- leagues of Paris, while the conftitution declared
that the dire&ory incurred the penalty of ten years im-
prifonment, it it brought any troops nearer the refidence
of the legiflative body than twelve leagues ^vil!.out its
confent. An explanation was demanded, when the di-
reftory declared their ignorance of the march, having
been undertaken v.ithout any orders from them, and
purely owing to a raiftake of the officer' by whom it
ivas condufted ; but the councils paid little regard to
fuch an allegation. The mutinous fuburb of St An-
toine adhered to the majority of the direclory, which
encouraged them fo much, that they loft no time in
proceeding to aftion. General Angereau had been
fent for from Italy, under the pretext of delivering to
the direftory feme ftandards taken from the enemy.
The Thuilleries was furrounded by Angereau on the
morning of the 4th, -with a diviiion of the troops, ivhen
the guard of the councils refufed to aft againft them,
and Raniel their commander was made prifouer. Or»
entering the hall, he found Pichegru and twelve more
of the chiefs of the oppofite faftion, whom he immedi-
ately fent prifoners to the temple. Camot made his
efcape on the preceding evening, but Barthelemy re-
mained and was put under arreft. When feveral mem-
bers of the councils came to the hall at the ufual liour,
they were aftoniftied to find that ieals had been put
upon the doors, and that they could not find admit-
tance. They were ordered to go to tlie furgeon's hall,
where the direclory, it was faid, had appointed them to
meet. Of both councils not more than : 20 members
aiTembled, who fent to obtain from the directory an ac-
count of the late proceedings. They were given to un-
dcrftand that what had been done was abfolutely necef-
fary for the falvation of the republic, congratulating the
duped councils on thtir efcaf>e from the machinations of
the royalifts. According to the report of BouUay de
la Meurth, a vaft royalift confpiracy, the centre of
which ^vas in the bofom of the councils, -was endeavour-
ing to fubvert the conftitution, but that the indefati-
gable diligence and aftivity of the direftory had defeat-
ed all their attempts ! It was propofed to tranfport the
confpirators without a trial, and the councils were fo
completely impofed upon as to vote the tranfportalion
of ^'i^ of their own members, and twelve other perfons,
among which number were included the directors Gar-
net and Barthelemy.

During the whole of thefe tranfaflions the city of Paris
remained in a ftate of tranquillity. Its unfortunate
ftruggle on the 5th of Oi5tobcr had fo completely fub-
dued the ardour of the inhabitants, that they allowed
the national reprefentation to be violated with im-
punity, and liberty to be trampled under foot, without
a fijigle tsertiou bi iis defence. The direi5tory cx-

cufed

431
A body of
French
troops land
rn Wales.

F R A [ r

cufed their couducl to the nation under pretence of the
exillence of a royaliil confpiracy. General PIchegru, it
was faid, had offered to join the emigrants under the
prince of Conde, and the Auflrians commanded by
General Wurmfer, and w-ith this aggregate force to
march direiSlly to Paris, for the re-eftabli(liment of
royalty. There are certain circumftances which lead
us to fufpecl that this was a fabrication : for at the time
when this fuppofed correfpondence became public, it
was denied to be genuine ; and Moreau who was impli-
cated in this confpiracy, was after this employed in the
ferv-ice of the republic, to whofe military fliill and fide-
lity the French rulers feemed willing to commit the fal-
vation of the country.

The direclory was now very powerful, but its mem-
bers foon became giddy from the elevated nature of
their Ctuation, and feemed to aft under the dangerous
com-iclion, that there was nothing in ^vhich they might
not venture to engage, whatever might be the rapacity
or ambition attached to it. While contending ^vith
the councils, they prolonged the negotiations with Lord
Malmelhury, afting in a fimilar manner refpe6Hng
thofe which had been entered into between Bonaparte
and the imperial ambaffadors at Campo Formio. Great
Britain offered to make peace with France, if permitted
to retain poiTefrion of the Cape of Good Hope, together
with the Spanilh illand of Trinidad. The negotiations
with the emperor were fpeedily terminated, and on the
T 7th of Oftober a definitive treaty was figned at Campo
Formio. The Netherlands were given up to the repub-
lic, the Milanefe to the Cifalpine republic, and his
territories in the Brifgaw to the duke of Modena, to
compenfate for the lofs of his duchy in Italy. It was
likesvife agreed by the emperor that the French Ihould
poflTefs the Venetian iilands in the Levant, namely, Corfu,
Zante, Cephalonia, Santa Maura, Cerigo and others.
The emperor was to have the city of Venice with its
remaining territory, from the extremity of Dalmatia,
4s far as the Adige and the lake Garda. The Aullrians
accordingly left the Rhine, by which means the repub-
licans were enabled to farround Mentz and Ehrenbreit-
(lein, the former of which was captured in a Ihort
time, but the latter required a very tedious blockade
before it would furrender. Venice was at the fame
time entered by the Aullrians, the French having left
it, and Bonaparte, when about to march out of Italy,
left 2 ?, 000 men to garrifon Mantua, Brefcia, Milan,
and fome other places, and to preferve this new republic
in a Hate of dependence upon France.

It is faid that the direftory about this time endea-
voured to force America to purchafe a forbearance
from war by a large fura of money together with a pri-
vate prefent of 50,cool. to the members of the direc-
tory. The laft part of this charge was denied by the
minlfter Talleyrand, but the general imprelTion it pro-
duced could not be effaced, and the direftory was thus
very much injured in the eftimation of fuch countries
a-, were otherwife difpofed to view it in a very favour-
able light. To lefTen its reputation dill more, it caufed.
the councils to pafs tivo laws, by which all neutral
(hips on their way to Britain or returning from it, ihould
be liable to be feized. Thefe, however, produced an
effect very different from that which was intended ; for
having put all the trade of the weftem world into the
power of the Britifh, they enriched the very people

r ]

F R A

whom they v,-ere meant to ruin. Britain at this time France.

held the empire of the fcas in fuch an eminent, and per- ' ^"~

haps we may add, unprecedented degree, that the re- ^'97-
publican fleets lay blockaded in their own ports during
the greater part of the year. The expedition againft
Ireland having completely failed, the direclory was ab
a lofs how to difpofe of the galley flaves who had made"
a part of Hoche's army dellined againll Ireland. It
ivould have been cruel to remand them back to punifli-
ment ; the troops would not ferve uith thera in the ar-
my, and by the new laws of France they could not re-
ceive a pardon, neither was it prudent to give fo many
criminals hbcrty. Thus perplexed, the directory at
laft determined to fend them over to England. They
ivere landed frum tivo frigates and fome imall veffels
on the coall of Wales, with mulkets and ammunition,
but deflitute of artillery. On the evening of the day
on which they landed (23d of February), they were
made prifoners of war by a party of miHtia, yeomanry,
cavalry, colliers and others, under the command of Lord
Cawdor. ^si

Although the navy of France continued in port, and Defeat of
therefore out of danger for the remainder ot tliis year,* ^^^"'^^'l.
yet the Dutch and Spanilh allies of that country fullain-1g[,'„ 7^^^
ed very ferious lofTes by fea. A Spanilh tleet of 27 failvi,,
of the line, oppofed to a Britifh deet of only 15 fail,
under the gallant admiral Sir John Jer\'is, was complete-
ly defeated on the f4th of February, off Cape St Vin-
cent. The Britilh admiral pafTed twice through the
enemy's line, and cut oil" part of their deet from the
rell. Four ihips were taken, and the admiral's own
fhip made her efcape with confiderable difficulty. This
fleet was on its way to Brelt in order to effeft a junc-
tion with the French fleet, but Jervis's \iclory render-
ed this objeft unattainable. In confequence of this me-
morable victory. Sir John ivas created earl St Vin-
cent, and had an annuity of 200d1. fettled upon him,
receiving at the fame time the thanks of both houfcs of
parliament. ^s-;

The Dutch, if poffible, were Hill more unfortunate, ^ Dutch
Admiral Duncan having blocked up the Texel where ?^" '*'■-
tlieir deet lav, durine the whole fummer, with the al- f j ''■ }
r I r t • 1 • 1 1 T^ 1 Admiral '

lutance ot which It appears that the I rench meant to Duncan c5
try the fate of another attack upon Ireland. A refolu- Camper,
tion having at length been adopted of rilking an en-''o^^"-
gageraent with the Britidi at fea, De Winter received
politive orders to fail, a Hep againll which he renion-
Itrated, but without cffeft. Admiral Duncan xvas at
this time refitting at Yarmouth, but on receiving in-
telligence of the failing of the Dutch licet, he fet out
in fearch of, and came up with it on the nth of Oc-
tober, confifting of a force rather inferior to his own
fleet, which amounted to 16 fail of the line and three
frigates. The Britilh admiral ran his fleet immediate-
ly through the Dutch line, commencing the attack be-
tween them and their own coall, about nine mdes from
Camperdown. As the Dutch are defperale fighters
by fea, our readers will naturally conclude that this
was a fangulnary contlift. It lallcd for tliree hours,
at which time the greater part of the Dutch fleet had
P.ruck ; but owing to the Ihallowpefs of the water on
the coaft they could not all be feized. Eight fliips of
the line, two of 56 and one of 44 guns were taken, be-
lides a frigate afterwards loft near the coaft of Britain.
Admiral De Winter was captured with his fliip, and
Y 2 Virr

F 11 A [ 17

\'icc-aclrr.iral Rentiies, Admiral Duncan received lio-
"^ nours finiUar to thofe which were beftoncd upon Earl
St Vincent, and an annuity to the fame amount.

After the ratification of the treaty with the emperor
at Campo Formio, Jofeph Bonaparte, one of the bro-
tliers of the general, was fent to the city of Rome as
plenipotentiary from the French republic. The pope
having now no expectation of foreign afllftance, fub-
mitted to every demand for the reduction of his troops,
and for emancipating ex-cry perfon confined in prifon on
account of their political fentiments. On the 26th of
December 1797, three men waited upon the ambaffador,
;tnd requelled the co-operation of France in bringing a-
hout a revolution wliich a party at Rome was anxious
l^) efrablifh. He rejected the propofal, and did every
thing in his power to dilTuade them from it ; but he ne-
j^lecied to communicate the intelligence to the papal
government, which was certainly his duty. He went
to the fecretary of Hate on the 28th, and ilievved him a
lift of perfons under his protection who had a legal au-
thority to wear the French cockade, and confentcd at
the fame time that all others wearing it ihould be pu-
nilhed. He oiFered to give up fix of the inlurgents who
had taken refuge in the palace. In the evening of the
28th a more ferious tumult happened in the courts and
vicinity of the French ambaffador's palace, with xvliich
Uie pope, it is believed, was not perfonally acquainted ;
but the governor of the city endeavoured to difperfe the
iofurgents by parties of cavalry and infantry. General
Duphot, in attempting to make tlie military defilt from
iiring upon the ii.furgents, v.'as fhot by a petty officer
belonging to the troops of his holinefs. The ambalTador
and his other friends now made their efcape to the
palace through a bye-way. The Spani(h ambaffador
heaving been informed of this event, fent to the fecretary
of llate, and protelted againft fuch a daring violation
of the privileges of plenipotentiaries. The palace of
the French ambaffador was ftill furrounded by the mili-
tary, when at laft he demanded paffports to enable him
to leave the territories of the pope, which were foon
granted, and accompanied by many proteltations of the
innocence of government, and its forrow that fuch an
unfortunate event fliould have taken place.

Jofeph Bonaparte went to Florence and from thence
to Paris. The proteftion of Vienna, Spain, Naples,
and Tufcany was earneftly folicited by the pope, but
they all feemed difpofed to keep at a diltance from his
misfortunes. General Eerthier experienced little or no
oppofition on his march to Rome, where be fubverted
the dominion of the pope, and proclaimed the fove-
reignty of the R oman people, with too many marks of
wanton, unprovoked infult. The tree of liberty was
planted on the very day on which the anniverfary of
the pope's eleftion to the fovereignty was celebrated ;
intended, no doubt, to make him feel llill greater mor-
tification. While in the Siltine chapel receiving the
congratulations of the cardinals, the commilTioner ge-
neral, and Cervoni, who commanded the troops with-
in the city, during this ceremony entered the chapel,
and announced to the fovereign pontiff on his throne,
that his reign v>as at an end. He was removed to the
territory of Tufcany, where he dwelt in great obfcurity,
till his enemies being In their turn drivcnT from Rome,
•Kere pleafed to remeve him farther from ih.e capital, to
teiminate his CJiiftence. beyond the A Ip?,

2 ] F R A

The grcateft curiofities foiind in Rome were con- Fiarre.

veyed to Paris, and fold by piiblic auction, the direc- v~—'

tory having facrificed national vanity at the flnine '79^'
of avarice. Pafsports ivere offered to the natives of
countries at war with France, if they inclined to be-
come purchafers.

But fcenes of a different and fanguinary nature were Conqueft of
in the mean time exhibited in Switzerland, a country Switzer-
which had preferved its neutrality during the conflict of l""'' ■^^-
France with the combined powers, thus defending the J'^'^^y' ™
weaketl part of her frontiers, and as a grateful return Fr-ndi
for pall favours, it was now determined to fubjugate
Switzerland. About the end of the year 1797, an in-
iurrection broke out in the Pays de Vaud, fubjeil to the
canton of Berne, which made the government perceive
its critical lituation, and iffue a proclamation on the
5th of January 1798, requiring the people of the Pays
de Vaud to appear in arms, renew their oath of al-
legiance, and reform every exifting abufe. A com-
miffion ot the fenate at Berne was empowered to ex-
amine eveiy complaint, and redrefs every grievance ;
but their motions were confidered as too tardy by po-
pular impatience, and the inlurgents endeavoured to be-
come mailers of the llrong places. Troops ivere fent
againfl them by the government of Berne, but General
Weifs afted vvith hefitation, if not even with treachery,
and a body of republicans appeared under General Me-
nard, who fent an aid de camp and two hulTars to Ge-
neral Weifs. As the meffengers returned, one of the
huffars was killed, moll probably by accident, but it
was inftantly magnified into a horrid breach of the law
of nations. The French, therefore, continued to ad-
vance, and were mailers of the whole Pays de Vaud
by the end of January. The government of Berne
prepared for war, while it at the fame time ufed every
effort in order to maintain peace. A truce was entered
into with General Brune, the fucceffor of Menard, and
thofe who killed the huffar vvere delivered up. An
army of 20,O00 men was collected, the command of
which was given to M. d'Erlach, once a field marlhal
in the fervice of France. But there was a prevailing
difaffection in his army, and the people w-ere far from
being united among themfelves. With this circum-
flance the French were well acquainted, and therefore
they demanded a total change of government. As
M. d'Erlach was apprehenfive of a llill greater defec-
tion in his army, he requelled permlffion to put an end
to the armiillce. The French now refufed to negotiate,
and General Schawenberg on the 2d of March took
poffeffion of Soleure at the head of 13,000 men. Brune
afterwards made himfelf mailer of Friburg, and forced
the Swifs army to retreat. The government of Berne
being no\v greatly alarmed, decreed the landjihurm, or
riling of the people in a mafs, which their ancient cul-
toms juftified in the time of neceffity. The people af-
fembled, diffolved the government, and offered to dif-
mlfs the army, if the republican troops would retire.
This offer was rejefted, without admitting a French
garrifon into Benie, and therefore they continued to ad-
vance. About 6000 from tlie army of M. d'Erlach '
had deferted, leaving him at the head of no more than
14,000 men ; and although the riling had abundantly
fupplled him with numbers, yet he had not time futli-
cient to get them properly arranged. He was attacked
cu the 5th of Mnjch, and driven from Newenbeg and
Favenbrun,

F R A [I

Yi.u.ce. Favenbrun, but having rallied his troops, he made a
■"~^''~~' ftand tor fome time at Uteren. The conriicl was re-
'V9°* neived at Gnuholtz, from whence thty were driven
four miles nearer the capital. Being completely de-
feated, they murdered many of their officers in a tit of
defpair, among whom w;;s their commander in chief.
Berne capitulated to the French, which induced the
more wealthy and populous Hates to follow the example ;
but the poorer cantons made a dreadful effort to pre-
ferve their finall poffeflions, and the independence of
their country. They compelled Schaivenberg to retire
with the lofs of 3000 men, but were at lail totally van-
quifhed by the fuperior ikill and numbers of the repub-
lican army. The public magazines were plundered,
and a new conftitution was forced upon them after the
model of France.

If the diretlory made no fcruple to violate the inde-
pendence of other nations, it was very reafonable to
conclude that tkey would pay little regard to the liber-
ties of their countrymen-at home. A third of the le-
giflature was changed in the month of April ; one mem-
ber of the directory went out by ballot, and Treilhard
w-as chofen to fucceed him- Nothing was left unat-
tempted by the direilory to influence the election in fa-
vour of their friends, but their iuccefs was not great.
They complained to the council of fi\-e hundred on the
2d of iVIay ; they complained of plots of royali)ls, by
%vhlch it was faid that eleftions had been made to fall
on men who were inimical to the intereft of the repub-
lic. It was propofed on the '^■th by the committee who
reported on the meffage of the direttcry, that many
electoral afiemblies ihould be annulled ; but General
Jourdan oppofed this plan as incompatible with the free-
dom of election, and as proceeding upon the fuppofition
of confpiracies which had no CKiflence.
lie iina- ^^^ ^^ "°^^' '° ^ prefented ^vlth the moft extrava-
onofE- gift project which perhaps the directory ever atteiapt-
ypt pro- ed to execute ; — to fend a formidable army to take pof-
;£ltd by fefllon of Egvpt, and from thence to proceed by the
he mrec ^^^ j-^^ ^^ -j^^ ^^^ j^jj^^^ ^^ ^^^^ poiTeffion of the
Britilh fettlements in that quarter of the globe. After
peace was proclaimed between France and Germany,
the diredtory made no fecret of their determination to
invade Great Britain. Whether this project ivas of Bo-
naparte's own deviling, or intended as a fnare in order
to get rid of him and his ndorious army, feems to be
a matter which our readers mufl be left to determine
for themfelves. It might not be his projeft, and he
might accept the command of the army of Egypt from
this conviction, that he would be fafer abroad in the
moft perilous undertaking, ^han be expofed at home to
the malice of a government become jealous of his repu-
tation, and which was far from being fcrupulous of its
conduct

The meditated attack upon Egypt was certainly con-
ducted with fuch a degree of fecrecy as was calculated
to millead. Prodigious ftories were circulated concern-
ing large rafts of timber, by means of which tlie armi/ of
Ejigland, as it was called, was to be conveyed over to
Britain j and to give the greater probability to this re-
port. General Bonaparte, the commander in chief, made
a journey to the weftern coalt. The fleet was getting
reidy in the harbour of Toulon, and troops werecollecl-
ed in its vicinity. But Bonaparte embarked with 40,000
.-o£jiis veteran ttoopsj and on the 9th of June reached the

73 J F R A

ifland of Malta. He quarrelled with the grand-mafler, Fiar-e.

becaufe he would not pcrmlv fo large a fleet to water ' "*'

all .at once in his ports. Tlie French commander land- "798.
ed his troops in different places, and attempted to make
himlilf matter of the illand. It is faid that many of the
knights belonged to the illuminati, and were therefore
ready to betray their government. After a very feeble
oppolition the grand-mafler capitulated, and thus gave
up in a few days a fortrefs which, it is faid, might have
held out for weeks againilt all the troops of the French
republic. Bonaparte left in the illand a ganifon of
4300 men, and failed for Alexandria on the 2i!l. gg

Rear-admiral Nelfon having iKltinguiflied himielf in Ad.iiiral
a very eminent degree, while'in the llation of commo-?''"<'" R°"
dore under Lord St Vincent, was fent in purfuit of Bo-'"-^^'"^''
naparte. Being wholly ignorant of the deltination ofp'aitj"^
the French, he failed for Naples, where he obtained in-
formation of tl>e attack upon IWalta, to which accord-
ingly he fleered his courfe. On his arrival, however
he found that Bonaparte was gone ; but conjecturing
that he had failed for Alexandria, he immediately pre-
pared to follow him. I'he French commander, inftead
of keeping a direct courfe towards that city, flood along
the Grecian coafl, till he made the eafternmoft point of the
ifland of Candia. Then fleering to the fouthv.ard, lie
fo protratted his voyage, that he did not reach the E-
gyptian coafl till Admiral Nellbn had left it. Having
landed his troops, he took the city of Alexandria by
florm on the 5th of July. It was defperateiy defended
by tlie inhabitants, but wnthout military fliiU. The re-
publican tranfports were drawn up ivithin the inner
harbour of Alexandria, and the ftiips of v.-ar cafl: anchor
along the fliore of the bay of Abouki». The r.^publi-
can army marched on towards the Nile, and in pro-
ceeding along the banks of that river, they fuffered
much from the intenfe heat of the climate. They foon
came to action with the Mamelukes, or military rulers
of the country ; but the fmall degree of Ikill poffeffed
by thofe barbarians, was by no means a match for Eu-
ropean tadtics. Cairo furrendercd on the 23d, and two
days after, another battle was fought, in which the in-
habitants were defeated. They made a laft effort on the
26th, near the celebrated pyramids, when 2000 of
them were killed, 400 camek with baggage were taken,
and 50 pieces of cannon. ^g.

Having proceeded thus far in his conqueft of Egypt, TTyfannr
Bonaparte framed for it a provifiomd government, and *?"' ''"P''"
iDjied procIamadoBS in the Arabian language, protell-''"'' °
ing that the French ivere friendly to the religion of
Mahomet, owned the authority of the grand (ignior,
and were only come to inflict punilhment on the IVIame-
lukes for doing fo much injury to their trade ^vith E-
gypt. Thus far the good fortune of Bonaparte feemed •
lUU to attend him •, but on the at of Auguft the fleet
under Admiral Nellon appeared off the mouth of the
Nile, who having difcovcred the pofition of the French
fleet, prepared to attack it. In point of number? the
two fleets were upon a level, but as to wveight of metal
the French fleet was the Jtronger of the two. Admiral
Nelfon, by running fomc of his fliips between the ene-
my and the land, furroundcd one part of the fleet,
while the reft were thus rendered entirely uielefs. The
Culloden ran aground while this plan was carrying into
effect ; an advantage upon the whole, as it pointed out
to t!ie rtit where the danger la^ concealed. Tliis me--
inoralxf

F R A

C 174 1

F R A

Vi.i.ic? niorable allien commenced with tlie fetting of the fun,

' '''~Z~' ^nd continued, with occafimial inteirals, till the break.

*798- of day. Nine fail of the line belonging to the French

E 't'e^of ■^^ere taken ; a Hiip of the line was burnt by her o^vn

tue Nile, commander, and the admiral's flag ibip, L'Orient, was

blov.Ti up during the action, few of her crew, conufting

of I DOO men, ha\'ing efcaped deftrudion. Two (hips

of the line and t^vo frigates were laved by flight, but

afterwards captured.

If we confine ourfelves to modern times, it will be
difficult to point out any naval engagement produftive
of more interelling effecis than this. The military ex-
t-rtions of France had By degrees deftroyed the combi-
nation which the princes of Europe formed againft her.
The i-iclorics of Bonaparte had humbled the pride of
-Auftria ; the continent looked with difraay towards the
new republic, and when the directory feized on Rome
and Switzerland, no power ventured to interpofe in
their behalf. The afpecl of affairs, however, had now
undergone an almofl: total revolution. The once trium-
jihant Bonaparte wai flnit up in a barbarous country,
from which the fleets of Britain might prevent his re-
tuni. Propofals were made by Great Britain to the
northern powers, for tlie recommencement of hofl ilities
again ft France, as it was not conceived poflible that (he
could make fuch refiftance as formerly. The ftates of
Italy, too, determined to make a bold effort for the re-
covery of their independence. The court of Naples re-
joiced at the deftruction of the French fleet, and the
king himfelf went to meet Admiral Nelfon on his re-
turn from the Nile.
General It is ivell known that the French had long promifed

Humbert encouragement to the Irifli rebels ; but as their expec-
invadcs tations were not gratified in time, they broke out into
" ^" ■ open rebellion without the promifed afTilf ance ; and
when the fpirit of rebellion ^vas alraoll ivholly fubdued,
the direftorj- attempted to land troops in fraall divifions,
fuch as that under General Humbert on the 22d of Au-
guft, confifting only of lioo men, who landed at Kil-
lala. Yet this force, fmall as it war, would have pro-
ved formidable but a month before. They were joined
by a party of the moft defperate of the rebels in the %-!-
cinity, and defeated General Lake at the head of a fu-
perior force, taking from him fix pieces of cannon.
Their next ftep was to march in different direflions to
announce the arrival of the republicans, and maintain-
ed their ground for three weeks. This able general
receiving no reinforcements from France, finding the
rebellion in a great meafure crulhed, and being inform-
ed that General Comwallis was about to furround him
with 25,000 men, he laid down his arms to a Britiih
column, four days after he had difmiffed his Irilh afTo-
riates, that they might pro\-ide for their own fafety.
Aftive meafures were now taken by the direSory to
fend troops to Ireland when too late, as the vigilance
of Britifh cruizers defeated all their endeavours. La
Hoche, a fliip of 84 guns, and four frigates, were cap-
tured by Sir John Borlafe Warren on the I 2th of Oc-
tober, in attempting to reach Ireland with 3000 men.
On the 20th another frigate was taken, deftined for the
fame country, which induced the directory to abandon
J the attempt as altogether defperate.
Imprutlent T'^ viflory obtained by Admiral Nelfon at the
condiicl of mouth of the Nile, made the king of Naples aft the
the king of very imprudent part of preparing to commence hoflili-

798.

493

Naples

ties againll France. Without even ^vaiting till tl.e
Auftrians fliould commence the attack on the republi- ^
can troops in the Roman territory, he procured General
Mack to affume the command of his amay. He began
the war without any foreign aid, except the Britifli
fleet, and thus brought upon himlclf the vengeance of
the French republic. The direftory had no idea that
he would adopt iuch conduft, and of confequence when
General Mack appeared at the head of 45,000 men,
the troops of France in that quarter were unable to
contend with him. General Championet having juftly
complained of the attack made upon his po(b, circum-
l^anced as he ivas, he received for anfwer from the ho-
llile commander, that his majefty had refolved to take
pcfTeffion of the Roman territory, and advifed the
French to retire quietly into the Cifalpine Ifates, main-
taining that their entrance into Tufcany would be con-
fidered as a declaration of war. Championet accord-
ingly evacuated Rome, as he had no force againft fuch
a formidable army. He left a garrifon in the caflle of
St Angelo, and concentrated what troops he could col-
left in the northern part? of the Roman (late. General
Mack entered the city of Rome without oppofition in
the end of November.

Tliefe tranfaftions having been known at Paris, war TheFrencli'
was immediately declared againlt their Neapolitan and declare war •
Sardinian majefl ies, the latter of whom had committed i'p'"'' "»-
no aC^ of hoilility againft the French ; but he was ac- SaMinia.
culed of difaft'eftion to the republic, a charge which
could fcarcely fail to be true. He found himfelf placed
in a very humiliating fituation fince the firft entrance of
Bonaparte into Italy, his Ifrongeft fortrcffes being in
polTeltion of the French, who levied on him what con-
tributions they thought proper, and even placed a gar-
rifon in his metropolis. Being unable to go to war, he
made a voluntary furrender of his continental domi-
nions, and agreed to retire to the ifland of Sardinia.

A period was foon put to the dilpute with Naples,
As the French retreated, the country people gave them
much trouble and uneafinefs, and the Neapolitan troops
fcarcelv obferved the modem rules of war refpefting
fuch as they had taken prifoners. When General Bou-
chard, by orders from General Mack, commanded the
caflle of St Angelo to furrender, he maintained that he
would view the prifoners in the light of hoftages for the
conduft of the garrifon, and that a man (hould be put
to death for every gun fired from the caftle. It^is
fcarcely to be imagined tliat the Neapolitan ofKcers
would have exprefTed themfeUes in fuch a (hocking
manner, if they had not calculated on the vigorous co- «

operation of the Auftrian forces, in which, however,
they were very much deceived. The confequence was,
that the territory of Naples verj' foon fell into the
hands of the French. Either the terror of the republi-
can name was fo great in Italy, or the cowardice of the
Neapolitan troops, that they were defeated by one-
fourth of their own numbers, at Tenii, Porto Fermo,
Civita Caftellana, Otricoli, and Calvi. As the army
of General Mack was gradually reduced to 12,000
men, in confequence of defertion and frequent defeats,
he advifed the king of Naples and his farrdly to take re-
fuge on board the Britifli lleet, which was then lying at
Leghorn. This advice was adopted, and they reached
Palermo in Sicily on the zyxh of December, in Admiral
Nclfou's (hip. General Mack having requefted an ar-
raiftice.

F R A [I

France, miftice, it was reiiifed by the French commander. Be-
'—V——' ing driven from Capua, the only remainhig port of any
1799' confequence in the territory of Naples, and being in
the greateil danger from the difaffeftion of his troops,
he furrendered liimfelf and the officers of his ilaff to the
republican general. The govemoi of Naples offered a
contribution of money if the French troops would not
enter that city, which was agreed to, and they remain-
ed at Capua. General Serrurier, at the head of a
French column, drove the Neapolitans out of Leghorn,
. and took, poirethon of that place.
Befperate Such is the mlldnefs of the climate in the fouthem
eonduci of parts of Italy, that the people can fubfift with fewer
the Lazz.i- gflorts of induftry than in almoft any other country of
Europe. This naturally begets an indolent difpofition,
which is cherilhed by a number of charitable inilitutions
originating from the Catholic religion. In Naples there
had long been a body of men called Lazzaroni, or beg-
gars, amounting to the allonilhing fum total of near
4C,oco, who entirely fubfttled on charity. They fre-
quently threatened the flate if they did not receive an
immediate fupply of their wants, which procured them
very liberal contributions. Having been informed that
the French, wherever they came, deftroyed all monaf-
teries and other fources of charity, they determined to
oppole them to the utmoft of their power, and appear
the advocates for royal government. In the beginning
of January 1799,. they exhibited marks of difcontent,
and at lall broke out into an open infurreiflion. They
appointed Prince Militomi their commander in chief,
v.ho made many fniitlefs efforts to reftrain their vio-
!-r.ce and love of plunder. They declared war againft
the French, forced the prifons open, :«id murdered all
who had been incarcerated for difaffecfion to the kingly
goverrvment. Their ravages no.v became lo dreadful
and bouv.dlefs, that Prince Militomi abandoned them,
fet out to Capua, and requefted Championet to take
pcfleffion of the city, in order to refcue it from utter
deftruftion. It was agreed that a column of French
troops (hould take a circuitous route, and enter the
city from the oppofite quarter. Before this plan could
be carried into execution, two-thirds of the Lazzaroni
marched out on the 19th and 2Cth of .January, '.vith
the daring rcfolution to attack the French in the forti-
ficatio-.is of Capua. Multitudes of them perifhed by
the French artillery ; and in order to fiivour the cap-
ture of Naples by the party fent on that expedition,
Championet made no fally out upon them, but conti-
nued on the defenfive. The Lazzaroni being informed
on the 2lfl that a French column had marched for
Naples, returned to the city ; and although Champio-
net clofely purfued them, they arrived in time to barri- -
cade the rtreets, and prepare for the defence of differ-
ent quarters. A terrible contlii.^ now commericed,
which lafted from the morning of the :2d to the even-
ing of the 23d of January. Hiving been driven from
llreet to ftreet, they finally rallied at one of the gates
of the city, where they were almoll totally cut off. It
is certainly a reproach to the Neapolitan government,
not to have been able to give a better direction to the
455 undaunted courage of fuch men.
■nie(l:rec- We may view this triumph as the laft which the di-
tcry l)f . reftory enjoyed, for the confequences of their part con-
Jjunpc- ' duel were now rapidly gathering around them. They
pular. were with the greateft juftice unpopular at home, both

75 ] F R A

from their mode of conducing public affairs, and their Frane-.
repeated violations of the conllitution of their country. '^^
Their profufion was unlimited, as well as the e.xorbitant '799-
demands which they made upon conquered countries.
Championet was fo alhamed of them, that in Italy he
endeavoured to rellrain them, in confequence of which
he was deprived of his command, and thrown into pri-
fon ; Scherer, the war miniller, being appointed his
fucceflbr. Under him the rapacity of the government
agents, and the embezzlement of the public llores, were
carried as high as poflible. Yet France ftill continued
to be dreaded by foreign nations, to uhom the true
Hate of internal affairs was but obfcurely known. An
army of 45,000 RufTians had arrived to the alFillance of
Aullria, yet that cabinet was at a lofs whether to de-
clare war or not. Britain folicited the aid of PrufTia
with an offer of large fublidies ; but Sieyes, the pleni-
potentiary at Berlin, artfully contrived to defeat the
negotiation, and counterai^ the unpopularity of his
country in Germany, by giving to the world the fecret
convention of Campo Formio. This determined the
greater number of the German princes to maintain
their neutrality under the guardianlhip of PrulTia.

A note was prefentcd to the congrefs at Raftadt on
the 2d of January by the French plenipotentiaries refi-
dent there, intimating that if the entrance of Ruffian
troops into Germany was not prevented, it would be
conlidered as tantamount to a declaration of ^var. To
this ^no fatisfaftory anfwer was returned. The Rrong
fortrefs of Ehrenbreitftein furrendered on tlxe 26th of
that month, after being blockaded fince the treaty of
Campo Formio. This poffelTion, together with ]\Ientz
and Dutleldorf, made the French a very powerful ene-
my on the Rhine. Suitzerland alio belonged to them,
and all the fortified places of Italy, on which account
they were qualified to commence atfive operations. At
this period Jourdan commanded on the Upper Rhine
from Mentz to Huningen ; the eallem frontier of
Switzerland was occupied by General Maflcna; Scherer
had the chief command in Italy ; Morcau afted under
him, and Macdonald commanded the troops in the ter-
ritory of Rome and Naples. Yet all thefe armies fo
fcattered, did not exceed i"o,cco men, a force greatly
inferior to that of Aullria, altogether independent of 455
the Ruffian army. The direftor},-, however, truiling to Wjr dc-
the unity of its own plans, tlie wavering politics of the'^'^"^ '"
court of Vienna, and the flow movements of the hn-^iJj' ^.^j. '
perial armies, was anxious to renew the ivar, a declara-;. ,1 rand
tion of which againll the emperor of Germany and thedukeof
grand duke of Tufcany, was made on the 13th of '"'"^^''y-
March. Jourdan had actually croffcd the Rhine at
Strafturgh on the ill of that month, and occupied
many llrong pofitions in Swabia. Manhcim was taken,
and General Bernadotte fumjnoned Philiplhurg to fur-
render, while General St Cyr entered Stutgard. In
order to oppofe the march of this army, the archduke
Charles crofTed the Lech on the 4th of March ; !\Iaf-
fcna marched into the territory of the Grifons, and fur-
prifing a flrong body of Auflrians, made the whole of
them prifoners, together with their general and the
uhole of his ftalf, in confequence of which the country
of the Grifons was reduced.

The republican plan of procedure was not completed
with.out the juni^iiqn of Maffcna's and Jojrdan's armies,
to accomplif'h which it was neceffary to carry the im-
portant

497

Succirfs of

the Auf.

49?
Th-; Kuf-
llnns and
impcrialills

dtr Su-
Wfirrow.

F R A [ 1

portnnt poft of Feldkirch, which was held by General
Hotze. Defeated in his firll attempt, Maflfena renew-
ed the attack five times with freQi forces, but the di*
termined bravery of the Auflrians rendered them inef-
feiflual. But as the French were in poflenion of the
Grifons, the invafion of the Engadine was facilitated,
where the Auftrians being too weak to refift, retreated
into the Tyrol, end were purfued by the republicans,
who forced fome of the defiles, and extended their in-
roads as far as Glurentz and Nauders.

The vanguard of the principal Auftrian army putti-
ed on to meet the French. It was attacked by Jourdan
on the 20th of March, by %vhom the outpofts were
driven in ; but the centre of his anny was attacked on
the following day, and forced to retire to Stockach during
the night. The archduke encamped before Stockach
on the 24th, and the republicans attacked him on the
following day. His right wing under General Meer-
feldt was their main object, which they fucceeded in
driving into a wood between Liptingen and Stockach.
Weerftldt renewed the conflifl without 'vccefs. The
left wing having maintained its ground, iVnt reinforce-
ments to General Meerfeldt, ^vho in his turn obliged
the French to retire. The French, however, made
4000 prifoners during the various movements of the
day. Yet their lofs was fo great, and the Aul^rian
force fo vaftly fuperior to their oivn, that General Jour-
dan durft not hazard another engagement. He retreat-
ed on the following day, and feeling that he was not a
match for the enemy, he fent a part of his army to
cover Kehl and Stralhurg, and marched with the re-
mainder towards Switzerland. By this event General
Maflena, who was forcing Viis way to the Tyrol and
Engadine, was obliged to return to the protection of
S^vitzerland. He ivas appointed to the chief command
m this quarter, and Jourdan was removed.

The Aullrians were no lefs fuccefsful in Italy, not-
withftanding they were attacked by the French before
the termination of the armiftice. General Kray ob-
tained a complete viflory over them at Legnago, and
forced them to tlee for protection under the walls of
Mantua. On the 15th of April they were again at-
tacked by the Auftrians at Memiruolo, and again
forced to retreat after an obllinate refrftance. Tile
lofs fullained by the French in thefe different engage-
ments was unqueflionably great, but we Ihould appre-
hend that the account which flates it at 30,000 men in
killed, wounded and prifoners, mull furely be exagge-
rated. But the Auftrians may be faid to have purchafed
thefe vidlories at a dear rate. Scherer at firft gained
fome advantages over them, but he had not fliiU to
improve them, elfe they would have unqueftionably
given a new turn to the afpccEl of affairs. The Auftrian
polls were forced by a divifion of his army on the 26th
of March, and 4000 prifoners taken ; but on the other
divifion being repulfed, he withdrew his troops, and
thus relinquilhcd the advantages he had obtained. On
the 5th of April the divifion under Moreau performed
wonders, and took 3000 prifoners ; but by the unfkil-
ful meaiures of Scherer, he was not fupported, and
the triumph of the Auftrians was of cuurfe complete.

Prior to this period, a body of Ruffians joined the

imperialifts, and the command of this combined army

was given to Field-marflial Suwarrow Rimniflti, who

advanced tov/ards the Adda on the 34th of April j and

4

76 ]

F R A

after carrying the outpofts of General Moreau, Suwar- Fiar.cs.
row determined to attack him in his entrenchments. He """
maintained the appearance of attack along the whole i99'
line of Moreau, vvlille he lecrctly threw a bridge over
among the rocks at the upper part of the river, where
fuch a thing had been confidered as impoffible. By
means of this bridge a part of the coibbined army next
morning turned the republican fortifications, and at-
tacked their flank and rear, while the reft of the army
forced the paflage of the river at different points. The
French fought with their ufual intrepidity, but were
foon driven from all their pofitions, and forced to re-
treat to Pavia, with the lofs of 6cco men killed, 50CO
made prifoners, including four generals, and 80 pieces
of cannon.

General Moreau now eftabllflied the poor remains of
his army, amounting to 1 2,000 men, upon the Po, be-
tiveen Aleffandria and Valentia. He forced, on the
I ith of May, a body of Auftrians to retreat, and took
a number of them prifoners. On the I 2th, about 7000
Ruffians croffed the Po at Bafignano, and marched on
towards Pecetto, when Moreau fell upon them with
fury ; and they refufing to lay down their arms, about
2000 of them were drov,-ned in repaffing the river, and
a few were taken prifoners. On the advance of Su-
warrow, General Moreau ^vas under the neceffity of
retiring to occupy the Bochetta, as well as other paffes
which lead to the territory of Genoa, when the com-
bined army began the fieges of the fortified places in
Italy then occupied by the French. Bellegarde drove
the French from the Engadine ; Maffena was obliged
to retire to the vicinity of Zurich, he was fo preffed by
the archduke ; and nearly the whole of Piedmont had
rifen againft the republicans. They received no rein-
forcements from the iuterior of France, and their officers
were obliged to aft on the defenfive, to defend the
frontiers as long as poffible. In one inftance only they
had the po^ver of making offenfive war, and it was cer-
tainly done with great vigour. General Macdonald
had rtill a confiderable army in the fouthern parts of
Italy, in the territories of Naples and Rome, The
combined powers had made no effort to cut off his re-
treat, convinced, perhaps that this could fcarcely be
accompllflied in the mountainous coimtries of Tufcany
and Genoa. Knowing his fituation to be fecure, he
was in no hurry to remove, although nearly the whole
country between him and France was occupied by the
combined army. His army amounted to about 30,000
men, and he received orders from the direftory to leave
the territories of Rome and Naples, and unite, if poffible,
with the army of Moreau. From the fituation of the
allies, liowever, he refolvcd to hazard an aclion by
himfelf. With Moreau he had concerted a plan for
dividing their enemies, and vanquifliing them in detail,
as Bonaparte had lo often done in Italy before. Mac-
donald alone was in a fituation for ftriking an important
blow, yet it was neceffary for Moreau to draw upon
himfelf as many of the Auflro-Ruffian forces as poffible,
that the remainder might be more completely expofed
to the attack of Macdonald. ^^^

IVIoreau availed himfelf of the circumftance of the Artlul ftra.
French and Spanilh llects being in the vicinity of Genoa,t-igein of
to fpread a report that they had brought him a very M''r<:»"-
powerful reinforcement, intending thereby to withdraw
the attention of Suwarrow from ^Macdonald. The

Ruffiaiv

Vr;

1799-

403

F R A [ I

Ruffian general was at Turin, his advanced ports at
Su!"a, Pignerol, and the Col d'Affiette, while General
Hohenzollem was llationed at Modena with a confider-
able force, and General Ott at Reggie with ic,coo
men. General Macdonald began his operations on the
1 2th of June, when his advanced diviiions attacked
and defeated Hohenzollem, taking 2000 of his men
prifoners. General Ott was attacked at the fame
time, and being compelled to retreat, the French made
tlitir entry into Parma on the 1 4th. He ^vas again
attacked on the 17th, arid forced to retire towards
Giovanni, where the progrefs of General Macdonald
was arrelied.

lie French Suwarrow ha%'ing received information of his ap-
■l^teated by ^^^^, and of his fucceiTes, left Turin on the lah
Suwarrow. '^r t 1 i, j r j

of June, at the head or 20,000 men, and came up

with Macdonald on the banks of the Tidone. The
centre and right ^ving of Suvvarro^v's army were com-
manded by Rofenberg and Foerller, the Aultrian ge-
neral Me'.as commanded the left wing ; Prince Pro-
cration was at the head of the advanced guard, and
Prince Lichtenftein of the referve. An aciion imme-
diately conmienced, which was fought watli defperate
fury on both fides for three fuccellive days, whtn victory
declared in favour of Suwarrow. Driven from Tidone
to the Trebbia, the French were finally vanquilhed on
the 19th, after a greater flaughter on both fides than
the oldeli officer prefent recoUefted to have witnefied.
Viclory remained doubtful, till General Kray arrived
with large reinforcements from the army belieging
IMantua, and, in direft contempt of his orders, decided
the fate of the day.

The republicans retreated during the night, and the
next day they were purlued by the army of Suwarrow
in two columns. Seldom could the French be over-
taken in a march, but the army of Suwarrow accom-
plhhed this, when he furrounded the rear-guard of the
fugitives, and obliged them to lay down their arms.
'J"he reft of the army defended themfelves in the paflcs
of the Appenines and territory of Genoa, after lofing,
it is faid, no fewer than 17,000 in killed, wovinded,
and prifoners. Moreau, in the mean time, gave battle
to the Aullrians under Bellegarde, and tliough far fu-
perior to him in numbers, they were totally defeated.
Tliis temporary advantage, ho^vever, availed little, in
confequence of the rapid return of Suwarrow from the
purfuit of Macdonald. The fortreffes in Italy fur-
rendered in clofe fucceflion, and it appeared as if the
combined powers would foon be able to enter the ter-
ritory of France.

I'he affairs of the republic became equally critical in
Palelline. After having defeated the Mamelukes,
made himfelf mafter of Alexandria and Cairo, and
avowed himfelf a Mahometan in Egypt, Bonaparte led
an army into Palelline, to take poffelhon of Jerufalem,
and by rebuilding the temple, and reftoring the Jews,
to give the lie to the prophecies of the Chriftian re-
ligion. At the head of 10,000 men, with officers emi-
nently Ikilled in the art of war, he reached the town of
Acre on the fea-coail, 28 miles fouth of Tyre, and 37
north of Jerufalem. He laid fiege to this town in due
form, which was but indifferently fortified, and defended
by a fmall garrifon of Muffulmans, v hich the s^overnor
would have unconditionally furrendered, had he not

Vol IX. Part I.

77 ]

F R A

499

FruitieO;

Acre by
Bonaparte

been advifed to make a \igorous refillance by an Eng- France.

lifli naval officer. Sir Sidney Smith having received ^^~\— — '

the command of the garriion, detained Bonaparte before ^799'

Acre 69 days, although the Jiuniber of the allies by

whom it was defended did not e.\cced 2000 men. The

French commander made eleven attempts to carry it

by affault, all of which proved unfuccti'sful. He was

at laft obliged to raife the fiege, after he had loft eight

of his generals, 85 inferior ollicers, and almoft one half

of his army. His unfuccefsful attempt upon Acre muK

indeed appear important, efpccially to Britain, if it be

true that the Drufes, to the number of 60,000 men,

had promifed to join him on the redudtion of that tomi.

Had this junction been effeiled, it is believed that

Conllantinople ivould have become their prey, which

was firft to have been plundered, and then reduced to

alhes.

While F/ance experienced fuch reverfcs abroad, flieThe'direc
ivas much difturbed alfo by internal commotions, and tory finks
the directory found itfelf in a very critical fituation. '"'o '^'"■•*
New elections were llill unfriendly to their intereft,'^™'"'
and they could no longer fecure a majority in the
councils, they were funk into fuch contempt. \\'hen
they fought money, they obtained reproaches on ac-
count of their own proftifion, and the agents they em-
ployed. Infurreftions in the welf and fouth were
formed by the friends of royalty, and thefe were with
difficulty fubdued, on account of the abfence of the
military. In the midll of all thefe difficulties, the
occurrence of one event feemed to promife the direc-
tory the return of their former influence. On the 28th
of April, the French plenipotentiaries received orders
to quit Rartadt in 24 hours. Having demanded a
paffport from Colonel Barbafcy, they received for an-
fwer that notie could grant it but the commander iu
chief. They at lall began their journey, the three mi-
nirters. Bonnier, Roberjot, and Jean Debry, were in
feparate carriages, Roberjot having his wife, and Jean
Debry his wife and daughters along with him, attended 501
by the minirters of the Cifalpine repubUc. At a fiiort -^'uider ef
dillance from Ralladt they were met by 50 Auftrian'"^ ^''?"'^''
buffers, who Hopped the carriage of Jean Debry, and '^'"''';*[*"
demanded his name. Of this he informed them, adding RaSadt,
that he was a French miniller returning to France. He
was immediately torn from his carriage, dcfperately
w^ounded ivith labres, and thro^vn into a ditch for
dead. Bonnier and Roberjot were murdered on the
foot. When the ruffians departed, and the carriages
returned to Raftadt, Jean Debry wandered all night
in tile woods, and next day returned to Ralladt. He
demanded the reflitution of the papers which the /ii'red
affaffins had carried off when they plundered the car-
riages, but they were refufed. Ralladt and its vici-
nity was "occupied by French troops during the long
fitting of congrefs, of which the Auftrians had ob-
tained poffeffion but a few days before. The difcipline,
therefore, of the Auftrian army was fevcrely reproached
by this event ; but it is probaljle that more than the
want of fubordination was at the bottom of a crime fo
atrocious, unprecedented, and totally repugnant to the
laws of nations. It is true, the archduke loll no time
to declare his utter ignorance of the matter in a letter
to MaiTena ; but this was far from giving fatisfa-'lion to
the French dircclory. In a mcTage to the councils oa
Z the

1799-

chofen a
member of
the direc-
tory.

F R A I' 178 ]

tlie 5tli of May, they made it tlie premeditated aa of loft 4000 men killed
the Anflrian f^ovemment, to infult Fiance by the murder
of her ambaffadors.

A violent oppofitlon to the direflory commenced by

the introduftion of the new third of this year. Sieycs,

who was ambaflador at Berlin, and had poffelTed.confi-

fiderable influence over all parlies, was eletted a member

of the directory. This ftation, we have already feen,

lie refofed to occupy at the firft ellablifhment of the

conftitutlon, and therefore his acceptance of it at fuch

a critical juncture, excited great furprife. Treilhard

xvas removed from the direftory, as it was faid that he

F R A

d the fame number taken prifon-
, confefling that their own lofs was equal to this ; but""
the lofs of the RulTians ^vas never publiihed. We have
reafon to believe that it was the greateil of the whole,
lince they wiU rather ftand and be cut to pieces than
think of retreating. The French loft all hope of being
able to defend Genoa, and therefore prepared to eva-
cuate that city and territory. It was now the appre-
henfion of the direftory that the fouth of France would
immediately be invaded, but in this they were happily
deceived. The conquered army was aftonillied to find
itfelf unmolefted after fo fignal a defeat, and in a few

had held an office in the ftate within lei's than a year days ventured to fend back parties to reconnoitre the

• 533
General
JoubcTt is
killed, and
the Frencl;
retreat un-
der Mo-
reau.

previous to his election. Merlin and Reveillere
under the neceftity of refigning, to avoid an impeach-
ment which was threatened to be brought againft them ;
but Barras ftill retained his ftation. Moulins, Gohier,
and Ducos, men who were but very little known, and,
far from being leaders of the contending parties, wevt
chofen members of the direilory. The public fplrit
was attempted to be revived by the eftablilLment of
clubs, a liberty of which the relllefs Jacobins firlt took
advantage. They foon propofed violent meafures, and
began to denounce the members and the conduct of
government. But their intemperance having juttly
alarmed the directory, obtained permilTion from the
councils to fupprefs their meetings, before they had
time to corrupt the public mind.

The direftory now employed every effort to augment
the armies which had lately futieied fac!> dreadful dimi-
nutions. In the beginning of Auguft their ai-my in
Italy amounted to 45,000 men, of ivhich General
Joubert had the chief command. Turin, Aleffandiia,
Milan, Pefchiera, and Ferrara, were captured by the
allies with aftonilliing rapidity. Turin fuftaincd a
bombardment of only three days, Alcflandria held out
feven, and Mantua only fourteen, in which laft place
there were 13,000 who were difmiiled on their parole.
The combined powers next laid fiege to Tortona, and
General Joubert refolved on its relief, ^^hich object
he expeded to accompllfh before the arrival of Kray
%vith aflTiftaiice to Suwarrow. I'he whole of the Auf-
trian ports were driven in by the repubhcans on the
13th of Auguft, who took polfeflion of Novi. On the
15th they were attacked by Suwarrow, who by this
time had received troops from Manlua under General
Kray. The right wing was commanded by this olficer,
its left by Melas, and its centre by Prince Procration
and Suwarro^v in perlon. The engagement commenced
about live o'clock in the morning, foon after which,
while General Joubert was u;;,ing his troops forward
to charge with the bayonet, he received a mu/ket fliot
in his body, and falling from his horfe, he Immediately
expired. Moreau rcfuraed the command, and after a
bloody conflict, the allied army gave way in all direc-
tions. The RuiTians in particular fuffered feverely,
from the obftinate manner in which tlicy fought. The
French line was attacked at three in the afternoon, but
remained unbroken ; and the whole would have termi-
nated in the defeat of the allies, if Genera! Melas had
rot turued the right flank of the republican line ; and
following up his advantages, he got poiTcfnon of Novi,
when the French army began to retreat under the com-
mand of General Moreau.

Tfce Auflrians fay that the French upon this occaCon

movements of the allies. Championet, the fucceflbr
Joubert, was amazed to find that they had rather re-
treated than advanced, on which account he refumed
the pofiiions held by his army before the battle of
Novi. yo4

So far from profecuting the advantages they had ob-Su\varrow
tallied in Italy, Suivarro^v was perluaded to abandon marches to
that country with his Ruffian troops, and march to thgthe reliet Oi
deliverance of Sivitzerland fironi the yoke of France. . j
The army of MalTena in this quarter amounted to
70,000 men in tlie month of Auguft, which not only
prevented the archduke from purluing his advantages,
but the French even threatened to endanger his poil-
tion. Maflena's right wing under General Lecourbe
had carried Mount St Gothard, the great pais leading
from the eaftem parts of Switzerland into Italy. Su-
i\ arrow's expectations were ito doubt high, having never
yet been vanquiflied, and being called upon to under-
take an enterprife in ivhich the Auftrians had hitherto
fidled, even under their moft fortunate general. Wnen
he was ready to march, the Auftrian commander in
Italy refufed to give him mules for tranfporting his
baggage. This officer had reccurfe to a moft pitiful
falfehood, \vhen he aiTerted that he would be fumlftied
with a competent number at Bellinzone, where Suwar-
row could find none. Having no other alternative, ha
difmounted the cavalry, and made ufe of their horfes to
drag along the baggage. In fpite of thefe obftacles,
however, he arrived, by forced marches on the frontiers
of Sivltzerland on the day which he and the archduke
had fixed upon.

Either fiippoCng that it would demean a prince of
the houfe of Aultria to ferve under a Ruffian general,
or not being daring enough to require the moft expe-
rienced general in Europe to receive orders from fo
young a man as the archduke, tliat prince ^vas fent into
Swabia to attack a fmall body of republicans. He took
with him 48,000, fome fay 60,000 men, although
20,000 v\ould have been more than fufficient for the
accompliftiment of fuch an undertaking. It is not an eafy
matter to conceive upon what principle the council of
v\ ar at Vienna could imagine, that fuch an able officer as
Maffena would continue inadtive at the head of an army
alniolt the double of that which was fent to oppofe him.
'I'lie archduke marched againft the French in Swabia,
who rcfifted tim as much as the Tmall number of their
troops v.ould permit ; but they were gradually driven
towards the Rhine. To carry on the deception, they
made a ferious ftand in the vicinity of Manheim, where
they loft 1 800 men, and which the Auftrians entered,
fetmingly determined to crofs the Rhine.

S.vificrlai'.d in the mean time was completely, cx-
pofed

Suwarrow
difgufted
with the
conJucl of

?r6

Btiuir pre-
pares to .1-
vade Hol-
land.

F R A [ t

pcfcd to ll.e army of Maffeiia. The right wing' of the
■' combined army in this counti*y vas commanded by
General Hctze ; the centre, compofed of the newly ar-
ri\ed Ruliians, was headed by Korfakof ; and the left
^w by General Nnucndorf. As foon as Maflcna un-
Qmlood that the arcliduke had entered RIanheim, and
that Suwarrow was approaching to Switzerland by the
way of St Gothard, he began his movements. St Go-
tliaicl was defended by Leccurbe, and in the mean time
IVIuiTena determined to anticipate the arrival of Suwar-
ro^v. Having drav\Ti the attention of the Ruffians to
another quarter on the 24th of September, by a falfe
attack, he fuddenly croffed the Limmat, three leagues
from Zurich. Some of the French troops engaged the
Auftrians, but the principal part of the army marched
agai&ll: the Ruffians. General Hotze fell in the begin-
ning of the action, and Petrafch who fucceeded him
fliunned a total defeat, by retiring in the night with the
lofs of 4000 men. The Ruffians fought with very fm-
gular obflinacy, being in a mountainous country to
which they were ftrangers, and fighting againft the moll
able commanders in Europe. It was in vain, however, '.o
attempt putting them to flight, for even when furrounded
they would not lay down their arms, but llood to be
liaughtered on the fpot. The Auftrians having re-
treated on the 25th, the Ruffians on the 28th followed
their 'example, retreating under General Korfakof in
sood order, and with the lofs of 3000 men, which was
not verj- great, confidering his perilous lituation.

During thefe tranfaflions. General Suwarrow wis
proceeding by the way of Italy with an army of iS.ooo,
but others fay no more than 15,000 men. He tarried
the pafs of St Gothard, and defcended into the valley
of Urferen, driving Lecourbe before him with great
fiaughter, and advanced as f;;r as Altorf. He next day
reached the canton of Glaris, and made i;co of the
French prifoners, and General Linken defeated another
corps of 1300 men. MalTena now turned upon Su-
warrow, and by furrounding him on all fides, expefted
to take him and the grand duke Conftantine prifoners.
Suwarrow defended hlrafelf in a very mafterly manner,
and there being only one pafs in the m.ountains unoccu-
pied by the republicans, the aged hero difcovered it, and
by this he eflFecled his efcapc, but loft his cannon and
baggage among the dreadful precipices with which that
country abounds. He made his way through the Grifoii
country, and arrived at Coire with about 6000 men.
Suwarrow felt truly indignant when he found in what
manner affairs had been condufted, the perilous fitua-
tion in which the Ruffians had been left by the arch-
duke, and the deftrjclion which of confequence they
had met with. He conSdtred himfelf and his -men
as treacherouily betrayed, complained bitterly of the
commander of the allies in Switzerland, and publicly
charging the council of Vienna with felfidmefs and
injuftice, refufed to co-operate farther with the
Auftrian army. He tranfmitted an account of tlie
whole in a letter to Peterfburgh, and withdrew his
forces to the vicinity of Auglburg to wait for further
orders from his court.

Great Britain in the mean time made a.flive prepara-
tions to invade Holland, with an army of 40,000 men,
compofed of Britilli troops and auxiliaries from Ruffia.
The firft divifion under General Sir Ralph Abercromby
iailed b the month of Auguft, proteded by a fleet

F R A

79 ] .

under Admiral Duncan. Bid weather prevented Frsnc*.

any attempt to land the troops till tlie 27th, on the ~ — '■' — ^

morning of which day the debarkation was effeded on ^1'JO-

the ihore of Htlder Point witlioat oppolition. They

were not cxpefled to land in North Holland, on which

account the troops in that neighbourliood were iew.

But before the Britifh troops had proceeded far on their

march, they had to contend with a coniiderable body of

infantry, cavalry, and artillery, haftily collecled from

the adjacent towns. 1 he Dutch fought with great

obftinacy, but became fatigued by the fteady oppofition

of their antagonifts, and fell back about two leagues.

They evacuated the fort of Helder in the ni^ht, and it

was taken poflTeffion of by the Britift on the morning

of the 28th. Admiral Mitchell now entered the

Zuyder fez with a detachment of the Britilh deet, in

order to give battle to the Dutch under Admiral Storv,

Inftead of retiring to the ftiallov,- water with which that

fca abounds, he unaccountably fm-rendcred his whole fleet

on the 3cth of Auguft without firing a gun, pretending

that from t!ie mutinous dilpoiition of his f'eamen, he

could not prevail upon them to fight.

If this had ter.-ninated the expedition, it would haveWhfch is 111
been extremely fortunate as eftablilhing the power of eonductsd.
the Britilh fleet without a rival. But this victory, if it
can be fo called, wa» followed up by an endeavour to -
relVore the authority of the ftadtholder, and the ancient
government of the United Provinces. As no more than
the firll divifion had arrived, the terror of an invading
foe began to be dilTipated, the enemies of the new ro-
vemment w^ere dilheartened, and time was allowed"to
prepare for defence. But thefe were not the only
errors chargeable on the expedition. The Britilh troops
landed in the very worft place they could poffibly have
chofen, not only as it is everywhere interfered by
ditches and canals, but it abounded more than any
other part of Holland, with perfons difaffeded to the
perfon and government of the ttadtholder. In a word,
this unfortunate expedition was undertaken towards the
approach of the rainy feafon, when a campaign in Hol-
land is next to impoffible. 'WTien it was firft fpoken
of, even the French direftory hefitated to undertake the
defence of that country ; but when the time and place of
landing came to be known, they were foon determined,
being alnioft certain of fuccefs. General Brune was
accordingly fent with what troops could be fpeedily
colledfed, in order to co-operate with General Daen-
dais.

General Abercromby in the meantime could only
aft on the defenfive, as no reinforcement had arrived.
The enemy was encouraged by his want of aftivity,
and ventured to attack him on the I oth of September.
Two Dutch columns, and one of republicans, advanced
upon him, but were repulfed in every direiftion, and
forced to retreat to Alkmaer. Additional troops ar-
rived on the 13th, under his royal highnels the duke
of York, who aiuimcd the chief command. On the
arrival of the Ruffians, offenfive operations uere im»
mediately refulved on, and the army advanced on the
19th. The left wing under General Abercromby
marched along the ftiore of the Zuyder fea to attack
Hoome; Generals Dundas and Pultney commanded the
centre columns, and the Ruflians were led on by their
own general D'Herman. Owing to Ibme mifunder-
(landing the Ruffians advanced to attack the enemy
Z 2 about

F R A [

. about tliree o'clock in tlie morning,.w'nicl) was fomc hours
" before the reft of tlie army began its march. Their
fiift efforts v.:erc crowned with fuccefs, and they made
themfelves mafters of the village of Bergen ; but as
they preiTed too eagerly forward without the co-opera-
tion of the other columns, the enemy nearly furround-
ed them. Their general was made prifoner ; and not-
withftanding the Britilh troops came up in time to fe-
cure their retreat, they loft upwards of 30CO men.
This defeat of the right iving made the commander in
chief recal his troops from their advanced pofitions,
notwithftanding General Abercromby v:as mafter of
Hoorne and its garrifon, and General Pultney had car-
ried by aiTault the chief pofition of the Dutch army.

Such was the feverity of the weather, that no frelh
attack was made till the 2d of Ocfober, on which d:',y
a defperate aftion commenced between the Brit. Ill,
and the united Dutch and French troops, at 6'clock in
the morning, which did not terminate till the fame hour
at night, when the Britilh gained polTellion of Alkmaer
■and the neighbouring villages. This engagement
having been chiefly carried on among the fand hills
near the ocean, the fatigue which the troops endured,
prevented them from gaining any great advantage
over the fugitives, who took a pofition between Baver-
■wyck and Wyck-op-zee, where the duke of York again
attacked them on the 6th, and kept pofTeffion of the
iitid after a very fanguinary conteft. This, however,
was the laft fuccefs gained by the invading army. The
duke of York finding that he could maka no farther
progrefs, the enemy having been fo rapidly reinforced,
the dithculties prefented by the face of the country and
the badnefs of the weather alfo confpiring againft him,
retired to Schager Brug, where he waited for oiders
from England relative to his return home. Being in
the mean time clofely preffed by the enemy, his em-
barkation muft have been accomplilhed with great dan-
<;;cr, Iiad he not entered into a converition vnth the
Dutch and French, that his retreat Ihould not be mo-
lelted farther, in return for which he promifed not to
injure the country by demoliiliing any of the dykes
v.'hich defended it from the fea, and that Great Britain
Mould reftore to France and Holland 8000 prifontrs
taken before the prefent campaign.

'l"he affairs of the French republic now began, in
confequence of thefe events, to wear a more favourable
•sfpeft. It is true, Championet was defeated in Italy
in all his efforts againft the Auftrians, and Ancona fur-
rendered on the 13th of November to General Frolich j
but the French were iHll mafters of the Genoefe terri-
tory, Switzerland and Holland, and the new combina-
tion formed againft them (eemed aliout to be diffolvcd.
TruiTia withdrew at an early period, and ftill preferved
a neutrality ; and from cxifting circumftances it was
natural to conclude, that the emperor of Ruffia would
alfo defert the caufe of the allies.
ks An event took place about this time which prcfent-
^> ed the revolution of France in a light never before
"^ fecn. Our readers will recoUeft that General Bona-
s. parte was obliged to retreat from Acre with great lols,
after a (lege of 69 d.ays. At this time he received in-
formation that a Turkiih army was about to invade
Egypt by fea, and therefore he returned acrofs the de-
fert ot Arabia by the way of Suez, and arrived in the
'ricinily of the Pyramids on the nth of July, when an

180 ] F R A

army of lS,ooo Turks landed at Aboukir, whic
carried by alTault, and put the garrifon to death, con-
liilini'' of 5C0 men. Bonaparte marched down the
country agiimft them on the 15th, and ten days after
came in fight of, them at fix o'clock in the mornjj,^.
Their troops were divided into two parts, encampeci ^n
the oppofite fides of a delightful plain. The cavalry

they France.

[799.

Bonaparte advanCL J
Turkifti army, c
its different par"
dcavourcd lo ; -
periihea i>,
obrtin;,'..
the cdl!
Franco, -
quefts, ,'
periencL,;
redlory 1 .
tober.ui i . .
a mellagi- u,.. a.., ..
together nhh his ;<r
at Paris with marks

;jy

the com
arrival 0
a otF.ce
ftinftion,

into the centre, of the

rn:.u:iic;itii-n between

ji !i.r, tl c 1 ' " " "

,> made
/r-Vated

of them
a more

. About
reached

'. \ con-

. Xicdi-
in on t!ir i:t:i of Oc-
cils ; and on the 1 4tii
f Bonaparte in France,
s. He uas received
although none could

I go-

S°9
Who re-
turns to
tell why he had left his army and returned home. At France, and
this time the parties in the government were equally''''^'""
balanced ; and the affiftance of Bonaparte was requelt- J.!^*^ "^°'
ed by both. The Jacobins -were fuperior in the council, '
of live hundred, and the Moderates in that of the An-
cients. It was underftood that Sieyes was attached to
the latter party, on which account the Jacobins had
made many unfuccefsful efforts to dlfmifs him from
his office. Intriguing as the Jacobins were, they were
fairly outwitted by Sieyes, who had a plot ripe for exe-
cution, to overwhelm them in a moment. -On the
morning of the 9th of November, one of the commit-
tees of the council of Ancients gave in a report, that
the country was in danger, propofing the fitting of the
legillature to be adjourned to St Cloud, about fix miles
from Paris. The council of five hundred having n')
legal right to queftion the authority of this decree, and
as the ruling party was clearly taken unawares, the
members gave their filent confent, and both councils
met at the place appointed on the loth of November.

The council of five hundred received a letter from
Lagardc, Iccretary to the diredory, informing them that
four of its members had refi^ned their offices, and that
Barras was a prifoner by order of Bonaparte, whom the
council of Ancients had appointed commander of their
guard. In the midft of their deliberations, General
Bonaparte entered the hall, accompanied by about 20
officers and grenadiers. He proceeded towards the
chair where his brother Lucien fat as prefident, when
great tumult enfued, and the epithets of a Cromwell, a
Caifar, and a ufurper, were conferred upon him. The
members preffed forward upon hiin, and Arena a Corn-
can endeavoured to difpateh hlin with a dagger; but
he was refcued by his military attendants. A party of
armed men entered the hall, and carried' off the prefi-
dent, when in a violent debate which enfued, it vvas
propofed that Bonaparte ftiould be declared an outlaw.
Military mufic was foon heard approaching; a body of
armed troops entered the hall, and the members were
obliged to difperfe. The coinicil of Ancients fet afide
the conftitution, and paffed a number of decrees. The
direSory was aboliftied, and an executive commillion
fubftituied in its place, confiding of Bonaparte, Sieyes,

and

F R A [ i

Fr.T-.ce. " and Roger Ducos, under the denomination of confuls.
""^ ^^ 'Ihe fittings were adjourned till the 20th of February
^799- iSco, and two committees, coirfitiing of 21 members,
cliofen from both comicils, to aft as interim legif-
liitors. The greater part of the members compoling
the council ot fixe hundred returned to Paris, havirtg
been expelled from the hall by the military, while part of
tlxm continued, and iautlioned all the decrees of the
council of ancients. On the 17th of November the
cunluls decreed the tranfportation of a great number
of Jacobins to Guiana, and call a number of them into
priion ; but thefe decrees were foon after reverfed, and
every thing affumed an air of tranquillity.

'Ihe expedition to Kgypt was in the mean time un-
fuccefsful in evtry one of its objecls. Tippoo Sultan,
lot. and fucceffor to the celebrated Hyder Ally,
fovereign of the Myfore country, had, in the year
1792, been under the neceflicy of concluding a treaty
of peace with'Lord Ci^rnwallis under the walls of Serin-
gapatam, in r.hich he refigned a portion of his territory
to the invaders, and agreed to pay a very confiderable
fum of money. He xvas li!<e'.vile obliged to deliver up
two of his fons as hollages for the punctual performance
of every thing ftlpuiated. A war which terminated in this
manner could not reafonably b? expedled to become the
balls of much cordiality. He was indeed obliged to
fubrait, but he only waited for a favourable opportunity
to recover what he had loll, and to accoraplilhj if pof-
fible, the total expulfion of the Eritiih from India, which
with him \vas a favourite object, as it had always been
with his father. The afcend;i.ncy of Britain, however,
■ivas now fo great, chieHy owing to the exertions of
Warren Haftings, Efq. that Tippoo -clearly perceived
the impolTibility of ftiaking it, without the alTillancc of
an army from Europe. To no country but France
could he look for an adequate force ; but the foreign
and domeific wars ariiing from the revolution, had pre-
vented the rulers of that nation from attending to the
interefts of dillant regions. In 1797, Tippoo deter-
mined to rer.ew his intercourfe with France by means
of the iilands of the Mauritius and Bourbon. One Ri-
paud, formerly a lieutenant in the French navy, who had
refided for fome time at Seringapatam, perfuaded Tippoo
that the French had a confiderable force at the Mauritius,
which with little difficulty might be fent to his aiTdt-
ance. Ripaud being fent to confer with the French
upon the iubjecf, he and two minillers from Tippoo
were joyfully received by Malartic the governor, and
velTels were fent to France to acquaint the direftory
j[3 with their propofals.
The nn- The goven^.or iVIalartJc in the meantime, either from

^?"' "^. .. g''o's ignorance, from treachery, or a wifli to involve
^!fj^'^^.j''^y Tippoo Sultan in a quarrel with Britain, adopted a mea-
Britain. ^^'^ which ultimately defeated the pLms, and brought
about the ruin of that prince. On the 30th of January
1798, he publiihed a proclamation, containing the whole
of Tippoo's confidential propofals, inviting all citizens
of France to efpouft; his caufe. Copies of this pfocla-
mation foon found their way into moll quarters of the
world. Accordingly the governor-general of India re-
ceived orders to watch the motions of Tippoo, and even
hoililely attack him if it could not be prudently avoid-
ed. The Indian government, however, had, before
this, been apprifed of the impending danger, and had
made preparations for ',var without lofs of time.

81 ]

F R A

^But Tippoo did not place his fole dependence on Franc.-.
aiTdlaiicc from Fraiice. He invited one Zcmaun Shah '' '»<• "•
firom the north-welt, whpfe kingdom was compofed of '799-
provincc-s taken from Pcrfia and India, to make an at-
tack upon the Britifliand their allies. In hopes of
direct aid from France, which Tippoo expected in con-
fcquence of Bonaparte's invafion of Egypt, and the
important fervice which he looked fgr from the exer-
tions of Zemaun Shah, he remained quiet, and endea-
voured to temporile with the Britilli. Military prepa-
rations on the part of the BritiQi being in a confider-
able degree of forwardnefs. Lord Mornington, the go-
veinor-general, informed Tippoo that he was not igno-
rant of his hoftile deligns, and of his connection with
France, propofing, however, to fend an ambaflador, for
the purpofe of bringing about a reconciliation. This
was not anfwered till the 1 8th of December, although
written by his lordfhip on the 8th of the preceding
month. Tippoo Cmply denied the charge, and refufed
to admit the ambaflador. Unwillingly to fport with
human blood, his lordlhip on the 9th of January 1799,
again intreated Tippoo to receive the ambaflador, to
which no anfvver was r-turned during a wliole month,
during which interval 5000 men arrived from England,
and General Harris received orders to advance at the
head of the Madras army againll the kingdom of My-
fore. This fe»med to bring Tippoo a little more to rea-
fon, who now offered to receive the ambalTador, on con-
dition he fliould come vrithout any attendance ; but as
tnis vv-as net deemed a fati^factory conceffion, the army
continued to advance. An army from Bombay was
alfo approaching on the oppofite fide of his dominions,
which encountered part of Tippoo's forces, and defeated
them ; General Harris defeating the remainder of them
on the 27th of March, who on the 7th of April fat
do\TO before Seringapatam. This olticer received a
letter from Tippoo on the 9th, in which he mentioned
his adherence to treaties, and vnil^ed to be informed as
to the caufe of the war. The only anfver he receiv-
ed was a reference to Lord Mornington 's letters. He
made another attempt on the zsth, and General Harris
infoi-med him that he had already been made acquaint-
ed with the only conditions which could or would be
granted. The half of his dominions «'as to be furrender-
ed, large I'ttms of money were expetted from him ; he
was to admit an ambaflador to his court, to dif-
claim all connexion with the French, and grant icf-
tages for the faithful obfervance of every ftipula-
tion. J, J

Tippoo wrote a letter to General Harris on the 28th, Propofals 0
defiring leave to treat by arabafladors, which was re-!^'PP°°"*
fufed him, as he was in pofleffion of the_/f«f qua non of J'^'^"'"
the Britifti government. It was believed that the be-
fieging artny would have been obliged to retreat, had
it been polhble for Seringapatam to hold out only a
fortnight longer. On the laft day of April the befieg-
ersjiegan to batter the ivalls of the city, and they got
poiTcflion of it on the 4th of May. Tippoo hallened
from his palace to the attack, when given to underftand
that a breach xvas made in the walls, where he fell
undiltinguiilied in the- general conflict. His treafurcs
and the plunder of tlie city were imraenfe, with which
the befieging army was enriched, after dedufting a cer-
tain proportion for the Britiili government and the Eaft
India company. His fubjeits immediately furrcndered,

F R A [ 182 ] F R A

sxce. and that part of the country which formed the ar.cier.t Britilh miniftry, who dwelt much, and very juftly, on

■^.^ kinodcm of Myfore, was conferred on a defcehdant of the bad faith of revolutionary rulers, and the inftability "

'99- the^former race of its kings, and the remaining terri- of the governments of France fince the fabveriion oi

tcries were divided among the Britilh and their allies, monbrchy. The overture traitimitted to Vienna was of

The family of Tippoo were cither taken or made a a limilar nature, and it experienced fimilar treatment ;

voluntary furrender, being removed from that part of bih the emperor of Ruffia abandoned the coalition, pro-

the countrv, and allowed a decent annuity. bably on account of the (hamefvil manner in which Su-

Zemaun Shah in the mean tittie invaded the country warrc^v had been treated, while canying on the war in

from the north-weft, advancing to the %'icinity of Delhi, Italy and Switzerland.

and fpreading terror and defolation wherever he came. Bonaparte on the 7th of March, fent a meffage to

Satisfied with plunder, ho^rever, he focn withdrew his the legiilatlve body, containing his own ideas of the

forces ; and the French army being detained in Egypt conduct and deiigns of the Britilh cabinet, and aJur-

by a war with the Turks, as well as the war.t of ihip- ing them that he would invoke peace in the midft of

ping at Suez, Tippoo had to contend fingly againft the battles and triumphs, and fwear to fight only for the

united force of Britain and her allies in thofe eaftern happinefs of France and the repofe of the world. This

regions. meffage was followed by two decrees ; the one calling,

Wular J^l^f pl='" °f ^ "^^' conftitution was prefented to the in the name of honour, upon every loldier abfcnt on

:rnment public by the confuls in the month of December 1799. leave from the armies of Italy and the Rhine, to join

jliflied According to this plan, 80 men, who had the power them before the 5th of April ; and the other appointing

"""•'of nominating their (nvn lucceffors, and were called a freih army of i-eferve of 6o,Ojq men to be alVembled

the confervative fenate, had likewife authority to eletl
the whole of the legillators and executive rulers of
the Hate, while none of thefe offices could be held by
thcmfelves. One man, called the c/:ief cori/u/, pof-
fcffed the fovereign authority, held his power for ten
years, and was competent to be re-elefted. Other
two confuls were to afliif in his deliberaticns, but had
no power to controul his will. The legiilative power
i-as divided into two affemblies •, the tribunate, com-
pofed of 100 members, and the confervative fenate

at Dijon, under the immediate command of the iirit
conful.

About this time the belligerent powers were nearly
ready for opening the campaign in Italy and on the
Rhine. The Gtnoefe republic was the only territory
of any importance in Italy, which remained in the
hands of the French, but the army by which they de-
fended it was x'ery much reduced fince the preceding
year, and might be confidered as in a ftate of mutiny,
from the want of pay, clothes and pro-i-ilions. The

of 300. When the cliief conRil thought proper to Auftrians eagerly wilhed to obtain poffeflion of Genoa
propofe a law, the tribunate might debate upon it, and all its dependencies, in which they could not fail
without having authority to vote either for or againft to be feconded by the Genoefe themfelves, as they look-

Bonaparte
propofes to
%reat with
Britain.

while the members of the fenate might vote, but
were not enabled to debate. The confuls and the
members of the legiilative body, as well as of the
confervative fenate, were not refponlible for their con-
du61, but minilters of Hate employed by them were
underftood to be accountable. The committees which
framed the conftitution, nominated the perfons who
were to execute the fimdions of government. Bona-
jiarte was appointed chief conful, and Cambaceres and
Lebrun fecond and third confuh. Sieves, as formerly,
<leclined taking any aflive part in the adminiftralion of
public affairs, and he received, as a gratuity for his fer-
vices, an eltate belonging to the nation, called Cro/ne,
in the department of the Seine and Oifne.

Bonaparte had not long been in poffelTion of the
reins of government, till he fcnt overtures for negotia-
ting peace with the allied pov.ers at war with France ;
but it is to be prefumed that he did not wifti for a ge-
neral peace. Separate propofals were made to the dif-
ferent belligerent powers, no doubt with a view to dif-
folve the coalition ; but the decrees of the convention
hich declared war againft all the powers of Europe,

ed upon the republicans to be the deftroyers of their
commerce. Mallena received the command of the
army in Genoa, with extraordinary powers, and evinced
himlelf to be a general of confammate abilities. Car-
rying a reinforcement of troops with him from Lyoiis
and Marfeilles, and reducing to order and obedience,
by a judicious dillribution of rewards and punilhments,
all whom he found readv to defert their ftandards, he
foon found himfelf at the head of a force fufticient to
check the progrefs of the Auftrians, and keep the
Genoefe in fubjeftion. After a number of battles had
been fought, he %vas obliged to retire into the city,
where he muft foon have been compelled to furrender
by famine, if General Melas had immediately blockad-
ed it. 514

The appearance of the BritilTi fleet on the 5th of A Britiiri
April, was the concerted fignal for Melas to make an'^'^'^^P"
attack upon Genoa, the communication between "'hich^^^jj^°_
and France was thus cut off. Prior to the arrival of
Lord Keith, a quantity of wheat and other provilions
had been thrown into the city, by which means the
army and the inhabitants were refcued from the confe-

-.vere not repealed by him. He departed from the quences of immediate famine. The furrounding coun-

forms fanftioned by the cuftom of nations in carrying try was foon vanquilhed by the Auftrians ; but as the

on diplomatic correfpondence, but addreffed a letter di- gallant Maffena ffill lived in the expedlation of fupplies

redly to his Britannic majefty, the fubftance of which irom France, he obftinately refufed to furrender the

w-ds contained in two queftions ; " whether the ^var, city. General Melas ha^ang nothing to apprehend

which had, for eight years, ravaged the four quarters from this army blocked up in Genoa, left General Ott

of the globe, was to be eternal '" and " whether there to continue the blockade, and went with his own forces

were no means for Britain and France of comipg to a againll Sauchet, who commanded another diviCon of

good underftandnig r" Satisfaftory, and we think, un- the French army.

infwerable replies, ^ve^e made to thefe queftions by the A decifne battle was fought between Ceva and St

2 Lorenzo,

F R A

[ 183 ]

F R A

dffeatet
nearLo
teozo.

France. Lorenzo, on the 7th of May, in whicb the republicans

— experienced a total defeat, having loft 1 200 prifoncrs,

1800. a,, J £g pieces of cannon. This foon obliged General Sau-
.. 'l^ -, chet to abandon his llrong pofition of Col di Tenda,
where he left behind him four pieces of cannon and 2co
prifoners ; and marching on towards Nice, the Aul-
trians drove him from one port to another, till he vvas
finally obliged tdtake refuge behind the Var; by which
movements General Melas became mailer of the whole
department of the Maritime Alps. But the campaign
on the Rhine did not open in fuch a favourable manner
to the Auftrians. The court of Vienna direfted the
archduke Charles to relign the command of the army
to General Kray, who diftinguilhed himfelf in fuch an
eminent manner in Italy, during the campaign of 1 799.
Of his military talents there could be only one opinion,
and his integrity and zeal had been futhciendy tried ;
but l.e had the misfortune not to be fo tiobU as fome cf
the other generals ! It b truly ridiculous to behold men
contending about trifles, when engaged in matters of
fuch vaft importance as the falvation of their country.
During the moft propitious days of Rome, her greated
SI 5 generals were plebeians.
2>;oieau re- It could not be reafonably expected that fuch a dil-
fufts to aft cordant army, commanded by an able officer who had
as direaed ^^^ misfortune not to be a nohlemcn, would ever be
pf^t^"^' able to make head againft the veterans of France, led
on by fich an extraordinary general as Moreau. The
Hungarian troops, finding themfelves ready to be facri-
ficed to the party dilTenfions of their officers, \vould not
fight againft the enemy. The council of war at Vienna
had fent General Kray inft ruilions at the opening of
the campaign, how he was to difpofe of his forces, and
having no general under him to fupport his own opi-
nion, he was under the painful neceflity of obeying his
in.frutlions, whether he could approve of them or not.
Inftruftions of a fimilar nature had been tranfmitted to
Moreau by thejchief conful, but he indignantly refufed
to fight under fuch reftraints. He was no doubt con-
fcious that his pwn knowledge of the military art was
at leaft equal to that of Bonaparte, ^vhile he was infi-
nitely better acquainted with the country, and there-
fore he fent a courier to Paris to acquaint the conful,
that if the orders fent him were to be rigidly obeyed,
he ihould feel it his duty to refign his command, and
accept of an inferior ftation. He accompanied his re-
iignation with a plan of the campai,!;n which he had
framed for himfelf, the propriety of v.hich initantly
(truck the chief conful, and therefore he ^vas prdered
to carry on the war, according to his own judge-
,,^ ment.
Ana is General Moreau being thus wifely left to adopt and

therefore execute his own meafures, crofied the Rhine, and drove
left to his ^jjg Aullrians from one port to another, till Kray, find-
cvvn jiidg- j^^ j^ impracticable to adopt offenfive meafures with a
rebellious army, with difafleaed officers to command
tliem, refolved to maintain his pcfitlon at Ulm, and
wait for aftlftance from Vienna. He was defeated at
Stockach, Engcn, and Molkirch, although he exhi-
bited fully the talents of an able general ; but what ta-
lents were able to counteract the pernicious confequen-
ces of treachery ? At one time, when 7000 men recei-
ved orders to advance, they inftantly threw down their
arms. Kray too plainly perceiving that it was abfo-
ii_tely in vain to attvmpt any thing of an offenfive na-

ture, entrenched himfelf ftrongly at Ulm, commanding Prance,

both (ides of the Danube, which makes it a place of ^?' '''

great importance. Moreau perceiving, his intentions, * ooo.

refolved to try the paiTage of the Danube, and force.

him to a general engagement, by cutting him off from

his magazines at Donav.crt. For this purpofe he gave

orders to Lecourbe with one of the ^vings of his army,

to take polfefTion of a bridge between Dona'.vert and

Dillingen, wliich was not effeited without connderabla

difficulty. The Aultrians. having perceived, when too

late, that their all uas in danger, difputed every inch

of ground with the French commander. Between the

time of marching to, and of crofiing the Danube, Kray

fent reinforcements to the left bank to oppofe the paf-

fage, in confequence of which a battle was founht at

Hochftet, in the vicinity of Blenheim, where victory

again declared for the French, who made 4000 of the

enemy priloners, independent of the killed and v.ound-

ed loft by the Auftrians, of which we have feeii no eill-

mate.

General Kray, fenfible that his fituation was perilous;
left a Itrong garriion at Ulm, and marched againft the
enemy, attacking them at Newburg, which both fidt<
conducted ^vith determined bravery ; but the Auftrian-,
after a long conteft, fell back on Ingolftadt. It may
not imprviperly be faid, that this battle decided the fate
of Germany. The ele:$torate of Bavaria was now in
the pofleftion of the French, with other territories of
lefs extent ; and as they approached the hereditary do-
minions of the emperor, men of republican ientiments
behaved ivith fuch effrontery, as to convince the court,
that no dependence could be reafonably placed on ar-
mies compoled of fuch men. The imperial family, and
the Britilh ambaflador, were openly infulted in the
theatre, and the cry of peace, peace, was vociferated
from different quarters. ^iS

The ill fuccefs of General Kray alone could not ex- Th; French
cite fuch a fpirit, becaufe at this time the affairs of ^"'V *'
Germany were even in a more deplorable ftate in ftaly ':!°"j""
than upon the Danube. When the campaign opened iLirclies for
on the I^hine, the army of referve under the command I- alj-.
of Bonaparte, which was formed at Dijon, began its
march. When the French government declared that
this army was above 50,000 Itrong, and receiving daily
reinforcements, few could be found who were difpofcd
to give any credit to the report. Such as were friendly
to the caufe of the allies, were unwilling to allow the
French government fo much vigour, while it was in-
duftriouily circulated by the Jacobins of Germany, that
it could not amount to more than 6000 men. The
firft conful fet out from Paris on the 5th of M;i'y, to
take the command of an army, the ftrength and delti-
nation of which had given rife to fo many conjectures,
and on receiving the troops cantoned at Dijon, he pro-
ceeded towards Genoa. Having been a ftiort time in ■
the Pays de Vaud, he joined the army of refervo at the
foot of St Bernard, of which he immediately aflumed -
the command. It is certain tlut a very infignificant
force would have been able to arreft the progrefs of
Bonaparte while afcending the moimtain •, but either
General Melas had heard nothing of its being in mo-
tion, or he had implicitly believed the report of the .Ja-
cobins. In confequence of this ignorance or credulity,
the army of refer^'e encountered no oppofition till it
reached the town of Aoft, of which the firft co.nful yerv

France.
1800.

5. '9 .

Maflcna in
a critical
fituat;oi) at
Genoa.

F R A [ I

foon gained poffelTion. Having, witli the rao.1 afto-
r.ifliing peifeverance, paffed the fort of Bard, he pro-
ceeded on his march down the valley of Aoft with lit-
tle oppofition, till he arrived at the town of Yorca,
where the Aullrians were alTembled in force, but were
obliijed to give way before the impetuofity of the re-
publicans, and port thenifelves on the heights of Ro-
mano behind the Chinfella. It was of vaft importance
as commanding the paflage of the river, and nas occu-
pied bv 4003 cavalry, 5000 infantry, and a few pieces
of cannon. It was taken on the ;6th of May, and the
fort of Brunette foon after, in confequence of which
the road to Turin %vas now open. While the republi-
cans were effecling a paflage over St Bernard, the chief
part of the Auilrlans under Melas were employed in
the celebration of their viftory over them at Nice,
little fufpefting how foon they were to experience a fad
reverfe of fortune, and that the viclors would very foon
be vanquillied. General Melas, at length rouled from
his dream of fecurity, marched towards Turin with all
poflible fpeed, in order to defend the Po, and prevent
the invaders from arriving at Vienna. He naturally
concluded that Turin would be the firfl important point
of attack made by the French, but in this he ivas de-
ceived ; for while he prepared to difpute the paflage of
the Po with the republicans, Bonaparte fuddenly turn-
ed to the left, and entered Milan on the 2d of
June.

The army of Bonaparte was very numerous, but he
wanted magazines, artillery, and ftores of every kind ;
but underftanding that Pavia was the great depot of the
Auftrian armv, he fent his advanced guard againft it
under General Lannes, who made an eaiy conqucll of
it, and found in it more than 200 pieces of cannon,
8000 mufliets, 2000 barrels of gunpowder, and a pro-
digious quantity of all forts of provifions. Another of
the chief conful's generals crofled the Po at Stradella ;
and having cut off the communication between General
Melas and the country of Piedmont, gained pofl'effion
of the Auftrian magazines at Piacenza, Cremona, and
a number of other places on the banks of the river.

About this time it was that Bonaparte became ac-
quainted with the fate of Genoa, by means of intercep-
ted letters. Maflena did every thing in the power of
braveiy and jierfeverance to keep poffcffion of the city ;
but after he had witneiTed 15,000 of the inhabitants pe-
rilh with hunger, he furrendered to the Britilh and
Auflrian comioanders on the 5th of June, and obtained
very favourable terms, when we confider that it was
impoffible for him to hold out any longer. The right
wing of his army, confifting of 81 10 men, was permit-
ted to march into France by the way of Nice, and the
reft were to be conveyed by fea to Antibes, at the ex-
pence of Britain •, no man was to be deemed refponlible
for having lield any public office under the government
.of the Ligurian republic ; and all officers taken prifo-
ners mice the commencement of the campaign, were
allowed to return to France on their parole, not to
ferve till they (hould be regularly exchanged. By the
fall of Genoa, the Auftrian army which befieged it
was at liberty to co-operate with the commander in
chief ; and, accordingly, General Ott marched at the
head of thirty battalions to check the progrefs of the
French army in Piedmont. On the 9th of June he was
met by generals Lannes and Victor at Montebello,

i8co.

84 ] F R A

where a battle was fought with great fury on both
fides, when the French were viiSorious, and General
Gtt retreated with great lofs, Melas being unable to
arreft the progrefs of the republicans by detrxhments of
his army, collided his whole force between AlelTar.dria
and Tortona, that he might be able to open a way for
hirafeli to the Auftrians on the Mincio, if he ihould
find it impoffible to crufh ;he enemy. The confeijuence
of this fiep was the ever memorable battle of Marengo,
foufht on the I4t!\ of June, which has been variouily
delciibed. The Fiench accounts reprefented the army
of General Melas as more numerous than that of the
chief conlul, to whofe fuperior conducl and bravery
alone the French were indebted for fuccefs. Others
have believed that the fuptriority was on the fide of the
republicans, and think they can dlfcover as much from
comparing together the different bulletins of the array
of referve. On this point we pretend not to decide,
only it is certr.in that the Auftrians were viflorious for
nine hours, and the fate of that battle appears to have
been decided by the mafterly eondr.ft of General De-
faix, who died on the field. One fslfe movement, made
by General Melas, which enfeebled his centre, afford-
ed the gallant Defaix an opportunity of making a vigo-
rous difcharge with a body of cavalry that had hitherto
been unemployed. General Zach, a man worn out
with age and fatigue, when about to lake the command
of the army from Melas, fell into the liands of the
enemy, who remained mafters of the field of battle. 520

The Auftrians loft in this engagement above 900O Great lofe^
men, and the French upwards of 12,000, according to"/ ^"'
their own account. Enraged that the vidory fhould ti,p b^.ttle
be thus fnatched from them, the Auftrians were eager uf Maren-
to renew the combat on the following day ; but Gene- go.
ral Melas deemed it prudent to check the ardour of his
troops, and concluded a capitulation, faid by fome to
be unparalleled in the annals of war. He may have
figned fuch a capitulation in confequenoe of inftruclions
from the council of war at Vienna, or the fortreffes gi-
ven up by him may have been deftitute of provifions.
If we admit the firft fuppofition, it follows that the
council of war were determined enemies to the c.aufe of
the combined powers ; and if vie go upon the fecond,
Melas himfelf was perhaps the moft improvident com-
mander that ever was charged with the defence of a
country. The whole of Piedmont and Genoa were
given up to the French, and an armiftice was conclud-
ed, to laft till the court of Vienna had time to return
its opinion.

General Kray in Italy was anxious to avail himfelf of
this armiftice, to arreft the progrefs of RForeau's army j
but that able general would not liften to any overtures
upon the fabjeft, till he (liould receive inftruttioiis from
Paris. Count St Julien arrived with pnpoials of j'eace
from the Imperial cabinet, in confequence of which the
armiftice was concluded in Germany and Italy, the
ports then occupied by the refpedive armies being con-
fidcred as conftituting the line of demarcation. In op-
pofition to the fpirit of their ftipulations wiih General
Melas, the French reinforced their army in Italy, le-
vied immenfe contributions, and raifed troops in differ-
ent ftates declared by themfelves to.be independent. _

While France was everywhere victorious in Europe, <t,
her troops in Africa were fubjecled to hardlliips and dif- F
grace. Their being abandoned by their chief made''oopsin

them'=^5>P^-

:al di.
IS of the

5",
General
Kleber af.
faflinated.

5^3
Of which
Menou is
iinjuftly
fufpeaed.

F R A [I

them complain bitterly ; and Kleber is faid to have dc-
' clared, that the fame univer/e fliould not contain him
and Bonaparte. He continued the negotiations begun
by General Bonaparte with the grand \ izier for evacu-
ating Egypt, between whom a convention was conclu-
ded on the 24th of January 1800, to which Sir Sidney
Smith agreed on the part of Great Britain. By virtue
of this convention the republican army, its baggage
and effeiSls, were to be coUefted at Alexandria, Rofet-
ta, and Aboukir, to be conveyed to France in veflels
belonging to the republic, and fuch as might be fur-
nilhed for that purpofe by the Sublime Porte. It would
feem that nothing could have happened more injurious
to the interelt of the allies than the evacuation of E-
gypt upon fuch terms, fmce the conful would thus
have been furnilhed with nearly 1 8,000 troops, which
might have been advantageoully employed, either in
Italy or on the Rhine. It is ftrange how this impor-
tant circumllance did not occur to Sir Sidney Smith,
and no lels fo, how he took upon him the office of ple-
nipotentiary. Mr Dundas clearly proved in the houfe
of commons, that he exceeded any power with which
he could reafonably conceive himfelf vefted, that being
lodged with Lord Elgin at Conftantinople.

In the latter end of the year 1799, the Britiih mini-
ftry had reafon to beheve that a negotiation would take
place between the grand vifier and General Kleber, re-
fpefling the evacuation of Egypt by the troops of the
latter ; and as fuch an event was much to be defired.
Lord Keith received orders to accede to it, on condi-
tion that General Kleber and his army (hould be de-
tained as prifoners of war, inftead of being fent back to
France. This was bitterly complained of in France,
and numbers even in England exclaimed againft it as
a flagrant breach of faith, while General Kleber him-
felf did not confider it in fuch a light, although the on-
ly perfon who had reafon to do fo, could he base done
it with faimefs. On the 2oth of March he attacked
the Turks in the vicinity of Cmro, who tied before him
in all direftions, and left more than 8ooo men dead
and wounded on the field of battle. By this conqueft
Cairo was rellored to the French, which in terms of the
convention they had abandoned. Kleber again pro-
pofed to evacuate Egypt, on the terms agreed to by
the grand vifier and Sir Sidney Smith, and Lord Keith
being ordered to agree to them by the cabinet of St
James's, a fufpenfion of hofliUties took place, and the
Turks vrere ready to be delivered from enemies whom
they were not able to expel, \vhen General Kleber was
fuddenly aflalfmated.

Both parties had reafon to regret this event, as Ge-
neral Kleber appears to have been, not only the moll
honoiuable, but by far the ableft commander of the re-
publicans, in that quarter of the globe. It is not cer-
tainly known by whomhe was murdered, nor who were
the contrivers of fuch a plot , but at Conftantinople his
fucceflbr Menou was ftrongly fufpefted. We mu!l con-
fefsthat lie was not friendly to Kleber; but on the other
hand we do not find General Reynier, in his " State
of Egypt," infinuate any thing of this nature againft
Menou, although he treats his condufl and abilities
with fome degree of contempt ; and ive arc informed
that the aflallin himfelf, previous to his execution,
folemnly acquitted Menou from being in the leaft ac-
quainted with the plot.
Vol.. IX Part I.

85 ]

F R A

Aber.
>mby
.rtally
)unded.

As Menou refiifed to leave Egypt by capitulation, Kran-'.
the Britilh government formed the refolution of driving 'q~~~'
him out of it by force. Sir James Pulteney received 'o"^'-
the command of 12,030 men, to aft in the Mediter- q^i^^^^i
ranean in luch a manner as might moft effectually an- Abcrcrom.
noy .the enemy ; a plan which was difconcertcd by the by fails l«t
iffue of the battle of Marengo. He was fuperfeded by i^gXP'-
Sir Ralph Abercromby, ^vho carried reinforcements
along \\\l\\ him, together with a train of artillery from
Gibraltar. He touched at Minorca and Malta, from
whence he fleered his courfe for the coaft of Egypt,
which he reached on the ift of March iSoi, and
anchored next day in the bay of Aboukir ; but the
weather prevented him from attempting to land till the
7th of that month, at 10 o'clock in the forenoon.
The firft di%-ifion effefted a landing in the face of the
French, to the amount of 4000 men, whofe pofition
ivas fo very advantageous, that an eye witncfs thought
they might have refifted the world ; yet 2C00 Britith
troops drove them from it, with the lofs of fome field
pieces, and the difembarkation was continued during that
and the following day. _ S'S

The whole army of General Abercromby moved ""''^'''^"'-■''
forward on the 12th, and coming in fight of the main by"[he Bri-
body of the French, gave them battle on the 13th. ti(h near
The conflift was obftinate on both fides, and their lofs A'exandria,,
very confiderable, but viftory in the end declared for ^""^ ^'^"^-
the Britilh. This advantage was folloxved up \vith vi-^J^
gour, and on the 21ft a more interefting battle waSn,^
f()ught with fimilar fuccefs, about four miles from the wc
city of Alexandria. Sometimes the French had the ad-
vantage, and fometimes the Britilh, but the latter were
finally viftorious. General Abercromby, that he might
not damp the ardour of his troops, concealed for two
hours the anguilh of a mortal wound he received in this
action : — a tlegree of magnanimity which has vei7 fel-
dom been equalled, and we believe never was fur-
pafled. The lofs of the Britilh on this occafion was
eftimated at 1500, and that of the French at 4000
men. 516

As it may be faid that the fate of Egypt was de- ^, ""^ ^or-
cided in a great meafure by thefe two battles, we hegf^J^" °""
leave to call the attention of our readers to affairs of
great importance which about this time took place in
Europe. The po\vers of the north, envious of the fupe-
riority of Britain by fea, and aftin" under the influence
of the capricious Paul, were refolved to revive the
armed neutrality of Catharine. II. during the continu-
ance of the American war, and cl.aimed a right of
trading to the ports of France, without being fubjefted
to have their veffels feaiched. The miniftry of Great
Britain were determined to break fuch a confederacy;
but to the aftonilhment of the nation they rcfigncd at
this period. Different caufes have been afligned for an
event which was fo unexpefted ; but the oftenfiblc rea-
fon was a difference in the cabinet relative to catholic
emancipation. After the union of Ireland with Bri-
tain, it feems pretty clear that the minifter did propofe
this lubjeft in the cabinet, but his majefty, from a fa-
cred regard to his coronation oath, put his negative up-
on it, in confequence of which Mr Pitt and his friends
gave in their refignation. In general they were fuc-Achanae
ceeded by men who had countenanced their adminiftra-of miniftry
tion during the war. Mr Addinyton w^s appointed '•'''** ?•*<■*
firft lord "of the treafury, and chancellor of the ex-"' '^'"■'in-
A a chequer;

F R A

[ iSo j

F R A

Lord Eldon, lord high chancellor ; the carl miral of what had happened at Copenhagen, requefting Fra'

chefju
■ of St Vincent, firfl lord of the admiralty ; lords Havvkes-
bury and Pelharo, fecretaries of ftate, and the honour-
able Colonel Yoike, fecretary at war. The fonncr
miniftry was diflblved on the I ith of February : but
owing to the indifpofition of his majeily, none of the
new miniftry entered upon office before the middle of
March, during which eventful interval Mr Pitt and
his affociates had the chief management of public af-
fairs. The new minillry entered upon office by ibleran-
ly pledging themfelves to the nation, that they ^vould
employ their united efforts in procuring a fafe and ho-
nourable peace with France, while they never loft fight
for a moment of the warlike plans of thofe ^vho had
preceded them.

About this time the moft hoftile meafures were
adopted by the powers composing the northern confe-
deracy. The free city of Hamburgh was taken by a
Danilh army under Charles prince of HelTe, in order
to injure the commerce of Great Britain; and the king
of Pruffia fent a numerous array into the eleftorate of
Hanover. To punilh this luiaccountable conduft, and
diffolve the northern confederacy, a fleet of 17 fail of
the line, four frigates, four iloops, and fome bomb veffels,
was fitted out in the ports of Britain, which failed from
Yarmouth on the 12th of March, under the command
of Admiral Sir Hyde Parker, Lord Nelfon, and Rear-
admiral Graves, and ha\'ing pafTed the Sound, appear-
ed before Copenhagen on the ^cth of the fame month.
The Danes did not appear in the fmalleft degree agi-
tated, for it was impoffible to moleft either the fleet or
the city, without paffing through a channel fo ex-
tremely intricate, that it was once believed hardly fafe
to attempt it with a fingle ihip, and without any ene-
my to oppofe. This channel was founded by Lord

his Swedifh majefty to give an explicit anfwer whether '
he meant to adhere to, or abandon the confederacy.
The reply was veiy ambiguous ; but having received
the news of the iudden death of the emperor Paul, on
the 23d of March, and Lord Nelfon, now commander
in chief, ^mting in a more peremptory tone than the
officer whom he had fuperfeded, the court of Stock-
holm deemed it prudent to follow the example of that
of Copenhagen. Alexander, the Icn and fuccelTor of
Paul, pofftfftd of more honour and juftice tlian his fa-
ther, reilored all the Britilh property which lie had
confifcatcd, relinquiihed his abfurd claim to the iiland
of Malta, and agreed that neutral veS'els ftiould be
fearched, when bound for any one country at war with
another, which proved the grave of the northern con-
federacy.

When the armiftice was figned between the Auftrian
and French generals in the year 1800, the troops of
the latter were in poflefiion of Germany almoft to the
banks of the Inn, and of Italy to the frontiers of Ve-
nice ; but the fpirit cf the emperor was yet unfubdued,
and he would not abandon his allies by a confirmation
of the preliminaries of peace which Count St Julian had
agreed to at Paris, as he exceeded the powers with
which he was entrutted. Kray havir.g retired from fer-
vice, the archduke John fucceeded him, with whom the
emperor in perfon repaired to the army ; but they foon
found it impradlicable to aft an offenfive part againft
General Moreau, and therefore another armiftice com-
prehending Italy, was agreed to. The emperor wiflied
to include Britain in any treaty with France, but as
Bonaparte would admit no plenipotentiary from that
country without the benefit of a naval arm.iftice,
which it was truly abfurd to expecft, General Moreau

5'«
Die Danes

vauquiilied
by Lord
Neifon at
Copenha-

S-0
Who fails
from thtncc
to Cailf-

NeKon, who undertook to conduft a large divifion of received orders to go on with his miUtai'y operations,
the fleet through it, requefting from Sir Hyde Parker
the command of it, which was accordingly given him,
and Rear-admiral Graves was his fecond in com-
mand.

As the largeft (hips drew too ranch water for . being
employed in fuch a hazardous attempt, his lordftiip
felefted 1 2 of from 74 to 50 guns, together with four
frigates, four Iloops, two fire-ftiips, and feven bombs.
A molt prodigious force was oppofed to this, confifting
of fix fail ot the line, 1 1 floating batteries, each mount-
ing from 26 twenty-four pounders to 1 8 eighteen poun-
ders, one bomb-(hip, and a number of fchooners. Thefe
were fupported by the Crown idands, mounting 88
pieces of cannon •, by four fail of the line, moored in the
jnouth of the harbour, and by a few batteries on the
'.land of Amak. Lord Nelfon attacked this tremen-
Hou? force on the 2d of April, and filenced the firing
'f the batteries after an obftinate and bloody aftion
which lafted four hours, taking, burning, and finking
about 17 fail, including feven fail of the line. In kill-
ed and wounded the Britifli loft 943 men, while that
of the Danes muft have been at leaft double the num-
ber. A fufpcnfion of hoftiUties %v^asthe immediate con-
ff quence of this brilliant viftory, and a treaty of armed
neutrality to laft for 14 weeks.

After repairing the Ihips that were damaged upon
this occafion, the Britilh fleet failed for Carlfcroiia, and
appeared before it on the 19th of April. The gover-
nor here was immediately informed by the Britifh ad-
3

53°

The army of Auftria was now given to the com-The Auf-
mand of generals whofe very names were almoft un- tnans total-
known beyond the confmes of their own country, anduT"'?- ^^
who e\anced themlelves but very hltle acquainted with den.
the military art. As Moreau was pondering on the
plan of his winter campaign, the right wing of his
army was attacked by the Auftrians with fuch vigour,
as had nearly reduced him to the neceffity of afting on
the defenfive ; and had General Klenau known how
to make a temperate ufe of his viftory on this occa-
fion, the ruin of the French commander would have
been inevitable. The cafe was otherwife. Elated uith
his fuccefs, he unaccountably abandoned his pofition
on the Inn, and engaging his cautious and able an-
tagonift at the village of Hohenlinden, was totally
routed, with the lofs of 80 pieces of cannon, 2 CO
caiflbns, aad 10,000 prifoners, independent of a pro-
digious number left dead on the field.

General Moreau allowing the enemy no time to
rally, proceeded direftly towards the Inn, crofting it
on the 9th of December, J 8 00, and driving his ene-
mies before him, ftruck the court of Vienna with con-
ftemation and difmay. Prince Charles was recalled
to the command of the array, but after m.any fruitlefs
efforts to retrieve its loft honour, he propofed an ar-
miftice on the 27th of December, which was granted
by the French commander, on condition that it (liould
be immediately followed by a definitive treaty. If the
archduke could have had any dependence on his army,
although

Britain de-
ferted by
almoft aU
Europe.

533
Eoaaparte
threatens
to invade
Britain,

F R A [I

although very much weakened, tliis armiftice, in all
probability, would not have taken place, for the pofi-
tion of Moreau was perilous in the extreme. In llie
very heart of Auftria, he had behind him on liis right,
about 3D,030 men in the Tyrol, with upwards of
J3,D0D on his left. But Auftrian valour was now al-
nioil cxtinguiflied by fo many fad reverfes of fortune,
and Auftrian officers were not true to their truft.

This armirtice was followed by a treaty of peace
figned at Luneville on the 9th of February i8oi, be-
tween the emperor for himfelf and the Germanic body,
and the firft conful of the French republic, in the name
of the people of France. By it the emperor ceded the
Brifgau to the duke of Modena, for -rfie territories loft
by that prince in Italy, and bound himfelf to find in-
demnities in the Germanic empire for all thofe princes
whom the fate of war had deprived of their dominions.
The grand duke of Tufcany was to renounce his duke-
dom for ever, with its dependencies in the ifle of Elba,
to the infant duke of Parma, for which the empire was
to furnilh him with an adequate indemnification.

On the 28th of March a treaty of peace was con-
cluded benveen the French republic and the king of
the Two Sicilies, by which his majefty c-bliged him-
felf to fhut all the ports of Naples and Sicily againft
(hips of every defcription belonging either to the
Britifti or the Turks, till thefe powers ftiould conclude
a treaty with the French republic, and till Britain
and the northern poivers Ihould come to a good un-
derftanding. He renounced for ever, Porto Longano
in the ifle of Elba, his ftates in Tufcany, and the
principality of Piombino, to be difpofed of in fuch a
manner as the French republic might think proper.

Great Britain had now none to afhft her in the con-
teft with France, but the Turks in Egypt and the Por-
tuguefe in Europe, powers which rather dJralniihed
than increafed her ftrength, by dividing it. The
Spaniards had made an attack upon Portugal at the
defire of France, conquering fome of its provinces ;
but a treaty of peace was concluded between them on
the 6th of June, by which the king of Spain reftored
all his conquefts except the fortrefs of Olivenza, and
the prince regent of Portugal and Algarva promifed
to ihut the ports of his whole territories againft the
fhips of Great Britain, and to make indemnification
to his Catholic majefty for all loffes and damages fuf-
tained by his fubjefts during the war.

When the chief conful had made peace with all his
other enemies, he threatened Great Britain with an im-
mediate invafion, ^vhich gave great uneafinefs at firft to
a confiderable part of the nation, but it gradually fub-
fided. In order to diminilli this alarm. Lord Nelfm
was fent to deftroy the Ihipping and harbour of Bou-
logne. His fuccefs in this undertaking fell (hort of the
expectations which many had formed ; but he made
iLich an imprefflon on the enemy on the 4th of Auguft,
a>. evinced that Britain could annoy the coaft of France
with greater facility, than France could moleft that of
Britain. It was alfo highly fatisfadory to find that the
(f>Irit of the Britilh navy was not exclufively attached
to the hero of the Nile ; for Rear-admiral Saumarez
having, in the month of .luly, come up with a com-
bined fquadron of French p.!id Spanifn fliips of .var
bound for Cadiz, much fuperior to bis own, he fcru-
pled not to give them battle, the confenucnce of which

87 ]

F R A

captured, and two more Franc.v
1802.

was, that one 01 them
were burnt.

Attempts were again made by Britain during the
fummer of 1 801, to negotiate with France. The firft ^^^^l* ,j,
conful could not but fee, from the total diiTolution of tempts to"
the northern confederacy, that it was impolTible for him treai with
to ruin the Britifti commerce, and confequently that all France,
the treaties he had made for the purpofe of excluding
our ftiips from neutral ports would ilgnify nothing. He
feemed determined, however, to keep polTeftion of E-
gypt; and Britain, on the other hand, was as fiilly re-
folved to wreft it from him. On this account the nego-
tiations were protrafled, till the conqueft of that coun-
try was known at London and Paris. jj-

When Sir Ralph Abercromby died. General Hut- R-ofetta,
chinfon fucceeded to the command of the British forces '"^"■°' '"■!
in Egypt, w^ho was probably acquainted with the pl^n ^^1^^^^ j, '
of his much lamented predecelTor, as one fpirit feemed the Btituli.
to aftuate both. Rofetta foon furrendered, which was
followed by the conqueft of Cairo ; and Menou having
accepted of ftmilar terms for Alexandria, the whole of
Egypt fell into the hands of the allies, and the republi-
can troops and baggage were conveyed to the neareft
French ports in the Mediterranean, in (liips fumiftied
them by the allies. After thefe events, the negotiations
between Britain and France went on more agreeably ;
and, on the ift of Oiflober, the preliminaries of peace
were figned at London by Lord Hawkefbury on the
part of his Britannic majefty, and M. Otto on that of
the French republic. By it Great Britain engaged to
give up all the conquefts made during the continuance
of the war, excepting the iflands of Ceylon and Trini-
dad. France was to reftore nothing. The Cape of
Good Hope was to be free to all the contracting par-
ties ; the illand of Malta u-as to be given to the knights
of the order of St John of Jerufalem ; Egypt was to be
given to the Ottoman Porte ; Portugal was to be main-
tained in its integrity, except what was ceded to the
king of Spain by the prince regent ; Naples and the
Roman ftates were to be evacuated by the French,
Porto Ferrajo by the Britifti, with all the ports and
illands occupied by them in the Mediterranean ; and
plenipotentiaries were appointed to meet at Amiens, for
the purpofe of drawing up and figning the definitive
treaty. This ^vas concluded on the 2 2d of March I 802,
in confequence of ivhich the French republic was ac-
knowledged by the whole of Europe. 536

'I'he reftoration of peace, after fo long and fanguinary Peace con-

a conteft, gave the higheft fatisfaiSlion to all ranks and «^l"'ie<i >'
J .'.0,0.,, . , . \inicns be-

denommations of men, with the exception, perhaps, of.„e(.nBri-
a few intereiled individuals ; and it was certainly as ho- tain and
noursble to Britain as could well be expefled from the France,
nature of the war. It was celebrated at Paris, in the
cathedral of Notre Dame, with great pomp and magni-
ficence. The celebration of the re-eftabUlhraent of the
Catholic religion in France, to which the majority of
the people were warmly attached, gave additional im-
portance to the fcene in that country, and the meafure
evinced the moft conlummate political wifdom on the
part of Bonaparte, whofe popularity in confequence of
it was very much increafed. We muft now lay before
our readers the celebrated Concordat, or convention
concluded between Bonaparte and the pope, by wliich
the Catholic failh v.as again eftablifhed in that coun-
try.

A 1 2 - Oipij

F R A

[ i88 ]

F R A

1802.

Ccfyy of the late important Convention between the Trench
Government and His Holinefs the Pope, Pius VII.
ratified the 23d Fruftidor, year 9, (loth September,
1801).

The chief conful of the French republic, and his ho-
linefs the fovereign pontiff, Pius VII. have named as
their refpeflive plenipotentiaries —

The chief conful, the citizens Jofeph Bonaparte,
counfellor of Hate ; Cretet, counfellor of ftate ; and
Bernier, doftor of divinity, curate of St Laud d' Au-
gers i furniilted with full poivers :

His holinefs, his eminence Monfeigneur Hercide
Confalvi, cardinal of the holy Roman church, deacon
of St Agathe ad Snbt/rn/iri, his fecretary of ilate ; Jo-
feph Spina, archbilliop of Corinth, domeftic prelate to
his holinefs, attendant on the pontifical throne ; and
Father Cafelli, his holinefs's advifer on points of theo-
logy ; in like manner fiirnilhed with full powers in due
form ;

Who, after exchanging their full powers, have con-
cluded the following convention :

Convention between the French Government and his Ho-
linefs the Pope, Pius VII.

The government of the republic acknowledges that
the Catholic, Apoftolical, and Roman religion, is the
religion of the great majority of French citizens.

His holinefs, in like manner, acknowledges that this
fame religion has derived, and is likely to derive, the
greatelf benefit and the greateft fplendour from the efta-
blifliment of the Catholic worlhip in France, and from
its being openly profeffed by the confuls of the repub-
lic.

This mutual acknowledgment being made, in confe-
quence, as well for the good of religion as for the
maintenance of interior tranquillity, they have agreed
as foUovvs :

Article I. The Catholic, Apoftolical, and Roman
religion (hall be freely exercifed in France. Its fervice
Ihall be publicly performed, conformably to the regula-
tions of police, which the government fliall judge ne-
ceflary for the public tranquillity.

2. There fliall be made by the holy fee, in concert
with the government, a new divifion of French dio-
cefes.

3. His holinefs fliall declare to the titular French
bilhops that he expccls from them, with the firmed con-
fidence, every facrifice for the fake of peace and unity
— even that of their fees.

After this exhortation, if they fliould refufe the facri-
fice commanded for the good of the church (a refufal,
neverthelef-i which his liolinefs by no means expefts),
the fees of the new divifion fliall be governed by bifliops
appointed as follows :

4. The chief conful fliall prefent, within three months
after the publication of his holinefs's bull to the arch-
biflioprics and biflioprics of the new divilion. His ho-
linefs (liall confer canonical inllitution, according to the
forms eftablidicd in France before the revolution [avant
it changement dc i^otivernement').

5. The nomination to the biflioprics which become
itftcara ip future, fnall likf u'ifc belotxg to the chief con-

ful, and canonical Inllitution fliall be adminiftered by
the holy fee, conformably to the preceding article. ~

6. The bilhops, before entering upon their fundions,
fliall take, before the chief conful, the oath of fidelity
which was in ufe before the revolution, exprefled in the
follo\ving words :

" I fwear and promife to God, upon the Holy Evan-
gelifts, to preferve obedience and fidelity to the govern-
ment eflablilhed by the conflitution of the French re-
public. I likeivife promife to carry on no correfpon-
dence, to be prefent at no converfation, to form no
connexion, whether within the territories of the repub-
lic or without, \vhich may, in any degree, diflurb the
public tranquillity : and if, in my diocefe or elfevvhere,
I difcover that any thing is going forward to the preju-
dice of the ftate, I will immediately communicate to
government all the information I poflefs."

7. Ecclefiartics of the fecond order fliall take the
fame oath before the civil authorities appointed by the
government.

8 . The following formula of prayer fliall be recited
at the end of divine fervice in all the Catholic churches
of France.

Domine, faham fac rempitblicam.
Domine, falvos fac confides.

9. The bifliops fliall make a new divifion of the pa-
riflies in their diocefes, which, however, fliall not take
effeol till after it is ratified by government.

I o. The bifliops feall have the appointment of the pa-*
rifti priefts.

Their choice fliall not fall but on perfons approved of
by government.

1 1 . The bifliops may have a chapter in their cathe-
dral, and a feminary for the diocefe, without the go-
vernment being obliged to endow them.

I 2. All the metropolitan, cathedral, parochial, and
other churches which have not been alienated, necefla-
ry to public worfliip, fliall be placed at the difpofal of
the bifliops.

13. His holinefs, for the fake of peace and the hap-
py re-eftablifliment of the Catholic religion, declares
that neither he nor his fucceflbrs will difturb in any
manner thofe who have acquired the alienated property
of the church ; and that in confequence that property,
and every part of it, fliall belong for ever to them, their
heirs and alTigns.

1 4. The government fliall grant a fuitable falary to
bifliops and parifli priefts, whofe diocefes and pariflies
are conipriled in the new divifion.

If. The government Ihall likewife take meafures to
enable French Catholics, who are fo inclined, to difpofe
of their property for the fupport of rehgion.

16. His holinefs recognifes in the chief conful of tho
French republic the fame rights and prerogatives in re-
ligious matters which the ancient government enjoyed.

17. It is agreed between the contrafling parties, that
in cafe any of the fucceflbrs of the prefent chief conful
fliould not be a Roman Catholic, the rights and prero-
gatives mentioned in the foregoing article, as well as.
the nomination to the bilhop's fees, fliall be regulated,
with regard to him, by a new convention.

The ratifications fliall be exchanged at Paris in thfe
fpace of forty days.

Dane.

F R A [ 1

Ffince. Done at Paris, the 26th MelTidor, year 9 of thi
" French republic.

(Signed) Joseph Bonaparte.

Hercules, Cardinalis Consalvi.

Joseph, Archiep. Corinthl.

Bernier.

F. Carolus Caselli.

Regulations of the Gallican Church.

Title I.— Of the Regulation of the Catholic Church,
as conneBed with the Policy of the State.

Article I. No bull, refcript, decree, provifion, or
any thing in the place of a provifion, or, in fliort, any
other difpatch from the court of Rome, even though it
{hould relate to individuals only, (hall be received, pub-
lifhed, printed, or otheru-ays put in force, without the
authority of the government.

2. No individual, aflliming the charaifler of nuncio,
legate, \'icar, or apoftolic commhTary, or whatever otlier
appellation he may alTurae, Ihall be allowed to exercife
his fundions in France, but with the confent of the go-
vernment, and in a manner conformable to the liberties
gf the Gallican church.

5. The decrees of foreign fynods, or even of general
councils, (liall not be publifhed in France before the
government lliall have examined their form, their con-
formity to the laws, rights, and privileges of the French
republic, and whatever might in their publication have
a tendency to alter or to affed public tranquillity.

4. No national or metropolitan council, no diocefan
fynod, no deliberative affembly, (hall be allo\ved to
be held without the exprefs permilTion of government.

5. All ecclefiallical fijndlions (liall be gratuitous,
■with the exception of thofe oblations which lliall be au-
thorized, and fixed by particular regulation.

6. Recourfe fliall be had to the council of ftate in
every inltance of abufe, on the part of fuperiors, and
other ecclefiaftical perfons. The inllances of abufe are
ufurpation, or excefs of power, contravention of the
laws and inftitutions of the republic ; infraftion of the
rules confecrated by the canons received in France ; any
attack upon the liberties, franchifes, and cuftoms of the
Gallican church ; and any attempt, which, in the ex-
ercife of worfhip, can compromifc the honour of citi-
zens, arbitrarily trouble their confcience, or lead to op-
preffion, injury, or public fcandal.

7. There fhall alfo be a right of appeal to the coun-
cil of ftate, on the ground of any attempt being made
to interrupt the exercife of public worlhip, and to in-
fringe on that liberty which the general laws of the re-
public, as ^vell as particular regulations, guarantee to
its minifters,

8. An appeal fliall be competent to any perfon nite-
refted ; and in cafe no complaint is exhibited by indivi-
duals, the bufinefs (hall be taken up officially by the
prefects. The public funftionary, ecelefiaftical or indi-
vidual, who ftiall wilh to exercife this right of appeal,
mull addrefs a figned memoir, containing a detail of the
grievance complained of, to the counfellor of ftate pre-
fiding over religious affairs, whofe duty it will then be-
come to make, with the leafl poflible delay, every in-
-jiiiry into the fubjecl ; and upon his report, the affair

'9 1

F R A

Ihull be definitively fettled, or fent back, according to
the urgency of the calL-, to the competent authorities.

Title II.— 0///;^- C/«yy.— Seft. I.— General Regula-
tions.
Article 9. The Catholic worflup Ihall be cxercifed
under the direftion of the archbilhops and bilhops in
their diocefes, and under that of the cures, in their pa^-
rinies.

10. Every privilege derogating from ccclefiaflical ju-
rifdidion is abolilhed.

11. The archbilhops and billiops may, with the per-
milTion of the government, eftablifli in tlielr diocefes ca-
thedral chapters and feminaries. All other ccclefiafli-
cal eilablilhments are fuppreflcd.

1 2. Archbilhops and bilhops may adopt the title of
citizen, or monfieur, as they (hall judge moft fit ; all
other qualifications are forbidden.

Sefl. II. — Of the Archbifliops, or Metropolitans.
Article 13. The archbilhops (hall confecrate and in-
ftal their fuffragans. In cale of failure, or refiifal on
their part, their place fhall be fupplicd by the eldell
bilhop of the metropolitan diftrifl.

14. They fhall watch over the maintenance of doc-
trine and difcipline in the diocefes dependent on their
fee.

15. They fliall hear and judge of complaints and ap-
peals againft the conduft and decifions of the firffragan
bilhops.

Sea. III. Of the Bifiops, the Vicars-General, and the
Seminaries.
Article 16. No perfon can be named a bifliop wha
is not a Frenchman, and ivho is not at leaft thirty years
of age.

17. Before the decree for the nomination is difpatch-
ed, he (hall be bound to produce an attellation of the
correftnefs of his conduft and manners, furnifhed by
the bilhop of that diocefe in which he fhall have exer-
cifed the fundlions of the minillry ; he Ihall undergo an
examination refpetVing his tenets, by a bilhop and two ■
priells commiflloned by the chief conful, and who ftiall
addrefs the refult of their examination to the counfellor
of ftate nho prefides over the department of ecclefiaili-
cal affairs.

18. The prieft, nominated by the chief conful, fliall
endeavour without delay to procure inftallation from
the pope ; he ftiall be permitted to perform no funfliori
till the bull authorizing his inftallation ftiall have re-
ceived the fancllon of goveniment, and till he ftiall have
taken in perfon the oath prefcribed by the convention
entered into between the French government and thft
holy fee. This oath ftiall be taken to the chief conful,
and a minute of it ftiall be entered by the fecretary of
Ihae.

19: The bilhops ftiall nominate and inftall the cures;
they Ihall not however make public their appointment,
nor fl\all they give them canonical inllrmi'Hon, till their
nomination ftiall have been agreed to by the chief con-
ful.

20. They ftiall be bound to refide in their diocefes,
and ftiall n6t be fuflered to quit them without the per-
niiftioii of the chief conful.

F R A

[ 190 ]

F R A

:i. Each bifiiop ftiall be empowered to appoint two,
and each archbifliop three, vicars-general : they fliall
make choice of them from among thofe priefts who pof-
fcfs the requifite qualifications for being bilhops.

22. They Ihall vifit annually in perfon a certain por-
tion of their diocefe ; and within the i'pace of five years
the whole of it. In cafe unavoidable circumftances
ihall prevent them from making this villi, it fliaU be
made by a vicar-general.

23. The bilhops Ihall be bound to organize their fe-
minaries, and the rules of this organization (hall be
fubmitted to the approbation of the chief confuL

24. Thofe who fliall be chofen teachers in thefe
feminaries thall fubfcribe the declaration made by the
French clergy in 1682, and pubhihed by an edict of
the fame year. They (hall limit themfelves to teach
only the do(flrine therein contained ; and the bifhops
(hail addrefs a certificate of their abiding by this limi-
tation, to the counfellor of (late who prefides over the
ecc!efia(lical department.

25. The bi(hops ihall fend every year to this counfel-
lor of (late the names of the fludents of thofe feminaries
who are dcftined to the holy minillry.

26. They (hall appoint no ecclefiaftic who does not
poflTefs a property of the annual value of 300 francs,
unlefs he has attained the age of 25 years, and poffefs
the qualities required by the canons of France.

The billiops (liall perform no ordination before the
number of pcrfons to be ordained has been fubmitted to
the government, and by them agreed to.

Sea. IV. 0/t/te Cures.

Article 27. The cures (hall perform no ecclefiaftical
fiaiftions before they have taken, in the prefence of the
prefe(Sl, the oath prefcribed by the convention entered
into between the government and the holy fee. A copy
of this oath (hall be made out by the fecretary of the
pretecl-general, and regularly lodged with each party.

28. They Ihall be introduced to the poffelhon of
their benefice either by a cure, or by a prieft whom the
bhhop fhall point out.

29. They (hall be bound to reCde in their refpeftive
parities.

30. The cures (liall be directly fubjeft to the biflrops
in the exercife of their funftions.

31. The vicars, and the adiftants performing their
duties, fliall be under the fuperintendance and direc-
tion of the cures.

They (hall be approved by the bilhop, and liable to
be recalled by his authority.

32. No foreigner (hall be employed in the functions
of the ecclefiaftical minillry, without the permilTion of
the government.

^^. Every ecclefiaftic, though a Frenchman, is for-
bidden the exercife ot ecclefiaftical funftions, unlefs con-
nedled with fome diocefe.

34. No prieft fliall quit his diocefe to ferve in ano-
ther, without the permilTion of his bi(hop.

Seft. V. Of the Cathedral Chapters, and the Government
of the Diocefes, during the Vacancy of the See.

Article 35. The archbilhops and bi(hops who (hall
wi(h to exercife the power which is given them, by ef-
tabliftiing chapters, (hall make no appointment without
having previoufly obtained the authority of the govern-

ment, not only for the eftabliihment itfelf, but for the
number and choice of the ecclefiaftics by ivhom they are '"
to be fonned.

^6. During the vacancy of the fee, the metropolitan,
or, in his (lead, the oldeft of the fuffragan bi(hops, (hall
watch over the governments cf the dioceles.

The vicars-general of thefe diocefes (hall continue
their fiinftions after the death of the bilhop, till the in-
llallation of his fucceffor.

37. It Ihall be the duty of the metropolitans and the
cathedral chapters to communicate to the government
information of the vacancy of fees, and the fteps which
may have been taken for the government of vacant dio-
cefes.

38. The vicar-general, who (hall govern during the
vacancy, as well as the metropolitan and conrtituent
members of cliapters, Ihall fuffer no innovation to be
introduced into the ufages and cuftoms of the diocefes.

Title III. OfWorJhip.

Article 39. There (hall be only one liturgy, and
one catechifm, for all the catholic churches of France.

40. No cure (hall appoint extraordinary public
prayers in his pariih, without the fpecial permiirion of
the bilhop.

41. No feftival, with the exception of the fabbath,
(hall be eftablilhed without the permilTion of govern-
ment.

42. The ecclefiaftics (hall ufe, in the performance of
rehgious ceremonies, the habits and ornaments fuitable
to their titles.

They ftiall in no cafe, or under any pretence^ aflume
the colour and the diftinftive marks referved to the
bi(hops.

43. All ecclefiaftics (hall drefs according to the
French falhion, and in black. The hifliops ftiall add
to this coftume the paftoral crofs, and violet ftockings.

44. Domeliic chapels and oratorios, for the accommo-
dation of indi^^duals, fhall not be eftablilhed without
the exprefs permilTion of the government, granted on
the application of the bilhop.

4 <;. No religious ceremony (hall be folemnized with-
out the temples confecrated to the catholic worfhip, in
places deilined to diiferent forms of worftiip.

46. The fame temple (hall be exclufively cgnfecrated
to the fame fyftem of worlhip.

47. There (hall be in the different cathedrals and pa-
rochial churches, a place fpecially appointed for the ci-
vil and miUtary authorities.

48. The bifliop (liall concert with the prefect tlic
means of calling the faithful to religious worlhip by
public bells, which are to be rung on no other occa-
iion, without the permilTion of the local police.

49. When the government Ihall appoint public pray-
ers, the bilhops (hall concert with the prefecS, and the
military commandant of the place, the day, the hour,
and the manner in which thefe regulations are to be
carried i-.to eftecl.

;o. The folemn inftruftions known under the appel-
lation oi fermons, and thofe dilHnguiihed under the
name de Nations, at the time of Advent and Lent, ihall
not be delivered but by priefts who have obtained the
fpecial authority of the bifliop.

?i. Tie cures in the ordinary exercife of their pa-
rochial duties (hall pray for, and (hall caufe prayers to

1802.

l802.

F R A [I

France, be offered up in behalf of the profperity of the French
-' republic, and the fafety of the French confuls.

^^. Tliey (hall introduce into their inltruftions no
cenfure, direil or inoire^'l, either of individuals or of
other forms of ivorihip authorized by the llate.

5^. In their pulpits they fhall introduce no publica-
tion foreign to the exercife of public ^vor(hip, till it
has at leaft received the authority of the government.

54. The nuptial benediction lliall be given to thofe
only who fliall prove in due form, that their marriage
has been contrafled before a civil magilbate.

,-5. The regiilcrs kept by the minillers of rehgion,
not being founded upon any thing but the adminillra-
tion of the facraments, are in no cafe to fupply the re-
gillcrs appointed by the law to afcertain the civil con-
dition of the French people.

?6. In all ecclefiaftical and religious afts, the equi-
nodial calendar eftabliflied by the laws of the republic
is to be continued, and particular days (hall retain the
names which they poffeis in the folftitial calendar.

57. The day of repofe for the public funftionaries
fliall be Sunday.

Title IV. Of the Arrangement of Arehbiflwps , Bi-
fhofis, Parifhes, Edifices appropriated to public wor-
fhip, and the falaries of the Clergy.

Seel. I. Of the Arrangement of ArchhifJjops and Bifhops.

Article 58. There (Itall be in France lO archbilhops
and 53 hifhops.

59. The arrangement of the archbiftioprics and dio-
cefei Ihall be made in conformity to the fubjoined plan.

Sefl. II. Of tie Arrangement of Parifhes.

Article 60. There (hall be at leaft one pari(h within
the jurifdiftion of a juftice of peace. There fliall be
befides eftabliflied as many fubfidiary places of worfhip
3S circumftances may require.

61. Each bifhop, in concert with the prefeft, (hall
regulate the number and extent of thefe fubfidiary efta-
blilhments : the plan formed fliall be fubmitted to the
infpeclion of the government, and (hall not be put into
execution without its authority.

62. No portion of the French territory fhall be
formed into a diftrlft, fubje'ft to the adminiftration of a
cure, or to any fubfidiary eftablifliment, without the ex-
prefs authority of government.

63. The priefts ferving in thefe fubfidiary eftablifh-
ments are to be named by the bilhops.

Sea. III. Of the Salaries of the Clergy.

Article 64. The falary of the archbilhops is to be
15,000 francs (about 62jl. fterling.)

65. The bilhops are to receive 10,000 francs (about
420I. fterling.

66. The cures are divided into two claffes. The fa-
lary of the cures of the firft clafs is to he 1500 francs
(about 62I. fterling ;) that of the fecond clafs is to be
1000 francs (about 42I. fterhng.)

6*7. The penfions they enjoy according to the regu-
lations of the conftituent atTembly (hall be dedufled
from their falaries.

The general councils of the larger communes (hall
be empowered to grant them an augmentation of falary,
luch as circumftances jnay require.

91 J F R A

68. The Wears, and thofe performing their functions, I lancf
fliall be chofen from among the ecclefiaftics receiving ' ?'
penfions, in conformity to the laws of the conftituent ^"°^-
afll-mbly.

The amount of thefe penfions, and the produce of
oblations fliall conftitute their falary.

69. The bilhops (hall form a plan of regulations re-
lative to the offerings which the minifters of rehgion
(h.ill be authorized to receive for the adminiftration of
the facraments. The plan of the regulations furnilhed
by the bifliops (hall not be publiihed or otherwife put
into execution till they have received the approbation
of the government.

70. Every ecclefiaftic now receiving a penlion from
the ftate (hall be deprived of it on refufing, without fuf-
ficient reafon, to take upon him the funftions which he
is required to difcharge.

7 1 . The general councils of the departments are au-
thorized to procure for the bilhops and archbifhops fuit-
able places of refidence.

72. The parfonages and gardens pertaining to them
which have not been alienated, fliall be reftored to the
cures, and thofe officiating in the fubfidiary places of
worfliip. In cafes where thefe parfonages cannot be pro-
cured, the general councils of the ccnimune are autho-
rized to procure for them a fuitable lodging and garden.

73. The foundations which have for their object the
maintenance of religion and the exercife of public wor-
fliip, are to cenfill only of funds appointed by the ftate;
they are tb be accepted by the diocefe and bifhop, and
are not to be enforced without the authority of the go-
vernment.

74. The fixed propery, except the buildings deftined
to the accommodation of the minifter, is not to be af-
fected by ecclefiaftical titles, or pofl"efl"ed by the mini-
fters of rehgion in confequence of their functions.

Seft. IV. Of the Edifices appropriated to public -worfhip.

Article 75. The buildings formerly appropriated to
the cathohc worfliip, which are now at the difpofal of
the nation, (hall be given up to the difpofition of the
bifhops by decrees of the prefec?. of the department : a
copy of thefe decrees fhall be addreffed to the counfellor
of ftate who is intrut^ed with the regulation of religious
affairs.

76. Oflices fhall be eftablKhed for the purpofe of fu-
perintending the fupport and prelervation of temples,
and the adminiftration of charitable contributions.

77. In thofe pariflies where there exifts no buildings
fit for being employed as a place of religious worfliip,
the bifhop (hall confult with the prefed refpedling tlie
eftablifliment of a fuitable edifice.

Table of the Arrangement of the nexu Archbifhnprics and

Bijhoprics of France.
Paris. — This archbilhopric fliall comprehend the de-
partment of the Seine.
Troyes — I'Aube and I'Vonne.
Amiens — la Somme and I'Oile.
Soifons — I'Aifne.
Arras — le Pas de Cala'S.
Camliray — le Nord.

Verfailles — Seine-et-Oife, Eure-ct Loire.
Meaux — Selne-et-Marne, Mame.
Orleans — Loiret, Loire-et-Cucr.

Malir.es -i^

F R A

Maiines — j^rcJthifiopric — les dei

Nettcs, la Dyle.

Namur — Sambre-et-Meufe.

Tourney — Jemappe.

Aix-la-Chanelle— la Roer, Rhin et-Mofelle.

Treves — la Sarre.

Gand — rEfcaut, la Lys.

Liege — Meufe-Inferieure, Ourthe.

Majence — Monte Tonnerre.

efanfon — ylrchbijhopric — Haute-Saone, le Doubs, le
Jura.
Autun — Saone-et-Loire, la Nievre.
Metz — la Mofelle, les Forets, les Ardennes.
Stralbourg — MautRhin, Bas Rhin.
Nancy — la Meufe, la Meurthe, les Vofges.
Dijon — Cote-d'Or, Haute-Marne.

I'Ain.

Lyons — Archil (l^oprk — le Rhone, la Loi
Mende — I'Ardiche, la Lozere.
Grenoble — Plfere.
Valence — la Drome.
Chambery — le Mont-blanc, le Leman.

Aix — Archhijhopric — le Var, les Bouches-du-Rhone.
Nice — Alpes Maritimes.
Avignon — Gard, Vauclufe.
Ajaccio — le Galo, le Liamr'ne.
Digne — Hautes-Alpes, BalTes-Alpes.

Touloufe — Archbifliopric — Haute-Garonne. Ariege,
Cahors — le Lot, I'Aveyron.
Montpellier — le Herault, le Tarn.
Carcaffonne — I'Aude, les Pyrennees.
Agen — Lot-et-Garonne, le Gers.
Bayonne — les Landes, Hautes- Pyrennees, BaiTes-
Pyrennees.

Bourdeaux — Archhijhopric — la Gironde.
Poitiers — les deux Sevres, la Vienne.
La Rochelle — la Charente Inferieure, la Vendee.
Angouleme — la Charente, la Dordogne.

Bourges — Archhijhopric — le Cher, I'Indre.
Clermont — ^i'AlIier, le Puy-de Dome.
Saint-Flour — la Haute-Loire, le Cantal.
Limoges — la Creufe, la Correze, la Haute Vienne.

Tours — Archhijhopric — Indre-et-Loire.
Le Mans — Sarthe, Mayenne.
Angers — Maine -et-Loire.
Nantes — Loire-Inferieure.
Rennes — Ille-et-Villaine.
Vannes — le Morbihan.
Saint Brieux — C6tes-du-Nord.
Q^uimper — le Finifterre.

Rouen — Archhijhopric — la Seine- Inferieure.
Coutances — la Manche.
Bayeux — le Calvados.
Seez — I'Orne.
Evreux — I'Eure.

Articles relative to the ProteJIant Religion.

Title L General Dijpojiiions applicahle to all ProteJIant

Cot

192 ] F R A

(hall have any connexion with a foreign power or au-
thority. ""

3. The pallors or miniRers of the different Proteftant
communions fliall pray for the profperity of the French
republic and the fafety of the conluls.

4. No dodrinal decilion or formulary, under the
title of a conjtjfion, or under any other title, (liall be
publiilied or become a fubjeft of inftruftion before its
publication has been authorifed by the government.

5. No change Ihall take place in the forms of their
difcipline without the fame authority.

6. The council of the ftate (hall take cognizance
of all the plans formed by their minifters, and of all the
dilVenfions which may arife among them.

7. It (hall be underllood, that to the fupport of paf-
tors of confiftorial churches, the property of thefe chur-
ches Ihall be applied, as well as the oblauons eftablilh-
ed by ufage and by pofitive regulations.

8. The regulations applied to the fpecific articles of
the Catholic worlhip refpefting the liberty of endow-
ments, and the nature of the property which can be
the objedl of them, (hall be common to the Proteftant
churches.

9. There (hall be two academies or feminaries in the
eall of France for the inftruftion of the miniflers of the
confetTion of Augfburg.

I o. There IhaU be a feminary at Geneva for the
inftruflion of the minifters of the reformed churches.

1 1. The profelTors in all the academies or feminaries
(hall be norain,.ied by the chief conful.

1 2. No perfon (hall be eleded a minifter or paftor
of any church of the confelTion of Augfburg, who has
not ftudied during a lixed period in one of the French
feminaiies appointed for miniflers of this perfuafion, and
who Ihall not produce a certificate in due form of his
capacity and regular conduft during the continuance of
his (ludies.

1 3. No perfon is to be elefled a minift'Cr or paftor of
the reformed church without having ftudiedinthe femi-
nary of Geneva, and without producing a ceruficate of
the dtfcriptions pointed out in the preceding article.

1 4. The regulation refpeding the adminillration and
internal police of thefe feminaries, the number and the
qualifications of the profefTors, the mode of inllrudion,
the fubjecls which are taught, together ivith the form of
the certificates of application, good conduft, and capa-
city, are to be approved of by the government.

Article I. No indi\idual (liall officiate as a minifter
©f religion who is not by birth a Frenchman.

2. Neither the Proteftant churches nor their miiufters
4

Title XL Sed. I.— Of the Reformed Churches.— Of
the general Organi-zation of theje Churches.

Art. 1 5. The reformed churches of France (hall have
paftors, local confiftories, and fynods.

16. There fliall be a confiftorial church for every
6000 individuals of the fame communion.

I 7. Five confiftorial churches (hall form a fynod.

Se£t. U.—Of Pajlors and local Conjijlories.

Art. 1 8. The confiflory of each church (hall be com-
pofed of the paftor or pallors othciating in that chiu-ch,
and of a certain number of aged and icfptflable lay-
men chofcn from among that clafs of citizens paying
the grtateft (hare of public contributions ; their number
(hall not be under 10 nor above m.

J 9. The

l802.

F R A [I

19. The number of m'miftcrs or paf!ors in one con-
"* fifioiial church fliall not be aagme'.ited without the au-
thority of the government.

20. The members of the confillory ftiall watch over
the maintenance of difcipline, the application of the
property of the church, as well as the funds arifing from
charitable contributions.

2 1 . The paftor, or the oldell of the pallor?, fliall be
the prefident of the conlift orial all'emblies : the ortice of
fccretary iTiall be filled by one of the elders.

2 2. The ordinary conliftorial aiTeniblies flnll con-
tinue to be held on the days pointed out by long
pra (Slice.

The extraordinary aflemblles ihall not be held with-
out the permiffion of the fub-prefecl, or of the mayor in
his abfence.

2^. Every two years one half of the elders of the
conliltory (hall be reneu-ed. At this period the ciders
in otlice ihall fix upon an equal number of Protellant
citizens, heads of families, and chofen from among thoie
paying the largell contribution to the flate in the com-
mune wl^ere the contillory is fituated, and proceed to a
new eleftion : thofe going out are capable of being re-
eleaed.

24. In thofe churches, where there is at prefent no
confillory, one ihall be formed by the eleciion of 25
heads of Protellant families paying the largell contri-
butions to the flate. The eledlion ihall not take place
v.ithout the authority, and unlefs in the prefence of the
prefeft or fub-pr«fecl.

25. Pallors can only be depofed after the reafons of
fuch depofition have been confirmed by the govern-
ment.

26. In cafe of the deceafe, the voluntary refignation,
or the confirmed depofition of a pallor, the confillory
ihall, according to the 18th article, choofe one to fill
Lis place by a majority of voices.

The title of the eleciion (hall be prefented to the firft
conful by the counfellor of Hate intrufted with the man-
agement of religious affairs, for the purpofe of receiving
his approbation.

After this approbation is given, he cannot enter up-
on the evercife of his Rmtlion till he has taken before
the prefecl the oath exacled of the miniflers of the Ca-
tholic ivorlhip.

27. All the pallors now employed are provifionally
confirmed.

28. No church Ihall extend from one department to
another.

Seel. III.— Of Sjmds.

Art. 29. Each fynod fliall confift of a pallor and an
"■Ider from each church.

7,0. The fynods ihall fuperintend the celebration of
public worllup, the doctrines that are taught, and the
conducl of religious aftairs. All their decifions, of what-
ever defcription, fliall be lubmitted to the approbation
of government.

3 1 . The fynods ihall not affemble without the per-
million of government. Previous notice Ihall be given
to the counfellor of Hate intrulled with the management
of re'igious matters, of the iubje(5ls which are to be dif-
•r.jfled. The alTembly ihall be held in prefence of the
prefeil or fub-prefe6l, and a copy of the minutes of the
deliberations fhall be addrelTed to the counfellor of flate
Vol. IX. Part I.

93 ]

F R A

above-mentioned, who fhall, with all polFible fpced, TMnce.

tranfmii a report to the government. ?""""*

32. The meetings of the fynod fhall not be prolonged >8os,
beyond fix days.

Title III. — Of the Or^anizauon cf tfte Churches of
the Confjfwn of^ugjbui^.

Seel. I. — General Regulation;.

Art. 33. The churches of the confcffion of Auglhurg
fliall have pallors, local coniillories, infpections, and ge-
neral confiflories.

Sea. II.— Of the Miniflers, Pajlors, and local Conjijlories
of each Church.

Art. 34. With refpefl to paflors, the regulation of
the coniillorial churches, which was prefcribed by the
2d lection of the preceding title as applicable to the re-
termed pallors and churches, is to be obfervcd.

Sea. III. OflnfpecUons.

Art. 35. The churches of the confelTion of Augf-
burg Ihali be fubjeft to infpetlions.

36. Five confillorial churches fhall form the bounds
of an infpeaion.

37. Each infpeflion fhall be compofed of a miniller
and an elder from each church of the diilricl. It flrall
not affemble without the permiffion of the government.
At its firfl meetings, the oldefl of the minillers of the
dillrift Ihall prefide. Each inlpeftion ihall choofe two
laymen and one clergyman, who ihall take the title of
iiilpeclor, and whofe duty it ihall be to watch over the
conduft of the miniflers, and to preferve good order in
the different churches : the choice of the infpeilor and
the two laymen ihall be confirmed by the firll conful.

3S. The iufpedion fliall not affemble without the au-
thority of government, in prefence of the prefecl or
lub-prefea, or witliout having given previous intelli-
gence to the counfellor of flate, wh'ofe bufinefs it is to
watch over religious affairs, of the fubjedls that are to
come under difcufTion.

39. The infpetlor fhall vifft the churches of his dif-
tricl ; and he may adopt the affulance of the two lay
men named with him, as often as circumllances ihall
appear to require. He fhall be ch.irged with the con-
vocation of the general affembly of inlpeflion, no decree
of which, however, fhall be put in force till it has re-
ceived the approbation of the government.

Sea. IV. Of general Confiflories.

Art. 40. There fliall be three general confiflories :
one at Straiburg for the Protellants of the confefTion
of Auglburg, belonging to the departments of the Up-
per and Lower Rhine; the fecond at Mentz, for thofe
of the departments of Laffare and Mont Tonnerre ; and
the third at Cologne, for thofe of the departments of the
Rhine and Mofelle, and la Roer.

41. Each confillory ihall be formed of one lay pre-
fident, of two ecclefiaftical infpeaors, and a deputy
from each infpeaion : the prefident and the two eccle-
fiaftical infpedors fhall be nominated by the chief con-
ful. The prefident ihall take the fame oath before the
chief conful, or a public funaionary delegated for that
purpofe, which is impofed upon the minillers of the Ca-
tholic religion ; the two ecclefiaftical infpeftors and the
B b lay

F R A [ 194 ]

lay members (hall have the fame oath aUminirtcrcd to endangering

F R A

in tl)c fmalleft degree the ftabiiity 01" his
The French people fliould not have been '

them by the preiident,

42. The general confiftory (liall not be permitted to deprived of the many bleffings refulting from a repre
aftemble without the confent of the government, and fentalive government ; and if not ripe for it then, i

fub-prefecT, and af-
djfcuffion, as deicrib-

fhculd have been conferred upon them ;it a fubfequcnt
period. If the hero of Marengo was afraid of facing a
free parliament, he thus pronounced hirafelf a tyrant,
and if unable to moderate its delibtratio^ss, very defi-
cient in political, kpowledge. He niiulu ::,.l r, ,^ .

Bonaparte

unlefs in prefcnce of the prefect
ler a notification of the fubjecis i
ed in former articles.

43. During the inten'al between the different meet-
ings, there flrall be a direclory, compofed of the prefi-

dcnt, of the oldeft of the two ecclefi;.ftical infpeclors, dient, for inftance, to impofe fome re;

and of three laymen, one of whom ftiall be nominated centioufnefs of the prefs j but totally tu : n. ■;i, ,

by the chief conful ; and the two others Ihall be chofen liberty was as unjuft as it was impolitic. He (hculd

by the general confiftory. have recollefted a faying of an hiftorian and philofo-

44. The privileges of the general confiflory and the phcr, " that a ivhifper may circulate as rapidly as a
diredory fliall continue to be direfted by the cufloms pamphlet."

and regulations of the churches of the confcflion of Towards the termination of the year i S02, Bona-

Augfturg, in all points which have not been formally parte was very aftive in his vifitations of the fea-port

fixed by the laws of the republic or the prefent articles. towMis, where the moft fulfome addreffes were prefented

to him which were ever given to any moital being.

When Bonaparte was defied firft conful for ten Various conjectures were formed as to the probable de-

years, he was deemed competent to be re-ele£ted for
the fam.e length of time ; but he was afterwards chofen
for life, with the ftrange power conferred upon him
of nominating his fucceflbr, or, in other words, of
governing beyond the grave, than which nothing can
be conceived more ridiculous or unjuft. Having ad-
\ anced with fuch rapidity in the acquifition of power
and authority, it was e.vtrcmely natural to conclude,
th.at the ambition of Bonaparte ivas not fatiated, but
that he would afterwards claim to himfelf, and influence

%n of fuch vifits. It ivas thought by fome that he
intended to conciliate the afFedions of t!ie people, el'ue-
cially the .military and the couft Itutcd authoriiic-s ;
others imagined that it was to make himfelf acquainted
with the true ttate of public opinion ; while a third
clafs conjectured that it was with a view to increafe
the navy of France, and acquire an intimate know-
ledge of the different parts of the coall. Whatever
his objeft was, it is more than probable that it was
directed to one point, and that his complicated move-
:'.h infatuated people to fanftion, ftill higher degrees of ments were purpofely intended to millead thofe who
dignity and grandeur. A book was accordingly pub- felt an ir.terelt in watching him. It is true, he made
lilhed, either with his permiflion, or by his exprefs com- no fecret of his determination to invade Great Britain ;
jiiand, pointing out the propriety and expediency of ere- but we fliould greatly diminilh that knowledge which
RUng him Fir// Ei;!/>erar oj' /ic Cau/s.' At a fubfequcnt he mult unquellionably poffefs, were we to conclude
j)criod of tlie hiftory contained in this article v.e ihall that he ever ferioufiy believed in the practicability of
fee this extravagant propofition actually carried into fuch an undertaking. ^.^

I ffeiSt, and Napoleon I. adorned with imperial honours. His abilities as a foldier will be difputed by no man,C!iara(fler

This verifies what Diunourier afferted concerning the for when viewed only in this light, he is unqueftionably °^ Koiia-
French, at a time when fuch an event was highly im- great ; but it would be a moft unpardonable breach ofP*"^'"^'
53S probable; " th;.t a king they -nould have." truth to call him an able poUtician. Wl.ile he promifed

e e.\ttr.t In the capacity of firlt conful, his power was fimilar to reftore the commerce of France, it continut-d to lan-
'"' to that of his Britannic majefty, in refpefl of criminals guilh, more, peihaps after the reltoration of peace, than

under fentence of death, that he could grant them at duiing the continuance of the war. This feems to be a
his pleafure a plenary pardon, and admit them to return fubjeft fairly beyond his comprehenfion. Xambers in
again to the bofora of fociety ; but liis executive autho- France drew a great part of their fubfiltence from the
rity in almolt every other cafe was dangcroufly greater, expenditure of fuch perfons from tiie Britldi dominions,
• as there was in faft no other power in the flate which as were difpofed, after the return of peace, to pay a vifit
could poffibly controul him. While his authority was to the metropohs of the Gallic empire. But while we
ertablilhed thus firmly within his own dominions, he thus freely animadvert on the conduft of the fait conful,
endeavoured to increafe liis influence over the reft of and point out his errors or faults without any referve,
Europe, by forming an alliance vith the court of Pe- ive whh not to conceal a fmgle circuraftance 'which re-
tcrfljurgh. At firft it was believed to be purely of a dounds to his honour. When Cambaceres, the biihop
commercial nature, but the aftive part taken by both of Caen, made application to the prefect of R.oucn to
in difmembering the Germanic body, clearly evinced have the Froteltant churches forcibly llmt; as foon as the
that fuch an alliance was of a more interefling nature, requelt of the biihop was known to Bonaparte, he lent
notwithflanding the oltenfible rcafon for fuch conduct for the fecond conful and told liim, that if the biihop
was the indemi.ijication of the fufferers during the war. liad not been l,is brother, he would have ilruck :iim off
It will perhaps be admitted, that the Hate of France, the liit. Such a reply was certainly \vorthy of a great
after the dreadful convulfions occafioned by the revolu- man.

tion, i-equired an executive' government of confjderable On the 2 lit of February 1803, a view of the ftate of

promptitude and vigour ; jet it was furely poffible, and France was laid before the legillative body and the tri-
it was no lelk a facred duty binding upon him, to con- bunate, containing a comprehenlive view of the relations
fult, in particular circumftances, the happinefs and prof- of the repubh'c, both with refpeft to colonies and foreign
perity of the people much more than he did, v.ithout Hates j but the moll important pait of it had a reference

F R A [I

FriP.-e. to Britain, which -.vas charged »ith acting improperly
*~~^^ in retaining troops in Malta and Egypt, after the figning

'^^3' of the definitive treaty. It divided the inhabitants of ic
into two parties, repreftnting the one as having fwoni
implacable enmity to France, and the other as anxious
to maintain the relations of peace and amity, concluding
with fingular bravado, " whatever may be the fuccefs of
intrigue at London, it will never force other nations into
new leagues ; and the French government aflerts, with
iuif pride, that England alone cannot now contend with
.^0 France."
Holiile prp- It now began to be manifeft, that the bleflings of
pirntions of peace were not to be long enjoyed. The extenlive
France. ,varlike preparations going forward about this time in
the poits of France and Holland, roufed the jealoufy of
the Britifli miniftry ; for although the ofteniible reafon
^ras to reduce the revolted colonies to obedience, they
could not help apprehending that much more was com-
prehended in fjch extenfive armaments. We ihall Hill
be more inclined to adopt tliis opinion, if we advert to
the following circumltance. When Bonaparte, on the
1 ^th of iMarch, found Lord Whitworth and M. de
Marcoff ftanding together, he addreffcd them in thefe
ivords : " We have fought for fifteen years, and it
feems there is a ftorm gathering at London, which may
produce another war of fifteen years more. — The king
of England has faid, in his raelTage to the parliament,
that France had prepared offenfive armaments y he has
been millaken -, there is not in the ports of France any
confiderable force, they having all fet out for St Do-
mingo. He faid there exifted ibme differences between
the two cabinets ; I do not know of any. It is true that
his majerty has engaged by treaty that England fliould
evacuate Alalta. It is poiTible to kill the French people,
but not to intimi/date them." At the conclufion of the
drawing-room, it is faid that Bonaparte addreffed the
Britiih envoy thus, whien near the door : " The duchefs
of Dorfet has paffed the moft unpleafant feafon at Paris ;
I mort ardently wifh the may pafs the pleafant one alio ;
but if it is true that ive are to have war, the refponli-
bility, both in the fight of Gcd and man, wiU be on
thofe who fliall refufe to execute the treaty."

Much about the fame time a paper was inferted in the
Hamburgh Correfpondenten, containing much violent
declamation againft Great Britain, and believed by
:nany to have been the produftion of Bonaparte. If
our information be correct, the French minifter re-
quefted, and obtained permiffion, from the magiilrates
of that city to make it thus public. Some alterations
were made on the raanufcript, which having given
offence to the republican ambaffador, it was, on the
^Oth of March, inferted without any alterations or
iuppofed amendments. It contains many rancorous ex-
preffions againft Great Britain, while part of it feems
to be a defigned apology for the infulting converfa-
tion which took place at Madame Bonaparte's draw,
ing room already mentioned. It contains fome reHec-
tio s alfo on the freedom of difcufTion indulged in the
Britilli news-papers relative to the affairs of France,
a rircumftance far beneath the notice of the firft conful,
-ivho, in this particular, did not advert to the freedom of
the Britiih prefs.

In ihe interior parts of France, the moft H<3ive prc-
parntions for war continued to be made, and at the fea-
ports, the different commanders rec«ived orders to put

95 ] F R A

the navy as fall as poffible on a rcfpeclable footing. Kiar.cf.
Vaft bodies' of the military received orders to leave ""T*
the Netherlands, and march towards the frontiers of '<'-3-
the Kitavian republic, while the lhi]'.s deftined for the
Newfoundland filhery were laid under an embargo. 541

As the illand of Malta was, by the treaty of Amiens, f'':'*''='^:
to be furrrendcrcd to the knights of the order of St^^*^?""''^
John of Jerufalem, upon certain conditions, De Tho-'
mafi, the new grand mafter, fent M. de Buffy liis
lieutenant in the month of January, with full powers
to demand potTeffion of the illand j to which the go-
vernor. Sir Alexander Jonathan Ball, replied; that as
fome of the powers who had, by the loth article of the
treaty of Amiens, been invited to guarantee the inde-
pendence of Malta, had not as yet agreed to that mea-
fure, he could not terminate the government of his
Britannic majefty without farther inflrudions.

As the long and tedious correipondence carried on
between Great Britain and France, by means of Lord
Whit^vorth and M. de Talleyrand, which was laid be-
fore both houfes of parliament on the 18th of May
1803, did not terminate in fuch a manner as the lovers
of peace molt ardently wilhed, a frelh rupture between
the two countries fcemed unavciJable. Orricers were
fent to refide in the principal fea-ports ©f Great Bri-
tain, vefted with the character of commercial agents,
but they were in fact detefted in founding the har-
bours, and in draiving plans of the ports ; a glaring
proof that fome delperate blow was meditated againlt
this country. 5^,

In fpite of the efforts of the B itifli miniltry to pre-Hoflilitie!
vent a rupture, holtilities actually commenced on tl).e'*"*^"™-
1 6th ot Rlay, and letters of marque were iffaed againit " ' „
the French republic. The ultimatum of Britain was tain and
conceived in thefe terms: " that the French govern- France,
ment Ihould not oppofe the ceflion of the illand of
Lampedofa to his Britannic majelty ; that the French
forces Ihould evacuate the Batavian and the Svvifs
territor)- ; that a fuitable provifion lliould be made for
the king of Sardinia ; and, by a lecret article, that
Britain Ihould be permitted to retain poffeffion of
Malta for ten years." Our readers will no doubt im-
mediately conclude, that this was rejected ; but France
liill made fome feeble endeavours to negotiate, which
appeared to the cabinet of St James's to be a pretext
only to gain time, the war was confidered as aclually
recommenced. All fubjefts belonging to Britain who
were now found in France and Holland were arretted
and detained ; an event ^vhich was fpeedily followed
by the march of a republican army towards Ofnaburgh
and Hanover, the former of which was taken poffef-
iionof by General Mortier on the 26lh of May, after
which he tok the town of Bentheini, and the Hano-
verian garrifon were made prifoners of war, O.'ha-
burgh was abandoned by the Hanoverians on the 28th,
and two days after the French got poffeflion of (^uack-
enbrook. His royal highnefs the duke of Cambridge
was determined to fland or fall with t'le cU-ftorate ; but
as he was at the head of no more than a handful of
troops compared with the army of Mortier, the regency
urged him to retire from the command, as the probabi-
lity of fuccefs was entirely ajainit him. The duke,
therefore, returned to Bremen, ?nd reached Yarmouth
on the 13th of June, along with P.ince William of
Gloucefter.

iJ b 2 Much

F K A [ r

Francg. ^ Much about this period, General Mortier ■ivas waited
upon by deputies from the regency, both of a civil and
J ■ military nature, who begged that he would fufpend his
march, and propofed a capitulation. By this the Ha-
noverian troops were permitted to furvender on their
parole, and agreed not to take up arms againft France
during the continuance of the war. Sums were to be
raifed for maintaining the republican army, while private
property was to be held facred.

If this promife, however, was really made, it does not
appear that it was confidered as binding, for it has been
faid that more flagrant acts of cruelty and injullice were
fcarcely ever perpetrated by people profeffing to be civili-
zed. The following, we are told, is part of the information
upon this fubjeclcommunicated by private letters. " In the
city of Hanover, and even in the public ftrcets, women
of the higheft rank have been violated by the lo^veft of
the brutal foldiery, in the prcfence of their hulhands
and fathers, and fubjefted at the fame time to luch
additional and undefcribable outrage?, as the brutal fury
of the violators, inflamed by drunkennefs, could con-
trive. Nor have we heard that the philofophers of
Goettingen, the enthufiafts of equality and perfectibi-
lity, have been at all better treated." We fufpect
that this pifture is too highly coloured ; yet, if a
thoufandth part of tiie narration be true, of which we
have only felefled a foecimen, we muft allow it to be
j^j an indelible lligma on the French nation.
"Bonaparte It had. always been a favourite objetl with Bona-
"y^.'" parte, to do as much injury as poffible to the commerce
commerce. °^ Great Britain, and therefore he now determined to
fliut again!! this country the ports of the Wefer and the
Elbe ; and alfo Infilted on the ports of Denmark being
Ihut againft veflels belonging to Britain, propofmg to
plant a French garrifon in the city of Copenhagen,
■while the other powers of Europe feemed to behold his
oonduft'with indifference or ftupefaflion. The French
having put themfelves in poffelfion of the eNxIufive na-
vigation of the Elbe, Great Britain determined to bloc-
kade it with iliips of war, as a report then prevailed that
Bonaparte would make ufe of that port for the purpofe
of invading Scotland. In this view of the matter, the
conduit of Britain was highly commendable.

About this time the French army in St Domin-
go was in a moft melancholy condition, as appeared
from the information contained in fome intercepted let-
ters. Although about 10,000 men reached the iiland, in
three months after General Rochambeau's arrival, when
fhey were landed in the different ports, fcarcely any
traces of a reinforcement could be perceived, fo much
had his army fuffcred. The atrocities of the troops in
their turn were alfo faid Ui le great, and complaints
made to the com.manding ullicers were anrvered with
threats. It appears that Rochambeau was obliged to
liave recourfc to abfolute falfehood, in order to keep up
the fpirits of his troops, and allay their difcontent •, giv-
ing out, what he knew could not be the cafe, that a re-
j^^ inforcement of 20,000 men was daily expedled.
Britairi p-,it In the mean lime, the minillry of Great Britain ufcd
"f d ?^"^ every effort to place the country in a fccure and refpec-
° ^ ""■ table (late of defence, (hould the infatiable ambition of
Bonaparte lead him to a furious attempt to invade it.
The intelligent part of the people indeed believed that
he never fcrioufly iatended to hazard the confcquences
of what he threatened, yet it v. as certainly prudent to

96 ]

F R A

prepare for the worft. The troops of the line were in- Frar.ce.
duftrioufly and fuccefsfullv recruited, the militia were '•-—^^—~'
called out and kept in aftive fervice, and an army of ^^^2-
referve was raifed with the utmoll expedition. Having
almoft 500,000 troops of different fpecies, Britain had
no jull reafon to apprehend an invafion, being able to
accompliih the deltruiSion of the boldeft invader.
Thefe troops were encamped along the coafl, garrifon
towns were properly fupplicd with men, the greateft
force w-as concentrated wherever the probability of a
landing was llrongeft, and care was taken of the health
of the military, as well as the appointment of the ablell
generals to command them. Provifions, ammunition
and llores were colledled in abundance. As it was na-
tural to conclude that London would be the great ob-
ject with an invading avmv, tlie utmoll attention was
paid to the defence of thole parts of the coall which are
moft adjacent to it.

Similar efforts were made to annoy the enemy by fea,
and render their defigns wholly abortive. To Lord
Keith and Admiral Montague was entrufted the com-
mand of the channel lleet ; and an attempt was made
at Granville to difconcert the preparations of France,
by attachment of fliips under the command of Sir James
Saumarez, which \vas fo far attended with fuccefs as to
intimidate the inhabitants, damage a number of houles,
and deftroy fome boats in the harbour. Similar atacks
upon Calais and Boulogne alfo tended to convince the
French refiding on the coaft that they were far from
being fccure, although total deftruilion was not the
confequence of fuch exertions. Lord Nelfon then
guarded the Italian feas, and Sir Edward Pellew and
Sir Robert Calder were Rationed off Ferrol. ,.-

In the mean time the republican army in Hanover "ruelties of
continued to opprel's the inhabitants, and to devour the '''''■ ^'''^"'^''
refources of th.at eleaoi ate. The Dutch were made to „ ';';*„'4V'''
fuffer almoft as much from their new allies and pretend- r:^,,;
ed friends, as the inhabitants of a conquered countn.-.
They were dragged into a war of which they certainly
■vvidied to be the unconcerned fpeflators, compelled to
raifa and maintain a large body of native troops, to re-
ceive garrifons into all their ftrong towns, to give up
their lea-ports to the French, and expofe their whole
country as a fcene of paffage and encampment to the
armiesof the republic. Their trade was ruined, and their
ports blocked up by the Britiih at fea, on account of
their alliance with France. The inhabitants of the
Belgic provinces belonging to France were alfo ievere
fufferers by the levies of confcripts, the interruption
which their trade and manufaftures met with from the
•war, and the rigour by which they were governed. It
was reported that the firft conful had 300,000 effective
men in readinefs along the coaft and the places adjacent,
and that 2800 men were inceffantly employed, aug-
menting and repairing the fortifications at Boulogne. r.^.

During the month of November 1803, the fea-coaftsThe Britllh
of Great Britain and Ireland received frefti additions 0^:03^5 are
ftrcngth, that if ever troops from France Ihould dare to'"'"'^"^'''
attempt a landing, they might be alTured of meetintr
ivith a warm reception. The garrifon of Plymouth ^vas
augmented to 13,700 land men, beiides 1500 feamen
and marines. A battery was eredled at Paul Point, for
the defence of the Huinbcr, and two others were to be
built .ippofite to it in Lincolnlliire. Exertions equally
fpirlted were continued by fea. Sir Sidney Smith cruii-

F R A

[ 197 ]

F R A

Vrancf. ed off tlie Texel, and drove on (liore on the coaft of

*■ Holland, 12 armed (hips of the enemy, three of which

18D4. ,^.g,.e captured. During the month of February 1804,
the French and Dutch ports continued to be blockaded
by the Britilh navy with the utnioil vigilance, a meafure
ivhich the tempefiuous nature of the weather frequently
rendered hazardous. The preparations for an iuvafion
of this country were ftill continued on the part of
France, but no force of any confequence found it prac-
ticable to put to fea, oiving to the vigilance of our
cruizers. A number of gimboats were taken at dif-
ferent times off Boulogne, and different other parts of
the French and Dutch coafts, which might have convin-
ced the people of thefe countries of the ablurdity of ex-
pecting to accomplifti any thing dtciiive againif Britain
by fuch inadequate means.

A plan was fuggefttd for filling up the ports of the
enemy with ftones and the hulks of old vefl'els, fo r.s
to render it difficult, if not wholly impracticable, ei-
ther for (hips or fmall craft to make their way out of
them. The idea feems to have been taken from a fac^
well known, that harbours have been often ruined by the
tides and currents of the fea, the depofition of iand
from rivers, earthquakes, and other accidents ; and
therefore it was concluded that fimilar effefts might
be produced by artificial means. The accomplifhment
of fuch an objeft, if it were practicable, would be an
ample compenlation for the greateit e.xpence.

It was the opinion of the dilcerning part of mankind,
long before it happened, that the ambition of Bonaparte
would not ahvays remain (atisfied with the dignity of
firft conful, even for life ; for although he could re-
ceive no frefh additions to his power and influence, yet
there was reafon to believe that the found of fuch titles
as have always been deemed higher and more dignified
liill, would be too fafcinating for him to refift. Ac-
cordingly, on the 25th of April 1804, the following
decree was iffued by the tribunate of France.

" The tribunate, confidering that at the breaking
out of the revolution, when the national ivill had an
opportunity of manifelting itfelf with the greateft free-
dom, the general wifli was declared for the individual
unity of the fupreme power, and for the hereditary fuc-
celhon of that power :

" That the family of the Bourbons, having by their
conduft rendered the hereditary government odious to
the people, forced them to lofe fight of its advantages,
and drove the nation to feek lor a happier defliny in a
democraliral form of government :

" That France ha\-ing made a trial of different forms
of government, experienced from thefe trials only the
miferies of anarchy :

" That the (tate was in the greateft peril, when Bo-
naparte, brought back by providence, fuddenly appear-
ed for its falvation :

" That the confuKhip for life, and the power grant-
ed to the firft conful of appointing his fucceffor, are not
adequate to the prevention of intrigues at home or
abroad, which could not fail to be formed during the
vacancy of the fupreme power :

" That in declaring that magiftracy hereditary, con-
formity is obferved at once to the example of all great
Iktes, ancient or modem, and the firft v.ilh of the na-
tion, expreffed. in 1789 :

That, enlightened and fupported by this experience,
the nation row retiu-ns to this wilh more ftrongly than
ever, and expreffes it on all fides :

" That when France demands for her fecurity an
hereditary chief, her gratitude and affection call on Bo-
naparte :

" Th.1t France may expcft from the family of Bo-
naparte, more than from any other, the maintjnance of
the rights and hiierty of the people :

" 'I'hat there is no title more lUitable to the glory of
Bonaparte, and to the dignity of the fupreme chief of
the French nation, than the title of emperor.

" The tribunate have come to the following vote :

" That Napoleon Bonaparte, the fiilt confiJ, be
proclaimed emperor of the French, and in that capacity-
be inverted xvith the government of the French republic :

" That the title of emperor and the imperial power
be made hereditary in his family in the male line, ac-
cording to the order of primogenitui-e."

The foregoing decree having been put to the vote, ii
was carried by acclamation, with the fingle exception
of the only member (Carnot,) who delivered his fenti-
ments againll its adoption.

The lenate prefented an addrefs to the firft conful, in
which thev took great pains to convince him that the
fafety of France, and the happinefs of Europe, depend-
ed entirely upon his .loceptancc of the title of Emperor
of the French, and upon its being made hereditary in
his illultrious family. The dinerent divilions of the
army of conrfe fent addrelTes to the firft conful, intreat-
ing him to condefcend to become emperor of France.

Bonaparte requefted them, in his anfwer, " to make
known to him the whole of their thoughts." The fe-
nate then defired him to take the imperial and heredi-
tary dignity. Bonaparte confented.

An addrefs was prefented by the fenate to the firft |
conful, in which they employed manr arguments to;
convince him (they might have fpared themfelves the c
trouble) that the prefervation of France, and the repofe Trance,
of all Europe turned on his acceptance of the dignified
title of the emperor of the French, which right to be
hereditary in his auguft family. The different dinfions
of the army hoped alio that he ^vould be gracioufly
pleafed to condefcend (what an inftance of humility!)
to become emperor of France. Whether or not it may
excite the aftoniihment of our readers, we can affure
them upon the moll uiidoubted authority, that he was ■
fo humble as to accept of it, and the following is his
addrefs to the confervative fenate.

" Sevatore,

" Your addrefs of the 6th lalt; Germinal has never
ceafed to be prefent to my thoughts. It has been the
oljjcft of my mofl conltant meditation.

" You have juilged the hereditary power of the
fupreme tnagiftracy necelTary, in order to Ihelter the
French people completely from the plots of our ene-
mies, and from the agitations which arife from rival
ambitions. It even appears to you, that many of our
inllitutions ought to be improved, in order to fecure for
ever the triumph of equality and public liberty, and
prefent to the nation and to the government the double
guarantee they are in want of.

" In projiortion a-. I fiv my attcnuon upon thefe great
■;'bie6ls,. ,

3n;i parte
made
peror cC

.So4.

S43
Trial of
ftate pri-
foners ii>

France.

F Tv A [ i(

objefls, I am dill more convinced o£ I'r.e verity of thofe
ientiments ivhich I have expreiTed to you, ar.d I (eii
more anj more, that in a circumftance as neiv as it is
important, the councils of your wifdoni and experience
were ncceflary to enable me to fix my ideas.

" I requeft you then to maiie knoivn to me the whole
of your thoughts.

" The French people can add nothing to the hon-
our and glory with which it has furrounded me ; but the
nioft facred duty for me, as it is the deareft to ray heart,
is to fecure to its lalejl pojleritij thofe advantages iv'iich
it has acquired by a revolution that has coll it lb much,
particularly by the facrifice of thofe millions of brave
citizens ^vho have died in defence of their rights. Fif-
teen years have pad fince, by a fpontaneous movement
you ran to arms, you acquired liberty, equality, and
glory. Thefe firft bleffings of nations are now fecured
to you for ever, are (h.eltcred from every tempell, they
are preferved to you and your children ; inllitutions
conceived and begun tn the mid ft of the ilorms of in-
terior and exterior wars, developed with conftancy, are
iuft terminated in the noife of the attempts and plits of
our moft mortal enemies, by the adoption of every thing
which the experience of centuries and of nations has dc-
monflrated as proper to guarantee the rights which the
nation had judged neceflary for its dignity, its liberty,
and its happinefs."

The new emperor was allovved to adopt the children
or grand-children of his brothers, if arrived at tlie age
joi I 8 years complete, and he without legitimate chil-
dren of his oivn ; but this privilege cannot be enjoyed
by his fucccITors. Failing both legitimate and adopted
heirs, the crown (hall be enjoyed by Jofeph Bonaparte
.and his defcendants •, and failing .Tofeph and his de-
fendants, it (hall devolve on Louis Bonaparte and his
defcendants, &c. If a fuccelTor cannot be found in any
of thefe channels, a Senatus corifuhurn, propofed to the
fenate by the dignities (we prefume it (liould have been
dignitaries) of the empire, and fubmitted for the ac-
ceptance of the people, (liall nominate an emperor. It
was alio decreed that the members of the imperial
family (hould be called French princes, and the eldeft
(on of the family, the imperial prince. Among other
things it was enafted, that every emperor, two years
after he comes to the throne, lliall fvvear to maintain
the Integrity of the territory of the French republic I
We have mentioned this la(l circumflance, wholly for
this reafon, that the emperor of a republic is no doubt a
rarity to the greater part of our readers.

The trial of the ftate prifoners commenced at Paris
on the 29th of May 1804. They were charged with
confplring againft the life and government of Bona-
parte ; but how great was our aftonidiment to (ind the
juftly celebrated General Moreau included In the num-
ber I Envy and jealoufy of Bonaparte can alone have
implicated this great man in fuch a charge, as he was
heard to lay on the arrival of the new emperor from
Egypt ; — " this Is the man who is neceflary to fave
France." Georges with 11 of his aTociates, were con-
demned and executed on the 25th of June ; the gallant
Moreau and four more, were fentenced to fufFcr t'.vo
years imprifonment, and about 18 were acquitted.
Some of thofe who ^vere condemned were aftenvards
pardoned by imperial clemepcy, moved by the fafri-
nating charms of female eloquence and female tears.

F R A

The fentence 01 imprifonment againft Moreau was com- Tr-infe.

muted to banifhment for life to the United States of " ■'

America. ^^O^.

The coronation of Bonaparte took place in the month , -^•*' .
of December 1804, which was accompanied on the part^f k,"iX° '
of the people by Inch demonftratlons of apparent falis-pa:te.
faftion as evinced the degraded ftate of the public mind
in that unfortunate country. After receiving a num-
ber of the moft fulfome fpeeches, filled entirely with
bomball and falichood, his imperial majelfy delivered
the following addrefs. " I afcend the throne, to which
the unanimous wilhes of t'^e fenate, the people, and the
army have called me, ^vith a heart penetrated with the
great dcjlinics of that people, whom, from the inidft of
camps, I firlt faluted ^vith the name of Great. From
my youth ; my thoughts have been folcly fixed upon
them (fo it appears) ; and I muft add here, that my
pleafures and my pains are derived entirely from the
happinefs or mifery of my people. My defcendants
(hall long preferve tills throne (a very bold prediftlon).
In the field they vvill be the firft foldiers of the army,
facrificing their lives for the defence of their country.
As magiiirates they will never forget, that cor.tempt
of the laws, and the confufion of fecial order, are only
the relult of the Imbecillity and uncertainty of princes.
You, fenators, whofe counfels and fupport have never
failed me in the moft difficult circumftances, your fpirit
will be handed down to your fucceflbrs. Be ever the
prop and firft counfellors of that throne, fo neceflary to
the welfare of this vaft empire."

On the 4th of Februai7 1805, a letter WTltten byvvTio^writcs
Bonaparte to his Britannic majefty on the fubjeft ofa letter to
peace, was laid before the legiilative body by the coun-*'!* Britan-
fellors of ftate, in which he obferved that providence,"'"^ ["^J.^^^
the fenate, the people, and the army, had called hirajg^-^of
to the throne of France. He admitted that the two peace,
countries, over which they prcfided as the chief magi-
ftrates, might contend againft each other for ages, but
denied that it was for the intereft of either to continue
the conteft. He requefted his Britannic majefty not
not to deny himftlf the InexprelTible felicity of giving
peace to the world ; for (hould the prefent moment be
loft, he did not fee how all his elYorts would be able
to terminate the war, which he confidered as without
any objeft or prefumable refidt. He concluded with
oblerving that reafon is fufticiently powerful to difcover
means of reconciling every thing, when the wilh of re-
conciliation e.xlfts on both fides. On the 1 6th of the
fame month, a very fplendid entertainment was given
to the emperor and emprefs by the city of Paris. ;;i

Never was any naval viftory more glorious or de-The memo-
cifive than that which was gained by the Britilh under"'''"= *'""'=
Vice-admiral Lord Nelfon over the combined fleets of^^jj. ^^^ '
France and Spain, o(F Cape Trafalgar, on the 21ft Oc-?,iiIci, Lord
tober 1 805. The Britilh commander in chief gave the Nelfon ieli.
fignal for bearing up in two columns as they formed In
the order of failing, a mode of attack which had been
jjrevloufly ordered by his lordftiip, to prevent the delay
and inconvenlency of forming the line of battle In the
manner ulually adopted. The fleet of the enemy con-
filled of 3^ (hips, under the command of the French
admiral Villeneuve. The Spanilh divifion under Ad-
miral Gravlna, formed the line of battle with great
coohiefs and (kill, the heads of the ftiips being turned-
to the northward. The manner of attack was uncom-

F R A [ r

-'■e. TLion, f.r,d t)ie formation of their line was coiifequently

■ ' new. Few fignals were iicceiTary from the commander

^^^S- of the Britifli fleet, becaufe the flag officers and caj)-
tains \yere made previoufly acquainted with the admi-
ral's whole plan. The \veather column v,as led by the
commander in chief on board the Viclorj', and Lord
Collingvvood in the Royal Sovereign took charge of the
leeward divifion. The leading (hips of the Britilli columns
breaking through the enemy's line, was the fignal for
commencing hoftilities, which began about i 2 o'clock.
The fliips of the enemy were fought in fuch a manner
as did the highell honour to the officers by whom ilicy
were commanded, but they oppofed a force which was
not to be vanquiihed. About 3 o'clock in the after-
noon the enemy's line gave vya}-, msny of their (lilps
having ilruck their colour''. Admiral Gravina then
{leered for Cadiz; and 19 laii of the line, of which two
were firft rates, fell into the hands of the victors, and
three flag-officers, Villeneuve, Don Ignatia Maria
D'Aliva, and Don Bakazar Hidalgo Cifneros, were
,,j made prifoners.
Germany is About the fame time that the Britifli navy ac-
overrun by quired the raoft fignal viftory oyer the combined fleets
Bonaparte, gf France and Spain, the emperor Napoleon was carry-
ing his viilorious anns through the heart of Germany,
and forcing the emperor of that country to abandon his
metropolis. He left Paris on tlie 24th of September
1 80 5, to join the grand army, and reached Straffiurgh
on the 2fith, accompanied by the eraprefs. Here he
ilTued a manifefto to his army, in v.hich he mentioned
the commencement of the war of what he termed tlie
l/u'rj coalition, which he faid was created and maintain-
ed by the gold and hatred of England. lie declared
lie would Hght till he had fecured the independence of
the Germanic body, and never again make peace with-
out fiifficient fecurity of its continuance. He crolVed
the Rhine at Kehl on the l ll of O.^ober, and on the
evening of the fame day arrived at Ettlingen, where
the elector of Bacen was prefented to him, along with
his two ions. On the 2d he went to Stutgard, where
the elector (now king) of Wirtemberg received him in
the molt magnificent manner, and the city was illumi-
nated. The king of Wirtemberg agreed to furnilh
■ 6000 men for the affiitance of France, and tlie eleclor
of Baden 40:0.

The French armies on the coaft reached the banks
of the Rhine in the month of September, and crofled
that river on the 25th. General Bemad nte reached
Franconia on the 23d, where he was joined by the Ba-
varian army of 20,oco infantry and cavalry ; by the
army of Holland "under IMarmont, and the Eatavian
divifion. 'Jhis array of Bernadotte, aliout 40,000
itrong, conftituted the fifth divifion of the grand or
imperial French army. It is remarkable that theie
three great men, Jourdan, Lecourbe, and Macdonald,
were not employed \ the reafon afligned for which mea-
fure is, that Bonaparte fufpefted them of dilloyalty
ever fince the condemnation of that lingular otHcier
JVIoreau. Bernadotte marched direiSly for the Danube
on the 2d of October, and took a pofition at Ingol-
ftadt. The rapidity with w-hich the French forces
mfjved feems to have difcorxerted the Aultriap com-
mander completely, as no movements were made to op-
pofc their progrefs.
I Hoitilities commenced on the 7th, when the Auf-

99 ]

^ 11

trians were defeated witii the lofs of many killed, wound- Francf.

ed, and prifoners, in attempting to oppole the paflage ' " '

of General Vaitdamme acrofs the bridged of Donawert. 1805.
Field-niarfiial Auftcnbcrg, while on his march to Ulm,
was completely furrounded by the French, and obliged
to furrtnder. It is faid that tiie Aultrians here loft two
colonels, five majors, 60 officers, and 4000 men made
prifoners. Meinmingen furrcndercd on the 14th to Mar-
ihal Soult, after v.hich he marched on to Biberach, in
order to cut off the retreat of the Aultrians by that
road. i\Iarffial Ney crofled the Danube, and made an
attack upon Elchingcn a little above Ulm. The Auf-
trians made a fortie, but were driven back to their
enn-enchments before Ulm, with the lofs, it is faid,
of 3C00 men taken prifoners ; and at Langenau their
lofs amounted to the fame number, in an action with
Prince Murat, who commanded the cavalry. This
officer again brought them to aftion on the 17th, when
their lofs was comjiuted at 1000 men, and ne.xt day
General Werncck's divifion was obliged to capitulate.
From Aibsck to Nuremberg, Murat is faid to liave
got poflellion of 1 500 waggons and 1 6,000 prifoners ;
but Prince Ferdinand effeclcd his efcape. 553

Ulm furrendcred by capitulation on the 17th, andSi'ri.-iider
this unaccountable ftep was taken by General Mack,"' '''^"'•
becaufe Berthier aiTured him that the Auilrians were on
the other fide of the Inn ; that Lanneswas in purfuit of
Prince Ferdinand ; that Wemeck had capitulated, and
that it was impoffible for any fuccour« to reach Ulm.
After the furrender of this place, the Aultrian generals
ivho ^vere made prifoners, were fent under an efcort
through Bavaria to Vienna, and Mack was entrulled
with fome propofals to the emperor of Germany. ^.,

On tlie 28th of October a fpirited proclamation was The' French •
iifued by the emperor at Vienna, declaring that thee>ierVi.
views of Aultria and Ruflia were extremely moderate,'"""'
and execrating the defigns and views of Bonaparte.
Every divifion of the French army, except that under
General Ney, crofled the river Inn on the lit of No-
vember. Bonaparte himfelf u'as with the right wing
at Saltlhurgh ; and the centre, commanded by Prince
Murat, marched towards Lintz with uncommon rapi-
dity. The Auftro-Ruffian army retreated to Maelk
(50 miles from Vienna) as the enemy advanced. The
Auftrians and Ruffians made no itand between the Ens
and Vienna, ^vhich latter place the French entered on
the I2th of Oitober. Bonaparte arrived on the 13th,
and took up his quarters in the pal.ace of Schoenbrun,
about two miles from the city of Vienna. The French
troops conducted thcmfelves with the utmolt propriety
and decorum, which prevented any diiturbance from
taking place in the metropolis. j;j

Oil the 27th of November, as Bonaparte perceived Tin; dread-
ihe dreadful carnage which was inevitable from tlie con-*^".' ''''"'^
lljcl of two fuch prodigious armies as that of the allies [*;,_ uker-
and his own, was extremely anxious to fpare the eftli-
fion of human blood, and for this purpofe he propcfed
an armillice, which was rejected ivith di.fdain. It was
not long before Bonaparte diTcovered that the allies
were acting from preluniption, want of confideralion,
and imprudence, of which circu-mltances he was but too
well qualified to take advantage. At funrife the battle
commenced, and a tremendous cannonade took place
along the whole line. It is almolt needlefs to remark,
that 200 pieces of cannon and 2CO,ooo men made a

moft

F R

[ 2C0 ]

F R A

Trsnce. nioil tremendous no-fe. In lefs than an liour the whole
*^~7^~~~ ''^ft wing of the allies was cut off, their right being by
•^^S- that time at Auilerlitz, the head quarters of the Ruf-
fian ai!d Auftrian emperors. From the heights of this
place the emperors witnefled the total defeat of the Ruf-
IJans by the French guard. The lofs fullained by the
■allies during the whole of this battle was eftimated at
I s'O pieces of cannon, with 45 (land of colours, and
18,000 Ruflians, and 600 Aulirians were left dead on
tae field. On the 5th of December an inter\'ie-v took
place between the emperors of Aurtria and France,
which lafted for two hours. An armillice was mutual-
ly agreed to, which was to ferve as the bafis of a defi-
nitive treaty. The emperor of Ruflia was comprehend-
ed in this armiftice, on condition of marching home his
army in fuch a manner as the emperor Xapoeleon might
think proper to prelcribe. By virtue of the treaty of
peace, the French agreed to evacuate Bninn on
the 4th of January, Vienna on the icth, and the
whole Aufttrian ftates in fix weeks after the figning of
the treaty, except fuch as were ceded to Italy and
^^5 Bavaria.
Thc'Frern-h It is certain, however, that the lofs of the Ruffians
aecount in this terrible conflift %vas declared by the court of Pe-
"^Th"^* 1!'^' '^'■^""■g'' to '^^^■^ been fhockingly exaggerated by the
Ruflhns' French bulletins, which made the allied army amount
to I05,COO, while it appears that the Ruffians were on-
ly 52,000 llrong, and the Auftrians 17,000. Accord-
ding to the Ruffian ilatement, they had not a deficit of
more than 17,000 men after that memorable battle,
while the French papers made it 35,000 men killed on
the field and taken prifoners, independent of 20,000
who ^vere drowned. Which of thefe contradictory re-
ports is to be believed, we lliall leave entirely to the
judgment of our readers, ivho will probably think with
us, that the one is perhaps too much diminilhcd, and
the other rather exaggerated.
Reflcrtions ^^ would have required the invincible modefty of
on the con. a Waflungton, not to be elated with the extraordinary
diicfl of tlie fuccefs which attended the arms of Bonaparte in this laft '
attack upon Germany •, — a qualification which he feems
never to have polTeffed. After the battle of Aurterlitz,
his conduct was of confequence marked with the moll
horrid injufticc, tyranny, and rapine, both with refpecl
to Hanover and the unfortunate king of Naples. The
unexpeifled turn which the iflue of that battle gave to
continental affairs, likewife changed the fentiments of
the cautious, the intriguing, and myfterious king of
Pruffia, on w hofe co-operation the allies at a former pe-
riod had certainly fome reafon to calculate, although it
does not appear that he was ever ferious in his profef-
fions of attachment to the intereft of Britain. He could
drain her coffers without granting her that effcflual af-
fillance which he fcrupled not to promife, but which he
never intended to confer. Indeed it mull be confelTed,
that after the battle of Aurterlitz, when both Autlria
and Ruffia were humbled by the Corncan ufurper, it
would have been madnefs in Frederick to aim a blow
againft France ; but why not aim it before, when in all
probability it would have been eminently fuccefsful ?
We admire the king who wifhes to make his fubjetls
happy, by keeping war at a dillance from them as
much as poffible ; but we dctcfl that fovereign as the
*Qrft of Avindlers, who receives payment for fuch affifl-

,5^»

king of
Prullia«

ance to other nations againft their infatiable enemies as
he never defigns to grant. '"

The troops of his PruiTian majefly took pofleflion of
Hanover ; and the country of Anfpach was ceded to the
king of Bavaria, who received his royalty from the
hands of Napoleon I. The king of Naples took re-
fuge in Sicily, hoping there to be protected from the
vengeance of the felf-elefled monarch of France, by
the united exertions of the naval force of England,
Ruffia, and Sicily. His Neapolitan majefty no doubt
often violated the treaties which he made with France j
but it ought In charily to be remembered, that thefe
treaties were made under the impulfe of fear, the prof-
peft of impending dertruclion, and to prevent a band
of robbers from plundering both him a;;d liis f^jbjecls of
their lail ihiUing. When the affairs of the continent at
any time wore a more favourable afpecl, he no doubt
trampled on fjch extorted treaties, in the hope of re-
gaining that of which he had been un juftly deprived ;
and under fuch circurallances even,ju;lice itielf cannot
condemn him, and the dictates of humanity commife-
rate his misfortunes.

While the arms of Bonaparte were viclorious in Eu- Admiral
rope, his naval force in the Weft Indies received a D I'^kwcrth
frelh proof that Britain reigns triumphant on the feas. ^5**'"* *
A fquadron under the command of Admiral Di"ck-(- J^^^j^
worth, engaged and deftroyed a French iquadron on in the Weft
the 7th of February, about 36 miles from the town oflndies.
St Domingo, Three of them, one of 84, and two of
74 guns, were taken by the gallant admiral ; three of
them made their elcape, and two of them were com-
mitted to the flames, viz. of 84, and other of i 20 guns.
The lofs furtained by the Britllh on this occafion was
comparatively fmall, confiderlng the advantages of the
conqueft, the total amount of the llain being 74, and
of wounded 264. Much about the fan-.e time the im-
portant news of the lurrcnder of the Cape of Good
Hope arrived in Britain, an expedition which had been
xdfely entrufted jvith Admiral Sir Home Popham, and
■ General Sir David Baird.

From the humbled fituatlon of the emperor of Ger-
many after the memorable battle -of Aurterlitz, it was
natural to expeft that he would feel it his intereft to
make peace with the French emperor, and therefore
we lliall lay before our readers the treaty of Prelhurg,
which was figned and ratified on the 26th and 27th of
December, 1805. It confifts of twenty-three articles,
and forms no bad fpecimen of the kind of treaties the
powers of Europe have to expedl: from Bonaparte,
\vhen the fortune of war enables him to ditlate the
terms.

Treaitj of Peace between Auftria and France. .

His majefty the emperor of Germany and Auftria,
and his majefty the emperor of the French, king of Ita-
ly, equally animated with a defire to put an end to the
calamities of war, have relolved to proceed without de-
lay to the conclufion of a definitive treaty of peace.
This treaty contains 24 articles, of which the following
are the principal, and indeed the only ones that are in-
tererting to thofe ftates who are not immediately con-
cerned in the treaty.

Article 1. There Ihall be from the date of this day,
peace and friendniip between his majefty the emperor

of

F R A [20

of Germany and Aiillria, and his majefty the em-
peror of the French, king of Italy, their heirs and
fucceflbrs, their ftates and fubjefts refpeftively, for
ever.

2. France (hall continue to poffefs in property and fo-
vereignty the duchies, principalities, lordlhips, and ter-
ritories beyond the Alps, which were before the pre-
fent treaty united and incorporated with the French em-
pire, or governed by the laws and government of
France.

3. The emperor of Germany and Auftria, for him-
felf, his heirs, and fucceflbrs, recognizes the difpofitions
made by his majeiiy the emperor of France, king of
Italy, relative to the principalities of Lucca and Piom-
bino.

4. The emperor of Germany and Auftria renounces,
as well for himfelf as for his heirs and fucceflbrs, that
part of the ftates of the republic of Venice, ceded to
him by the treaties of Campo Formio and Luneville,
(hall be united in perpetuity to the king of Italy.

3. The emperor of Germany and of-\uftria acknow-
ledges his majefty the emperor of the Frc;:ich as king of
Italy ; but it is agreed that, in conformity with the de-
claration made by his majefty the emperor of the French,
at the moment when he took the crown of Italy, that
as foon as th.e parties named in that declaration Ihall
have fulfilled the conditions therein exprefled, the
cro%vns of France and Italy ihaJl be feparated for ever,
and cannot in any cafe be united on the fame head.
His majefty the emperor of Germany binds liimfelf to
acknowledge, on the feparation, the fucceflbr his ma-
jefty the emperor of the French ftiall appoint to himfelf
as king of Italy.

6. I'he prefent treaty of peace is declared to compre-
hend their moft ferene highneffes the eleclors of Bavaria,
VVirtember;;, and Baden, and the Eatavian republic,
allies of his majefty the emperor of the French, in the
prefent war.

7. The electors of Bavaria and Wirtemberg having
taken the title of king, without ceafing neverthelefs to
belong to the Germanic confederation, his majefty the
emperor of Germany and Amtria acknowledges them in
that character.

8. His majefty the emperor of Germany and Auftria,
as well for himfelf, his heirs and fucceflbrs, as for the
princes of his houfe, their heirs and fucceflbrs refpec-
tively, renounces certain principalities, lordftiips, do-
mains, and territories. [Thefe are fpeciiied in the
treaty, which declares alfo by whom they are hereafter
to be held.]

1 4. Their majefties the kings of Bavaria and Wirtem-
berg, and his moft ferene highnefs the elector of Ba-
den, ftiall enjoy over the territories ceded, as well as
over their ancient eftates-, the plenitude of fovereignty,
and all the rights refulting from it, which have been
guaranteed to them by his majefty the emperor of the
French, king of Italy, in the fame manner as his ma-
jefty the emperor of Germany and Auftria, and his ma-
jefty the king of Pruflia, over their German ftates. His
majefty the emperor of Germany and Auftria, both as
chief of the empire, and as co-eftates, engages himfelf
not to oppofe^any obflacle to the execution of the acls
which they may have made, or will make, in cor.fe-
quence.

15. His majefty the emperor of Germany and Auf-
VOL. IX. Part I.

r ] F R A

tria, as well for liimfelf, his heirs and fucceflbrs, as for Tianc*
the princes of his houfe, their heirs and fucceflbrs, re- ' "
nounces all the rights, as well of fovereignty as of pa- *^^J-
ramount right to all pretenfioiis whatfoever, ailual or
eventual, on all the ftates, without exception, of their
majefties the kings of Bavaria and Wirtemberg, and of
his moft ferene highnefs the elector of Baden, and ge-
nerally on all the ftates, domains, and territories, com-
prifed in the circles of Bavaria, Franconia, and Swabia,
as v\ell as to every title taken from the faid domains
and territories ; and reciprocally, all pretenfions, actual
or eventual, of the faid ftates, to the charge of the houfe.
of Auftria, or its princes, are, and ftiall be^ for ever ex-
tinguifhed.

17. His majefty the emperor Napoleon guarantees
the integrity of the empire of Auftria in the ftate in
which It ftiall be in confequence of the prefent treaty of
peace.

1 8. The high conlra£ling parties ackno%vledge the
independence of the Helvetic republic, as eftabliftied by
the acl; ot mediation, as well as the independence of the
Batavian republic.

20. All commercial communications and relations
are re-eftablilhed in the two countries on the fame foot-
ing as before the war.

21. His majefty the emperor of Germany and Auf-
tria, and his majefty the emperor of the French, king
of Italy, fhaU maintain between them the fame ceremo-
nial as to rank and etiquette as was obferved before the
prefent Avar.

23. Immediately after the exchange of the ratifica-
tion of the prefent treaty, conimifiaries ftiall be named
on both fides to give up and to receive in the names of
their refpeftive fovereigns, all parts of the Venetian
territory not occupied by the troops of his majefty the
emperor of the French and king of Italy. The city of
Venice, the Langnes, and the poflelFions of Terra Fir-
ma, Ihall be given up in the fpace of 15 days; Vene-
tian Iftria, and Dalmatia, the mouths of the Cattr.ro,
the Venetian iftes in the Adriatic, and all the places
and forts which they contain, in the fpace of fix weeks
from the exchange of the ratifications. The refpectivc
commiffaries will take cave that the feparation of the
artillery belonging to the republic of Venice from the
Auftrian artillery be exactly made, the former being to
remain entirely to the kingdom of Italy.

Done and figned at Prelburg the 26th of December,
1805.

-(Signed) Ch. Maur. Talleyrand, (L. S.)

(Signed) John, Prince of Lichten'stein,

(L. S.)
(Signed) Ignag, Count De Guylai.

We have approved, and do approve, the above trea-
ty, in all and each of its articles therein contained ; we
declare, that it is accepted, ratified, and confirmed ;
and we promife, that it ftiall be inviolably obferved.
In faith of which, we have given thefe prefents, figned
with our hand, counterfigned, and fealed with our im-
perial feal.

-^t the palace of Schoenbrun, 27th December, iScj.

By the emperor, Napoleox, &.c.

The following brief recapitulation by Bertrar.d de

Moleville of the various revolutions which have agita-

C c ted

r R A [ 2!

Vrnrc*. ted F:..:'ce during a period of more than ij years v.ill,
■ '—^-v——^ it is hoped, from its concifenefs and perfpicuity, be ac-
ceptable to our readers ; and with this we conclude our
hillorical detail of thefe remarkable events.
Rile and " Popular in{uvre£lion<;, and an army (fays the au-

ptoj^refs oi thor), haVe hitherto been the ufual means, or chief in-
th; revolu- l^rumcnts, of every revolution ; but thofe infurreclions
''""^ being of the mod ignorant and unthinking clafs of the

people, were ahvays fomented by a certain number of
factious men, devoted to, and dependent upon, fome
ambitious chief, daring, brave, of military talents, fole
and abfolute conduAor of every ftep of the revolt, and
mailer of all the means of the infurreclion. In the
liands of this chief, the foldiers, or people armed, were
but machines, which he fet in motion or rertrained ac-
cording to his pleafure, and of which he always made
ufe to put an end to revolutionary difordeis and crimes,
as foon as the objed of the revolution was gained. So
Caefar and Cromwell, after they had ufurped the fu-
preme power, loft no time in fecuring it to themfelves,
by placing it on the bafis of a wife and well-regulated
government ; and they employed, in quelling the trou-
bles that had favoured their ufurpation, thofe very le-
gions, that fame army, «-hich they had ufed to excite
them.

." This was not the cafe in France : there, the revo-
lution, or rather the firft of thofe it experienced, and
of which the others ^vere the inevitable confequence,
was not, whatever be fuppofed, the refult of a confpi-
laCY, or preconcerted plan, to overturn the throne, or
to place an ufurper upon it. It was unexpeftedly en-
gendered by a commixture of weaknefs, ignorance, ne-
gligence, and numberlefs errors in the government. The
llates-general, however imprudent their convocation
may have been, would have produced only ufeful re-
forms, if they had found the limits of their power mark-
ed out by a hand fufficiently firm to have kept them
within that extent. It was, however, but too evident
that, even before their opening, they were dreaded, and
that confequently they might attempt whatever they
pleafed. From that time, under the name of clubs,
various affociations and faflions fprang up ; fome more
violent than others, but all tending to the fubverfion of
the exiiling government, without agreeing upon the
form of that ^vhich ivas to be fubftituted : and at that
junclure alfo the projefts of the faflion, whofe views
were to have the duke of Orleans appointed lieutenant-
general of the kingdom, began to appear.

" This fadion, or more properly this confplracy,
was indeed of the fame nature as thofe that had pro-
duced all former revolutions, and might have been at-
tended with the fame confequences, had the duke of
Orleans been pofTeflcd of that energy of charafter, that
bravery and daring fpirit, requilite in the leader of a
party. The people had already declared in his favour,
and he might very eafily have corrupted and brought
over a great part of the army, had he been equal to the
command of it : but, on the very firft occafion of per-
fonal ri£k, he difcovercd fuch cowardice and mean-
nefs, thr.t he defeated his own confpiracy, and convin-
ced all thofe v.-ho had entered into it, that it was im-
poftible to continue the revolution, either in his favour
or in conjunflion with him. The enthufiafm the peo-
ple had felt for him ended with the efforts of thofe who
had.oxited it.

,2 ] F R A

" M. Necker, whom the multitude had aiTociatcd with Fi,
hjm in their homage, flill preferved for fome lime his "~~
adorers, and that little cabal which was for ever exalt-
ing him to the ikies. Eut as he was inferior even to
the duke of Orleans in military talents and difpofilions,
he was as little calculated to be the leader of a revolu-
tion, or of a great confpiracy : for which reafon his pa-
negyrifts then confined themlelves in their pamphlets
and placards, with which the capital was overrun, to
infmuating that the only means of faving the ftate wa-.
to declare M. Necker fl'/c7fl.'ar ; or at leaft to confer
upon kim, under fome title more confiftent %vith the
monarchy, the authority and powers attached to that
republican office. In faft, if after his dilmililon, in the
month of .luly 1789, he had dared to make this a con-
dition of his return to the miniftry, it is more than pro-
bable that the king would have been under the necelfi-
ty of agreeing to it, and perhaps of re-eftablilfiing in
his perfon the office of mayor of the palace. At that
moment he might have demanded any thing : eight
days later, he might have been refufed every thing ;
and very foon after, he was reduced to fneak out of the
kingdom, in order to efcape the effedls of the general
contempt and cenfure which he had brought upon him-
felf.

" General La Fayette, who then commanded the Pa-
rifian national guard, gathered the wrecks of all this
popularity, and might have turned them to the greateft
advantage, if he had poficiTed ' that relolute charafter
and heroic judgment' of which Cardinal de Retz fpeaks,
and ' which ferves to diftinguifti what is tmly honour-
able and ufeful from what is only extraordinary, and
what is extraordinary from what is impoflible.' With
the genius, talents, and ambition of Cromwell, he might
have gone as great a length ; with a lefs criminal ambi-
tion, he might at leaft have made himfelf mailer of the
revolution, and have directed it at his pleafure : in a
word, he might have fecured the triumph of whatever-
party he ftiould have declared hirafelf the leader. But
as unfit for fupporting tlie character of Monk as that of
Cromwell, he foon betrayed the ferret of his incapacity
to all the world, and was dillinguilhed in the crowd of
conftitutional ringleaders only by his three coloured
plume, his epaulets, white horfe, and famous faying —
' Infurreclion is the moll facred of duties when oppref-
fion is at its height.'

" The revolution, at the period ivhen the faflion
that had begun it for the duke of Orleans became fen-
fible that he was too much a coward to be the leader
of it, and when La Fayette difcovered his inability to
condufl it, was too far advanced to recede or to Itop ;
and it continued its progrefs, but in a line that no other
revolution had taken, \\z. without a military chief,
without the intervention of the army, and to gain tri-
umphs, not for any ambitious confpirator, but for poli-
tical and moral innovations of the moft dangerous na-
ture •, the moft fuited to miilead the multitude, incapa-
ble of comprehending them, and to let loofc all the
palTions. 'I'he more \-iolent combined to dcftroy every
thing ; and their fatal coalition gave birtii to.Iacobinifm,
that terrible monfter, till then unknown, and till now
not fufficiently unmalked. This monltcr took upon
itfelf alone to carry on the revolution ; it direfled, it
executed, all the operations of it, all the explofions, all
the outrages : it cve.-^ where appointed the moft aftive

leaders.

F B A r 203 ]

leaders, and, as inllruraents, employed the profligates of crates,

every country. Its power far furpafled that which has
been attributed to the inquilition, and other fiery tri-
bunals, by thofe who have fpokcn of them with the
greatell exaggeration. Its centre was at Paris ; and
its rays, formed by particular clubs in every tov\Ti, in
every little borough, overfpread the whole furface of
the kingdom. The conftant correfpondence kept up
between thofe clubs and that of the capital, or, to ufe

F R A

which they mutually made conceflions and l"a-

crifices

" Be that as it may, tliis abfurd conftitution, the
everlafting lource of remorfe or forrow to all who bore
part in it, might have been got o\-er without a fliock,
and led back to the old principles of monarchical go-
vemraent, if the alTenihly who framed it had not fe-
parated before they witnelTed the execution of it ; if,
in irapofing on the king the obligation to maintain it.

their ovvh expreffions, t/es Socieles [>of>ulaires ajji/u'es avcc they had not deprived him of the power and the means v

la Sucie'te mere ' between the athliated popular Socle- and above all, if the certain conlequence of the new

ties and the parent Society,' was as fecret and as fpeedy mode of proceeding at the eleftions had not been to

as that of free-mafons. In a word, the Jacobin clubs fecure, in the fecond alTembly, a confiderable majority

had prevailed in caufing themfelves to be looked up to of the democratic againll the conllitutional party.

as the real national reprefentation. Under that pre- " The fecond aflembly was alfo divided by three

tence they cenfured all the authorities in the moft im- faclions, the weakeft of which was the one that wifhed

perious manner ; and whenever their denunciations, pe- to maintain the conftitution. The other two were for

titions, or addrefles, failed to produce an immediate ef- a new revolution and a republic 5 but they dittered iu

feft, they gained their point by having recourfe to in- this, that the former, compofed of the BrifTotins and

furreclion, aflalTmation, and fire. While Jacobinifra Girondifts, was for effecting it gradually, by beginning

thus fubjefted all France to its controul, an immenfe with diverting the king of popularity, and allowing the

number of emilTaries propagated its doiftrines among public mind time to wean itfelf from its natural attach-

fbrelgn nations, and prepared new conqueils for it

" The national affenibly, the capital, indeed we
may fay all France, was divided into three very dlllincl
parties. The moft confiderable in number, but unhap-
pily the weakeft through a deficiency of plan and refo-
lution, was the party purely royal : it was adverfe to

ment to monarchy ; and th
was eager to hav

latter, ^vhich was the leaft
the republic eftabliftied as
foon as poflible. Thefe two faftions, having the fame
object in view, though taking different roads, were ne-
celTarily auxiliaries to each other ; and the pamphlets,
excitations to commotion, and revolutionary meafures

every kind of revolution, and was folely defirous of of both, equally tended to overthrow the conftitution of

fome improvements, with the reform of abufes and pe- 1791-

cimiary privileges : — the moft able, and moll intriguing, " Thofe different facUons, almoft entirely compofed
was the conftitutional party, or that v\liich was defi- of advocates, folicitors, apoftate priefts, doftors, and a
rous of giving France a new monarclrical conftitution, few literary men, having no military chief capable of -
but modified after the manner of the Englilh, or even taking the command of the army, dreaded the troops,
the American, by a houfe of reprefentatives. The who had fworn allegiance to the conftitution and obe-
third party was the moft dangerous of all, by its daring dience to the king, and who moreover might be influ-
fpirit, by its power, and by the number of profelytes enced by their officers, among whom there ftilt remain-
it daily acquired in all quarters of the kingdom; it ed fome "''' -^i ■- .1
comprifcd the democrates of every defcription, from the eafmefs 0

Jacobin clubs, calling themfelves Friends of the cotij
tulion, to the anarchs and robbers.

" The democratic party, which at firft was only
auxiliary to the conftitutional one, in the end annihilated
it, and became itfelf fubdivided into feveral other par-
ties, whofe fatal ftruggles produced the fubfequent re-
volutions, and may ftill produce many more. But in
principle, the comlitutionalifts and the democrates

yalifts. The fureft way to get rid of all un-
this fubjeft, -(vas to employ the army in de-
fending the frontiers. For this purpofe a foreign war
was necefiary, to which it was known that the idng and
his council were equally averfe. No more ^vas want-
ing to determine the attack which was directed, alraofl:
at the fame time, againft all the minifters, in order to
compel them to retire, and to put the king under the
neceftlty of appointing others more difpofed to fecond
the news of the parties. Unhappily this attempt

formed two diftinft, though confederate, factions ; both attended with all the fuccefs they had promlfed th(

\'ere deiirous of a revolution, and employed all the
ufual means of accompliftiing it, except troops, which
could be of no ufe to them, for neither of them had a
leader to put at the head of the army. But as it was
equally of importance to both that the king ftiould be
deprived of the power of making ufe of it againft them,
they laboured in concert to- diforganife it ; and the com-
plete fuccefs of that manoeuvre was but too fully pro-
ved by the fatal ilTue of the departure of the royal fa-
mily for Montmedi. The revolution then took a more
l' daring and rapid ftride, which was concluded by the
i.' pretended conftitution aft of 1791. The incoherence
of its principles, and the defefls of its inftitutions, pre-
fent a faithful picture of the difunion of its authors,
and of the oppofite interefts by which they were lu ay-
ed. It was, pjoperly fpeaking, a compact between the
faclion of the conflitutionalills and that of the demo-

felves; and one of the firft ails of the new miniftry was
to declare war againft the emperor. At the fame time,
the emigration that had been provoked, and which was
almoft everywhere applauded, even by the loweft clafs of
people, robbed France of the (lower of the royal party,
and left the king, deprived of his beft defenders, expo-
fed to the fufpicions and infults that fprang from innu-
merable calumnies, for which the difailers at the be-
ginning of the war furnilhed but too many opportu-
nities. jiTr

" In this manner was prepared and accelerated the The Tecond
new revolution, which was accomplilhed on the ioth'<=^o'"t'''°-
of Auguft 1 79 2, bv the depofition and imprifonment of
the king, antl by the moft flagrant violation of the con-
ftitution of 1 791. The latter, however, ivas not entire-
ly abandoned on that day ; for the projeft of the Gi-
rondifts^ who had laid the plot of that horrible confpi-
C c 2 racy.

F R A

204 ]

F R A

racy, was then only to declare the king's depofition, in
Older to place the prince royal upon the throne, under
the guidance of a regency compofed of their own crea-
tures ; but they were hurried away much farther than
tliey raeant to go, by the violence with which the moft
furious of the jacobins, who took the lead in the infur-
reflion, condufted all their enterprifes. Tlie prince
ro}'al, inftead of being crowned, was fliut up in the
Temple ; and if France at that moment was not decla-
red a republic, it was lefs owing to any remaining re-
fpecl to the conftitulion, than to the fc:ir the legillative
body was in of railing an army againft it, and alfo the
majority of the nation, v.ho would naturally be angry
to fee a conP.itution which feemed to be rendered fc-
cure and liable by fo many oaths, thus precipitately
overthrown, v\-ithout their having been confulted.

" It was on theie coniiderations that the opinion
was adopted, that a national convention fhould be
convoked, to determine the fate of royalty. Prompt
in feizing all the means that might eniure the fuccefs
of this fecond revolution, the aflembly, under pretence
of giving every polTible latitude to the freedom of elec-
tions, decreed, that all its members fljould be eligible
for the national convention.

" From that moment the Girondifls daily loft ground,
and the moft tlaming members of the democratic party,
Supported by the club of Jacobins, by the new com-
mune of Paris, and by the tribunes, made themfelves
mafters of every debate. It was of the utmoft import-
ance to them to rule the enluing eletlions ; and this
■was fecured to them by the horrible confternation which
the maffacres of the 2d of September ftruck through-
out the kingdom. The terror of being afTaffinated, or
at leaft cruelly treated, drove from all the primary af-
femblies, not only the royalifts and conftitutionalifts,
hut moderate men of all parties. Of courfe, thole af-
iemblies became entirely compofed of the weakeft men
and the greateft villains exifting in France ; and from
among the moft frantic of them were chofen thofe mem-
bers of the convention who were not taken from the
legillative body. Accordingly, this third aflembly,
in the firft quarter of an hour of their firft litting, were
heard Ihouting their votes for the abolition of royalty,
ajid proclaiming the republic, upon the motion of a
member who had formerly been a player.

" Such an opening but too plainly fhewed what was
to be e.xpeded from that horde of plunderers which
compofed the majority of the national convention, and
of whom Robefpierre, Danton, Marat, and the other
ringleaders, formed their party. That of the BrifTo-
tines and Girondifts ftill exilled, and was the only one
really republican. Thefe feral-wretches, glutted with
the horrors already committed, feemed delirovis of ar-
refting the torrent of them, and laboured to introduce
into the affembly the calm and moderation that were
neceiTary to give the new republic a wife and folid or-
gauization. But the fupcriority of their knowledge,
talents, and eloquence, v.hich their opponents could not
dilpute, had no power over tigers thirding for blood,
who neither attended to nor fuffered motions but of the
I blackeft tendency. No doubt they had occafion for
"• atrocities upon atrocities to prepare the lerror-ftruck
nation to allow them to commit, in its name, the moft
execrable of all, the murder of the unfortunate Louis
XVI. : and that mftrtyrdcra was nec<rIPiry to bring about

a third revolution, already brewing in tlie brain of
Robefpierre. Fear had greatly contributed to the two ""
former : but this was effefted by terror alone, without
popular tumults, or the intervention of the armies )
which, now drawn by their conquefts beyond the fron-
tiers, never heard any thing of the revolutions at home,
till they were accompliftied, and always obeyed the pre-
vailing faftion, by whom they were paid.

" By the degree of ferocity difcovered by the mem-
bers of the convention in pafling fentence upon the
king, and in the debates relative to the conftitution of
1793, Robefpierre was enabled to mark which of the
deputies were likely to fecond his views, and which of
them it \vas his part to facrifice.

" The people could not but with tranfport receive a
conftitution which icemed to realile the chimera of its
fovereignty, but which would only have given a kind
of conftrui^iion to anarchy, if the execution of this new
code had not been fufpended under the pretext, belong-
ing in common to all adls of defpotifm and tyranny, of
thefiipremc law of the fofeUj of the Jl ate. This fufpen-
iion was efFefted, by eftabliihing the provifionary go-
vernment, which, under the title of revolutionary go-
vernment, concentrated all the powers in the national
convention until there ftiould be an end to the war and
all inteftine troubles.

" Although the faftion, at the head of which Robe-
fpierre was, had a decided majority in the aflembly,
and might confequently have confidered themfelves as
really and exclufively exercifing the fovereign power, he
was a demagogue of too defpotic a nature to ftomach
even the appearance of fliaring the empire with fo many
co-lovereigns. He greatly reduced their number, by
caufing all the powers inverted in the national aflem-
bly by the decrees that h.ad eftablilhed the revolu-
tionary government, to be transferred to a committee,
to tvhich he got himfelf appointed, and where he ivas
fure of the fole rule, by obtaining for colleagues meii
lefs daring than himfelf, though equally wicked ; fuch
as Couthon, St Juft, Barrere, and others like them.
This committee, who had the aflurance to ftyle them-
felves the Committee of Public Safety, very foon feized
upon both the legillative and executive powers, and ex-
ercifed them with the moft fanguinary tyranny ever
yet heard of. The minifters were merely their clerks •,
and the fubjugated aflembly, without murmur or objec-
tion, pafled all the revolutionary laws which were pro-
pofed, or rather diftated, by them. One of their moft
horrible and decilive conceptions was that of thofe re-
volutionary tribiuials which covered France with leaf-
folds, where thoufands of viAims of every rank, age,
and fex, were daily faciificed ; fo that no clafs of men
could be free from that ftupifying and general terror
which Robefpierre found it neceflary to fpread, in orders
to cftablilh and make his power known. He foon him-
felf dragged fome members of his own party, fuch a»
Danton, Camille dcs Moulins, and others, wliofe energy
and popularity had offended him, before one of thofe
tribunals, where he had them condemned to death. By
the fame means he got rid of the chief leaders among
the Briflbtincs and Girondifts ; \vhile he caufed all the
moderate republican party, who were ftill members of
the alTcmbly, except thofe who had time and addrefs
to efcape, to be fent to prifon, in order to be featenccd
and e.xecuted,03 the firft occjfion.

"In

F R A [ 205 ] F R A

'• In Ih.^ manner ended the third revolution, In which fate. -Che revoU.tionary tribunals were fupprcfTcd, and F,»n-
the people, iroien v.ith terror, did not dare to take a the prifons thrown open to all whom they had call into ^

th part, Initead of an army of foldiers, Robefpierre em-
n ployed an army of executioners and alTalFins, fet up as

them.

" This fourth revolution, in which the faftion then the

S«4

revolutionary judges; and the guillotine, Unking or efteeracd the moderate party overthrew the tcrrorifts, t«..„..
menacnig all heads mdifcnmmately, made France, from and feized the fupreme power, was no lels complete '795-
one end to the other, fuhmit to him, by the means of than thofe which had preceded it, and produced the
terror or of death. Thus was this nation, formerly fo conftitutlon of 1795. AH France received as a great
proud, even to idolatry, of its kings, feen to expiate, bletrmg a conllitution that delivered them from the rc-
by rivers of blood, the crime of having fuffered his to volutionary government and its infernal policy. Bcfides
be fpilt who was the moft virtuous of all their mo- it had, in fpite of great defers, the merit 'of coming

nearer than the two preceding ones, to the principles of
order, of juftice, and real liberty; the violation of which
had, for five years before, been the fource of fo many dif-
afters and fo many crimes. The royalifts, confidering
it as a ftep towards monarchy, were unfortunately fo
imprudent as to triumph in it ; and their joy, as pre-
mature as indi.'creet, alarmed the afllmblV to fuch a

narchs,

" In the room of that famous Baftile, whofe cele-
brated capture and demolition had fet only feven pri-
foners at liberty, two of whom had long been in a Hate
of lunacy, the colleges, the feminaries, and all the reli-
gious houles of the kingdom, were converted into fo
many rtate prifons, into which were inceflantly crowd-
ed, from time to time, the viiSlims devoted to feed the
ever-working guillotines, which were never fuffered to
ftand Hill for a day, becaufe they were at once the chief
refource of fupplies for the goverament, and the inftru-
ment of its ferocity. ' The guillotine coins money for
the republic,' was faid in the tribune by one of Robe-
fpierre's vlleft agents *. In faft, according to the ju-
rifprudence of the revolutionary tribunals, the rich of
every clafs, being declared fufpefted perfons, received
fentence of death, for no other reafon than that of gi-
ving the confifcation of their property a Ihow of judi-
cial form.

*' Still blood flowed too flowly to fatisfy Robefpierre ;

degree, that they paffed the famous law, ordaining the
primary aflemblies to return two-thirds of the mem-
bers of the convention to the leghlative body, which
was to fucceed that affembly. It was thus that the
fpirit of the convention continued, for the firft year, to
be dlfplayed in the two councils.

" In the year following, the bias of the public mind, •
perhaps too haftily turned towards royalty, fhewed it-
felf in the elections of the members for the new third,
fo clearly as to alarm the regicides who compofed the
direiftory, and the conventionalifts, who iWl made a
third of the legillative body ; nor did they lofe a mo-
ment in devifmg means for their defence. That which

his aim was but partly attained by the profcription of appeared the fureft to them was, to publiili notices of

the nobles, the priefts, and the wealthy. He fancied,
not only an ariilocracy of talents and knowledge, but
of the vinues, none of which would his trufty orators
and journalirts admit, fave that horrid potriotifin which
was ellimated according to the enormity of the crimes
committed in favour of the revolution. His plan was

plots among the royalills, and annex one or more de-
nunciations, in terms fo vague as to leave room for im-
plicating, when neceflary, all their adverfaries ; while
by the help of this impofture they procured fome fecret
information, artfully fabricated, and ever eafily obtain-
ed through threats or re^vards by thofe who have at

to reduce the French people to a mere plantation of command the guillotine and the public treafurc.

flaves, too ignorant, too ilupid, or too putillaniraous,
to conceive the idea of breaking the chains with which
he would have loaded them in the name of liberty ; and
he might have fucceeded in it, had not his ambition, as
impatient a? it was jealous, too foon unveiled the inten-
tion of reforting to the guillotine to llrike off the

This malked battery was ready to be opened be-
fore the members of the new third took their feats.
Thefe at firit confined therafelves to the fecuring of a
conllant majority in the two councils in favour of the
moderate opinions ; but in a littk time every litting was
marked by the repeal of fome revolutionary law, or by

ckles with which an affembly of reprefentatives of fome decree tending to reftrain the e.xeculive authority

the nution fettered, or might fetter, his power. He
was about to give this decifive blow, which he had con-
certed with the commune of Paris, the revolutionary
tribunal, the club of Jacobins, and the principal offi-
cers of the national guard, when the members of the
I onvenlion, who were marked out to be the firft facrr-
fiCes, anticipated him at a moment when he leaft ex-
ptfted it, by attacking himfelf in the affembly, with
energy fulRcient to roule all the feSions of the capital
againlt him and againft the Jacobins. The parties came
to blows, and vi(51ory remained uncertain for feveral
hours ; but at length declared againll Robefpierre. In
the fpace of a day, that execrable monfter was dragged
from the higheft pitch of power ever attained by any
tyrant, to the very fcaffold that was ftill recking with
tlie blood of his lall victims. His principal accomplices
ia the committee of public fafety, in the commune,
in the national guard, in the revolutionary tribunal,

within the limits fixed by the coullitut

" The directory, alarmed at the abridgemeut of their -j- ,p^j;/i|,
power, and dreading ftill more fcrious attacks upon it, rv-volution.
came to a refolution of no longer poftpoiiing the blow
they had been meditating againft the legillative alTem-
by : and they accompliihed, in the manner already re-
lated, a fifth revolution, as complete as any of thofe
by which it was preceded. It differed indeed from
them effentially in the facility and promptnefs with
which it was effected, although the parly which pre-
vailed, that is to fay, the majority of the directory, and
the minority of the legillative body, had to combat
not only againft the conftitution, but againll the opi.
nioii, and even againft the indignation of the public.
That moral force, on which the majority of the two
coimcils had unluckily placed ali their reliance, vanilh-
ed in an inftant before the phyfical force of a detach-
ment of troops confining of fix or feven hundred men ;

and many of his agents in the provinces, met the fame fp true ii i: that the power of tlie public opinion, rir

diculoully ■

F R A

[ 206 }

F R A

<;«6
ThtCmth
rcvoluiion,
and confu-
!ar govern

5*7 ^
-C!im.iK- of
France.

diculoufly exaggerated in tliefe days, is and can be no
' more, under a firm and well ordered government, than
a mere fancy. Men accuftom tliemfelves too eafily to
take for public opinion the pri\'ate opinions made public
by certain writers, whofe caution or audacioufnefs de-
pends always upon the energy or feeblenefs of the fu-
prems authority. It is the fame thing with popular
commotions : they are eafily excited under a weak go-
^ernment, which does not poflefs the wifdom to prevent
or the fpirit to fupprefs them j but a vigorous, jurt, and
ilricl government has nothing to fear from them. The
direftory, compelled to withdraw the larger body of
troops, which they had thought neceflary.to enfure the
revolution they were meditating, difcover^d, no doubt,
great ability in fecuring the two councils, by appearing
to dread them : but it was chiefly to the energy of
their meafures, and to the concentration and prompt-
nefs with which they were executed, that they owed
their fucccfs. Two days before, the legiflative body
might, without obftruftion, have impeached, arrefted,
and even outlawed, the majority of the directory, who
were execrated by the public under the title of trium-
virate ; and, if requifite, they ^vould have been fupport-
ed by more" than 30,000 armed citizens, who, with
Pichegru and Villot at their head, would foon have
difperfed, and perhaps brought over, the feeble detacli-
ments of troops of the line which the direclory had at
their command. The legiflative body, relying too much
upon its popularity, did not fulhciently confider, that
the people, whofe impetuofity is commonly decifive
when allowed to take advantage in attack, are always
feeble on the defenfive, and totally unable to withftand
every aflTault made previous to an infurreftion, for it is
always eafy to prevent their aflembling. It was on
this principle that the dircftory founded their opera-
tions, and the 5th of September too well proves how
juftly. That day reduced the legiflative body, by the
mod degrading fubjugation, to a mere difgufting cari-
cature of national reprefentation •, it inverted the direc-
tory with the moft arbitrary and tyrannic power, and
reflored the fyftem of Robefpierre, under a form lefs
bloody, but not lefs pernicious ; for the revolutionary
tribunals which that monfter had eftabliflied, were
fcarcely more expeditious than the military ones of the
direftory. The power of arbitrary and unlimited
tranfportation is, in time, as deftruflive as the guillo-
tine, without poflefling, like that, the advantage of ex-
citing a falutary horror, which, by recovering the peo-
ple from the ftate of llupor and apathy, the conftant
effetls of terror, gives them both recolleftion and force
to break their chains. Though, in violating the mort
efiential regulations of the conflitution, the direflory
obtained a temporary confirmation of their power, their
example pointed out to Bonaparte and Sieycs the path
which they purfued with infinite addrefs, and in uhich
they accoraplirt.ed a fjxth revolution."

The changes which fucceeded, from the confular to
the imperial and delpotic government of France, are
frefli in the mind of every reader, fo that the aocour.t
of them need not be repeated.

In a country fo extenfive as that of France, it is not

to be expe£led that the climate fhould be invariably the

fame ; but it is certainly clearer and more falubrious

upon the whole than that of Britain ; and it is admira-

3

bly adapted to the'cultivation of the vine, without which France,
many parts of it ivould perhaps continue in a flate of v~~~
nature. The country prefents to the eye a level ap-
pearance in genera), but feveral mountains are met with
in ttie fouthern parts of it, fuch, for example, as Au-
vergne, Languedoc, Dauphine, and Provence. Some
reckon the Limouiin the moft beautiful province in
France, although many parts of it befides this exhibit
a charming diverfity of hills and valleys, and fome of
the rivers, but the Seine in particular, often affume a
pii5lurefque appearance. It cannot be faid that agri-
culture has attained to the perfection which it has done
in Britain j yet in different provinces the cultivation of
the ground feems to keep pace with its fertility, and
the hufbandmen of others difplay a degree of induflry
which is deferving of commendation. As a rtriking
proof of this, many mountains of the Cevennes, only
remarkable for their fterility, have been rendered ex-
tremely fertile by the indefatigable exertions of induftry. ,5;

The moft remarkable rivers^' of France are commonly Rivers,
reckoned tour in number, the Seine, Loire, Rhone,
and the Garonne, although there are many others of in-
ferior note. The Seine is univerfally allowed to be a
beautiful river, which takes its rife in the department of
Cote d'Or, and after, traverfmg a country of about 25D
miles in extent, falls into the Englilh channel at
Havre de Grace. The fource of the Loire is in Mont
Gerbier, in what Avas formerly called Languedoc, and
after running about joo miles, empties itfelf into the
lea beyond Nantes. The Rhone riles from the Glacier
of Furea, and the Garonne in the vale of Aran in the
Pyrenees. The inferior rivers are the Saone, Dordogne,
and a number of lefl^er ftreams which form a jimftion
with the Loire. ^60

There are numerous mountains in France, but there Mountain;,
are none \vhich are of a great height. It is per-
haps difputable whether we fliould confider Mont
Blanc among the number, but if we do fo, no other
mountain in the vaft chain of the Alps can exceed it in
height. Thofe of Brittany confift chietly if not wholly
of granite, but there is nothing remarkable in their ele-
vation. France is divided from Sv.itzerland by Mont
Jura 5 but the principal chain of mountains is that de-
nominated Cevennes, i-unning from north to fouth, and
fending out ramifications from eaft to wefl. Some na-
turalifts are of opinion, that certain volcanic appear-
ances may be traced among the mountains in the de-
partments of Cantal and the Upper Loire ; but the
bafaltic columns of which they chietly conlift, either do
not favour tliis conjefture, or leave the truth of it ex-
tremely problematical. The loftieft mountahis in France
are thofe called Moiits D'Or, which conftitute the
centre, of which Puy de Sanfi forms the chief elevation,
its height being computed at 6300 feet above the level
of the lea. This mountain is covered with perpetual
fnow, from the fides of which ilTues the river Dor-
dogne.

The Pyrenees have been kr.o\vn and celebrated in
hiflory fmce the time of Herodotus, and may with equal
propriety be confidered as belonging either to France
or Spain ; although th.ey have been more ably and mi-
nutely defcribed by the learned of the former country.
Shells and Ikeletons of animals have been found among
the Pyrenees, which may afford matter for ample dif-
cuflion to the admirers of nature's produftions. Marine
produftions

F R A

produfllons have been difcovered on the top of Mont
Perdu, which it is extremely ditF.cult 10 afcend, bccaufe,
in many places, it is almoll perpendicular for nearly 600
feet ; and near the fumrait there is a lake about 9000
feet above the level of the fea.

There are many forefts in France, and of confider-
ablc extent, to the gro\\'th of which it becomes of im-
portance to attend, as the chiei fuel which the inhabi-
tants can command is wood. The largcrt forefts are
thofe of Orleans and Ardennes, but our limits forbid
us to give an enumeration of the red, which could an-
fwer no important purpofe.

Of the botanical ftate of this country nothing can
be advanced %vith certainty ; for although its produc-

[ 207 ]

F II A

were drawn by oxen to the national affemblics. Their France,
cattle are of a beautiful cream colour, but their fiieep v ■-•
are much inferior to the Englilh, owing perhaps to
their wretchedly ill management, their meat being ftraw
during the winter feafon infteadof green food. France
in fome places is inferted by the wild boar and the wolf
while the ibex and chamois inhabit the Pyrenees ami
the Alps. j^^

At one period there were gold mines in the fouthern Minerals,
parts of France, and particles of that precious metal are
Itill to be found in fome of the rivulets. There are
mines of filver in Alface, and mines of copper in the
departments of the Alps. The duchy of Deux Ponts
contains mines of mercury; antimony is found in Ar-

tions of this nature may be faid to have been examined deche ; and abundance of iron, the moil extenfively ufe-

around Paris, Lyons, and Montpelier, with confider
able accuracy, yet much is Hill wanting to furnilh any
thing like a complete hiftory of its vegetables. We
have no certain accounts of what are purely indigenous or
ivhat are exotic, although the former mull: be more
abundant in France than in any other European coun-

*'y- . . ;

The horfes of this country are certainly inferior to
thofe of Britain; and in former times its monarchs

ful of all the metals, is met with in the northern de-
partments, for the working of which there were com-
puted to be 2000 furnaces employed in the year (798. 5-,

The population of France has been varioully eftimat- Population.'
ed by different ivriters ; but v,-e hope our readers will
find a pretty accurate account of it by infpecling the
follo^ving table, which exhibits the number contained
in each department, according to the republican divifion
of it fince the revolution.

Ancient Provinces.

Depanmcnts.

Popu/alion.

ClueJTo-xns.

Flandre Fran^oife.

Nord.

578,435

Douai.

Artois. ■ . . . .

Pas-de-Calais.

532.741

Arras.

Picardie

Somnie.

466,998

Amiens.

Normandle.

Seine Inferieure.

640,890

Rouen.

Calvados.

484,212

Caen.

Manche.

317,120

Coutances.

Orne.

4°7,475

Alen^on.

Eure.

257,986

Evreux.

We de France. .

Seine.

738.522

Paris.

Seine and Olfe.

437.604

Verfaillcs.

Oife.

355.634

Beauvais.

Aifne.

408,174

Laon.

Seine and Mame.

29', '59

Melun.

Champagne.

Marne.

291,484

Chalons-fur Marne.

Ardennes.

253,902

MeiJeres.

Aube.

228,814

'J'roycs.

Haute Mame.

222,^85

Chamraont.

Lorraine,

Meufe.

257.237

Bar-fur-Ornain.

Mofelle.

3-9,001

Metz.

■

iSIeurthe.

336,895

Nancy.

Vofges.

115.546

Epinal.

Alface

Haut-Rhin.

3 30.4c 8

Colmar.

Eas-Rhin.

448,483

Strall)Ourg.

Bretagne.

Ille and Vilaine.

511,840

Rennes.

Cotes-du Nord.

530,441

St Biieux.

Finillerre.

220,108

Quimper.

Morbihan.

415,194

Vannes.

Loire Inferieure.

45 ',336

Nantes.

IVIaiae and Perche.

Sarthe.

381,241

Le Mans.

Mayenne.

324.730

Laval.

Anjou

Touraine.

^Taycnne and Loitc.

442,482

Angers.

Indre and Loire.

264,935

Tours.

Orleannois.

Loiret.

290,031

Orleans.

Eure and Loire.

210,179

Chartres.

Loire and Cher.

307,084

Blois.

Ecrri

Indie.

216,882

Chattauroux.

Cher.

2 '9,459

Bourses.

Nivcniois.

574
Religion,

f R A

[ ^^08 ] ,

F R

A

Ancient Provinces.

Departments.

Population.

Chitf Towns.

Nivemois.

Nievre.

238,812

Nevers.

Bourgogne.

Yonne.

127,510

Auxerre.

Cote d'Or.

339.860

Dijon.

Saone and Loire.

440,773

Ma^on.

Ain.

288,700

Bourg.

Franche-Compte.

Haute-Saone.

284,073

Vefoul.

Doubs.

216,878

Befan^on.
Lons-le-Saunier.

Jura.

284,460

Poitou

Vendee.

291.433

Fontenay-le-Peuple.

Deux-Sevres.

256,057

Niort.

Vienne.

3'8,5ti

Poitiers.

Marche

Haute-Vienne, comprifing part of

Limofin.

1 29,006

Limoge.

Creuze.

225.373

Gueret.

Limolin. . . , .

Correze, compiiCng part of Up-

per Vienne.

254,502

Tulle.

Bourbonnois.

AlUer.

266,105

MouUns.

Saintonge and Aunis.

Charente-Inferieure.

420,896

Saintes.

Angoumois and part of Saintonge.

Charente.

319427

Angouleme.

Auvergne.

Puy-de-dome.

505^332

Clermont.

Cantal.

243,708

St Flour.

Lyonnois, Foret and Beaujolois.

Rhone.

305,454

Lyons.

Loire.

322,965

Montbnfon.

Ifere.

430,106

Grenoble.

Dauphine.

Hautes-Alpes.

116,754

Gap.

Drome.

232,619

Valence.

Guyenne, comprehending

Dordogne.

441,380

Perigueux.

Gafcogne. .

Gironde.

557,585

Bourdeaux.

Lot and Garonne.

404,936

Agen.

Lot.

387,019

Cahors.

Aveyron.

332,090

Rhodez.

Gers.

288,555

Auch.

Landes.

311,267

Mont-de-Marfan.

Hautes- Pyrenees.

180,093

Tarbe.

Beam

Bafles-Pyrenees.

368,73'

Pau.

Comte-de-Foix.

Arriege.

194,838

Tarafcon.

Rouflillon.

Pyrenees-Orlentales.

106,171

Perpignan.

Languedoc.

Haute-Garonne.

310,672

Touloufe.

Aude.

219,101

Carcaffonne.

Tarn.

271,402

Cadres.

Garde-

309,802

Nifraes.

Lozere.

132,502

Mende.

Ardeche.

273,255

Privas.

Hautc-Loire.

259.143

Le Puy.

Heraut.

273,452

Montpellier.

Provence.

Bouches-du Rhene,

323. '77

Aix.

Baffes-Alpes.

144,436

Digne.

Var.

262,926

Toulon.

Corfica

Golo.

•57,874

Baftia.

Liamone.

210,710

Ajaccio.

The eftabliilied religion is that of the church of
P.ome, but entirely independent of the Holy lee ; r.nd
the revenues of the clergy are not fo extenfive as to
render them formidable to the prefervation of the ftatc.
Of its political conllitution, as that is an ignis fatuus
which eludes all dcTcription, little need be faid. 1 he
government at prefent is a military defpotifm, and Bo-
naparte, once firll conful, now emperor, owes his very
exiftence, either as a man or a monarch, to the attach-
4

ment of the foldiery. Let him lofe that, and he is ine-
vitably undone.

Since the revolution, it is perhaps impofllble to give j
a juft account of the flrength of the French army, for
both themfelves and their enemies made it, we believe,
more numerous than it really was, although both parties
mud have been aflu.ited by very different motives.
The numerous defeats which the allies experienced,
rendered it neceiiary to fpeak of their antagonifls as a

F R A

[ 209 ]

F R A

France. re7er-to-be-diminilhed fwarm of meh, and the French
'~~"v~— no doubt gave exaggerated reports of their own a<5lual
llrenglh, in order to intimidate the allies. In the time
of the old government, the army amounted to 170,000
infantry, 44,000 cavalry, and 11, coo artillery; and
perhaps at no period of the revolution did it ever exceed
600,000 men, although it has been often magnified to
the prodigious total of a million.
57S 'i he naval force of France was once formidable even

Nav)-. to Britain ; but the decided fuperiority in this refpeft
has been invariably poflefled by the latter country ever
Cnce the battle ot La Hogue. The combined naval
flrength of France and Spain could not refill the impe-
tuoiky of a Britilh fleet off Trafalgar, under the com-
mand of the ever memorable Lord Nelfon.
577 The revenue of France, during the exigence of the

Revenue, ^^jj go^-emment, ha^ been ellimateJ at thirty millions
ftorling, but the clear produce could not exceed eighteen
millions, after the deduction of all expences. Under
the prefent ufurpation, however, it is impoflible to
make any ellimate of its amount, as it is often aug-
mented in an unkno«-n and flucluating ratio by plunder
,.8 and rapine,
learain"'. With refpeifl to literature, France certainly holds »
diftinguilhed place among the nations of Europe ; and
if the pahn has been adjudged to Italy and Britain by
fcme authors, in point of bold invention and profound
philofophical fpeculations, French authors are to be
met with in great abundance who have done honour to
human nature by their polite learning, and elegant as
well as ufeful fcience. Altogether independent of a
Corneille, a Racine, a Crebillon, a Moliere, or a Vol-
taire, this country has, at a more modern period, pro-
duced many diitinguilhed writers in literature and
philofophy, whole produftions will continue to be
read and admired, fo long as men retain a fenfe of the
value and importance of the fciences they refpeftively il-
luftrate.

At one period there were no fewer than 21 univcrfi-
ties in France, of which the Sorbonne at Paris was
reputed the moll celebrated, the fame cf which drew
numbers of (Indents from dillant countries. There were
about 39 academies and literary focieties, which pro-
duced many elegant and valuable diflertations on the
different fciences, which have been long known to, and
juftly efteemed by, the learned world.
577 The cities of France are very nimierous, and many

Cities, Sec. of them make a moll conlpicuous figure. Paris, which
is ftill the metropolis, has been fometimes reckoned a
third fmaller than London, and its population rtated at
600,000 fouls. It has often been confidered as fuperior
to London in point of magnificence, but it is undoubted-
ly inferior, both in regard to convenience and cleanli-
nefs, the ftreets in general having very poor accommo-
dations for paflengers on foot ; — a defect for which no
elegance or magnificence can fully compenfatc. The
ne.xt to Paris in importance, is the city of Lyons, the
population of which is computed at 100,000 ; but tlie
defolation which it fuffercd during the tremendous rei^'n
of Jacobin fury it wiU perhaps never recover, as the
abolition of monarchy was the innocent caufe of the
ruin of its trade, which confided chiefly in the ma-
tt ufafture of fuch fplendid articles as were confumed by
xhe court.

Next to Lyons we may mention Marfcilles and Bour-
VoL. IX. Part I.

deaux, each of which are computed to contain about Fi..nc

80,000 people ; and the port of the former city is per- *~

haps the beft, as well as the nioft frequented, of any in
the Mediterranean. Lifle and Valenciennes are both
llrongly fortified cities, the former of which has a popu-
lation of about 6o,coc. It furrcndercd to the com-
bined powers in the year 1793, but the French re-took
it in the following year. The remaining cities, of
which we can only give a bare enumeration, ar-.-
Amiens, Rouen, Breft, Nantes, Orleans, Nancy, MeU,
Stralhourg, Touloufe, Montpelier, &c. none of them
having a population under 30,000 fouls, many of tiicn;
carrjing on an extenfive trade, and all of them abound-
ing with elegant buildings.

There are leveral public edifices in France, which
command the admiration of every beholder, fuch as the
palace of Verfailles, the beautiful and magnificent
bridge ot Neuille, and the ancient cathedrals and
callles, of which there are prodigious numbers. The
bridge of Neuille indeed has been reckoned fuperior to
any in Europe. ^,3

Many exertions hav-i been made at different periods, Canals,
to improve the inland navigation of France. T'le great
Kenry I\'. began the celebrated canal of Burgundy,
which was finilhed by Louis XIII. and by which a com-
munication is opened between the rivers Loire and Seine.
It confifts of 42 locks, and is of fingular importance to
the commerce of the weflern provinces. The canal of
Picardy reaches from the river Sorame to the Oife, taking
its rile from St Quintin, and affording an intercouHe
to the provhices lying on the north-eaft. But the
greateft and moll expenfive work of this nature iii
France, which was begun and finilhed by Louis XIV.
is the canal of Langi«edoc, which was completed in 1 5
years. It is 144 feet broad, fix feet deep, and about
180 miles long, and it coll upwards of half a million
fterling.

The total amoimt of the exports of France in the Trade.
year 1 7 84, e.xclufive of the provi..ces of Lorraine and
Alface, and the trade uith the Weft Indies which has
been fince carried on, w'as 307,151,700 livres, and her
imports 271,365,000, leaving a balance of 35,786,730
livres, ivhich amount to 1,565,668!. fterling. Britilh
commerce has been on the increafe ever fince the com-
mencement of the revolution, while it may be juftly
faid that the trade of France has been proportional-
ly on the decline, although we cannot ailert with
a certain geographer, that it has been " almoft an-
nihilated."

JJ2e of Francs, a late province of France, but now
divided into five departments, and fo called, becaufe it
was formerly bounded by the rivers Seine, Manie, Oife,
Aifne, and Ourque. It tomprehends befides Paris, the
Beauvoifis, the Valois, the county of Senlis, the Vcxin,
the Hurepois, the Gatinois, the Multien, the Goelc,
and the Mantois. Paris is the capital.

FR ANCFORT on the Mains, an imperial and han-
ieatic town of Franconia in Germany, where the em-
perors were formerly elefled. It is a handfome, ftrong,
and rich place, and has a great deal of commerce.
Here the golden bull Is prelerved, which is the origi-
nal of the fundamental laws of the empire. It is feated
in a fine fertile plain ■, and well fortified with a double
ditcb, bartions, redoubts, and ravelins. The fl;eets
are remarkably wide, and the houfcs handfomely built.
Dd It

? R A

[ 210 ]

It has ffieat conveiiieucy for carrying ou an extenfive
ti-ade wiih the other parts of Germany, by mesns of
, the navigable river which runs throughout it. It was
taken in Oftober 1792, by the French, who were dif-
poffelTed of it by the Pruflians in December following ;
it was again taken by the French in July 1796, but they
evacuateditto the Auflriansin September following. 'Ihe
fuburb is called Saxon-haiifen, and joined to the town
by a ftone bridge builtoverthe Maine. E. Long. 8. 4;.
N. Lat. 49. ^y

Francfort on the Oder, a rich and handfome town
of Germany, in the middle marche of Brandeaburgh,

F R A

the franchife is illegal and void : or laftly, to have a Franchife
foreft, chafe, park, warren, or fiftiery, endowed with I! ,

privileges of royalty. See Chase, Forest, &c. Funcilcans

FraXCHISE is alio ufed for an afylura or fantluary,
where people are fecure of their perlons, &.c. Churches
and monarteries in Spain are franchifes for criminals ;
lo ^ve^e they anciently in England, till they were abufed
to ^uch a degree that there was a neceflity for abolilh-
ing the cullom. One of the molf remarkable capitula-
lars made by Chailemagne in his palace of Heriltal,
in 779, was that relating to the franchifes of churches.
Tiie right of franchife v.-as held fo facred, that even

brmerly imperial, but now fubject to the king of the lefs religious kings obferved it to a degree of fcru-

Pruflia. It is remarkable for three great fairs, and
celebrated univerfity. It lies about 45 miles Ibuth eall
of Berlin, and 72 fouth of Stetin. E. Long. 14. 39.
N. Lat. 52. 23.

FRAXCHE-COMPTE, a late province of France,
bounded on the fouth and weft by Champagne and Bur-

puloufnefs : but to fuch excefs in time was it carried,
that Charlemagne refolved to reduce it. Accordingly
he forbade any provifion being carried to criminals re-
tired into churches for refuge.

Frakchise of garters, is a certain fpace or diftricl

at Rome, wherein are the houfes of the ambaffadors

siundy ; on the north by Loriain ■, and to the eaiT. by of the princes of Europe ; and where fuch as retire

raplegard, and Switzerland, It is in cannot be arrefted or feized by the Ihirri or ferieants,

breadth nor profecuted at law. The people of Rome look

on this as an old ufurnatin^ -j^jl - tcwnaslOUS privilege.

the earldom of Muraf

lcn;;th from north to fouth about 30 leagues; in breadth
about 20. It is partly ilat and partly liillv. The
tlat country is fruitrul in grain, wine, hemp, and paf-
ture ; and the hilly country abounds in cattle, produ-
cing alfo fome wine and corn, copper, lead, iron, and
lilver ores, mineral ivaters, and quarries of ftone, marble,
.ind alabarter. It no\v forms the three departments of
Doubs, Jura, and Upper Saone.

FRANCHISE, m Law. Franclnfe mA liberty are
ufod as fynonymous terms ; and their definition is, " a
rcyal privilege, or branch of the king's prerogative,
fubiifting in the hands of a fubje£>." Being thirefore
derived from the crovm, they muft ariie from the king's
grant ; or in fome cafes, may be held by prefcription,
which, as has been frequently faid, prefuppofes a grant.
The kinds of them are various, and almoft infinite.
We (hall here briefly touch upon fome of the principal ;
premifing only, that they may be vefted in either natural
perfons or bodies politic •, in one man, or in many : but
the fame identical franchife, that has before been grant-
ed to one, cannot be beftowed on another, for that ^vould
prciudice the former grant.

To be a county palatine, is a franchife vefted in a
number of perfons. It is likewife a franchife for a
number of perfons to be incorporated and fubfift as a
body politic ; with a power to maintain perpetual fuc-
ceflion, and do other corporate ails : and each indivi-
dual member of fuch corporation is. alfo faid to have a
franchife or freedom. Other franchifes are, to hold a
court leet ; to have a manor or lordftiip j or, at leaft,
to have a lordftiip paramount : to have waifs, wrecks,
eftrays, treafure -trove, royal fifti, forfeitures, and deo-
dands : to have a court of one's own, or liberty of
holding pleas and trying caufes ; to have the cogni-
zance of pleas ; which is a ftill greater liberty, being
an exclufive right, fo that no other cOurt ftiall try cau-
fes arifmg within that jurifdiflion : to have a bailiwick,
or liberty exempt from the ftieriff of the county ;
wherein the grantee only, and his officers, are to exe-
cute all procefs : to have a fair or market ; with the
right of taking toll, either there or at any other pub-
lic places, as at bridges, wharfs, or the like ; which
tolls muft have a reafonable caufe of commcncc-
tocnt (as in confideralion of repairs, or the like), clfe

which ambaifadors, out of a jealoufy of their poiver,
carried to a great length in the 1 5th century, by en-
larging infeniibly the dependencies of their palaces or
houfes, within which the right of franchife ^vas an-
ciently confined. Several of the popes, Julius III.
Pius XIV. Gregory XIII. and Sixtus V. publiflicd
bulls and ordinances againft this abufe ; which had
refcued fo conliderable a part of the city from their
authority, and rendered it a retreat for the moft aban-
doned perfons. At length Innocent XI. exprefsly re-
fufed to receive any more ambaffadors but luch as
would make a formal renunciation of the franchife of
quarters.

FRANCIS I. king of France, the rival of the em-
peror Charles V. and the reftorer of learning and polite-
nefs in France. See [Hijlory of) Franxe.

Francis, Pliilip, a very ingenious writer, of Irifti
extraction, if not born in that kingdom. His father
was a dignified clergyman in Ireland, being dean of
fome cathedral ; and our author, his fon, was alfo
bred to the church, and had a doftor's degree confer-
red on him. He was more diftinguilhed as a tranfla-
tor than as an original writer. His verfions of Horace
and Demorthenes have been juftiy valued : the former
is accompanied with notes, and is perhaps as complete
and ufeful a \vork of its kind as hath yet appeared.
He was alfo a confiderable political writer ; and in the
beginning of the prefent reign is fuppofed to have
been employed by the government : for (vhich fer-
vice he was promoted to the reclory of Barrow in
Suffolk, and to the chaplainftiip of Chelfea hofpital.
He ^vas alfo the author of two tragedies, Eugenia
and Conftantia ; but, as a dramatic \vriter, not very
fuccefsful. He died at Bath in March 1773 -, leaving
a fon, who was then one of the fupreme council at
Bengal.-

FRANCISCANS, in EccLftaJlical Hiflonj, are re-
ligious of the order of St Francis, founded by him in
the year 1209. Francis was the fon of a merchant of
Aftifi, in the province of Umbria. who, having led a
difTolute life, was reclaimed by a fit of ficknefs, .Tnd
afterwards fell into an extravagant kind of devotion,

that

F R A [2

Fraiicifcar.s.tljat looked la's like religion than alienation of mind.

'~~".^~~' Soon after this, ^•iz. in the year 1 208, hearing the
paffage repeated, Matt. x. 9. 10. in which Chrill ad-
dreiTes his apolUes, Fruv'ide neiiher gold, nor (i her, inc.
he was kd to conliJer a voluntary and abfolute poverty
as the eflence of the gofpel, and to prefcribe this po-
verty as a lacred rule both to himfelf and to the few
that followed him. This new fociety, which appeared
to Innocent III. extremely adapted to the prefeht Hate
of the church, and proper to reilore its declining credit,
was foleninly approved and confirmed by Honorius III.
in 1223, and had made confiderable progrefs before
the death of its founder in 1226. Francis, through an
cxcellh'e humility, would not lufFer the monks of his
order to be called f nitres, i. e. brethren or friars, hut
fratcrculi, i. e. little brethren, or friars-ralnor, by \vhich
denomination they ftlU continue to be diftinguiflisd.
They are alio called gray fnars, on account of the
coloiu: of their clothing, and cordeliers, &c. The
Francifcr.ns and Dominicans were zealous and active
friends to the papal hierarchy, and, in return, were
diilinguilhed by peculiar privileges and honourable
employments. The Francifcans, in particular, were
inverted with the treafurc of ample and extenfive in-
dulgences ; the dillribution of ivhich ^vas committed
to them by the popes, as a means of fubfiftence, and
a rich indemnification for their voluntary poverty.
In confequence of this grant, the rule of the founder,
which abfoiutely prohibited both perfonal and collec-
tive property, fo that neither the individual nor the
community were to pofiefs either fund, revenue, or any
worldly goods, was confidered as too llricl and fevere,
and difpenfed with foon after his death. In 1231,
Gregory IX. publilhed an interpretation of this rule,
mitigating its rigour ; which was farther confirmed by
Innocent IV. in 1245, 3"<1 tiy Alexander IV. in 1247.
Thefe milder operations were zealouCy oppofed by a
branch of the Francifcans called xhe fpiritua/ ; and their
complaints were regarded by Nicholas III. who, in
1279, publiihed a famous conftitution, confirming the
rule of St Francis, and containing an elaborate expli-
cation of the maxims it recommended, and the duties
it prefcribed. In 1 287, Matthew of Aqua Sparta,
being elected general ot the order, difcouraged the
ancient difcipline of the Francifcans, and indulged his
monks in abandoning even the appearance of poverty ;
and this conduct inflamed the indignation of the fpiri-
tual or aufterer Francifcans; fo that from the year I 290
feditions and fchifms arofe in an order that had been fo
famous for its pretended difmtereftednefs and humility.
Such was the enthufiaftic frenzy of the Francifcans,
that they impioufly maintaiped, that the founder of
their order was a fecond Chrift, in all refpedts firailar
to the firft ; and that their inllitulion and difcipline
were the true gofpel of Jefus. Accordingly, Albizi,
a Francifcan of Pifa, publirtied a book in 138^, with
the applaufe of his order, entitled. The book of the
Conformities of St Francis with Jefus Chrill. In the
beginning of this century, the whole Francifcan order
was divided into two parties ; the one, embracing the
fevere difcipline and abfolute poverty of St Francis,
were called fpirhuals ; and the other, who infnlcd
on mitigating the auftere injunflions of their founder,
were denominated brethren of the community. Thefe
wore long, loofe, and good habits, with large hoods j

ir J F R A

the former were clad in a flrait, coarle, and Giort drcfs,
pretending that this drefs was enjoined by St Francis, ^
and that no power on earth had a tight to alter it.
Neither the moderation of Clement V. nor the violence
of John XXII. could appeafe the tumult occalioned
by thefe two parties ; however, their rage fubfided
from the year 1329. In 1368 thefe two parties were
formed into two large bodies, comprehending the
whole Francilcan order, which lubfift to this day ; viz.
the conventual brethren, and the brethren of the ob-
fermance or obfervation, from ivhom Iprung the ca-
puchins and rerolleifls. The general opinion is, that
the Francifcans came into England in the year I 224,
and liad their firft lioafe at Canterbury, and their fecond
at London •, but there is no certain account of their
being here till King Henry VII. built two or three
houfes for ihem. At the diiTolution of the monafteries,
the conventual Francilrans had about jj houfes, which
were under feven cullodies or wardenihips; viz. thole
of London, York, Cambridge, Brillol, Oxford, New-
callle, and Worcefter.

FRANCOIS, or Franc.vis, Port Des, the name ot
a bay or harbour difcovered by Peyroufe on the north-
weft coaft of America, is fituated in N. Lat. 58. 37.
and in Long. 1 39. 50. W. from Paris. This harbour
^^-as from three to four leagues deep : he entered it with
his two frigates in July I 786, and came to an anchor
in an iftand near the middle of it, in 20 fathoms water,
^vith a muddy bottom. The bottom of the bay, he ob-
ferves, is one of the moft extraordinary places in the
world ; the water is fo deep that it could not be fa-
thomed, and furrounded by peaked mountains of a great
height, covered with fnow, without vegetaUon, and
feemingly condemned by nature to perpetual fterility.
He never faw the fuiface of the water ruffled with the
fmalleft breath of air, or in the leaft difturbed but by
the falling of enonnous pieces of ice, which continually
detach therafelves from five different glaciers. The air
was fo calm, and the filence fo profound, that the voice
of man might be heard at the diftance of half a league,
as well as the noife of fea-birds which hatch their eggs
in the cavities of the rocks.

He found the variation of the compafs to be 28° E.
and the dip of the needle 74°. At full and change of
the moon, when it is high water at one o'clock, the Tea
rofe feven feet and a half. The current of the channel
at the entrance of the harbour, during the fea breeze,
came in like a rapid river, fo that it mull be impraclica-
ble to take the channel when the winds blow violently
from the IbuthwarJ; and indeed the currents at all times
render the entrance dillicult. This harbour poflelTes
many advantages, but is alfo fubjett to feveral inconve-
niences. It feems not to be convenient for (hips to
anchor, which are employed in trafficking in fliins, be-
caufe fucb fhips ought to enter many bays, making in
each a Ihort ftny, lince the whole ftock of the Indians is
very foon dilpofed of; but it lecms to be a very com-
modious place for the eftablithment of a faflory, and
this commercial fetilcmcnt, it is fugi;erted, (hould be
made on Cenotaph illand, a name given to an iUa-id in
the middle of the harbour, from the monument erefted
on it to the memory of fome of the crew of Peyroufe's
(liips, which were loft in the channel. Ihis illand is
about a league in circuraterence, abounds with wood
and water, and feems capable of cultlvatic!!. The quan-
D d 3 lity

F R A [21

tity of otter fkiiis far exceeded any tiling which Pey-
roufe had obltrved in any other part of America.
J The climate of this coail, according to Peyroufe,
feemed much milder than that of Hudibn's Bay. For
three or four months of the year vegetation was very
vigorous ; there was found abundance of celery, endive,
lupin, and yarrow, ^vith moll of the plants which are
common in the meado\vs and mountaiTis of France.
Goofeberries, rafpberries, and Ilrawberries, were alfo
common in the woods; poplars, willows, hornbeam,
and pines, forae of which meafured fix feet in diameter,
and 140 feet high, fit for malls of the largeft Ihips. The
river feemed to be filled with trout and falmon, and
different kinds of fifh were found in the bay itfelf. The
variety of birds was not great ; but bears, martens, and
fquirrels, were frequent in the woods. Th.e inhabitants
are faid to be confiderably different from the Californi-
ans, being taller, ftouter, of a more agreeable figure,
having greater vivacity of exnreffion, and a greater ihare
of courage and fenfc. Their colour is olive, and the
hair in general is neither lo coarfe nor bla.;!. as that of
the South Americans. It is fuppofed that they are
worfliippers of the fun, for they were frequently ob-
ferved addrclling themfelves in their prayers to this
planet ; but neither temple nor prieff, nor trace of
public worfhip, was ieent It is faid that they burn their
dead.

FRANCONIA, a circle of Germany, bounded on
the north by the circle of Upper Saxony, on the tall by
that of Bavaria, on the fouth by that of Swabia, and on
the well by the circles of the Rhine. The middle is
fertile in corn, wine, and fmits, but the borders are full
of woods and barren mountains.

This country was overrun by the French republicans
in the fummer of 1796; but in September the Aullrians
compelled them to retreat. The Franks, who conquered
France, came from this province, and gave their name
to thi< kingdom.

FRANGULA. See Rhamkus, Botany Index.

IHANK LANGUAGE, Lingua Franca, a kind of
jargon fpoken on the Mediterranean, and particularly
throughout the coafts of and ports of the Levant, com-
poled of Italian, Spanifh, French, vulgar Greek, and
ether languages.

Frank, or Franc, an ancient coin, either of gold
or filver, ftruck and current in France. The value
of the gold franc was fomething more than that of
the gold crowni : this coin has been long out of ufe,
tliough the term is ftill retained as the name of a
money of account ; in which fenfe it is equivalent to
the livre, or 20 fols.

Frank, or Franc, meaning XnersWy free irom charges
and impofitions, or exempt from ])ublic taxes, has various
Cgnifications in the ancifint Englilh cuftoins.

FsANa-Almoigtie, {Jihera eleemofyna), or " free
alms ;" a tenure of a fpiritual nature, whereby a re-
ligious corporation, aggregate or fole, holdeth lands
of the donor to them and their fuccelTors for ever. The
fervice which they wpre bound to render for thefe
fends was not certainly defined : but only in general to
jiray for the fouls of the donor and his heirs, dead or
alive; and therefore they did no fealty (which is in-
cident to all other fervices but this), bccaufe this divine
fervice was of a higher and nM)re exalted nature. This
is the tenure bv which almoft all the ancient monaf-

J ] F R A

teries and religious houfes held their lands ; and by
which the parochial clergy, and very many ecclefiafti- "
cal and eleemolynary foundations, hold them at this
day ; the nature ot the fervice being upon the Reforma-
tion altered, and made conformable to the purer doc-
trines of the church of England. It was an old Saxon
tenure ; and continued under the Noiman revolution,
through the great refpeft that was Ihown to religion
and religious men in ancient times. This is alfo the
reafon that tenants in frank almoigne were difcharged of
all other fervices except th? tr'nivda neceffnas, of repair-
ing the highways, building cafiles, and repelling inva-
fions ; jull as the Druids, among the ancient Britons
had omnium rerum inwiunitatem. And even at prefeut,
this is a tenure of a very different nature from all
others ; being not in the leaft feodal, but merely fpi-
ritual. For, if the fervice be neglected, the law gives
no remedy by dillrefs, or otherwife, to the lord of
whom the lands are holden ; but merely a complaint to
the ordinary or vilitor to correft it.

FitANK-C/iafe is defined to be a liberty of free chafe,
whereby perfons that liave lands within the compafs of
the lame, are prohibited to cut down any wood, &c.
out of the view ol tlie foreller.

FKAKK-Fee, fignifies the fame thing as holding lands
and tenements in fee-fimple ; that is to any perlon and
his heirs, and not by luch fervice as is required by
ancient demelne, but is pleaded at common law. See
Fee.

Frank-Lou', a word applied to the free and com-
mon law of the land, or the benefit a perfon has
by it.

He that for any offence lofeth this frank-law incurs
tliele inconveniences, viz. He may not be permitted
to lerve on juries, nor ufed as an evidence to the
truth ; and if he has any thing to do in the king's
court, he mull not approach it in perlon, but appoint
his attorney ; his lands, goods, and chattels, Ihall be
feized into the king's hands ; and his lands be etlrea-
ted, his trees rooted up, and his body committed to
cullody.

FkANK-Marriagc, in Law, is where tenements are
given by one man to another, together ^\ith a >vite,
\vho is the daughter or coufin to the donor, to hold in
frank-marriage. By fuch gift, though nothing but
the word frank-marriage is expreffed, the donees iliall
have the tenements to them, and the heirs of their t-.vo
bodies begotten ; that is, they are tenants in Ipccial
tail. For this one word, frank-marriage, denotes, ex v.'
termini, not only an inheritance, like the woxA frank-
almoigne, but likewife limits that inheritance; I'upply-
ing, not only words of defcent, but of procreation alfo.
Such donees in frank-marriage are liable to no fervice
but fealty : for a rent referved therein is void until the
fourth degree of confanguinity be paft between the iffues
of the donor and donee.

FR/iNK-P/edge, in Law, fignifies a pledge or furety for
the behaviour of Ireemen.

According to the ancient cuftom of England, for the
prefervation of the public peace, every frcebem man,
at the age of fourteen, except religious perfons, clerks,
knights, and their eldefi fons, was obliged to give fc-
curity for his truth and behaviour towards the king and
his iiibjeils, or elfe be imprifoned. Accordingly, a
certain number of nciglibours became interchangeably

bound

F R A [2

bound for each other, to fee each perfon of their pliidge
forthcoming at all times, or to anfwer for the offence
of any one gone away : fo that whenever any perfon
offer.ded, it was prefently inquired in what pledge he
and there the perfons bound either prodi
31 «lay-

nd either produced the
or made ilitisfaclion for his of-

otTender i
fe

FxANK Tinement. See Tenure.
FRANKED i.tlTERS. Tlie privilege of letters
coming free of pollage to and from members of par-
liament was claimed by the lioufe of commons in 1660,
w !:en the firft legal fettlement of the prefent poll office
WAS made ; but afterwards dropped, upon a private
aiVurance from the crown, that this privilege lliould be
alloived the members. And accordingly a ivarrant was
conliantly iflued to tlie pollmaller general, directing
the allowance thereof to the extent of two ounces in
weight : till at length it was exprelsly confirmed by
4 Geo. III. c. 24. which adds many new regulations,
rendered necelTary by the great abufes which had crept
into the practice of franking ; whereby the annual
amount of franked letters had increafed from 23,6001.
in the year 1715, to 170,700!. in the year 1763.
Further regulations have fince taken place ; in parti-
cular, fratiks mull be dated (the month written at
length), and put into the office the fame day ; notwith-
llanding which, the revenue ilill lofes by this privilege
a very coniiderable annual revenue.

FRANKEX, Frantisci's, commonly called Old
Frank, a famous Flerailh painter, fuppofed to have
been born about the year f544 ; but though his works
are well kno^vn, very few of the circumtlances of his
l.fe have been tranfmitted to pollerity. This matter
painted hillorical fubjeCts from the Old and Neu- Tef-
taments ; and was remarkable for introducing a great
number of figures into his compofitions, which he had
the addrels to group very diliinClly. Vandyck often
commended his ivorks, and thought them worthy of a
place in any coUeition.

Frank F.X, Francifcu^, diltinguifhed by the name
of Young Frank, ivas the fon of the former, born in the
year 1580. He was inftrufted by his father; whofe
llyle he adopted fo clofely, that their works are fre-
quently miltaken. When he found himfelf fufficiently
ikilled at home, he travelled into Italy for improve-
ment in colouring ; and, on his return, his works were
hiuch coveted. 'l"he mod capital performances of this
painter are, a fcriptural performance in the church of
Notre Dame at Antwerp; and an excellent picture, in a
fraall fize, of Solomon's idolatry. Young Frank died
in 1642.

FRANKENDAL, a ftrong town of Germany, in
the dominions of the Elector Palatine, fituated near
tlie Rhine, about feven miles fouth of Worms. It
was taken by the Spaniards in 1623, by the Swedes
in 1632, burnt by the French in 1688, and finally
liken by the allies in the year 1794. E. Long. 8. 29.
N. I.at. 49. 2 V

FRANKENIA; a genus of plants belonging to the
Jiexandria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking
under the 1 7th order, Caltjcanilicma:. See Botany
Index.

FRANKFORT, the name of feveral townfhips in
different places of North America ; fuch as Frankfort, a
toivnlhip in Hancock, and dillri£l of Maine, with a few

13 ] F R A

houfes regularly built. It contains 891 inhabitants, Frankin-
and lies about 238 miles north-ealt of Bofton. Frank- ""ffr
fort, a thriving village in Philadelphia ; the name of ^""^''''"•,
another in Haniplhire, of one in Virginia, and the name
of the metropolis of Kentucky.

FRANKINCENSE. See Ikcensk.
FRANKLIN, Thomas, D. D. chaplain in ordi-
nary to his majelty, was born in London about the
year 1720, and was the fon of Richard Franklin,
well known as the printer of an anti-minillerial paper
called The Crafljman ; in conducting which he re-
ceived great alhllance from Lord Bolingbrokc, Mr
Pulteney, and Other excellent writers, who then op-
pofed Sir Robert Walpole's meafures. By the advice
of the fecond of thefe gentlemen, >oung Franklin was
devoted to the church, with a promife of being pro-
vided for by the patriot ; who afterwards forgot his
undertaking, and then entirely neglefled hira. He
was educated at Weitminller I'chool ; from whence he
went to the univerfity of Cambridge, where he be-
came fellow of Trinity college, and was fome time
Greek profeflbr. In December 1758, he was inltituted
vicar of Ware and 'i'hundridge ; which, with the
lefturefhip of St Paul, Covent G-arden, and a chapel
in Q^ueen ftreet, were all the preferments he held till
he obtained the reftory of Braited in Kent. This
gentleman was pofleffed of no inconfiderable (hare of
learning and poetical abilities, and was long a favourite
in the literary world. His tranllations of Phalareus,
Sophocles, and Lucian, equally evince his learning
and his genius, as they are not more dillinguilhed for
fidelity in the verfion, than congeniality with tlie fpirit
of the admirable originals. Dr Franklin, L'ke Mr
Foote, fuffered a tranflation from the French to be
printed in his name ; but the Oreltes and Eleclra are
fuppofed to be all that ivere really by him. It ^vas a
tranllation of Voltaire's works, to which alfo Dr Smol-
lett's name appears. His own dramatic compofitions,
of which the principal are the tragedies of The Earl
of Warwick and ]\Iatilda, are univerfally known, and
defervedly efleemed by the public. He died in March
1784.

Franklin, Benjamin, a philofopher and a (latcl-
man of confiderable eminence, was born in the year
1706, at Bofton in New England. His family derived
their origin from Ecton in Noitharaptonlhire, whecc.
his anceftors had an inconfiderable freehold for ni.iny
generations. The perfecution of the noiMTonformilts in
the reign of Charles II. induced his father to take re-
fuge in New England ; and in the qity of Bolton he ■
followed the occupation of a Ibap-boilcr and tallow-
chandler. Franklin drew up a hillory of his own life
from his nativity to the 25th year of his age ; but as at
that period he had made no very coufpicuous figure in
the world, it is to be lamented that we have not the al-
fiitance of his own pen to the meridian of his career.
This defect we have endeavoured to fupply in the
fubfequent narrative from the molt authentic ma-
terials, avoiding as much as poffible the exaggerated
panegyric of friends, and the unmerited detraction of
enemies.

Our author, from his very infancy, difcovcred the
ftrongelt propenfity towards literary purfiits, which de-
termined his father to quaUfy him for the miniflry ; but he
was thwarted in bis dcfigns by a numerous and increafing

familv, .

F R A [21

r.khr^ tamily, anj tnerefore Eenjamin Was taken from fchool
^ at ten years of age, to take part in the drudgery of his
father's trade. This greatly mortified the afpiring mind
of young Franklin, who wilhed to prefer a feafaring
life to furh an employment ; but from this he was dif-
fuaded by the iniluence of his fiither, who was a man of
fome knowledge, and pofle.Tcd a folid underltanding.
He made it his chief aim to infpire his children with
the love of knowledge and the principles of moral rec-
titude. He had few books ; yet from among thefe
Benjamin felecled a number of voyages and travels, as
well as different hiftories, a fpecies of reading for which
he had a llrong prediletlion. By going through a
coiu-fe of controverilal divinity in this unaided manner,
he greatly ftrengthened his argumentative powers, ^vhich
was moft probably all he had in view. Defoe upon pro-
jecls, according to his own account, made fuch irapref-
lions upon his mind as in a great meafure direiSed the
fubfequent events of his Ufe.

He was now chofen to an employment which accord-
ed much better with the natural bent of his mind than
the bufmefs of his father's (hop. A brother of his own
had a printing-office in Bofton, to whom Benjamin was
bound apprentice at I 2 years of age. With the mecha-
nical part of the bufinefs he was foon acquainted ;
and the opportunities thus afforded hira of procuring
new books to read, were eagerly feized, and the
greater part of the night frequently fpent in the per-
'jfal of them. He foon became anxious to imitate the
works which he moft admired, and his firft attempts
were of a poetical nature. He compofed and printed
ballads, which were well received bv thofe who love
iach a fpecies of reading ; yet his father had the ad-
urefs to convince him that nature never defigned him
for a poet. He therefore turned his whole attention to
the cultivation of profe compofition, in which he fuc-
ceeded infinitely better ; and he thus became fuperior
to his brethren of the prefs, and raifed himfelf to Rations
of public importance. As his paiTion for reading and
wnting ivas very ftrong, lo he became in a fliort time a
powerful difputant, which was ftrengthened by his inti-
macy with a young man of a firailar difpofition. He
perufed, with uncommon attention, a tranflation of Xe-
nophon's Memorabilia, \vhich enabled him either to
confute or confound an adverfary by a number of quef-
tions. It is alfo certain that he became a fceptic as to
the religion in which he had been educated, and pro-
pagated his unbelief with zeal and afliduity. The fatal
confequences which this produced on the deportment of
fome of his intimate companions, at length happily con-
vinced him that it is extremely dangerous to deftroy the
falutary influence of religion, without being able to
fubftitute any thing in its place of equal importance and
efficacy. He feems, however, to have continued a
fceptic in his own mind, yet he ftill retained a love for
moral reftitude, which led him to adopt honourable
means in the profecution of valuable ends. Much to
his honour be it fpoken, he acquired, at a very early
period of life, that triumph over his fenfual ippetites,
wliich is fo effentially neceflfary to a life of dignity, ufe-
tulnefs, and virtue. Having read Tyron's recommen-
dation of a vegetable diet, at 16 years of age, he aban-
doned the ufe of animal food ; and on offering to his
brother to fupport himfelf on half the money which was
paid for his board, he was allowed to adopt his own

4 ]

F R A

plan, by ^vliich means he was enabled to fave a conn- Fn
derable fum tor the purchafe. of books. Although he ■""
relaxed confiderably as to a vegetable diet, yet he thus
acquired the habit of being fatistied , with little, and a
contempt of the gratifications of the palate was frequent-
ly of Angular advantage to him through the whole of
life.

When his brother began a news-paper, Benjamin
fent a number of pieces on various topics to be inlcrted,
which met with the approbation of the molf competent
judges ; — a fatisfaft ion he enjoyed without being known,
as they were all anonymous. His brother tieated him
^vith the harfhnefs of a mafter, ivhich he bore ^vith the
utuiort impatience, as the public had already pronounced
hipi to be poffefled of merit. The ftates of America
baring prohibited James Franklin from publilhing this
paper, on account of fome political offence, the name of
Benjamin vvas employed as publilher, in confecjuence of
which he procured his indentures, although he agreed
privately H-ith his brother to fene out his time. But
as he did not deem this agreement obligatory, he went
to New York by fea, and from that place to Philadel-
phia, in the feventeenth year of his age. He himfelf
acknowledges this to have been a fault, and therefore
has averted that cenfure which he ^vould otherwife have
deferved. At Philadelphia he engaged with a printer
of the name of Keimer, whofe affairs he foon placed on
a more refpeflable footing ; and here alio he became
acquainted with feveral young men of a literary turn of
mind, by whofe company liis talfe for knowledge was
greatly improved.

He foon after became acquainted with Sir \Villiam
Keith the governor of that province, who powerfully
recommended it to him to commence bufinefs on his
own account, and proraifed to give him all the encou-
ragement in his power. Encouraged by this gentleman
to adopt fuch a plan, he fet out for Bofton on a viiit
to his parents, in order to procure from them fome pe-
cuniary aid •, but a welcome reception was all he could
obtain. Having returned to Philadelphia, Sir William
generoully offered to take the whole burden upon him-
felf, and advifed Franklin to make a voyage to Eng-
land, in order to procure every thing necelTary for
a printing-office. He fet fail in the year 1725, and
took with him his intimate companion Ralph, whofe
name has been rendered memorable by being celebrated
in the Dunciad. Unfortunately for Franklin, Sir
William Keith, on whofe letters of recommendation
and credit he entirely relied, bafely deceived him, and
he was obliged to work as a journeyman in London for
his immediate fubfiftence. His friend Rr.lph could only
live by his head, and his income of confequence was ex-
tremely circumfcribed, as well as precarious, which
made him a heavy burden on the pocket of B?njamin.
In that diffolute metropolis the one forgot his wife and
child in America, and the other the folemn promifes
of fidelity which he had made to a Mifs Read, prior to
his departure ; — another ftep of his conduct which he
himfelf feverely cenfures' By a differtation on liberty
and necelTity, pleafure and pain, he acquired conlider-
able reputation, and it was the means of introducing
him to the celebrated Dr Mandevillc, author of the
Fable of the Bees. In the fecond printing-office ia
which he ^vorked, he laboured inceffantly to convince his
fellow workmen that a pint of porter does not contain

half

F R A [ 21,

half fo mucli nourilliment as a penny roll, for wliich l;e
obtained the ludicrous epithet of the American aynar.'c;
yet he was finally enabled to make many converts to
ills doctrine; — a proof that he poffelTedilrong perfuafive
poivers, when we confider the deep-rooted attachment
of thofe with lyhom he had to treat to their favourite
libation..

After eighteen months refidence In London, he re-
turned to Philadelphia in the year 1726, and became
clers; to a Mr Denhara, a man ot relpeilability, who
had opened a warehoufe in that city. He foon became
acquainted with the principles of commerce, and led a
very happy life in this new lituation, till the connexion
was dllToived by the death of Mr Denham, which hap-
pened the following year. This again obliged him to
become journeyman printer, and he was after^vards
overleer in tlie oflce of Keimer, whom we have already
mentioned. Here he acquired great elleem, and at
length conceived the idea of fetting up for himfelf,
which he accompliihed by entering into partnerlhip
with one Rleredith, a fellow workman, whofe father
was in circumtlances to enable him to advance them
fo:ne money. His induftry was habitual, but the idea
that he was now working for himfelf, gave it additional
energy. He was chiefly inllruraental in the inlVilution
of a club which went by the name of x\\e junto, and
■Kvhich was highly conducive to the intellectual im-
provement of its members. Before the admiliion of a
candidate, the following q'leftions were put to him.
" Do you fincerely declare that you love mankind in
general, of what profelTion or religion foever ? Do
you think any perfon ought to be harmed in his body,
name, or goods, for mere fpeculative opinions, or his
external \vay of woriliip ? Do you love truth for truth's
fake ; and will you endeavour impartially to find and
receive it yo'jrfeif, and communicate it to others r"
Franklin and his copartner began a neufpaper, which
the labours and talents of the former brought into
repute, and by them the votes and laws of the aiTem-
bly came afterwards to be printed. The partner-
fiiip being dilTolved by the departure of Meredith,
Franklin, by the generous aid of friends, w-as enabled
to take the whole bufmefs upon himfelf, to which he
adtled the bufmefs of a flationer. When the increafe of
paper money engaged the attention of the American
government, Franklin wrote an anonymous pamphlet
in defence of the meafure, by which he acquired con-
fidevable reputation, the countenance of men in power,
and it plared his profperity on a permanent bafis.
About this time he kept up a criminal correfpondcnce
witli different fem-ilcs, chiedy owing, perhaps, to the
difapn ointment he met with in the firft objeft of his
love, Mifs Read, v.ho by this time was married to ano-
ther in confequence of his neglect. But we forget the
fau't- of the man in the ingenuous confedion of the pe-
nitent. A report prevailing tha: IMifs Read's hnfband was
marr'd to another woman, he retired to the Well Indies
where he died, and Franklin married the o'-'jefl of his firft
love in the month of September 17^6, being then
about 24 years of age. She proved a viluable wife,
and in every fenfe of the word, an " help meet for
him "

To him we are to tifcribe the eftablilhment of a pub-
lic library at Philadelphia, .vhich he accompliHied in
the ye:ir 1 73 1, and had the fatisfaclion of feeing it ar-

] F 11 A

that r.ourifhing condition which it lias long ilncc

attained. His " Poor R
gun in 1732, and becami

hard's Almanac," was be-
ablc for the many
prudential maxims with which it abounded j and the
proverbial manner in which they were cxprelTed made
them take faft hold of the memory. His pdlitical ca-
reer commenced in 1736, when he was cholcn clerk to
the general afltmbly of Pennfylvania, to which he was
re-elefted for feveral years, and at laft became a repre-
fer.tativc. In 1737, he was made poftraafter of Phila-
delphia, and in the fu'ofequcnt year he greatly improv-
ed the police of the city, by the formation of a fire-
company, and afterwards an infurance-company againft
loiTes by fire. In the war with France, which broke
out in 1744, when the beft means of defending the
province againft the inroads of the enemy, and when
the militia bill was throu-n afide from its being ob-
noxious to the people, Franklin fuggefted the idea of a
voluntary aflbciation for their mutual defence, which
was inftantly figued by 1200 perfons, and 10,000 fub-

were obtained in a ihort time by circulating

through the province. By this and fimilar mean:
America had an opportunity of afcertaining her own
ftrength, and how to make ufe of it with advantage in
cafes of emergency.

About this time he began his interefting experimeijts
on electricity, by the refult of which he juftly acquired
a diftlnguilhed reputation. The library fociety of Phi-
ladelphia having received from Mr Peter Collinfon in
the year 1 745, an account of the faifis refpefting elec-
tricity which at that time engrolTed the attention of
philofophers in Europe, Franklin fet about fludyin;^
the fubjeifl with the grtatelt afliduity. He gave the
account of his refearches, the title of " New experi-
ments and oblervatlons in electricity, made at Philadel-
phia in America," and addrcifed to Mr Collinfon In
the form of letters, bearing date from 1747 to 1754.
They were everywhere read with avidity, and univerfal-
ly admired ; Dr Prieilley fpeaks of them in the follow-
ing terms. " It is not eafy to fay whether we are moft
pleafed with the fimplicity and perfpicuity >rith which
the author propofes every hypothefis of his own, or the
noble franknefs uith which he relates his miltakes, ivheii
they were correfted by fubfequcnt experiments." Not
to fwell this article with a detailed account of all his
difcoveries on this fubjcCl, we fliall content ourfelves
^vith mentioning that moll interefting of the whole,
his grand difcovery that lightning and eleftric fire are
identically the fame. This identity had be^run to be
fufpecled, and experiments had been made In France to
afceitain the fafl ; but it was referved to Franklin to
demonftrate this fail by his own experiments. He ob-
tained his firft decifive proof of this in the month of
.Tune 1752, by fetting up a filken kite into the air with
a point of iron, and a key faftened to the end of the
hempen ftring by which he held it. In this manner he
drew down from a thunder cloud a fulhcicnt quantity of
electric fire to emit fenfible fparks from the key. By
means of an infulated iron rod which he fixed upon his
houfe, he drew down the lightning, and was thus fur-
nlltted with an opportunity of difcovering whether ii
was pofitive or negative. As he firmly believed that
philofophlcal difcoveries were only valuable in fo far as
they could be produciive of benefit to man, he made
thcro fubfcrvienl to the proleclion of buildings from the

effcas ■

F R A [21

'Tr.-.rklir. effedls of lightning, whicli are truly alarming in Nortli
"'^~~ America. He applied phyfics to the purpofes of com-
mon life, and in 1 745 invented bis Pennfylvania fire-
places, in ^vhicli the qualities of an open grate were
combined with that of a ftove.

He turned his attention very much to the fubjeft of
politics, which was extremely natural for a man of a
public fpirit living under a popular government. He
was chofen a reprelentative of the city of Philadelphia
for the provincial aflembly in 1747. At this time a
conteft fubfillcd between the aflembly and the proprie-
taries, as to the claim of the latter to be exempted from
public burdens. Franklin took the popular fide of the
quertion, by which he acquired great influence, and
was regarded as the head of the oppofitioii. This was
not the offspring of eloquence, for he fcldom fpoke, and
never in the form of an harangue ; but his pointed ob-
fervations, his unadorned good ienfe, frequently de-
ftroyed the effeft of the molt elaborate orations.

He drew up the plan of an academy to be founded
at Philadelphia, from a convidion that education in a
free llate is of the utmoft importance. It was carried
into cffeft in the year 1750, by virtue of a fubfcription,
to which the proprietors afterivards liberally contribut-
ed. He difchargcd the duties of his office as poftmaf-
ter of Philadelphia with fo much punctuality, that he
was appointed deputy poflmafter general for the Britilli
colonies in 1753, and the revenue was foon bettered
by his unwearied exertions. A plan for conciliating
the Indians, and forming an alliance with them, was
drawn up by Franklin in 1754, to which the commif-
fioners at Albany agreed, and a copy of it was tranf-
mitted to the Britilh privy council. It is a fingular
tircumftance, that this plan was rejected by the aflem-
blies as giving too much power to the crown, while the
Britilh miniflry declared that it gave too much influ-
ence to the reprefentatives of the people. In the year
1757, Franklin fet fail for London, as agent for Penn-
fylvania, the aflfembly of that province being involved
In difputes with the proprietary. It was agreed on by
the privy cotmcil, that landholders fliould pay their
ihare of the public burdens, on condition Franklin
would engage that they Ihould be fairly proportioned.
He continued at the Britilh court as agent for his pro-
vince, and acquired fo great reputation, that the feme
iruft was repofed in him for MalTachulTets, Maryland,
and Georgia. His merit as a philofopher was now
jullly appreciated in Europe, and he was made a fel-
low of the Royal Society of London. The degree of
L. L. D. was alfo conferred upon him at St Andrews,
Edinburgh, and Oxford.

In the year 1762 he returned to America, where he
received the thanks of the affembly of Pennfylvania, and
a handfome recompenfe in money for his important
fervices. When the ffamp acl; occafioned fo much dif-
turbance in America, Dr Franklin was lummoned to
the bar of the houle of commons, to give evidence ref-
peiSling the dilpoiitions of the people, whether he thought
they could be induced to fubmit to it ; and the energy
and clearnefs of his reprefentations were inftrumental
-in procuring the repeal of that obnoxious meafure.

On the commencement of hollilities between Great
.Britain and the colonies in 1775, he returned to Ame-
rica, and w..f chofen a delegate to congrefs by the le-
oiflature of Pennfylvania. In 1776 he treated with

6 ] F ^ A

Lord Howe on the fubjeft of a reconciliation, and in Fianklii
one of his letters exprclied in Itrong terms the temper '~~^'~~'
oftheBiitifn nation, to which he imputed the fatr.l
extremity then arrived. When the quefficn of inde-
pendence came to be difcuffed, he was decidedly in fa-
vour of the meafure, and was highly inllrumental in
bringing over the public mind to the fame opinion.
When a negotiation with France was opened, Dr
Franklin was chofen one of the perfonages to relide at
that court. His political abilities eminently qualified
him for fuch a ftation, and his chara^tr as a philofopher
gained him great efleem in a country where knowledge
is revered. He brought about a treaty with France of
an offenfive and defenfive nature in 1778, the imme-
diate confequence of which was a war with Britain.
He was one of thofe who iigned the proviiional treaty
the year following. Prior to his leaving Europe he
concluded a treaty with Sweden and Pruffia. He was
recalled from that aflive ffation in 1785, wliich he had
filled with fo much ability, and chofen prelident of the
fupreme executive council. He was chofen prelident
of a fociety for alleviating the miferies of prifons, and
aboUlhing llavery. His increafing infii-mities made him
withdraw from all public bufinefs in 1788; and on
April the 17th 1790, he terminated his aiftive and ufe-
ful life, in the 85th year of his age.

Perhaps no man ever exceeded Dr Franklin in that
folid practical wifdom ivhich confills in purfuing valu-
able ends by the moll appropriate means. His cool
temper and found judgement lecured him from errone-
ous expectations. He faw things in their true light,
and predicted conlequences with nearly a prophetic
fpirit. He laid of himfelf " I have always fet a greater
value on the charafler of a t/oer cf good, than any other
kind of reputation." In 1779, his " Political, Mifcel-
laneous, and Philofophical pieces," were publilhed in
4to and 8vo. His effays, humorous, moral, and lite-
rary, were publilhed after his death, in t\vo fmall vo-
lumes.

He was by no means inattentive to his own intereft,
of which his rapid advancement in life fumiflies an
ample proof ; yet he never neglefted the intereft of fo-
ciety, or the good of mankind in general. The deli-
cate fituations in which he frequently ftood, unavoidably
expofed. him to the cenfure of his enemies ; yet his ge-
neral conduft has long ago received the approbation of
his countrymen, by whom he was confidered as the
bcft and moft valuable of citizens. When we view him
as a philofopher, we muft afcribe his chief merit to his
electrical difcoveries, yet on many other topics, fuch as
meteorology and mechanics, he evinced himfelf a man
of confiderable penetration. Asa political writer, his
great merit is clearnefs, energy, and fimplicity ; and as
a mifcellaneous author he polTeffes a fund of humour
which cannot fail to be at once both entertaining and
impreffive.

Fraxklin', the name of feveral counties in America,
fuch as Franklin county in Pennfylvania, computed to
contain 800 fquare miles, or 512,000 acres. It contains
II townlhips, and 15,655 inhabitants. Franklin, a
county in Kentucky ; the name of one in Halifax, of
one in Virginia, and of another in Georgia, which con-
tains 1041 inhabitants, including 156 llaves. It is alfo
the name of a townlliip in Maffachufetts ; of one in
Pennfylvania, another in New York, and of another in
Connefticut,

A [ 21

fniall illc at the mouth of

F Tx

Conncflicut, ns well as of
St George's river.

FRANKS, Fran'cs, Fraxkis, or Franqitis, a
name Avhich the Turks, Arabs, Greeks, &c. give to
all the people of the weflem parts of Europe. Tlie
appellation is commonly fuppofed to have had its rife
in Afia, at the time of the croifades ; when the French
made the moft confiderable figure among the croiflees :
from which time the Turks, Saracens, Greeks, Abyf-
linians, &c. ufed it as a common term for all the Cliri-
llians of Europe ; and called Europe itfelf Frnnkijlan.
The Arabs and Mahometans, fays M. d'Herbelot, ap-
ply the term Franks not only to the French (to whom
the name originally belonged, but alfo to the Latins
and Europeans in general.

But F. Goar, in his notes on Condinus, cap. 5. n. 43.
farr.iflies another origin of the appellation Franks, of
greater antiquity than the former. He obiervcs, that
tlie Greeks at firft confined the name to the Frnnci,
i. e. the German nations, who had fettled themfelves
in France or Gaul ; but afterwards they gave the fame
name to the Apulians and Calabrians, after they had
been conquered by the Normans ; and at length the
name was farther extended to all the Latins.

In this fenfe is the word ufed by feveral Greek wri-
ters ; as Comnenus, &c. who to dlllinguilh the French,
call them the ii'rjiern Franks. Du Cange adds, that
about the time of Charlemagne they dlllinguiihed eaft-
em France, weifem France, l,atiu or Roman France,
and German France, which was the ancient France,
afterwards called Franconia.

FRASCATL or Frescati. See Frescati.

FRASERSBURGH, a fmall fea-port to-.vn in the
county of Aberdeen, fituated on the point of land call-
ed Kinnaird''s Head, which is the fouthem extremity
of the Murray frith. It has a fmall but excellent har-
bour, made and kept up at a confiderable expence by
the proprietor and the tov\Ti, and well adapted for build-
ing fmall veffels. According to the tide, there are
from II to 15 feet water within the harbour, and 20
feet immediately irithout at fpring tides : without is a
tolerable road for (hipping, in a bay nearly a league in
length and half a league in breadth, with good ancho-
rage in a fandy bottom. Veffels of about 200 tons bur-
den can enter the harbour. Fraferihurgh contains about
icoo inhabitants, and is well fituated for trade with the
eaft coart of Europe. The only manufacture carried on
in Fraferihurgh is in linen yam, of which there is an-
nually exported to the amount of 3000L or 4000I.

FRATERNAL, fomething belonging to the rela-
tion of brother.

Fraternal ylffeBlon is the love and attachment fub-
fifling among, or due to one another by, children of
the fame family.

Tliough all mankind fprung from the fame head, are
bound to cultivate a mutual good will to each other ;
yet this duty is not fo obvious and flriking as that
which is incumbent on ihofc who belong to the lame
family. Nothing can approach neaier to fclf love than
fraternal affeclion : and there is but a fliort remove from
cxir own concerns and happinefs, to theirs who come
from the fame flock, and are partakers of the fame blood.
Nothing, therefore, can be more horrible than difcord
and animofity among members fo allied ; and nothing
fo beautiful as harmony and love.

Vol. IX. Part I.

7 ] F R A

This relation is formed by nature, not by clioi'.e ■, Fiatjrnitj-
and though it has many things in common with, yet it ')
is prior to, the obligations of friendlliip : confe'iuently '^ "" ''.
n.ature and reafon diflate that there lliould be a pecu-
liar affrdion between biethren. We are not obliged,
however, to make a brother or filler an intimate or bo-
fom friend in preference to one who is not akin. Di-
vcrfity of temper, and want of fuitable qualifications^
may render it unfafe and improper. But where friend-
lliip and fraternity meet in the lirae perfons, fuch a
conjunilion adds a luftre to the relation.

Among brethren, a hearty benevolence, an ardent
concern for each other's welfare, a readinefs to lerve
and promote it, are the peculiar offices of this relation ;
and though friends are to have their fliare, yet the
claim of kindred is firll and ordinarily Ihongeil. " Ne-
ceffaria praelidia vita: debentur iis maxime (fays Cicero),
quos ante dixi, i. e. propinquis) : vita autera, viilufque
communis, concilia, fermones, &c. in amicitiis vigent
maxime." De Officiis.

FRATERNITY, brotherhood, the relation or
union of brothcis, friends, partners, affociates, &c.

Fratkrxitv, in a civil fenfe, is ufed for a guild, af-
fociat> 1, or fociety of perfons, united into a body, for
fome common intereft or advantage. See Comi'anv
and Guild. '

Fr-^terxity, in the Roman Catholic countries, fig-
nifies a fociety for the improvement of devotion. Ot
thefe there are feveral forts ; as, i. The fraternity of
the rofary, founded by St Dominic. It is divided in-
to tivo branches, called the common rofary, and tlie pcr-
/irliial rofary ; the former of whom are obliged to co;:-
fefs and communicate every firll Sunday in the month^
and the latter to repeat the rofary continually. 2. The
fraternity of the fcapulary, whom the bleffed Virgi:;,
according to the fabbatine bull of Pope John XXII.
has promifed to deliver out of hell the firfl Sunday af-
ter their death. 3. The fraternity of St FrancisV
girdle, are clothed with a fack of a gray colour, which
they tie with a cord, and in procelTions walk bare-
footed, carrying in their hands a wooden crofs. —
4. Tliat of St Aullin's leathern girdle comprehends a
great many devotees. Italy, Spain, and Portugal, are
the countries where one fees the grcateft number of
thefe fraternities, fome of which aflume the name of
arch fraternities. Pope Clement VII. inftituted tlie
arch-fraternity of charity, ivhich diftributes bread every
Sunday among the poor, and gives portions to 40 poor
girls on the feall of St Jerome their patron. The fra-
ternity of death buries fuch dead as are ab.andoned by
their relations, and caufes maiTes to be celebrated for then;.

FRATRP:S arvales. See Arvai.es.

FRATRIAGE, the partition among brothers, or
coheirs, coming to the fame inheritance or fucccflioH.

FRATRICELLI, in ecclefiailical hiftory, an en-
thufiaftic feci of Francifcans, which rofe in Italy, and
particularly in the raarquifate of Ancona, about the
vcar 1594- The word is an Italian diminutive, figni-
iying fratcrcitli, or " little brothers ;" and was here
ufed as a term of dcrifion, as they were mod of them
apoftate monks, whom the Italians czWfralelli, or fra-
iricelU. For this reafon the \.<^rm fralricei/i, as a nick-
name, was given to many other feds, as the Catharills,
the Waldenfes, &c. however different in their opinions
and in their conduft. But this denomination applied ^^
E c the

F R A [2

Fratricide. the aullere part of the Francifcans n as confidereJ as ho-
^^^^ nourable. See Franciscans.

The founders were P. Maurato, and P. de Foflbm-
i>roni, nho having obtained of Pope Celeftin V. a per-
inifllon to live in folitude, after the manner of her-
mits, and to obfcrve the rule of St Francis in all its
rigour, feveral idle vagabond monks joined them, who,
living after their own fancies, and making all perfec-
tion to confifl in poverty, were foon condemned by
Pope Boniface VIII. and his fucceflbr, and the inquili-
tors ordered to proceed againft them as heretics : which
commiflion they executed with their ufual barbarity.
Upon this, retiring into Sicily, Peter John Oliva de
Serignan had no fooner publiflied his Comment on the
Apocalypfe, than they adopted his errors. They
foretold the reformation of the church, and the reftora-
tion of the true gofpel of Chrifl, by the genuine foUo-iv-
ers of St Francis, and declared their aflent to almoft all
the doftrines which were publiftied under the name of
the abbot Joachim, in the " IntroduSion to the ever-
lafting Gofpel," a book publiilied in 1520, and ex-
plained by one of the fpiritual friars whofe name ivas
Gerhard. Among other enormities inculcated In this
book, it is pretended that St Francis was the angel
mentioned in Rev. xiv. 6. and had promulgated to the
world the true and everlafting Gofpel of God ; that
the Gofpel of Chrift was to be abrogated in i 260, and
to give place to this new and everlalting Gofpel, which
was to be fubllituted in its room ; and that the mini-
ilers of this great reformation were to be humble and
bare-footed friars, dellitute of all worldly employ-
ments. Some fay they even elefted a pope of their
rhurch ; at leaft they appointed a genera!, with fupe-
riors, and built monalleries, &c. Befides the opinions
of Oliva, tliey held, that the facraments of the church
were invalid ; becaufe thofe who adminiftered them
had no longer any power or jurifdii5\ion. They were
tondemncd afrcih by Pope John XXII. in confequence
fcf whofe cruelty they regarded him as the true anti-
rhrift j but feveral of them returning into Germany,
were iheltered by Lewis, duke of Bavaria, the em-
peror.

There are authentic records, from which it appears
that no lefs than 2 000 perfons were burnt by the inqui-
iition, from the year 1318 to the time of Innocent VI.
for their inflexible attachment to the poverty of St
Francis. The feverities againft them were again re\ived
towards the clofe of the 1 5th century by Pope Nico-
las V. and his fucceffors. However, all the perfecu-
tions which this feci endured were not futlicient to ex-
unguitli it ; for it fubfifted until the times of the refor-
mation in Germany, when its remaining votaries adopt-
ed the caufe and embraced the do(flrine and difcipline
of Luther. And this has led Popilh writers to charge
the Fratricelli with many enormities, fome of which
are recounted by M. Bayle, art. TratricellL

1'he Fratricelli had divers other denominations : they
were called fratricelli, according to fome, becaufe they
lived in community, in imitation of the primitive Chrif-
tiars, or rather through the humility of the founder of
the Francifcan order, to which the Fratricelli originally
belonged ; Dulcini, from one of their doiflors ; Bizoc/ti,
Jjfjruins, and Beglutrdi,

FRATRICIDE, the crime of murdering one's bro-
ther. See Parricidj;.

[8 ] F R E

FRAUD, in Law, fignifies deceit in grants, or con-
veyances of lands, &c. or in bargains and falcs of
goods, &c. to the damage of another perfon.

A fraudulent conveyance of lands or goods to de-
ceive creditors, as to creditors is void in law. And a
fraudulent conveyance in order to defraud purchafers,
is alfo to fuch purchafers void ; and the perfons juftifv-
ing or putting off fuch grants as good, Ihall forfeit a
year's value of the lands, and the full value of the goods
and chattels, and likewife Ihall be imprifoned. See
Cheating.

FRAUSTADT, a town of Silefia, on the fron-
tiers of Poland, remarkable for a battle gained by the
Swedes over the Saxons in 1706. E. Long. 15. 50.
N. Lat. J I. 45.

FRAXINELLA. See Dictamnus, Botasy Index.
— It is remarkable of this odorous plant, that, when
in full bloffom, the air which furrounds it in a ftill
night may be inflamed by the approach of a lighted
candle. Dr Watfon doubts whether this inflammabi-
lity proceeds from an inflammable air which is exhaled
by the plant, or from fome of the finer parts of the
eiTential oil of the plant being dlflblved in the common
atmofpherical air. The latter is the mofl probable
fuppofition ; for were it the pure inflammable air, as
Mr Cavallo obferves, it would, on account of its fmall
fpecific gravity, leave the plant as foon as it was pro-
duced. Common air acquires the property of becoming
inflammable, by being tranfmitted through feveral effeiv-
tial oils.

FRAXINUS, the Ash ; a genus of plants belong-
ing to the polygamia clafs j and in the natural method
ranking under the 44th order, Sepiari^. See Edtany
Index.

FRAY literally fignifies to fret ; as cloth pr fluff
does by rubbing, or over much wearing.

Among hunters a deer is faid to fray his head, when
he rubs it againft a tree, to caufe the Ikins of his new
horns to come off.

FREA, or Frigga, the wife of Odin, wlas, next
to him, the moll revered divinity among the Heathen
Saxons, Danes, and other northern nations. As Odin
Was believed to be the ffither, Frea was efteemed the
mother of all the other gods. In the moft ancient
times, Frea was the fame with the goddefs Herthus,
or Earth, who ivas fo devoutly worfliipped by the
Angli and other German nations. But when Odin,
the conqueror of the north, ufurped the honours due
only to the true Odin, his wife Frea ufurped thofe
which had been formerly paid to mother Earth. She
was worlhipped as the goddefs of love and pleafure,
ivho beilowed on her votaries a variety of delights,
particularly happy marriages and eafy childbirths. To
Frea the fixth day of the week was confecrated, which
ftill bears her name.

FREAM, a name given by farmers to ploughed
land ^vorn out of heart, and laid fallow till it re-
cover.

FREATS, or Freits, a term ufed in Scotland for
/// omens, and fometimes denoting accidents fuperna-
turally unlucky. King James VI. in his Dceimnologie,
MS. pen. Edit. B. I. ch. iv. p. 13. " But I pray
you forget not likeways to tell uhat are the Devill's
rudiments ? E. His rudiments I call firft in general
all that 'juhilk is called vulgairelie the virtu of woode,

herbe,

F R E

Tfecklcs Iierbe, and ftalne ; quhilk is ufed by unlaw ful ch
II ■n-ithout natural caufis. As Ijkeways allkynd of prat-
, ""^ tiques. freitis, or uther lijk cxtraordinair aSions, quilk
cannot abijde the trexu livtcAe of naturall raifon. It oc»
curs again in the fame fenfe in p. 1 4. marg. note ; and
in p. 51. fpeaking oi Sorcerers, " And in generall that
naime was gevin thaime for ufing of fic chairmis and
freitis, as that craft teachls thaime."

FRECKLES, lextic.ises, fpots of a yellowiih
colour, of the bignefs of a lentile feed, fcattered over
the face, neck, and hands. Freckles are either natural,
or proceeding accidentally from the jaundice or the
aclion of the fun upon the part. Heat or a fudden
change of the ^^•eather, will often caufe the Ikin to ap-
pear of a darker colour than natural j and thereby pro-
duce what is called tan, /unburn, and morphew, which feem
to differ only in degree ; and ufually diiappear in winter.
Perlons of a fine complexion, and whofe hair is red,
are the moll fubjecl to freckles, efpecially in thofe parts
which they expofe to the air.

To remove freckles, put juice of lemons in a glafs
phial, and mixing it with fugar and borax finely poiv-
dered, let it digell eight days, and then ufe it. Hom-
berg propofes bullocks gall mixed \> ith alum, and, af-
ter the alum has precipitated, expofed three or four
months to the fun in a clofe phial, as one of the beft
remedies known for the removing of freckles.
FREDBERG. See Freyberg.
FREDERICA, a town of North America, in
Georgia, feated at the mouth of the river Alatamaha,
lately built and fortified by General Oglethorpe. The
illand it Hands upon is called St Simons^s ; and is about
13 miles in length, and 4 in breadth. W. Long. 81.
35. N. Lat. 31. c.

FREDERICK IL the Great, of Pruflia, one of
the greateft warriors of the age in which he lived, was
the fon of Frederick-William then hereditary prince
of Brandenburg, and Maria Dorothea a princefs of
the houfe of Brunfwick. He was born in 1 7 12, the
year before his father Frederick I. mounted the throne
of Pruflia. The latter was fo far from being a patron
of literature, that he regarded nothing but what relat-
ed to the military art ; and mod of his generals, what-
ever their merits in their own line might be, fcarce kneu-
how to fign their names. So great indeed was the ig-
norance of the monarch himfelf, that he banillied from
his dominions a philofopher of the name of Wolf, mere-
ly becaufe he maintained the doftrine of pre-eftablilhed
harmony; upon which a theologian named Lange, affert-
ed, that on fuch principles his majefty's grenadiers were
not culpable when they dcferted, it being only the ne-
ceffary confequence of the impulfe their machine had
received from their Creator. His fon was of a difpo-
fition the very reverfe of his father. Being put from
bis birth under the care of Val de Recoule a French
lady of great merit and underftanding, he acquired, in
his early years, not only a tafte for literature in ge-
neral, but a predilection for the French language,
vihich was not obliterated throughout his whole life.
It is not to be fuppofed that a prince of the difpofi-
tion above mentioned, \vould fuffer his fon to be long
en'i^aged in literary purfuits. At fevcn years of age,
young Frederick was taken out of the hands of Madame
de Recoule, and put under the care of military tutors.
1 General count de Finkeftein, an old warrior, was ap-

[ 219 ]

F R E

ponwed his govert»or •, his fub-govemor was Colonel dc Fr^i.-

Kalkftein, an officer renowned for his courage and ex- ' »

perience j he was taught mathematics and fortification
by Major Senning ; Han de Jcndun, a Frenchman, in-
ftrufted him in other branches of knowledge ; and a
cadet of the name of Kenx.il, taught him liis exercife.
At eight years of age he was furnillied with a fmal!
arfenal ftored with all forts of arms proportioned to hij
age and Hrength, of which liis father loft him abfolute
mailer. In a Ihort time he was named captain and
chief of the corps of cadets ; and, the young prince per-
formed every day, in miniature, with his little foldiers.
all the evolutions \vith which his father exercifed hi<
giants. At laft he received the command of a com-
pany in his father's regiment famous throughout all
Europe, and which was compofed of men of whom
fcarce one was Ihort of feven French feet.

Born, however, with a tafte for the arts, he devoted
to their cultivation every moment he could efcape from
the vigilance of his guardian^. He was more particularly
fond of poetry and mufic, and when he could find a mo-
ment';, leifure,he read French authors, or played on the
flute ; but his father as often as he furprifed him playing
or reading, broke hh flute and threw his books into
the fire. The prince, chagrined at fuch injurious
treatment, and having a great defire to vifit Germany,
England, France, and Italy, defired pennifllon to tra-
vel. This, however, his father would not allow, but
pei-mitted him to accompany himfelf in the little jour-
neys he made from time to time into Germany ; and,
in I 7 28, took him to Drefden to fee the king of Po-
land. By thefe little expeditions the defire of the
prince to vifit other countries was only the more in-
flamed, Jo that at lafl he formed a defign of fetting
out without his fathers knowledge. The defign was
intruded to tv.o of the prince's young friends, named
Kat and Ken ; money was borrowed for the occafion,
and the day of their departure fixed, when unluckily
the whole project was difcovered. The old king, im-
placable in his refentment, and confidering his fon as
a deferter, determined to put him to death. He was
fliut up in the fortrefs of Cuftrin ; and it was with the
utmofl difficulty that the count de Seckendorf, fent
for the purpofe by the emperor Charles VI. was able
to alter the king's refolution. Certain vengeance,
however, was determined on both the intended aflb-
ciates in Frederick's journey. Keit efcaped the dan-
ger by flying into Holland ; but Kat had not that
good fortime. The king firll direfted that he llioulJ
be tried by a court martial ; but as they, contrary to
his expeftation, only fentenced the criminal to per-
petual iraprifonment, the revengeful monarch by an
unlieard-of exercife of the royal prerogative caufed
him to be beheaded. The execution was performed
under the windows of the prince royal, whofe head
was held towards the fcaffold by four grenadiers ; but
no fooner did he approach the window, and fee his
friend in the hands of the executioner, than he flretch-
ed out his arms towards him, crying out, " Kat .'
Kat !" and inllantly fainted away. During the remain-
der of his life he confidered capital punilhments with
a great degree of horror, and they were rare through-
out the PrulTian dominions while he continued to
reign. When the emperor had fucceeded in preventing
the execution of Frederick, the king remarked, that
E c 2 •' Au(lri.<-

F 11 E [22

■ " Auftria would one day fee wliat a fci pent ftie had
' nouriilied in her bofom." The royal prifoner remain-
ed a year at Cullrin ; during n'hich time his father
%vilhed that he Ihould learn the mnxims of government
and finance. For this purpofe M. de Munchow, pre-
lidcnt of the chamber of domains and finances, was
ordered to make him afTirt at all their aiTemblies, to
confider him as a fimple comifellor, to treat him as
fuch, and make him work like others. Tlie young
counfellor, however, though he aflilled at their meet-
ings, did not trouble himfelf with reading afts or
copying decrees. Inllead of this, he amufed himfelf
lometimes with reading French pamphlets, and at
others with drawing caricatures of the prefident or
members of the aflembly. M. Munchow himfelf ivas
likewife very favourable to the prince at this time, by fur-
iiiftiing him with books and other articles of amufement,
notu-ithftanding the exprefs prohibition of his father j
though in this he certainly ran great rilk ; for the
old king, who let but a very light value on human life,
would undoubtedly have put him to death had he re-
ceived intelligence of his complaifance.

Frederick, after paffing the time above mentioned
in confinement, was recalled to Berlin, on pretence
of being prefent at the celebration of his eldell lifter's
marriage with the hereditary prince of Bareith ; but
the true reafon was, that the king had now prepared a
match for the prince himfelf. This was the princefs
Elizabeth Chriftina of Brunfwick, niece to the em-
prefs. Frederick, who was not only totally indiffe-
rent to the fair fex in general, but particularly pre-
judiced againlt this princefs, made fome objeflions ;
his father, however, overcame all obftacles with " his
ufual arguments (fays the author of the life of Frede-
rick), viz. his cane, and a few kicks."

The coldnefs which Frederick at this time fliowed for
the fair fex appears not to have been natural ; for as early
as the year 17^3, though then only in the nth year
of his age, he is fald to have fallen in love \vith the
princefs Anne, daughter of George II. Even at this
early period he entered into vows to refufe every other
but her for his confort ; nor were thefe ever broken, as
tar as depended on himlelf. The marriage perhaps
would have taken place, had it not been for fome dif-
ferences which arofe between the courts of Pruflia and
Hanover about a few acres of meadow land, and two
or three Hanoverians inlilled by the PrulTian recruit-
ers. It is fuppofed alfo, that it was intended at one
time to marry him to Maria Therefa of Autlria ; but,
as in that cafe it would have been necedary to change
1iis religion, Frederick derived from thence a plaufible
pretence for refufing the match. The princels whom
he efpoufed had a large lliare of beauty ; and, what was
ftill better, an excellent heart : but Frederick is f;dd
to have fuffcred fo mucli in his former amours, that
certain natural and luifurmour.table impediments re-
■mained to the completing of his marriage witli any
woman. Scarcely therefore was he in bed with his
young fpoufe, when a cry of Fire ! was raifed by his
friends. Frederick got up to fee where the contlagra-
tion was : but finding it to be a falfe alarm, lie fent mef-
fengers to compofe the princefs ; but neither that night,
•nor any other, did he think proper to dillurb her rell.

On occafion of this marriage, Frederick received
feoia Llii Ldier the ccunty of Rupir.. He icfided in

D ] F R E

the capital of this county, named alfo Rupiir, for fome^'n
time ; but afterwards chofe Rheinlherg for his place ~
of abode. This is a little town built in the fands, on
the confines of Mecklenburg, and at that time con-
taining only 1000 inhabitants ; but it was foon greatly
improved by Frederick. Having put over the great
gate of the caftle, however, the following infcription,
Frederico Trancwillitatkm Colexti, his father
was difpleafed with it, and therefore hurried him from
his peaceful retreat into the nolle and tumult of war.
At this time the fucceffion to the crown of Poland
had kindled a general war throughout Europe, and
the king of PrufTia was to fend 10,000 auxiliaries
to the Imperial army, then commanded by Prince Eu-
gene. The king conduced his troops in perfon,
and refolved to take this opportunity of giving his foil
an idea of war. At this time, however, he learnt but
little ; and only faw, as he himfelf exprelTes it, the iha-
dow of the great Eugene. That confummate general,
neverthelefs, did not overloook his merit ; but predldled
that he would one day be a great captain. Frederick
having gone to reconnoitre the lines at Philiplhurg, iu
liis return through a very open wood, was expofed to
the cannon of the lines, which thundered inceifantly.
The balls broke a number of branches on every fide
of him : notwithftanding which, he never caufed his
horfe to move quicker ; nor did his hand which held the
bridle ever alter its motion even for a moment. He
continued to converfe quietly ivith the generals who
attended him, and never fliowed the fraalleft fign ot"
apprehenfion. Being one night at fupper with Field-
Marllial Grurakow, the converfation turned on the
young Prince Eugene ivho died on the Rhine ; and
he was afked whether that prince would ever have be-
come a great man ? Frederick decided in the negative,
on account of young Eugene's not having known at
any period of his life how to choofe a friend who dared
to tell him the truth.

Dining this campaign the health of the old king
ivas fo much impaired, that he was obliged to leave
the army ; and Frederick, on his return, was for fome
time intrufled with figning all the orders in his father's
name. On the king's recovery the prince was fent to
Stettin, under the care of the prince of DefTau, that he
might fee the fortifications of that town. He was af-
terwards permitted to go to Koniglberg to fee the mi-
fortunate Stanillaus, who had taken refuge in that
place, and who was no lefs remarkable for his philo-
iophy and conltancy than for his misfortunes. With
him Frederick remained for fome weeks, and contrafl-
ed a friendlhip which was not diffoh'ed but by the deatli
of Stanillaus. At laft he was allowed to return to his
peaceful manfion at Rheinfberg, where he remained,
till the death- of his f^ither. In this place his time was
occupied altern.'tely by the lludy of the fciences, the
cultivation of the arts, and the pleafures of friendlhip.
Philofophy, hilloiy, politics, the military art, poetry,
and mulic, agreeably fucceeded each other, and had
each its ftated period. The prince pafled the greatelt.
part of tlie day in his library ; and the remainder in
the fociety of a felecl company of agreeable and learn-
ed men. The principal of thele were Chafot, a French
olhqer ; Kajferling, a gentleman of Courland, on whom
the prince bellowed the name of difarton ; Jordan, a
French re.'iigee ; and Kr.obclfdorf, d'ueilor of the build-

injis

F R E [22

Frederick. ings aiul garJtns ; but who could cor.veife on a'.l ilie
'-~~i/~~~' arts of deligning with great tarte and judgment. — In
thel'e meetings, gaiety generally prefided ; there were
generals to fpeak. of war, mulicians to form concerts,
and excellent painters to decorate the apartments.
Whilil Knobelldorf was executing landlcapcs and lay-
ing out the gardens, Pefne was immortalizing himfelf
by his cielings, and Du BuilTon by his pitlurcs of
tloivers. The t^vo Grauns compofcd excellent muGc,
or direfted the orcheflra ; and Eenda, one of the lirll
violins of Europe, accompanied the prince who played
extremely well on the tlute. The morning was ufual-
ly dedicated to lludy ; gaiety and agreeable convcrla-
tion prevailed at every repall ; and every evening there
was a little concert. — In this retreat Frederick conceiv-
ed that ardent palTion for military glory and the ag-
grandizement ot his kingdom for which he became at
lad (o remarkable ; and here he is fuppolcd to have
formed the moft liiblime and daring projects. He was
fired with a defire of imitating the celebrated heroes of
antiquity, of whom he read in the ancient authors, and
for which he fet apart feme hours every day. Amongft
the works which he read almoll; c\'ery year were He-
rodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Plutarch, Tacitus,
Salluli, Livy, (.)iiintus Curtius, Cornelius Nepos, Va-
lerius Maximus, Polybius, Caefar, Vegetius, &.c. He
never fpoke but with enthuiiafm of tlie great warriors
of Greece and Rome ; and when feated on the throne
thought he could never diftinguifli an able foldier in a
more honourable manner than by conferring on him a
Roman fiuname. Hence he diflinguilhed by tlie name
of ^n'ntus Icilius M. Guichard, ^vho had -^vritten fome
treatifes on the military art of the ancients ; giving
.him at the fame time a free battalion. This name of
^imtus Icilius was retained by M. Guichard as long as
he lived.

In his purfuit of glory Frederick found tliat it was
not improper to cultivate the friendfliip of celebrated
poets, philofophers, and others of the literary clafs;
for which purpofe he flattered, commended, and com-
plimented all the raoft celebrated literati of Europe at
that time. " The philofophers (fays the author of
his life) anAvered him as a raad lover writes to his mi-
ilrefs. They wrote to him that he was a great poet,
a great philolopher, the SoLmcn of the north. All
thefe hyperboles were printed ; and Solomon was not
forry for it, though he had too much underllanding to
believe in them. Wolf, Rollin, Gravefande, Mauper-
tuis, x-^lgarotti, Voltaire, '.vere honoured with his cor-
refpondence. The lall efpecially, accuftomed to offer
up incenfe to the idol of the day, \vere it tranfporleJ
from the dunghill to the altar, did not fail to exalt as
the firll man of the univerfe a prince %vho was in e.\>
peetancy of the throne, and who aluired liim that he
was the greatell philofjphcr of the age and the firft
poet in the world."

That Frederick might keep up his charafter with
.tlie literati, or perhaps from a real predile£lion for his
pri.nciples, he patronized the Apology of Wolf, and had
his principal treatifes tranllated into French. He even
prevailed upon his father to relax a little in favour of
that philofophcr. A comminion of reformed and Lu-
theran theologians was appointed in 1736, to examine
.into the tenets of that unfortunate phiiofopher. Wolf
.".i-.as declared innocent, and a letter was f<rut to hJra at

I ] V R E

Marpuurg coriU'Iuing an invitation to return ; but the Fn
philolopher did not think proper to make his appear- ~
ance till the year 1740, when his protcelor was feated
on the throne.

During his refidcnce at Rhclnfberg, Frederick com-
pofed liis refutation of the principles of Machiavel, un-
der the title of Anli-Machiai'cl : of which he fent
the manufcript to Voltaire to correct, and to get printed.
The old king, now almoll worn out with infirmity,
faw with regret the predilcclion his ion entertained for
men of letters ; and, in his peevilh fits, often threaten-
ed the whole fociety with confinement in the firtrefs
of Spandau. Thefe threats frequently occafioned a vio-
lent alarm among the joyous company at Rheinfberg,
which it required all the eloquence of Frederick to
quiet. Their apprehenfions on this account, however,
were foon removed. At the commencement of the
year 1 740, the king's diforder increaii-d to a great de-
gree, and in the month of May his cafe became defpe-
rate. He lived, however, till the 31II of that month, wheri
he expired, and left the throne to his fon Frederick II.
The acquifition of a kingdom did not abate Frede-
rick's paffion for literature, though to this he was now
obliged to fuperadd the qualities and labours of a great
king. A confideration of his tranfa(£lions in this charac-
ter falls under the article Prussia, to which we refer :
thefe, indeed, fo totally engroffcd the remaining part of
his life, that little more remains to be laid under tliisar-
tide, than to relate fome anecdotes by which we may
be in fome meafure able to trace the charaiter of this
great and Cngular perfonage.

It has already been mentioned, that in the early part
of his life, Frederick had conceived a great inclinatioa
to travel. This palFion feems not to have been extin.
guiihed by the fplendour of his new fituation ; for hav-
ing, foon after his accefHon, ^oneinto Prullia and Weft-
phalia to receive the liomage of the inhabitants, he
formed a refolution of proceeding incognito as far a&-
Paris. Being difcovered at Stralhourg, however, Jis
laid afide the defign of proceeding to Paris, and went
to fee his ftates in Lower Germany. Here he ^Tot?
the celebrated Voltaire, that he Ihculd come incognito
to villt him at Bruffels ; but being feized with an in-
difpolition in the little palace of Meufe, two leagues
from Cleves, lie wrote again to that phiiofopher, in-
forming him that he expected he (hould make the fin!
advances. The following curious account is given by
him of his reception, ikc. " The only guard 1 found
at the gate was one foldier. The privy counfellor,
Bambonet, was cooling his heels in the court : he had
large ruffles of dirty linen ; a hat fall of holes ; and an old
magillerial peruke, one end of which delcended as low
as liis pockets, and the other fcarcely reached his fhou!^
der. 1 Wf.0- conducled into his majelly's apartment,
where there was nothing but bare walls. I perceived
in a. cabinet, by the glimmering of a taper, a truckle
bed, two feet and a half wide, on which lay a little
man muffled up in a night go-.vn of •coarie blue cloth.
'J'his was the king, in a (Irong perfpiration,.and even
t:c;nbling,. under a wretihed blanket in a violent fit of
llic ague. I bowed to him ; a.id .began by feeling his
pulfe, as if I. had been his firll phyfician. The fit over,
he drcfled himfelf and fat down to t:d)le. .-Mgarotti,
Kayferling, Maupertuis, the king's miulller to th*
S'.atos General, and niyfeUy were of llie party ; '.iluix'

F R E [2

FrcJcilik. we conveifed profoundly on the iramor'^ 'Ity of the foul,
^""v"^ on liberty, and the androgynes of Plato."

This rigid economy, and contempt of every luxury
with regard to his own perfon, was maintained by Fre-
derick as long as he lived. The following account, ta-
ken likewife from Voltaire, will give an idea of his man-
ner of living. " He rofe at five in the morning in
fummcr, and fix in winter. A lacquey came to light
his fire, and drefs and (have him ; and indeed he almoft
wholly drefled himfelf. His room was not inelegant.
A rich ballulirade of filver, ornamented with little cu-
pids, feemed to cnclofe an alcove bed, the curtains of
which were vifible ; but behind them, inftead of a bed,
there was a library : the king flept on a truckle bed
with a flight mattrefs concealed behind a fcreen. Mar-
cus Aurelius and Julian, thofe apollles of Stoicifm,
did not fleep in a more homely manner. At feven his
prime miniller arrived with a great bundle of papers un-
der his arm. This prime minifter was no other than a
clerk who had formerly been a foldier and valet-de-cham-
bre. To him the fecretaries fcnt all their defpatches, and
he brought extrafts of them, to which the king wrote
anfwers in two words on the margin : and thus the af-
fairs of the whole kingdom were expedited in an hour.
Towards eleven the king put on his boots, reviewed
his regiment of guards in the garden, and at the fame
hour the colonels were following his example in their
refpeftive provinces. The princes his brothers, the
general officers, and one or two chamberlains, dined at
his table ; which was as good as it could be in a countiy
where there is neither game, tolerable butchers meat,
nor a pullet, and where the very wheat is brought from
Magdebourg. After the repall, he retired alone into
his cabinet, where he made verfes till five or fix o'clock.
I'hen came a young man named D'Arget, formerly
U-cretary to Valory the French envoy, ^vho read to
him. A little concert began at feven, in which the
king played on the flute with as much ikill as the firft
performer ; and pieces of his compofition were fre-
quently executed. Supper was ferved in a little hall,
the Angular and ftriking ornament of which was a
picture, the dcfign of which he had given to Pefne, one
of our beft colourifls. It was a fine pifture of Priapus.
Thcfe repafls were not in general the lefs philofophic
on that account. Never did men converfe in any part
of the world with fo much liberty refpecEling all the
luperflitions of mankind, and never were they treated
with more pleafanti-y and contempt. God was refpeft-
cd ; but none of thofe ivho had deceived men In his
name were fpared. Neither women nor priefls ever
entered the palace. In a word, Frederick lived with-
out a court, without counfel, and without religious
worflbip."

_A.s Frederick had efpoufed his princefs entirely con-
trary to his inclination, it was imagined that on his ac-
ccfllon to the throne he would embrace the opportunity
of fetting himfelf free from engagements fo dlfagree-
iible to himfelf. The queen was not without fufpicions
of this kind, infomuch that (he was on the point of
fainting away when he made his firft vifit to her. To
the furprlfe of all parties, however, he made her a very
affeftlonate fpeech, apologizing for his indifference, and
inviting her to participate with him the throne of which
(he was fo worthy. In the firft year of his reign he
rel^ored the academy of fciences at Berlin which had

22 ] F R E

been founded in 1700 ; but he foon became dlfguftedFredcrii;'
with its numbers, whom he endeavoured at all times "-""v—
to ridicule rather than encourage. His war with the
queen of Hungary, however, ivhlch took place almoft
immediately after his accelTion, for fome time prevent-
ed him from taking fuch an aftive part in literary mat-
ters as he was naturally inclirfed to do. After the
peace, being at liberty to follow his inclination,
he gave full (cope to his paflion for literature •, and
in the interval betwixt the conclulion of the firft war
and beginning of that of 1756, he compoled moft of
the works which are now afcribed to him. At this
time he wrote his Hijiorij of my own Times, afterwards
announced among his pofthumoui works. In writing
hiftory he acquired a talie for hiftorians; and juftly gave
the preference to the ancients, the moft celebrated of
whofe works he perufed every year. Voltaire was his
principal literary correfpondent, whom he invited to
refide with him. Afraid of loiing his liberty, however,
that philofopher hefitated, excufed hlratelf, and entered
into pecuniary treaties, firft for himfelf, and afterwards
for his niece Madame Dennis, whom he wiihed to ac-
company him. At lart; he was determined by feeing
a poem from Frederick to M. d'Arnaud, in which the
latter was compared to the rifing, and Voltaire to the
fetting fun. By this Voltaire was fo much piqued,
that he fet out for Berlin without delay, and arrived
there in June 1750. He was received in the moft
magnificent and affedionate manner, and for fome time
his fituation was very agreeable ; but the difputes and
rivallhlp which took place betwixt him and Rlaupertuis
foon threw every thing into confufion. In thele the
king interfered in fuch a manner as was certainly be-
low his dignity ; and he often exercifed himfelf In ma-
king a jelf of the other men of letters in a way exceed-
ingly difgufting, and which induced many of them to
leave him. The fquabbles with Voltaire were fome-
times very diverting ; an account of fome of which is
given under the article Voltalre. They ended at
laft in a final quarrel with that wit, and his departure
from the kingdom. The reftlefs diipofition of Frede-
rick (howed itfelf after his departure, by his attempts
to provoke the literati who remained at his court to
quarrel with him as Voltaire had been accuftomed to
do. But they were of too pafTive a difpofition to gra-
tify him in this refpecl, choofing rather to fufier the
moft mortifying ftrokes of raillery, or to leave the
kingdom altogether, than to contend with him. This
proved fo uneafy to the king, that he one day exclaim-
ed, " Shall we have no more quarrels then '" The
breaking out of the war in 1756, however, put a flop
to this diverfion, and afforded him as many enemies as
he could wifti. The exploits he performed during the
feven years which this unequal conteft la(\ed, are al-
moft incredible * 5 and it is amazing how the fortitude* See Pr
and refolution of any perfon could enable him to fu-T^"-
ftain the diflicultles which durijtg this period he h:.d
to encounter. In one fatal moment, indeed, even the
refolution of Frederick was on the point of giving ivay.
This happened after the battle of Colin, when his af-
fairs feemed altogether dcfperatc, before they were re-
trieved by the viftory at Roihach. At this time he
wrote to his fifter at Barcith, that he was on the point
of putting an end to his own life ; but as this refolu-
tion did not extinguifli in him the love of glory, he

>viflied

F R E

[ 223 3

F R E

Frederick, wiilied to liave it faid that he made verfes on the brink of
*~-"Y~~-' the grave. With this view he wrote a long poeti-
cal epiftle to the marquis d'Argens, in which he
communicated to him his defign, and bade him fare-
nell.

Hippily, at laft, the king's affairs took a better
turn, and inch dclperate thoughts were laid afide. His
conlHtution, however, was irreparably injured by the
e.\celTive fatigues he had fuftained. boon after the
conclufion of the peace, his body began to bend, and
his head to incline to the right fide : by degrees he
became very infirm ; he was tormented with the gout,
and iubjeft to frequent indigelHons. All his diifem-
pers, however, were born with invincible patience; and,
till a very ihort time before his death, he never ceafed
to attend his reviews, or vifit the different provinces of
his dominions. He has been kno^vn to review his
troops, and gallop through all the ranks, as if he felt no
pain, notwitnftanding that an abfcefs which had bro-
ken out upon him, and approached to a fuppuration,
frequently, upon fuch occalions, touched the faddle.
In Augull 1783 he impaired his health ftill farther by
alTirting at a review, where he was expofed ivithout even
a cloak to a heavy rain for four or five hours. On his
return to Potzdam he was feized with a fever ; and, for
the firft time, became unable to alTill at the military e.\-
ercifes of Potzdam, which take place in September.
His malady, however, did not prevent him from dicta-
ting the dilpofition ot theie exercifes during the three
days they lalled, and he always gave the word in pre-
fence of his generals and the foreigners of dilfinftion
then at Potzdam. About the end of autumn the fever
left him, but was fucceeded by a violent cough ; and
he ccMitinued free from the gout wijlch had ulually at-
tacked him at this feafon. He was greatly weakened
by the cough, which prevented him from lleeping; but
this did not in the lead interrupt him in the execution
of bufinefs. Every morning, at four or five o'clock,
he ordered the three cabinet fecretaries to enter his
apartment, where he dittated anfuers to their papers.
It was not till after the defpatch of all his affairs that
he faw a furgeon or fometimes a phyfician, though he
had a bad opinion of the phyficians in general, whom
he confulted on his diftemper. In the evening he a-
mufed himfelf from five to eight with fome of his fo-
ciety ; and after that hour he paffed the remainder of
the time before he went to reft, in hearing fome an-
cient authors read to him ; and thus he continued to
employ himfelf till the very day before he died. On
the 17th and iSth of May 1786, he was unable to af-
fift at the ordinary reviews, but llill he hoped to be
prefent at thofe'of Silefia. He feveral times attempt-
ed to mount his horle to go to the parade at Potzdam ;
but finding his powers infufficient, he v.as obliged to
return, after having proceeded a few paces. He made
other attempts, but with as little fuccefs ; and at laft
his diforder terminated in a dropfy. Being now no
longer able to remain in bed, he fat day and night in
an arm chair with fprinijs which could be moved at
pleafure. For near a month before his death the fuell-
ing of his feet gave him violent pain, fo that he wilh-
ed an incifion to be made ; but the furgeon rcfufed to
perform the operation, fufpecling that it might hallen
his death. Nature, however, accompliflied his defires ;
ius right leg opened, and difchatged fuch a quantity

of matter, tliat he was greatly relieved : and thofe un- Fred.-

acquainted with the medical art began to entertain ^

hopes of his recovery. The phyficians, ho^vever, were
of a very different opinion; and the event juftified their
apprchenfions. On the 1 6th of Augult 1786 his
throat began to rattle violently, and his attendiints ex-
pected every moment that he would breathe his laft. In
this fituation his three fecretaries entered the room for
the dsfpatch of bufinefs as ufual. Even tlien Frederick
made an effort to colleft his force, giving them a fign
to wait, as if he would fpeak ^vith them in a ftiort time.
'I'his, however, was the laft he could make : for he
foon after fell into a ftupor ; though from this he reco-
vered fo far as to be able to fpeak. In the evening he
alked what o'clock it was -' and on being anfwcred
that it was nine, he faid, " Well then I am going to
reft." His refpiration and voice became gradually
more feeble; and he expired on Thurfday at 19 mi-
nutes after two in the morning, without any convul-
fion or fymptom of pain.

This great monarch was of the middle fize, had
large blue eyes and a piercing look. He fpoke Ger-
man incorrectly, and in a very rough manner ; but
talked French very tluently, and his voice was then
mild and agreeable. His conftitution was naturally
feeble, but he had greatly improved it by his aftinty
and laborious life. He had the art of relieving every one
from that embarraffraent which frequently occurred in
accofting fuch a celebrated monarch ; and it feems pro-
bable that he himlelf confidered on what he ftiould fav
to any illuftrious perfon who happened to come to his
court. His univerfal knowledge enabled him to con-
verfe on all fubjecls ; and thus he talked of war with
military men, of verfes with the poet, of agriculture
with the farmer, jurifprudence with the lawyer, com-
merce ^vith the merchants, and politics ^vith the Englilh-
man. He had a very retentive memory ; was fond of
fotitude and gardening ; and likewife took great plea-
fure in dogs, of which animals he conftantly kept a
number about him, giving them little balls covered
M"ith leather to play with. In company, he was fond
of alking queftions and jefting ; in which laft he pro-
ceeded fuch lengths as undoubtedly were unbecoming
in a fuperior towards his inferiors, who would not have
failed to refent fuch jokes from perfons more on an
equahty with them. In military affairs he was excef-
fively fevere, not to fay cruel ; of which the following
anecdote may ferve as an inftance. In the firft u-ar
of Silefia, wiftiing to make fome alterations ni his
camp during the night, he forbade every perfon, under
pain of death, to keep, after a certain hour, a fire or
other light in his tent. He himfeh' went the rounds ;
and in paffmg the tent of a Captain 'Zjetcm he per-
ceived a light. Entering the tent, he found the cap-
tain fealing a letter to his wife, for whom he had a
great affetlion. " What are you doing there ? (fays
the king:) Do you not know the order '" The cap-
tain fell on his knees and alktd pardon, but did not at-
tempt to make any excufc. " Sit down (fays Frede-
rick), and add a few words I am going to diflatc to
you." Zietern obeyed ; and the king dittated, " To-
morrow I ftiall periih on a fcaffold." The unfortunate
man wrote them, and next day was executed. In
matters of domeftic Icgiftation, he was more arbitrary
tlian juft ; of which nc have a notable example in the

famous

F R E [22

ict:, famous cafe of Arnold the miller. The man had refufed
'^'^^- to pay the rent cf the mill he poff^HVd, on pretence

; that the ftreara which turned it had been diverted into

8 fifli pond. Tliis was evidently a frivolous excufe ;
becaufe the water \vhich ran into the pond alfo ran out
of it into the fame channel as before, fo that nothing
could be loft except what evaporated from the furface
fcf the filli pond. The judges therefore gave fenlence
cgainft the miller ; but the king not only reverfed their
fcntence, but difgraced them. For this he was cele-
brated through all the newfpapers in Europe ; and yet
he was in the urong, and afterw.^rds even acknow-
ledged himfelf to have been fo : but, notwithftanding
lie knew his error, he not only made no reparation to
the patties he had injured, but allowed them to lie in
prifon at Spandau all his lifetime, fo that they were
.'' not releafed till the commencement of the fucceeding
reign. He entertained certain and almoft unaccount-
able prejudices againft certain places and perlons, which
neither conduct nor merit could eradicate. One of
tliefe unfortunate places was Weftphalia, on which he
never conferred any bounty : and one day a native of
that countrv, a man of great merit, being propofed
to him for a place, he refufed, faying, " He is a Wcft-
phalian ; he is good for nothing." Voltaire acculcs
him of ingratitude to the count de Seckendorf; who,
;'S we have already feen, faved his life, and againft
^vhom he afterwards conceived moft implacable hatred.
His indifference towards thofe who afforded him the
moft effential fervice, was evident : when a robuft but-
cher prevented him from falling, horfe and all, over a
precipice, where both would have undoubtedly been
killed, the king, fenfible of the alTiftance that had
been afforded him, turned about, and faying, " Thank
vou, friend," rode off without ever enquiring farther
about the perfon ivho had juft preferved him from de-
flruflion.

With regard to the literary merits of this monarch,
\ve certainly cannot pronounce them extraordinary.
Voltaire boafts of having correfted his works, and
others of having furniftied him with materials for his
hiftory. He has been accufed of borro^^^ng whole
hemiftjchs of poetry from Voltaire, Boileau, Rouffeau,
and others ; nor docs the charge appear to be at all
void of foundation. Such of his verfes as appear to
have undergone no correction, are very indifferent,
nor indeed can we pronounce any of his poetic works
to be of the firft rate. In the former part of his life
he entertained a great partiality for the French learn-
ing and language ; but as he advanced in years, he en-
tirely loft this prcdilettion, and inclined much more to
favour the Englilh an4 Germans. Towards the end of
his life, indeed, he affefled a contempt for the French,
%\ithout whom it it faid he would fcarcely ever have
made any figure e.Kcept in military affairs.

Frederick, is the name of two counties, and of fe-
vcral townfliips in America, fuch as the county of Fre-
derick iu Maryland, which contains 30,791 inhabitants,
in which arc included 3641 flaves. It is alfo the name
cf a county in Virginia, 30 miles long and 20 broad,
with a population of 19,681 fouls, including 4250
Haves.

FREDERICKSBURG, a fort and colony of
Brandenburg, on the gold coaft of Guinea, in Afri-
ca, nc2r Cape Threepcrnts, and about 75 miles from
. 4

' Free ftoi.e.

4 ] PRE

Cape Coaft. It mounts 46 pieces of cannon on fourFr.'neriik.
batteries ; and formerly belonged to the Pruffians, but 1>^"
is now fubjeft to Denmark. W. Long. I. 15. N. Lat. ,
4. 30.

•FREDERICKSHALL, or Frederickstadt, a
ftrong town of Norwav, in the prefeflure of Ager-
huys, where Charles XII. king of Sweden was killed
by a mulket ball in 1 7 1 8, when he was befieging this-
town. It is fealed on the coaft of the Catagate, in
E. Long. 10. 45. N. Lat. ?9. 2.

FREDERICKSODE, "a to^-n of Denmark, in
Jutland, taken by the Swedes in 1657, but now fub-
jeft to Denmark, It is feated near the lea, in E. Long.
10. o. N. Lat. 5?. 42.

FREDERICkSTADT, a tow-n of Denmark, in
South Jutland, built in 162 1. It is feated on the
river Eyder, in E. Long. 9. 23. N. Lat. 35. 32.

FREDERICKSTADT, a town of Norivay, in the pro-
vince of Agerhuys, feated on a bay of the fea, near
the frontiers of Sweden, in E. Long. 11. 6. N. Lat.
59. 12.

FREE, in a general fenfe, is ufed in oppofition to
whatever is conftrained or neceffitated. When applied
to things cndo^ved with underftanding, it more pecu-
liarly relates to the liberty of the will.

Fref. Bench, fignifies that eftate in copyhold which
the wife, being efpoufed a ■virgin, has after the de-
ceafe of her hulJiand for her dower, accorcKng to the
cuftom of the manor.

In regard to this free bench, different manors have
different caftoms : and in the manor of Eaft and Weft
Enboume in the county of Berks, and in other part?
of England, there is a cuftom, that when a copyhold
tenant dies, the wiiiow Ihall have her free bench in all
the deceafed hufband's lands, dum fola et cajla fuerii,
" while flie lives ftngle and chafte ;" but if ftie is found
to be guilty of incontinency, ftie (hall forfeit her eftate.
Neverthelefs, upon her coming into the court of the
manor riding backwards on a black ram, with his tait
in her hand, rehearfmg a certain form of words, the
fteward is bound by cuftom to reftore her to her free
bench. The words are.

Here I am.

Riding on a black Ram,
Like a whore as I am ;
And for my crincum crancum
Have loft my bincum bancum,
And for my tail's game
Have done this wordly (liame :

Therefore, pray Mr Ste^vard, let me have my-
land again.

Fkee or Imperial Cities in Germany, are thofe not
fubjecl to any particular prince j but governed, like
republics, by their own magiftrates.

There were free cities (liberie civitates) even un-
der the ancient Roman empire : fuch ^vere thofe to
whom the emperor, by the advice or confent of the
fcnate, gave the privilege of appointing their own ma-
giftrates, and governing themfelves bv their own laws.
See City.

Fkes Fi/herif. See Free FisBERr.

Free Warren. See Warren.

Free Ma/on. See Mason.

Free Stone, a whitilh ftone, dug up in many parts

of

F R E

liicli is hard and durable, and of exctllent
g, &:c. It is a kind of the grit Hone, but

Ficebooter of Britain,
II , ufe in build

. ^'•'•^''p!''- finer fanded and fmoothed •, and is calledyr^.', from its
being of fuch a conlUtution as to cut freely in any di-
reel ion.

The qualities of the feveral kinds of free ftones ufed
in the different parts of Europe are very different.
They all agree in this general property indeed, that
they are foftcr while in the quarry than when they
have been fome time expofed to the air : but even this
general property differs greatly in degree. There is
a fort of gray free rtone in ufe at Paris (of which \re
do not yet feem to have met with any in this country),
which has the above mentioned quality in fo great a
degree, that the expence of working it is in ^ great
nieafure faved.

This flone lies everpvhere on the fouth fide of the
river Seine, and is of a coarfe and large grit. It is fo
ioft when newly taken out of the ffrata, that they fa-
ihion it very conveniently ivith a fort of broad axe, and
form as many ffones for building in this manner in an
hour, as an equal number of our people do in a day or
tuo. Though this ilone is as foft as dry clay ^vhen
firrt taken up, it is found to harden fo confiderably in
the air, that it becomes more than equal to our ordi-
nary free flone.

Ihe Portland free ftone of Britain of the fineft kind,
%vhich is white, and of a clofe grit, is very fit for hewing
and carding ; but it will neither refill water nor fire,
which is a very fingular inllance in io denfe a Hone ;
while the free flone of Kent, which is lefs beautiful to
the eye, and is of a gravilh colour, and confiderably
clofe, though of a larger grain, refills the air and water
very well. The free llone of Derbylhire, on the other
hand, is fo brittle as to be unfit for any fine working ;
and fo coarfe and open in its texture, that it lets water
through : yet It bears the fire extremely well, and is fit
for ovens, hearths, &c.

FREEBOOTER, or Flibl-ster, a 'name given to
the pirates who fcour the American feas, particularly
fuch as make war againll the Spaniards. See Bl'ca-

NIER.

FREEDOM, in general, the flate or quality of
being free. See LiBKRTV.

Frsfdom of a Coi-jyoratr^ii, the right of enjoying all
tlic privileges and immunities belonging to it. See
CORPORATIOS'.

The freedom of cities, and other corporations, is re-
gularly obtained by ferving an apprenticeihip ; but it
is alfo purchafed with money, and fometimes conferred
by way of compliment.

Frefdom of Confcience. See Tor.ER.VTIoV.

Freedom of the Will, that power or faculty of the
mind,- whereby it is capable of acting t)r not acling,
t See Me. choofing or rejefting whatever it judges proper +. Of
taft^ftc. this every man mull be fenfible, who finds in himfelf
a power to begin or forbear, continue or end feveral
aclions, barely by a thought or preference of the
mind.

FREEHOLD, Frank TEKE^rE^•T, {liberum tene-
mentunt), is land, or tenement, which a man holds in
, feftmple, fee-tail, or for term of life. See Fee and
Tau..

Freehold is of two kinds, in deed and in law.

'Jhe firft is the real poffefllon of land or tenement
1 Vol. IX. Part I.

IS ^ F R E

in fee, fee -tail, or for life : the other is the riuht aFroctli
man has to fuch land or tenement before his entry or "
feizure. ^'"^

A freehold, by the common law, cannot commence
in fuliiro , but it 4nuft take effeft prefently, either in
pofleffion, reverfion, or remainder. Whatever is part
of the freehold goes to the heir; and things fixed
thereto may not be taken in difirefs for rent, or in ex-
ecution, &c. No man fiiall be dilTeifed of his freehold
by tlat. Magna Charta, cap. 29. but by judgment of
his peers, or according to the laws of the land : nor
fhall any diftrain freeholders to anfwer for their freehold
in any thing concerning the fame, without the king's
writ. Freehold ellates, of certain value, are required
by ilatutes to qualify- jurors, ele£lors of the knights of
the Ihire in parliament, &:c.

Freehold is likewife extended to fuch offices as a
man holds in fee, or for life.

Freehold is alfo fometimes taken in oppofition to
villenage.

Lambard obferves, that land, in the Saxons time,
was dillinguilhed into bocklanJ, i. e. holden by book
or writing ; and folhland, held without writing. The
former, he fays, was held on far better condition, and by
the better fort of tenants, as noblemen and gentlemen ;
being fuch as we now c-aW freehold: the latter was mollly
in polTeffion of pcafants ; being the fame with what we
now caU at the zvill of the lord.

In the ancient laws of Scotland, freeholders are
called milites, " knights." In Reg. Judicial, it is ex-
preffed, that he who holds land upon an execution of a
ilatute merchant, until he hath fatisfied the debt, tenet
ut liheriim tenemenlum Jibi et /ijfignalus fiiis ; and the
fame of a tenant /t-r elegit : the meaning of which feems
to be, not that fuch tenants are freeholders, but as
freeholders for the time, till they have received profits .
to the value of their debt.

FREETHINKER. See Deist.
FREEZE, Frieze, or Frize, in Commerce. See
Frize.

Freeze, in ArchlteElure, that part of the entablature
of columns, between the architrave and corniche.

The freeze is properly a large flat face, or member,
feparating the architrave kom the corniche.

The ancients called it •zoophorus, (^aipojes) becaufe it
was ufually enriched with figures of animals ; and our
denomination free-ze has a like origin, ben.g formed of
the Latin .phn/gto, " an embroiderer," becaufe it is
commonly adorned with fculptures in baffo relievo,
imitating embroidery.

FREEZING, in Philofophy, the fame with conge-
lation. See Congelation, Frost, and Ice.

Freezing Rain, or Raining Ice, a very uncommon
kind of (hower, which fell in the well of England, in
December 1672; whereof we have divers accounts in
the Philofophical Tranfaflions.

This rain, as foon as it touched any thing above
ground, as a bough or the like, immediately fettled
into ice, and by multiplying and enlarging the icicles,
broke all down with its weight. The rain that fell on
the fnow immediately froze into ice, without finking
in the fiiow at all.

It made an incredible deftruflion of trees, beyond

any thing in all hiliory. " Had it concluded with

fome gull of wind (fays a gentleman on the fpot). It

F f ought

F R E

might have been of terrible confequence
the fprig of an afli tree, of juft three quarters of
pound J the ice on which weighed i6 pounds. Some
were frighted with the noife in the air ; till they
difcerned it was the clatter of icy boughs, dallied
againil each other." Dr Beale obferves, that there
%vas no confiderable froft obferved on the ground during
the whole ; whence be concludes, that a froft may be
very intenfe and dangerous on the tops of fome hills
and plains, ivhile in other places it keeps at two,
three, or four feet dillance above the ground, rivers,
lakes, &c. and may ivander about furious in Ibme
places and remifs in others not far off The frolt was
followed by glowing heats, and a wonderful forwardnefs
of tlo-.vers and fruits.

FREIGHT, in Na'jigation and Commerce, the hire
of a ihip, or a part thereof, for the conveyance and
carriage of goods from one port or place to another ;
or the fum agreed on between the owner and the mer-
chant, for the hire and ufe of a vcflel. See Maritime
Lawu

FRElND, JoHy, a moft' learned Englilli phyfician
and writer in the i8th century, was born at Croton,
Northamptonfliire, in l6';j. In 1696, he publillied, in
conjunftion with Mr P. Foulkes, an edition of two
Greek orations, one of ^Efchines againil Ctefiphon,
and the other of Demofthenes de Corona, with a new
Latin verfion. In 1 699, he wrote a letter to Dr Solane
concerning an Hydrocephalus, publiihed in the Philo-
i"c>phical Tranfa<Slions ; and another letter in Latin to
the fame gentleman, Defpafmis rarior. hijlorta, printed
in the fame Tranfaftions. In 1703, his Emmenalogia
appeared, which gained him great reputation. In 1704,
he was chofen profeiTor of chemiitry in the univerfity of
Oxford. In 1 705 he attended the earl of Peterborough
. U) Spain, as phylician to the army fliere ; and, upon
his return in 1 707, publiihed an account of the earl's
expedition and conduct. In 1 709 he publiihed his
Chemical Leflurcs. In 1712 he attended the duke
of Ormond in Flanders, as his phyfician. In 1716
lie was admitted a fellow of the College of Phyficians
in London. This year he publiihed tlie firft and third
books of Hippocrates De morlis popularibus, with a
Commentary on Fevers, written by himfelf. He f.t
member for the borough of Launcefton in Cornwall
in 1722, where he dillinguiflied himfelf by his oppo-
'.ition to the adminiilration. March 1722, he was
committed to the Tower on a charge of high treafon ;
and while he was under confinement, he wrote a Latin
epillle to Dr Mead, De qutbujdam variolartim generibiis ;
.-.nd began his Hiftory of Phyfic, the firft part of which
was publiihed in 1725, and the fecond in 1726. Upon
the acceftion of George II. to the throne, he was ap-
^lointed phyfician in ordinary to the queen, who lliowed
the utmoft regard and efteem for him. He died at
L-^ndon' in 1728. His works were pubhftied together
in Latin at London, 1733, in folio, and dedicated to
the queen.

FREITS. SeeFREATs.

FRENCH, in general, fomething belonging to
France ; thus we fay, the French language, French
cultom, polity, &c.

The French language, as it now ftands, is no original
or mother language, but a medley of feveral. Thofe
that prevail moft, and which are, as it were, the balls

[ 226 ]

I weighed thereof are

F R E

The Celtic ; whether that were a par- French.

ticular language itfelf, or whether it were only a dia- ' •"""'

lecl of the Gothic, as fpoke in the weft and north.
2. The Latin, which the Romans carried vrith them
into Gaul, when they made the conqueft thereof.
And, 3. The Teutonic, or that dialeil of the Teuto-
nic fpoke by the Franks, when they gaffed the Rhine,
and eftabliihed themfelves in Gaul. Of thefe three
languages, in the fpace of about thirteen hundred
years, was the prefent French formed, fucS as it is now
found. Its progrefs was very (low ; and both the Ita-
lian and Spanilli \vere regular languages long be.'bre
the French.

Pafquier obferves, it was under Philip de Valo's
that the French tongue firft began to be polilhed ; and
that, in the regiller of the chamber of accounts of that
time, there is a purity feen almoll equal to that of the
prefent age. However, the French was ftill a very im-
perfetl language till the reign of Francis I. : the cuftom
of fpeaking Latin at the bar, and of writing the public
a els and inttruments of the courts of juftice in that
language, had made them overlook the French, their
own language. Add that the preceding ages had
been remarkable for their ignorance, which was owing,
in a good meafure, to the long and calamitous wars
which France had been engaged in ; \vhence the French
noble Je deemed it a kind of merit not to know any-
thing ; and the generals regarded little whether or not
they wrote and talked politely, pro\ided they could but
fight well.

But Francis I. who was the reftorer of learning, and
the father of the learned, changed the face of things ;
and after his time, Henry Stevens printed his book, De
la Freccllence dii Langage Francois. 'I'he change had
become very confpicuous at the end of the 16th century;
and under Henry IV. Amyot, Coeffeteau, and Mal-
herbe, contributed towards bringing it to its perfeftion ;
which the Cardinal de Richelieu completed, by the
eftabl'/liment of the French academy ; an affembly,
wherein the moft diftinguiflied perfons of the church,
the fword, and the goivn, have been members. Nor
did the long reign of Louis XIV. contribute a little
to the improvement of the language; the perfonal
qualities of that prince, and his tafte for the fine
arts, and that of the princes of tlie blood, rendered
his court the politcrt in Europe. Wit and magni-
ficence feemed to vie ; and his generals might have
difputed with the Greeks, Romans, &c. the glory of
writing well, if they could not that of fighting. From
court, the elegance and purity of the language foon
fpread itfelf into the provinces ; and now there is fcarce
anybody there who does not write and fpeak good
French.

One of the characlers of the French language is, to
be natural and eafy. The words are ranged in it much
in the fame order as the ideas in our minds ; in which
it differs exceedingly from the Greek and Latin, where
tlie inverfion of the natural order of words is reputed a
beauty. Indeed the Hebrew furpaffes even the French
in this point ; but then it comes ihort of it in copioufnefs
and variety.

It mull be added, however, that as to the analogy
of grammar, and the fmiplicity wherewith the moods
of verbs are formed, the Englilh has the advantage not
only over the French, but over all the known languages

ill

F R E [2

in the world ; but then the turns, the expreflions, and
the idioms of the Englilli, are fometimes fo quaint
and extraordinary, that it lofes a good deal of the ad-
vantage \vluch its grammatical fimpliclty gives it over
the red.

The French has but few compound words •, wherein
it differs widely from the Greek, High Dutch, and
Englilh. This the French authors own a great dif-
advantage in their language ; the Greek and Dutch
deriving a great part of their force and energy from
the compolition of words, and frequently exprelFing
that in one founding word, which the French cannot
exprefs but by a periphrafis. The diminutives in
the French are as few as the compounds j the
greateil part of thofe remaining in ufe having loft
their diminutive fignification •, but what diflinguiHi the
French moft, are its juftnefs, purity, accuracy, and
flexibility.

French is the moft univerfal and extenfive language
in Europe. The policy of ftates and courts has ren-
dered it neceflary for the minifters of princes, and their
oiTiccrs, &c. and the talle of arts and faiences has had
the fame effedl with regard to the learned. In Germa-
ny, and eUewhere, the princefles and perfons of diftinc-
lion value themfelves on underftanding French ; and in
feveral courts of Europe, French is almoft as much
knoivn as the language of the country.

FRESCATI, or Frascati, a fmall towTi, fituated
on the brow of a hill, about twelve miles to the eaft-
ward of Rome. It derives its name from the coolnefs
of the air, and ynyZi verdure of the fields around. It
is built of the ruins of the ancient Tufculum ; and the
Tufculan villa where Cicero wrote his famous queftions
is at a place now called Grotta Ferrala, about two
miles diftant. E. Long. n. 43. N. Lat. 41. 48. There
is a very fine profpeft from this toivn into the neigh-
bouring countrj', which abounds tvith the feats of car-
dinals and other nobility. It is the fee of a bilhop,
who is one of the fix fenior cardinals, and is furround-
td by fome of the moft beautiful villas in "Italy ; the
principal of which are the villa Aldobrandini, belong-
ing to Prince Pamfili ; the viUa Tabema, belonging
to Prince Borghefe ; and \'illa Ludoxifi, to the family
of Colonna. The villa Aldobrandini, called alfo Bel-
vedere from its beautiful profpeifl, is the moft remark-
able, on account of its fine fituation, extenfive gardens,
airy terraces, its grottoes, cafcades, and water-works.
Over a faloon, near the grand cafcade, is the following
infcription :

Hue e^o migram tniifis comhatus AprJIo ;
Hie Delphi, he Helicon, lue milii Dclo! eril.

The avails are adorned with a reprefentation of Apollo
and the Muies ; and fome of tiiat god's adventures are
painted in frefco by Domenichino. The villa Tabema
is one of the fineft and beft fumillied of any in the
neighbourhood of Rome. From this you afcend throiigh
gardens to Monte Dracone, another palace on a more
lofty fituation, belonging alfo to that prince, and de-
riving its name fron the arms of his family. From
hence you may fee Rome, and the whole extent of the
plain J it has a noble afcent, v;ith a broad paved walk ;
and among other curiofities there is a hall adorned with
the piclures of a vaft number of men eminent for
learning and arms. The gardens, laid out by Vignola,

27 ] V Tt E

contain three miles in compafs ; and have many tie Ffi
lightful walks, and curious water-works. Near this "~~~
place are the monks of CamaldoU and the capuchins ,
and liigher up are ruins of the ancient Tufculum.
xYfcending towards the plain, two miles on the right
liand, you find the fomous abbey of Grotta Ferrata,
belonging to the monks of St Eifil, and fituated on
the ruins of Cicero's houfe. The Virgin Mary of the
great altar is an ancieiit Greek picture ; In the chapel
the pictures of St Nilus and St Bartholomew the ab-
bot, are by Annibal Caracci ; and all the paintings in
frefco of this chapel are by Domenichino. ViKa Lu-
dovifi has a charming walk going up to it, where you
fee the ruins of Lucullus's palace. The houfe is fmall ;
but the gardens are lar^e, embelliftied ^vith a great
variety of walks and fountains, and a beautiful caf-
cade.

FRESCO, a method of painting in relievo on walls,
fo as to endure the weather. It is performed with
water colours on frefti plafter, or on a wall laid ivith
mortar not yet dry. This fort of painting has a great
advantage by its incorporating with the mortar, and
drjing along with it, becomes very durable. The
Italians, from whom we borrow the tcnn, call \x. frefco;
becaufe it is frequently uled for walls, alcoves, and
other buildings in the open air. Vitruvius, lib. vii.
cap. 4. calls it udo leclorio.

Painting in frefco is very ancient, having been prac-
tifed in the earlieft ages of Greece and Rome. It is
chietly performed on walls and vaults, newly plaftered
with lime andiand ; but the plafter is only to be laid,
in proportion as the painting goes on ; no more being
to be done at once than the painter can defpatch in a
day, while it drlfs. Before he begins to paint, a car-
toon or defign is uiually made on paper, to be chalked,
and transferred to the wall, about half an hour after
the plafter is applied.

The ancients painted on ftucco ; and we may remark
in Vitruvius what infinite care they took in making the
incruftation or plaftering of their buildings to render
them beautiful and lafting ; though the modern paint-
ers find a plafter of lime and fand prefei'able to it ; both
as it does not dry fo haftily, and as being a Httle browii-
iih, it is fitter to lay colours on, than a groimd fo white
as ftucco.

In this kind of painting, all the compound and ar-
tificial colours, and almoft all the minerals, are fct afide,
and fcarce any thing is ufcd but earths ; which are ca-
pable of preferving their colour, defending it from the
burning of the lime, and refifting its fait, which Vitru-
vius calls its bitternefs.

For the work to come out in all its beauty, the co-
lours muft be laid on quick, while the plafter is yet
moift J nor ftiould they ever be retouchcil dry, with
colours mixed up with the white of an egg, or fize, or
gum, as fome workmen do ; becaufe fuch colours grow
blacklftij nor do any prcfcr^'e themfelves, but only
fuch as were laid on haftily at firft.

The colours ufed are white made of lime flaked
long before, and white marble duft ; ochre, both red
and yellow J verditer; lapis lazuli ; fmalf, black chalk,
&c. All which are only ground, and worked up with
water ; and moft of them grow brighter and brighter as
the frefco dries.

The bruflies and pencils for this work ought to be
F f 3, long

F H E [2

long and foft, othervvife they will rake and raife the
painting. The colours fliould be full, and flowing
from the brulh ; and the defign perfeft : for in this
work you cannot alter or add upon any colour.

FRESH WATER, is that not tinftured or impregna-
ted with fait or faline particles enough to be dil'covered
by the fenfe. Such generally is that of fprings, rains,
ivells, lakes, &c.

The dulcifying or making of fait water frc(h is a
fecret that has been long fought with great attention.
For an account of the principal attempts that have
been made with this view. See Sea Water.

Frejh Wind fignifies Wrong, but not violent ; hence
when the gale increafes, it is faid to freflien.

FRESHES, in fca language, denotes the impetuo-
iity of an ebb tide, increafed by heavy rains, and flow-
ing out into the fea, often difcolouring it to a confide-
rable dillance, and forming a line that feparates the
two colours, and which may be diilindly perceived for
a great length along the coall.

Freshes, a local term fignifying annual inund--
tion«, 'from the river being fwollen by the melted
fnows and other frelli waters from the uplands, as is
the Nile, &c. from periodical or tropical rains. As a
failor's term, it is oppofed to marine or fait water
floodings, tides, &c. The word is of common ufe in
America, where the inundations fo called are of gre:it
fcrvice. They bring down the foil to the intervals
beloiv, and form a fine mould, producing corn, grain,
and herbage, in the moft luxuriant plenty. They alfo
afford another benefit, in^ regard to many rivers in
America, viz. in equalizing the furface of the llream
(where rapid falls, or cafcades, ohllruct the navi-
gation), fo that rafts of timber and other grofs pro-
duce are then floated down to the fea ports in great
quantities.

FRESNOY, Charles Ai.phonse du, an excellent
poet and painter, was born at Paris in 1611. He was
inflructed there by Perrier and Simon Vouet in paint-
ing : but he did not long adhere to Vouet's manner of
colouring •, for as foon as he fixed himfelf at Rome,
he made the works of Titian the models for his imita-
tion. He was, however, more celebrated as a poet
than as a painter ; and gave more attention to the
theory than to the praftice of the pencil. According-
ly, he is better known by his incomparable poem De
arte^rapliica, than by his performances on the canvafs :
and on this poem he beftowed fo much pains, that he
died in 1665, before it was publiflied. It was printed
afterwards with a French profe tranflation and notes by
M. de Piles ; and ivas tranllated into Englifh by Mr
Dryden, who prefixed to it an original preface contain-
ing a parallel between painting and poetry.

FRET, or Frktte, in ArchiteSlure, a kind of knot
or ornament, confifting of two lills or fmall fillets va-
rioully interlaced or interwoven, and running at parallel
diftances equal to their breadth.

Fret, in Hera/ilnj, a bearhig compofcd of fix bars,
croffed and varioufly interlaced. Some call it the trne-
lover''s inot. See HERALDRY.

^["ret, in Mufic, fignifies a kind of flop on fome in-
(Iruments, particularly bafs viols and lutes. Frets con-
fift of (Irings tied round the neck of the inft rument, at
«ertain diftances, within \vhich fuch and fucli notes are
to be found.

28 3 F R I

pRETlVori, that adorned with frets. It is fome-
times ufed to fill up and enrich flat empty fpaces ; but
it is moftly pradlfed in roofs, which are fretted over
with plafter work.

FRETTS, in Minera/ogij, a terra ufed by our min-
ers to exprefs the worn fide of the banks of the rivers
in mine countries, where they fearch for the flioad
ftones or grewts walhed down from the hills, in order
from thence to trace out the running of the ihoad up
to the mine.

Fretts, Treats, or Freits. See Freats.

FREYBERG, or Friedberg, a town in the circle
of Upper Saxony, containing upwards of 60,000 peo-
ple. There are mines of copper, tin, lead, and filver,
in its vicinity, which afford employment to a confider-
able number of workmen, and produce an annual reve-
nue of more than 1 0,000 rix-doUars. The princes of
the houfe of Saxony are ufually buried liere, where there
is alfo an academy for the ftudy of mineralogy, inllitu-
ted in the year 1765, and reckoned the moll famous
for that fclence of any in Germany. It is fituated on a
branch of the Muldau, IJ miles fouth-wefl; of Drefden,
in N. Lat. 51. and W. Long. 11. 10.

FRIABLE, among naturalifts, an appellation gi-
ven to bodies that are eafily crumbled to pieces : fuch
are pumice and all calcined llones.

FRIAR, or Frier, by the Latins called /r/7/fr, the
Italians //rt, and the French yr^rf, that is, brother: a
term common to the monks of all orders ; founded on
this, that there is a kind of fraternity or brotherhood
prefumed between the feveral religious perfons of the
fame convent or monaftery.

Friars are generally diftinguilhed into thefe four
principal branches, \iz. i. Minors, Gray friars, or Fran-
cifcans. 2. Augulllnes. 3. Dominicans, or Black
friars. 4. White friars or Carmelites. From thefe
four the reft of the. orders defcend. See Frakcisc.axs,
Augustines, &c.

Frl\r, in a more peculiar fenfe, is reftrained to fuch
monks as are not priells ; for thole in orders are ufually
dignified with the appellation oi father.

Friars Ohfervant {fralres ohfervantes'), were a branch
of the Francifcans ; thus called, becaufe not combined
together in any cloifler, convent, or corporation, as
the conventuals are ; but only agreed among them-
felves to obferve the rules of their order, and that more '
ftriflly than the conventuals did, from whom they fe-
parated themfelves out of a Angularity of zeal, living
in certain places of their own choofing.

FRIBURG, a large town of Germany, and capital
of Brifga%v ; remarkable for the fleeple of the great
church, which, next to that of Straihurg, is the fined
in Germany ; and for its univerfity. Tlie inhabitants
are famous for polilhing tryftal and precious (tones. It
has been feveral times taken and retaken ; particularly
by the French in 1744, who demoUlhed the fortifica-
tions. It was alfo taken by them in June i 796. It i&
feated on the river Trifet, ten miles caft of Brifach,
and 26 fouth of Strafhurgh. E. Long. 7. 57. N. Lat.
48. 4.

FriBURG, a town of Swifferland, and capital of the
canton of the fame name, feated on the river Sane,
in E. Long. 7. 5. N. Lat. 46. 50. Its fituation is ^<""''
moft fingular and piflurelque : " It (lands partly '^'^''''"
in a fmall plain, partly on bold acclivities on !• 1^"^'

ridge

F R I [2

Ftiburj, ridge of rugged rocks, half encircled by the river
^FricaHee. g^^g . ^^d is lb entirely concealed by the circumjacent
■ '' hills, that the traveller fcarcely catches the Iraallell

glinipfe, until he burlls upon a view of the whole town
from the overhanging eminence. The fortifications,
which confift of high ftone walls and towers, enclofe a
circumference of about four miles, within which fpace
the eye comprehends a Angular mixture of houfes, rocks,
thickets, and meadows, varying iiiftantly from wild to
agreeable, from the bulUe of a town to the fohtude of
the deepell retirement. The Sane uinds in fuch a fer-
pentine manner as to form in its courfe, within the fpace
of two miles, five obtufe angles, between which the in-
tervening parts of the current are parallel to each other.
On all fides the defcent to the town is extremely Ueep :
in one place the Iheets even pafs over the roofs of the
houfcs. Many of the edifices are raifed in regular gra-
dation like the feats of an amphitheatre ; and many
overhang the edge of a precipice in fuch a manner, that
on looking doivn, a weak head would be apt to turn
giddy. But the moll extraordinary point of view is
hora the Pont-neuf. To the north-well, part of the
town Hands boldly on the fides and the piked back of
an abrupt ridge ; and from eall to weft a femicircle of
high perpendicular rocks is feen, whofe bafe is waflied
and undennined by the winding Sane, and whofe tops
and fides are thinly fcattered with ftirubs and under-
vcod. On the higheft point of the rocks, and on the
very edge of the precipice, appears, half hanging in the
air, the gate of the town called Eourguillon : a llranger
flandRig on the bridge would compare it to Laputa, or
the Flying Illand in Gulliver's Travels ; and would not
conceive it to be accelfible but by means of a cord and
pulleys. The houfes, conftrucled with a gray fand
Hone, are neat and well built ; and the public edifices,
particularly the cathedral, are ex.tremcly elegant. The
inhabitants are Roman Catholics, as are thofe of the
^^ hole canton. The biihop of Laufanne, called here
the biihop of Friburg, refides in this city. He is ap-
pointed by the pope, ufually at the recommendation of
the French court ; and his revenues, including a fmall
penfion' from France, and from the abbey of Hauterive,
of uhich he was abbot, amount to about 400I. per an-
num. His diocefe extends over the whole canton, and
part of that of Soleure. In all his afts and deeds he
figiis himfelf biHiop and count of Laufanne, and prince
of the German empire. The fovercign power refides in
the great council of two hundred ; comprifing the two
advoyers, the chancellor, the grand fautier, the fenate
or little council of twenty-four, the fixty, from which
body are chofen the bannerets and principal magiftrates,
and the remaining hundred and twelve members, who
are finiply denominated burghers."

Friburg, the canton cf, one of the 13 republics of
Switzerland. It is furrounded on all fides by tlic can-
ton of Bern. The land is fertile In com, fruits, and
paflures ; and it is faid the canton can fend :8,coo
men into the field. This canton is entirely Catholic.

FRICASSEE, a dilh or mefs hallily 'drelled in a
frying pan, and feafoned with butter, oil, or the like.
Tlie Word is French, formed of the Latin frixatiira,
" frying." Others will have fricalTee formed in imita-
tion of the noife made by butter, or other fat, when
jncltcd in the pan. We fay a fricaflce of pullets, of

29 3

F R I

rabbits, of tench, of tripe, offices, of egg^, of peas,
&c.

FPklCENTI, an epifcopal towni of Italy, in the"'
ki igdom of Naples, and in the farther principato, near
ths river Tripalto, in E. Long. 14.. 13. N. Lat. 40. eg.

FRICTION, the acl of rubbing or grating the fur-
face of one body againli that of another, called alfo at-
trilion. The phenomena arifing upon the friijlion of
divers bodies, under different circumllances, are vtrv
numerous and confidcrable. Mr Hawklbee gives us a
number of experiments of this kind ; particularly of the
attrition or friftion of glafs, under various circumftan-
ces, the refult o'f which was, that it yielded light and
became eleclrical. All bodies by friclion produce heat ;
many of them emit light ; particularly a cat's back,
fugar, beatoii fulphur, mercury, fea water, gold, cop-
per, &c. but, above all, diamonds, which, when briflc-
ly rubbed agamll glafs, gold, or the like, yield a liglit
eijual to that of a hve coal when blowed by the bellows.
See Ei.KCTRics and Elf.ctricity.

Friction", in Mechanics, denotes the refiflance a
moving body meets with from the furface on which it
moves. Friclion arifes from the roughnefs or afperitv
of tlie iurface of the body moved on, and that of the
body moving : for fuch furfaces coufifting alternately
of eminences and cavities, either the eminences of the
one mull be railed over tliofe of the other, or they
mull be both broke and worn oif ; but neither can hap-
pen without motion, nor can motion be produced with-
out a force impreffed. Hence, the force applied to
move the body is either wholly or partly fpent on this
effecl J and confequently there arifes a refillance or fric-
tion, wiiich will be greater, Ccvlcris paribus, as the
eminences are the greater and the fubftance the harder :
and as the body, by continual friftion, becomes more
and more poliflied, the fri£lion diminillies. See Me-
chanics.

Friction, in Medicine and Surgery, denotes the aft
of rubbing a difeafed part with oils, unguents, or other
matters, in order to eale, relieve, and cure it. Fric-
tions are much uled of late in venereal cafes. Thev
prefer the applying of mercury externally by way of
fri6lion, to that of giving it internally, to raifc a faliva-
tion.

There are alfo friftions with the flelh brulh, a linen
cloth, or the hand only. Thefe frictions are a fort of
exercife which contributes greatly to health; as they
excite and llir up the natural warmth, divert delluxions,
promote perfpiration, open the pores of the fliin, and
carry oif llagnant humours.

The flelh brufh (Dr Cheyne obferves) is an exercife
extremely ufeful for promoting a full and free perfpira-
tion and circulation. Every body knows the effett
of currying horfes -, that it makes them fieek, gay,
lively, and aftive ; lb as even to be judged equivalent
to half the feeding. This it can no otherwifc effect,
but by affifting nature to throw off the recrements of
the juices, which Hop the free circulation, and, by coii-
flant ftiftion, irritation, and flimulation, to bring thi-
blood and fpirits to the parts moll dillant from th^t
feat of heat and motion ; and fo plump up the fuper-
ficial muicles. And the fame efFeft it would lia. e i:;
other creatures, and man himfelf, if ma.iaged in thc
fame manner, and with the fame care and reguhuif. .
Pctfo>;.

F R I [ 230

FriJay Perfons, therefore, of weak nenes and fedentaiy lives,

^. . II,, would do well to fupply the want of other exercile

'^Iflamis. "''" fpending half an hour, morning and night, in

— Y— — currying and rubbing their whole body, efpecially their

limbs, with a flelli bnllli. But this means of health

is moft advantageoufly ufed \vhen the prima via- are

moll empty.

FRIDAY, the fixth day of the week ; fo named of
Fraja, a Saxon deity. By the Romans it was called
dies Veneris. See Frea.

Good-TRiDAT. See GooD-Tridmj,

FRIDSTOL, mentioned, in our ancietit writers,
among the immunities granted to churches, fignifies a
feat, chair, or place of peace and fecurlty, where cri-
minals might find fafety and proteftion : of thefe there
^vere many in England ; but the moft famous were tliat
at Beverly, and that in St Peter's church at York,
granted by charter of King Henry I.

FRIEDENSHUETTEN, a Moravian fettlement
\vhole name fignifies tents of peace, fituated on the Su(-
quehannah river in Pennfylvania, about 24 miles below
Tioga point, which owed its origin to the united breth-
ren,^ in the year 1765. At that period it contained 13
liuts belonging to the Indians, befides 40 houfes con-
ftruSed after the European manner, and a very neat
chapel.

FRIENDLY islands, a duller of idands in the
Pacific ocean, fo named by Captain Cook in the year
1773, on account of the friendlliip which apppeared to
fublill among the inhabitants, and from their courteous
behanour to llrangers. Abel Janfen Tafman, an e-
jninent Dutch navigator, firft touched here in 1643,
and gave names to the principal iilands. Captain Cook
laborioully explored the whole duller, ^vhich he found
to confift of more than 60. The three iilands which
Tafman faw he named New Am/lerdam, Rotterdam, and
Middlehurgh. Tlie firft is the largeft, and extends
about 2 1 miles from eart to weft, and about 1 3 from
north to fouth. Thefe iilands are inhabited by a race
of Indians, who cultivate the earth with great induf-
try. The ifland of Amllerdam is interfefted by a ftraight
and pleafant roads, with fruit trees on each fide, which
provide fliade from the fcorching heat of the fun. The
chief iflands are Annamooka, Tongataboo (the refi-
•dence of the fovercign and the chiefs), Lefooga, and
Eooa. Lefooga is about feven miles long, and in fome
places not above two or three broad. It is in many
vefpefts fuperior to Annamooka. The plantations
are both more numerous and more extenfive ; and en-
dofed by fences which, running parallel to each other,
form fine fpacious public roads, which would appear
beautiful in countries where rural conveniences have
been carried to the greatcft perfection. They are, in
general highly cultivated, and well flocked with the
fe\'eral roots and fruits which thefe iflands produce ;
and Captain Cook endeavoured to add to their num-
lier by planting Indian com, and the feeds of melons,
pumpkins, and the like. Eooa, v.hen viewed from
the ihip at anchor, formed one of the moft beautiful
profpedls in nature, and very dilTerent from tlie others
of the Friendly Illes ; which being low and perfeftly
.'evel, exhibit nothing to the eye but the trees which
cover them : \vhereas here, the land rifing gently to
a confiderable height, prefents us with an extenfive
profpecl, where groves of trees are only interfperfed at

] F R I

irregular dillances, in beautiful difcrder, and all the
reft is covered with grais, except near the ihores, where
it is entirely covered with fruit and other trees; amongft
which are the habitations of the natives. In order to
have a view of as great a part of the ifland as pof-
Cble, Captain Cook and fome of his othcers walk-
ed up to the higheft point of the ifland. From
this pkice they had a view of almoft the whole ifland,
^yhich confifted of beautiful meadows of prodigious ex-
tent, adorned with tufts of trees, and intermixed with
plantations. ' While I was furveying this delightful
profpecl (fays Captain Cook), I could not help flatter-
ing myfeif with the pleafing idea that fome future na-
vigator may, from the fame ftation, beheld thefe mea-
dows flocked with cattle, brought to thefe iflands by
the (hips of England ; and that the completion of this
fingle benevolent purpofe, independent of all other con-
fiderations, would fufHciently mark to pofterity, that
our voyages had not been ufclefs to the general inte-
refls of humanity. ' The next morning,' fays our be-
nevolent commander, ' I planted a pine apple, and
fowed the feeds of melons and other vegetables in
Taoofa's plantation. I had indeed fome encourage-
ment to flatter myfelf that my endeavours of this kind
alfo would not be fruitlefs ; as I had this day a dilh of
turnips ferved up at my dinner, which ivas the produce
of feeds I left here in my former voyage.'

The natives of thefe iflands feldom exceed the com-
mon flature ; but are very ftrong and well made, efpe
cially as to their limbs. They are generally broad
about the flioulders j and though the mufcular difpofi-
tion of the men, which feems a confequence of much
aftion, rather conveys the appearance of flrength than
of beauty, there are feveral to be leen who are really
handfome. 1 he women are not fo much diftinguiftied
from the men by their featiu^es as bv their general
form, which is for the moft part deflitute of that
ftrong fiefliy firmnefs that appears in the latter. The
features of lome are fo delicate, as not only to be
a true index of their fex, but to lay claim to a confi-
derable fliare of beauty and exprelTion : for the bodies
and limbs of moft of the females are well proportion-
ed ; and lome abfolutely pcrfeiSt models of a beautiful
figure. But the moft remarkable dillimflion in the
women is the uncommon fmallnefs and delicacy of their
fingers, which may be put in competition with the
fineft in Europe. The general colour is a caft deeper
than the copper bro^^•n ; but feveral of the men and
women have a true olive complexion ; and fome of the
laft are even a great deal fairer. Their countenances
very remarkably exprefs the abundant mildnefs or
good nature which they polTefs ; and are entirely free
from that favage keennefs which marks nations in a
barbarous ftate. They are frank, clieerful, and good
nature d.

There are, upon the whole, few natural defeiSs or
deformities to be found amongft thefe people. The moft
common is the tetter or ring worm, that feems to af-
feit almoft one half of them, and leaves whitifti fer-
pentiiie marks everywhere behind it ; but this is of
lefs confequence than another which is very frequent,
and appears on every part of the body. Captain Gook
had the mortification to learn that all the care he took
v.hen he firft vifited thefe iflands, to prevent the vene-
real difeafe from being ccmmunicated to the inhabi-

tsnts.

F R I [2

V tants, had proved beffeflual. What is extraoidinaiy,
they do not feem to regard it much ; and as there ap-
peared few iigns of its dcllroying effeifts, probably the
climate, asid the way of living'of thefe people, great-
ly abated its virulence. There are tivo other complaints
fre^uerit amongll them ; one of which Is an indolent firm
fwclling, that afleiils the legs and arras, and increafes them
to an extraordinar-. fize in their whole length. The other
is a tumor of the fame fort in the tellicles, which fome-
timcs exceeds the fize of the two fills. Eat in other re-
fpecls they may be confidered as uncomracnly healthy.
Their hair is in general llraight, thick, and llrong,
though a few have it buQiy or frizzled. The natural
colour is black ; but the greateft part of the men, and
lome of the women, have it (lulned of a brown or
purple colour, and a feiv of an orange caft. They
•vear it varioully cut. Some have it cut off on one
fide of the head only ; olhers have it entirely cut off
except a fingle lock -, the women in general wear it
Ihort. The men have their beards cut ihort ; and both
men and women ftrip the hair from the armpits. The
men are llained from about the middle of the belly
to about half way do^\Ti the thighs v.-ith a deep blue
colour. The women have only a few fmall lines or
fpots thus imprinted on the infide of their hands.
Their kings, as a mark of dillinclion, are exempted
from this cuilom.

The men are all circumcifed, or rather fupercifed,
as the operation conufts in cutting off only a fmall
piece of the forelkin at the upper part : which by that
means is rendered incapable ever after of covering the
glans. This is all they aim at, as they fay the opera-
tion is praflifed from a notion of cleanUnefs.

The drefs of both men and women is the fame :
End confifts of a piece of cloth or matting (but moftly
the former) about two yards wide and two and a half
long : at leaft i'o long as to go once and a half round
the waiil, to which it is confined by a girdle or cord.
It is double before, and hangs down like a petticoat,
as low as the middle of the leg. The upper part of
the garment above the girdle is plaited into feveral
folds ; fo that, when unfolded, there is cloth futh-
cient to draw up and wrap round the flioulders ; v.hich
is very feldom done. The inferior fort are fatisfied
with ixnall pieces ; and very often wear nothing but a
covering made of leaves of plants, or the maro, which
is a narrow piece of cloth or matting like a faih.
This they pals between the thighs and wrap round
the waill ; but the ufe of it is chietly confined to the
men. The ornaments worn by both fexes are necklaces,
made of the fniit of the pandanus, and various fweet
fraelling flowers, which go under the general name of
kahulla. Others are compofed of fmall (liells, the wing
and leg-bones of-fcirds, iharks-teelh, and otlier things ;
all which hang loofe upon the brealt j rings of tortoife
fhell on the fingers •, and a number of thefe joined to-
gether as bracelets on the wrills. The lobes of the
ears (though moil frequently only one), are fometimes
perforated v.ith two holes, in wliich they wear cylin-
drical bits of ivory about three inches long.

Cleanlincfs induces them to bathe in the ponds, which
feem to ferve for no other purpofe. They are fenfible
that fait water hurts their (kin ; and when ncceffity ob-
liges them to bathe in the fea, they commonly have
fbme cocoa nutfliells filled vvith frefli ivater jpoured ovtr

5T ] F R I

them to walh it off. People of fuperior rank ufe cocoa Fricndl/
nut oil, which improves the appearance of the fldn '''»"<'*•
very much. ^-^~— '

The employment of the women is of the eafy kind,
and, for the moft part, fuch as may be executed in the
houfe. 'I'he manufacturing their cloth is wholly con-
figned to their care ; as is alfo that of their mats, which
are eileemed both for their texture and their beautv.
There are many other articles of lefs note that employ
the fpare time of their females; as combs, of which thev
make vail numbers, and little balkets with fmall beads';
but all finilhed with fuch neatnefs and taftc in the difl
pofition of the various parts, that a llranger cannot help
admiring their alfiduity and dexterity.

The province allotted to the men, as might be ex-
pected, is far more laborious and extenfive than tha;:
of the women. Agriculture, architeelure, boat build-
ing, filhing, and other things that relate to naviga-
tion, are the objects of their care. CuUivated roots
and fruits being their principal fupport, this requires
thur conllant attention to agriculture, which they
puifue very diligently, and feem to have brought almoR
to as great perfection as circumflances will permit.
In planting the plantains and yams, they obferve fo
much exaclnefs, that, which ever %vay you look, the
roivs prefent themfelvelves regular ai>d complete. The
cocoa nut and bread fruit trees are fcattered about
without any order, and feem to give them no trouble
after they have attained a certain height.

The houfes of the louer people are poor huts, and
very fraall ; thofe of the better fort are larger and more
comfortable. The diraenfions of one of a middling
fize are about 30 feet long, 20 broad, and i 2 high.
Their houfe is, properly fpeaking, a thatched roof or
(lied, fupported by polls and rafters, difpofed in a
very judicious manner. The tloor is raifed with eartli
fmoGthed, and covered with llrong thick matting,
and kept very clean. A thick ftrong mat, about two
and a half or three feet broad, bent into the form of
a femicircle, and fet upon its edge, with the ends
touching the fide of the houfe, in fliape refembling the
fender of a fire hearth, enclofes a fpace for the rnafter
and millrefs of the family to lleep in. The reft of the
family lleep upon the floor, wherever they pleafe to
lie down ; the unmarried men and ivomen apart from
each other : Or if the family be large, there are fmall
huts adjoining, to which the fervants retire in the
night ; fo that privacy is as much obferi^ed here as
one could expecl. The clothes that they wear in
the day ferve for their covering in the night. Their
^vhole furniture confifts of a bowl or two, in ^vhich
they make kava ; a few gourds ; cocoa nut liells ■,
and fome fmall wooden llools, which ferve them for
pillows.

They difplay much ingenuity in the building of their
canoes, as well as in the navigating them.

The only tools which they ufe to conftruft them,
which are very dexterouily made, are hatchets, or ra-
ther thick adzes, of a fmooth black Hone that abounds
at Toofoa ; augres, made of Iharks teeth, fixed on
f.nall handles, and rafps of a rough Ikin of a fiih, faft-
encd on flat pieces of wood, thinner on one fide, which
alio have handles. The cordage is made from the fibres
of the cocoa nut hull:, which, though not more than
nine or ten inches long, they plait, about the fize of

I

F R 1

'Friendly a quill, or lefs, -to any length that lliey pi
lilands. j-gii i{ ^p jf, balls, from which the larger ropes are
"""^ made by twilling feveral of thefe together. The lines
that they fifli with are as ftrong and even as the belt
cord we make, referabling it almoll in every refpeft.
Their other filhing implements are large and fmall
hooks made of pearl (liell. Their weapons are clubs
of different forts, (in the ornamenting of which they
fpend much time), fpears and darts. They have alfo
bows and arrows ; but thefe feemed to be deligned
only for amufement, fuch as (hooting at birds, and
not for military purpofes. The (tools are about two
feet long, but only four or five inches high, and near
four broad, bendii;g doiniward in the middle, with
four Itrong legs, and circular feet ; the whole made
of one piece of black or brown wood, neatly polilhed,
and fometimes inlaid ivith bits of ivory.

Yams, plantains, and cocoa nuts, compofe the grea^-
eit part of their vegetable diet. Of their animal food,
the chief articles are, hogs, fowls, fifh, and all forts of
ihell filh ; but the lower people eat rats. The two
iirll vegetable articles, with bread fruit, are what may
be called the bafis of their food, at different times of
{he year, with filh and fhell fiiti ; for hogs, fowls, and
turtle, feem only to be occafional dainties, referved for
their chiefs. Their food is generally dreffed by ba-
king, and they have the art of making, from different
kinds of fruit, feveral difhes which molt of us elteemed
very good. The generality of them lay their victuals
upon the firft leaf they meet with, hoivever dirty it
may be ; but when food is ferved up to the chiefs, it
is commonly laid upon green plantain leaves. The
women are not excluded from eating ^vith the men ;
but there are certain ranks or orders amonglt them
that can neither eat nor drink together. This dlllinc-
tioii begins with th.e king ; but where it ends could
not be leanit. They feem to have no fet time for
meals. Tliey go to bed as foon as it is dark, and rife
with the daivn in the morning.

Their private diverfions are chiefly finging, dancing,
and raufic performed by the women. The dancing of
the men has a thoufand different motions with the
hands, to ivhich ^ve are entire Itrangers ; and they are
performed with an eafe and grace which are not to be
defcribed but by thofe who have feen them.

Whether their marriages be made lafting by any
kind of folemn contrafl, our voyagers could not deter-
mine with precifion ; but it appeared that the bulk of
the people fatislied themfelves ^vith one ^nfe. The
thiel^', however, have commonly feveral women, though
it appeared as if one* only was looked upon as the
miftrefs of the family.

When any perfon of confequence dies, his body is
ivafhed and decorated by fome woman or women, who
are appointed on the occafion ; and thefe women are
not by their cufloms, to touch any food with their
hands for many months afterwards; and it is remark-
able, that the length of the time they are thus pro-
fcribed, is the greater in proportion to the rank of the
chief whom they had walhed.

The concern of thefe peojile for the dead is moll
extraordinary. They beat their teeth with itones,
Itrike a fliark's tooth into the head until the blood
flows in Itrcams, and thruit fpears into the inner part
.of the thigh, into their fides below the armpits, and

C 252 ]

fe, and througt

F R I

the cheeks into the mouth. All thefe ope- lilendlT
rations convey an idea of fuch rigorous difcipline, as ^"^""^"
mult require either an uncommon degree of affec- *
tion, or the groflelt fuperflition, to exact. It fhould
be obferved, however, that the more painful operations
are only pradifed on account of the death of thofe
molt nearly connected.

I'heir long and general mourning proves, that they
coniider death as a very great evil. And this is con-
finned by a very odd cultom which they practife to
avert it. They fuppole that the Deity will accept
of the little finger, as a fort of facrifice efficacious
enough to procure the rcco\'ery of their health. They
cut it off with one of their Itone hatchets. There ap-
peared fcarcely one in ten of them who was not thus
mutilated in one or both hands. According to Captain
King, it is common alfo for the inferior people to cut
off a joint of their little finger on account of the ficknefs
of the chiefs to whom they belong.

They feem to have little conception of future pu-
nifhment. They believe, however, that they are jullly
puniflied upon earth ; and confequently ufe every me-
thod to render their divinities propitious. The Su-
preme Author of all things they call Kallafootonga ;
who, they fay, is a female refiding in the fky, and di-
re£fing the thunder, wind, rain, and in general all the
changes of weather. They believe that when Ihe is
angry with them, the productions of the earth are
blalted •, that many things are dettroyed by Ughtning •,
and that they themfelves are afFlided with ficknefs and
death as well as their hogs and other animals. When
this anger abates, they fuppofe that every thing is re-
ftored to its natural order. They alfo admit a plura-
lity of deities, though all inferior to Kallafcosonga.
They have lefs abfurd fentiments about the immate-
riality and the immortality of the foul. They call it
Ufe, the living principle ; or, what is more agreeable
to their notions of it, Otooa ; that is, a divinity or in-
vifible being.

Of the nature of their government no more is known
than the general outline. According to the informa-
tion received, the power of the king is unlimited, and
the life and property of the fubjecl are at his difpofal ;
and inftances enough were feen to prove that the lower
order of people have no property, nor fafety for their
perfons, but at the will of the chiefs to whom they re-
fpeitively belong. When any one n-ants to fpeak with
the king or chief, he advances and fits down before
him with his legs acrofs ; which is a polture to which
they are fo much accultomed, that any other mode of
fitting is difagreeable to them. To fpeak to the king
{landing would be accounted here as a itriking mark
of rudenefs.

Though fom^ of the more potent chiefs may vie
with the king in point of actual poffeflions, they fall
very fhort in rank and in certain marks of relpe6t,
which the colleitive body have agreed to pay the mo-
narch. It is a particular privilege annexed to his fo-
vereignty, not to be punftured nor circunicifed, as all
his fubjetts are. Whenever he walks out, every one
whom he meets mult fit doun till he has palled. No
one is allowed to be over his head ; on the contrary all
mult come under his feet ; for there cannot be a great-
er outward mark of fubmiflion than that which is pdid
to the lisvereign and other great people of thefe illands

by

F R I [2,

Filemlfliip. by their inferiors. The method is this : the jjerfoti

' '""-' who 15 to pay obeifance fquats down before the chief,

anJ bows the head to the fole of his foot ; which,
when he fits, is fo placed that it cannot eafily be corac
at ; and having tapped or touched it with the under
and upper fide of the fingers of both hands, he rifes
up and retires. The hands, after this application of
them to the chief's feet, are in fome cafes rendered
ufelefs for a time ; for, until they be wafhed, they mull
not touch any kind of food. When the hands are in
this ftate, they call it tabao rema. Taboo, in general,
fignifies " forbidden," and rer/ia is their word for
" hand." Their great men are fend of a fingular
piece of luxury ; which is, to have women fit befide
them all night, and beat on diri'erent parts of their
body until they go to lleep ; sfter which they relax a
little of their labour, unlefs tliey appear likely to
awake ; in which cafe they -edouble their drumming
imtil they are again fail aileep.
» FRIENDSHIP may be defined, a mutual attach-

^■^■'^.'nd" ment fubfifting between two f erfoTis : and arifing, not
fliip. " " merely from the general principle of benevolence, from
emotions of gratitude for favours received, from views
of intcrelf, or from inltinclive afiecTion or animal
paflion ; but from an opinion entertained by each of
them, that the other is adorned with fonie amiable or
refpeClable qualities.
7 The object of the general principle of benevolence

Illuftration jj mankind, not any particular individual. Gratitude
j' V"! " regards the perfon from whom he who feels its emo-
tions has received a favour, whether that per on be a
\'irtuous or vicious, a refpeclable or a contemptible,
charafter : it prompts the perfon obliged to make a fuit-
able return to his benefaClor, but not to enter into
any particular intimacy with him, merely on account
of the favours which he has received. Many connec-
tions are formed, and dignified with the name oifriend-
Ihip, upon no other principle but the fordid hope which
one or perhaps each of the parties entertains of ac-
complilhing fome felfilh purpofe through the allillance
of the other : but fuch a connexion is fo bafe in its
nature, and fo tranfitory in its duration, as to render
it unneceilary for us to fpend time in demonftrating it
to be unworthy of the name of friendlTvip. '1 he in-
Itinftive atfection which a parent entei tains for his
child, as well as that which the child feels for his pa-
rent, feems intended by nature to form an union between
the perfons thus related to each other : but the union
betv.een parents and children, when fupported by no
other principle but inllincl, is different from friend-
(hip : it extends no farther than to caufe the parent
to pro%nde for his child during his helplefs years, and
the child to look up to his parent for proteflion and
fupport. We need not mention that appetite which
is the foundation of love, and is the provifion which
nature has made for the continuation of our fpecies.
This appetite alone, and unadifted by fome nobler prin-
ciple, cannot give rife to any connexion worthy of an
honourable name.

After excluding thefe principles, we can refer the
origin of friendfhip only to " an opinion entertained
by each of the parties between whom it fubfifts, that
the other is adorned with fome amiable or refpeftable
quahties." A connexion founded on difierent prin-
ciples we cannot honour with the name of friendlliip ;
Vol. IX. Part I.

i3 ] F R 1

but that \\luch flows from this pure fource muft bcFi''^'"'iliip-
noble and virtuous. When two perfons of virtue and • "'
abilities contemplate each the otlier's charafter and
conduct, they cannot but view them with complacency
and elleem. Habits and aclions difplaying prudence,
fortitude, moderation, integrity, benevolence, and piety,
naturally command the approbation of the impartial
fpeclator, aad even afieft him with delight. But aij
we are difpofed to revifit a landfcape the beauties of
which w* have contemplated ivith rapture, and read
with frequent delight a poem in w'lich genius ha
faithfully delineated fome of the moll enchanting fcenes
or the moll interelling events in nature j fo we alfo be-
come defirous to enjoy frequent opportunities of con-
templating a character diltinguilhed for eminent abi-
lities and illuilrious virtues. The lociety of fuch a
perfon is preferred to his who is difgraced by the op-
pofite qualities. Hence, whenever men of truly re-
fpeflable charafters enjoy opportunities of mutual in-
tercourfe, an attachment naturally takes place between
them ; entirely diiinterelled, and founded folely on
the approbation with which the one cannot avoid re-
garding the conduct of the other. The elleem which
the one is thus induced to entertain for the other will
lead them to feek frequent opportunities of enjoying,
each otlier's fociety, mutually to alk and lillen to ad-
vice, to trull their moll fecret and important purpofes
to each other's confidence, and to be no lefs concemed
each of them for the other's interell and honour than
for his own. This, and this alone, is genuine friend-
fliip J founded on virtue, and on that approbation
wiiich virtue never fails to command : it is a natural
confequence of intercourfe between virtuous men. —
Where it is once eltabliilied, it cannot die, while thofe
virtues to which it ones its origin continue to adorn
the perfons between whom it fubillls. ,

But, perhaps, fuch a pure and fublime attachment Clrcum-
can fcarce be expected to exill among beings of fodsncps fa-
mixed and imperfect a character as mankind. Xhe™"''^*!'^ '*
wife man of the ancient Stoics, or the Chriilian whoj.y^,j^^_
fully obeys the precepts and follows the Heps of hisjnceof
Saviour, might be capable of it; but, unfortunately, t'rifn^ihi?.
humanity never reaches fuch perfection. Virtue and
vice are fo blended together in every human character,
that while none is fo \vorthlefs as to excite no other
fentiment but abhorrence, there is fcarcely any fo uni^
formly tirtuous as to command unvaried elleem or ad-
miration. Even the purelt and molt difinterefted of
thofe friendlliips which prevail among men, owe their
origin to other meaner principles, as well as to that
which has been mentioned as the principle of genuine
friendfhip. There are certain ciicumftances favourable,
and others adverfe, to the formation and continuance
of friendlhip. Tliefe, making amends, as it were, for
the imperfeftion of human virtue and human know-
ledge, lead men to overlook each other's fauks and fol-
lies, and to unite in the bonds of friendlhip ; a friend-
fiiip which, though lefs (olid, lefs generous, and lefs
lading, than that which we have above deicribed, is
yet attended with effefls favourable to the happinefs
of individuals, and to the interefts of fociety in general.

Equaliiy of age is favourable to friendlhip. Infancy,

manhood,"and old age, differ fo confiderably from each

other in their views, palTions, and purfuits, that the

man will feldom be difpofed to aflbciate with the boy

Gg or

V R I [2,

Fr;e;i('..1iii). or tliS ijoulli, in preference to one ■svlio has had equal

'f^~~ experience in the world with himlelf ; and the old man

will generally wilh for the company of fome ancient
friend with whom he may fpeak of " the days of for-
mer years."

They who cultivate the/ame trade or jyrofejjton, en-
joy opportunities favourable to the formation of friend-
fhip. Being engaged among the fame objects, and
acquiring fkill in the fame arts, their knowledge, their
fentiments, and habits, are nearly the fame : •they can-
not avoid frequent intercourfe with each other j they
naturally enter into each other's prejudices and vieus,
and therefore cannot but take pleafure in each other's
converfation and fociety. Phyficians, lawyers, and
divines, form each of them a dilflnft body j and the
members of each of thofe bodies aflbciate with one
another more readily than with men of a different pro-
feffion. It is related by Swift or Addifon, that, in
the oeginning of the prefent century, there was a par-
ticular cofieehoufe in London which clergymen ufed
to frequent, and that a fon of the church Icarcely ever
ventured to Ihow his head in any other. In the days
of Dryden, poets, and all who pretended to poetical
genius or tafle, reforted to WiW's, as to another Par-
nalTus, to fip cups of coffee, and now and then per-
haps to drink of fome more infpiring liquor, inllead
of the waters of the fountain Hippocrene.

Equality of rank and fortune is alfo favourable to
friendfliip. Seldom vnW a man of foitune be able to
gain the fincere fiiendihip of any of his dependants.
Though he treat them with the moft obliging conde-
fcenfion, and load them with favours ; yet ftill, either
the fenfe of dependence, or refentment for imaginary
injuries, or impatience of the debt of gratitude, or
fome other fimilar reafon, will be likely to prevent
them from regarding him with cordial afleftion. Ser-
vants are but rarely faithful even to the moft indidgent
mafter : Shakefpeare's old Adam is a very amiable but
a very uncommon charafter. Indeed you may as foon
expeft to find the virtues and the generous courage
of the cl'.evalier Bayard among our military men of the
prefent age, as to find an old Adam among the prefent
race of fervants. It is no lefs vain for the poor man
to hope to acquire a fincere friend among his fuperiors
in rank and fortune. The fuperior is generally dif-
pofed to exacl fuch profound deference, fuch gratitude,
fuch refpeft, even from the inferior whom he admits
into his intimacy, that the equal amicable intercourfe
of friendfhip can fcarce ever take place between them.
Among the letters of the younger Pliny, we are pleafed
to find many monuments of the goodnefs of his heart.
A number of his epiftles addrefled to fiiends in meaner
lircumftances appear to have been accompanied with
very confiderable prefents, which by his opulence he
was well enabled to beftow. But he takes care to
let thofe humble friends know the weight of the ob-
ligations which he conferred, and the vaftnefs of the
debt of gratitude which they o%ved to him, in fuch
plain, nay even indelicate terms, that though they
might receive bis favours with gratitude and regard
him as their benefactor, yet they could never regard
him as a man with whom they might cultivate the
free eafy intercourfe of friendftiip. Some one or other
of thf Greek writers mentions a fingular inftance of
cordial friendHiip fubfilling between two perfons in

4 ] F R I

unequal circumftances. One of them djing before Fricndiliip,
the other, and lea^dng a wife and daughter to whom "~~v~~^
he had no fortune nor even m.eans of fubfirtence to
bequeath, enjoined his rich friend, in his vnll, to take
the charge of them on hirafelf, and to fupport them
in a liberal manner : nor did he entreat this from his
humanity, but demanded it from his friendfliip. He
had made a fure provifion for his family. His rich
friend delayed not to comply ivith his dying injunc-
tion. He readily took upon himlelf the charge of the
wife and daughter of his deceafed friend, treated them
with kindnefs, and at tail divided his ivhole fortune
equally between his own only daughter and the child
of his friend. This is an agreeable inftance of the
power of friendlhip : but fuch inftances are not to be
expefled to occur frequently in ordinary life, any more
than the Stoic virtue of Cato, or the modeft piety of a
Nelfon.

Similarity of tajle and temper ^viU generally be found
favourable to friendlhip. Two peevilh men, indeed,
will not long endure eaih other's company with much
fatisfadion ; but two perfons of mild, humane difpo-
fitions will naturally take delight in each other's fo-
ciety and converfation. They who are charmed with
the buftlc of a gay and active life, avoid the haunts of
the indolent and contemplative, and join hand in hand
to climb the heights of ambition, or tread the round
of amufement and dilTipation. Thofe whom tafte
leads to cultivate the elegant objefts of literature
amid the fweets of a rural retirement, to wander through
the grove, or recline on the brink of fome romantic
rill, and perufe the pages of one of thofe geniufes who
have fhown themfelves able to enlighten the under-
ftanding, and to kindle the glow of generous fenti-
ment in the breaft ; — thofe children of tafte frequently
aflbciate in their elegant purfuits. We are pleafed to
read the correfpondence of Pliny and Tacitus, of
Locke and Molineux, of Swift and Pope. We rejoice
to find, that notwithllanding the rivalry of learning
and genius, tafte and philofophy have a natural ten-
dency to promote benevolence and friendlhip among
their votaries. The buftle of the world mull be ac-
knowledged to be generally unfavourable to friendfliip.
When the heart is occupied with the fordid objefts of
ambition, or avarice, or gay diflipation, there is no
room left for the pure and generous fentiments of
friendlhip. Interefts often interfere, competitions and
jealoulies arife, fatal to all the fweets of focial inter-
courfe. It is in aftive life that virtue fliines with
the moft brilliant luftre ; but feldom, alas ! does pure
virtue appear in the fcenes of a(Sive life. How beau-
tifully does the charafler of Atticus Ihine amid the
charaftersof his illurtrious cotemporaiies ! ut Luna inter
mlnores ignes ! Sylla, Cjefar, Cicero, Brutus, Antony,
and Auguftus, were eminent for their abilities and vir-
tues ; but being engaged in the buflling purfuits of
ambition, they fcem to have been ftrangers to the
calm and elegant happincfs which Atticus enjoyed.
Though thofe of them who were cotemporaries could
not avoid perceiving and admiring each other's merits,
yet never did cordial friendfliip fubfift between them.
Even Cicero, who could fo well define the duties and
defcribe the happinefs of friendlhip, yet appears to
have but feldom enjoyed its delights. But Atticus,
who conftantly declined entering the fcenes of public

life.

F R I

r 235 1

F R I

Fr'ienifliii). life, experienced fuch happinefs in a private coiulitlon,
»— Y~— ' as mull have been more than an ample reward to him
for Ihunning all the fplendid purfuits of ambition. He
was the diiinterelled friend of all thofe eminent men,
and enjoyed their efteem and friendlliip. So upright
was his charaAer, fo amiable his manners, that they
who uere mortal -enemies to each other, yet agreed in
cultivating at the fame time the friendlliip of Atticus.
None of them appear to have hated him on account of
his attachment to their enemies : and while he was
tJie friend of Cicero and Oclavius, he was at the fame
time the protedor of the wife of Antony. Perhaps
the virtue of fuch a charafter may be regarded as pro-
blematical. It may be alleged, that while fuch inve-
terate diffenfions arofe among his friends, the neutra-
lity which he preferved was inconfiftent uith integrity.
He has indeed been ralhly branded by fome writers
as an avaricious time-ierving man. But no evidence
appears to jullify their aflertions ; on the contrary, the
mod refpeftable telfimony, the niceft fcrutiny, exhibit
his charafter in thofe amiable colours in which we
have chofen to view it. Atticus is indeed no ordinary
charafter. The general principles of human nature,
and the examples which moft frequently occur in the
world, naturally fuggert a fufpicion, that had he been
a man of genuine integrity, he mull have obferved a
different tenor of conducl. But there is one circumftance
which tends to ftrengthen confiderably the refpeftable
teftimony of his cotemporaries in his behalf. In Cato,
in Epicletus, in the philofopher, who, while fuffering
under all the violence of an acute dirtemper, maintain-
ed to Pompey that pain was no evil, we have inltances
of the tenets of philofophy oppofing and repreffing the
principles of nature. We know how often religious
cnthuiiafm has produced the fame etfetls. But Atticus
Tvas the votary of the mild and elegant philofophy of
lipicurus ; which, though there appears to have been
a palpable inconfiilency between its principles and the
fuperrtruclure raifed upon them, was yet in its general
tendency not unfriendly to virtue, and recommended
to its votaries that calm and innocent mode of life
which Atticus cultivated. There is no fraall refem-
blance between the charafter of Atticus and that of
E; icurus, the founder of this philofophy. The fame
tenets feem to have produced the fame effects on both ;
and we will venture to pronounce fo high an encomium
on the Epicurean philofophy, as to affert, that it
chiefly contributed to foi-m the charafter of tliis ami-
able Roman.
X. We know not if we may ventiu'c to affirm, that

friendfhips are moft naturally contrafted among per-
fons of the fame fex. We believe they often are. If
fimilarity of tafte, of fentiments, of manners, be fa-
vourable to friendfliip, this cannot but happen. The
diflincSion which nature has eflablilhed between the
two fexes, the new diftinftions which are introduced
by the different views with which their education is
condufted, and the different duties which they are
called to perform in life, have all a tendency to difpofe
men and women to enter into habits of intimacy
with perfons of their own fex rather than with tlie
other. Young girls have their peculiar amufemcnts,
as boys have theirs : they knit and (ew together, con-
fult each other concerning their drefs, and alTociate at
their idle hours. Young men, in the fame manner.

prefer the fociety of their equals of the fame fex tillFrieiiMitp.
fuch lime as their hearts begin to feel the impulfe of ^^""^
a new palTion. This foft palfion, indeed, caufes the
youth to prefer the company of his favourite maid to
that of his dearert companion •, and it perhaps caufes
the virgin to view her female companions with a jea-
lous eye, while (lie fears that their charms may win
the heart of the youtli whofe fond regard fhe herfelf
wilhes to engage. But the fears, the jealoufies, the
timidity, nay even the fondnefs of love, are incompa-
tible with friendfliip. Though the lover and his miftrcCr
be dear to each other, yet the free confidence of
friendtliip cannot take place between them. They
dare not yet venture to truft to each other all the fe-
crets of their hearts. But if their mutual wifhes
be crowned by marriage ; then, indeed, as their in-
terefts become the fame, if the tranfports of love are
not facceeded by the calm delights and the free con-
fidence of friendlliip, they mufl be unhappy. The
marriage flatc is peculiarly favourable to friendfhip.
Perfons ivhole relations to each other are more re-
mote, will often find circumllances concurring to in-
duce them to cultivate a friendly intercourfe with each
other. But here indifference is almoll impollible. It
is abfolutely requifite, in order that they may not ren-
der each other miferable, that the hulband and the
wife be united in the bonds of friendfliip. This feems
even to be one of the great laws of nature, by means
of which provifion is made for the happinefs and the
prefervation of fociety. But tliough the wife and the
hulband be particularly attached to each other by the
ties of friendfliip no lefs than by thofe of love, yet
their mutual affeftion will not detach them from the •
rell of the world ; their relations to the fociety around
them will flill remain ; the hulband will flill cultivate
the intimacy of thofe of his own fex, and the wife will
flill choofe female in preference to male friends. Upon
even a fuperficial view of life, we find reafon to declare
without hefitation, that acquaintance and intimacy
moft naturally take place among perfons of the fame
fex. The hufband and tire wife are more than friends ;
they are one bone and one fldjh. It has been fometimcs
flightly infmuated, and foractimes more openly affert-
ed, by people who have but carelefsly viewed the phe-
nomena of focial life, or have been difpofed to cavil
againft the fair fex, that women are incapable of fm-
cerity or conffancy in friendlliip with each other. But
it fcems unneceflary to offer a ferious refutation of this
cavil. Neither is the general charafler of the female
fex fo inferior to that of the male, nor are their cir-
cumflances fo very different from ours, as to render
them totally incapable of thofe virtues which are ne-
ceffary to eftablifli and fupport mutual friendfliip.
They are in general poffeffcd of more exquilite fenfi-
bility, nicer delicacy of tafte, and a jufter fenfe of
propriety, than wc : nor are they deftitute of genero-
Cty, fidelity, and firmnefs. But fuch qualities are
peculiarly favouraLle to friendfhip ; they communicate
a certain charm to the manners of the perfon who is
adorned w ith them ; they render the heart fufceptible
of generous difintercllcd attachment ; and they elevate
the foul above levity, infincerity, and raeannefs. Com-
petitions and jealoufies muft no doubt arife now and
then even among the moft amiable of the female fexf
as well as among us. Thefe will preclude or deftroy
G g 2 friendfhip.

F R I

Relatio
guiaity

Ff.-mlnup. fneuJlliip. But the rivalry of beauty, of drtfs, of
'~~'y~~ fai'liion, is not oftener fatal to frieudlliip among the
fair fex, than the contefts of pride, avarice, vanity,
and ambition, among their haughty lords. If friend-
iliip be ranked among the virtues, it is not lefs a female
than a male virtue.

The delightful intercourfe and intimacy of friend-
fliip may be naturally expeded to fubfift not only be-
tween the hufband and the wife, but among all who
are connefted by any of the relations of confanguini-
ty. The power of inftinft does not always continue
Vo unite the parent and the child. Its offices are of a
temporary nature ; but when thefe are performed, it
ceafes to operate. During the infancy, the childhood,
and eveu the yc'ith, of hi' fon or daughter, the parent
watches over them with fond affection, and labours
with anxious affiduity to promote their welfare, for no
other reafou but becaufe the yearnings of paternal af-
fection draw him towards them. But as they advance
farther in life, and become able to care for themfelves,
It has been fo ordered by the wifdom of nature, that
the attachment of the parent almoft dies away, unlefs
the grateful affedion and the merit of his children afford
him reafon to rejoice over them and blefs them. How
Ihocking, how miferable, the condition of that family,
ivhofe members are not united by the mutual efteem
and confidence of friendtliip ! v.here the parent views
liis children with jealoufy, Oiame, indignation, or for-
row : and the children anxioully avoid the fociety of
their parents ! Their interefts are fo nearly connefted ;
ihey have fo msny occafions for ading in concert, and
mull live fo long together ; that we may almoft ven-
ture to affirm, that the parent and the child, like the
hulband and the wife, mult be either friends or enemies.
But the ties of nature, the influence of habit, fenti-
ments, and circumftances, all concur to form between
them the facred connexion of friendlhip. Brothers and
nfters, the children of the fame parents, and for a while
members of the fame family, may be expefted to re-
gard each other through life with kindnefs and efteem ;
and thefe we would rather choofe to attribute to a ra-
tional attachment, founded on certain principles, than
to a blind inftinttive affedion.

Thefe are a few of the diftindions and relations in
fociety which appear moft favourable to friendftiip. —
Were we to defcend to minuter particulars, we might
enumerate all the varieties of tafte, of temper, and of
circumftances, by which mankind are diftinguilhed
from one another, and diftributed into particular claffes.
But this would be too tedious, and does not appear
neceffary.

As friendfliip is an attachment which takes place
between certain human charaders when placed in cer-
tain circumftances, there muft therefore be laws for
fupporting the attachment and regulating the inter-
courfe of friendfhip. Mutual efteem is the bafis on
which true friendlhip is eftablilhed ; and tlic intercourfe
of friendlhip ought furely to be connedcd in fuch a
manner that this foundation be not injured. Friend-
lhip muft diminifti neither our benevolence nor pru-
dtnce : it muft not feduce us from an honeft atten-
tion to our private- intereft, nor contrad our i'ocial
affedions.

Sincerity may be confidered as the firft law of friend-
fliip. Artifice and hypocrify are inimical to all fecial

Laws of
^lecdfliip.

36 ] F R I

intercourfe. Between the deceitful and the honen,Fi
friendlhip can never fubfift. For a vvliile, the one may ""
impofe on the other j unluipicious integrity may not be
able to fee through the malk under ivhich the hideous
features of felfifti cunning are veiled ; but the deceitful
friend muft ever be a ftrar.ger to the delightfid lenti-
ments of genuine friendlhip. To enjoy thele, your vir-
tues muft be fincere, your affedlion for the perfon whom
you call your friend unfeigned ; in communicating to
each other your fentiments, in offering and liftening to
mutual advice, in joining to profecute the fame defigns,
or lliare in the fame amufements, candid fincerity muft
ftill be obferved between you. Attempt not to pcr-
fuade each other, that your mutual affedion is more
ardent, or your mutual efteem more profound, than
it really is. If the lentiments or opinions which the
one expreffes appear to the other improper or ill-
founded, let not a falie delicacy prevent him from de-
claring his reafans againft them ; let him not applaud
W'here, if he were fincere, he muft blame, .loin not
even your friend in an undertaking which you lecretly
dillike, or an amufement infufferably difagreeable to
you. You cannot, confiftently with fincersty and can-
dotu: : and }'ou will foon begin to think the blelTmgs of
friendftiip too dear, when bought at the price of fuch
facrifices.

But though fincerity is to be faithfully obferved in
the intercourfe of triendftup ; yet the harlhnefs of con-
tradidion muft be carefully avoided. Thofe obliging
manners which are fo agreeable in an acquaintance or
cafual companion, are Itill more fo in a friend. If
they are neceflary to recommend the advantages of
focial intercourfe in general to the members of fociety,
they are no lefs neceffary to communicate a charm to
the intercourfe of friendlhip. People often think,
themfelves entitled to behave to thofe whom they
call their friends, and whofe interefts they profefs to
regard as their own, with harftmeis, negligence, and
indifcreet familiarity ; but nothing can be more fatal
to friendfhip. It is a well known maxim, eftablilhed
by general and uniform experience, that ton much fa-
7niliarinj occafions mutual contempt. And indeed how
can it be othervvife ? Mild obliging manners are under-
ftood as the natural and genuine cxpreffions of kindnefs
and affedion : boifterous rudenefs, petulance, and ne~
gled, are naturally confidered as expreftive of oppofite
fentiments. But if friendftiip affume the tone, the car-
riage and the language of enmity or indifference, it
muft foon lofe all its native charms and advantages.
Let the friend, as well as the cafual companion, when
he finds reafon to difapprove of the fentiments and
condud, or to diffcnt from the opinions of his friend,
exprefs hirafelf in the gentlell terms, with honefty and
fincerity, but without carelefsnefs or harftmefs. Let
no frequency of intercourfe nor union of intereifs ever
tempt to carelefs or contemptuous familiarity. Stifi'
and unmeaning ceremony may be banilhed ; but eafe,
and delicacy, and refpedful deference, and obliging
attention, muft fupply its room. Much of the unhap-
pinefs of the marriage ftate, and much of the mutual
uneafinefs which ariles among thofe '.vho are related
by the end;.-;iring ties of confanguinity, is occafioned
by the parties who are thus clofely conneded, thinking
it unneceffary to obferve the ordinary rules of good
breeding in their mutual intercoujfe. Even kindnefs

puts

F R I [2

puts on a difguiling garb, and affumcs a Iiailli afpjd.
' But mutual kindnefs cannot there long fubfill. Ilo.ne,
^vliich ought to be a fancluary to Ihelter fiom the
anxieties and ills of life, a little paradife where thofe
pure and innocent pk-alures might be enjoyed which
afford the moil genuine happinels, and which are not
to be tailed in the buille of the bufy ai<.d the dlflipa-
tion of the gay world ; home thus becomes a place of
torment, which is never entered but with pain and
unwillingnefs ; and from which the fon, the daughter,
the hulband, and the wife, eagerly feize e\'ery opportu-
nity to eicape.

Mutual confidence is the very foul of friendfliip. If
friendlhip be rightly defined to be a mutual atfeflion
founded on mutual elleem, thofe who are united in
the bonds of friendftiip cannot but repofe mutual con-
fidence in each other. Am I conlcious of none but
generous worthy fentiments, and none but upright ho-
neif intentions ? I readily difclofe all the fecrets of my
foul to him whom I regard as capable only of fimilar
defigns and fimilar fentiments. But it may be aiked,
how far the confidence of friendihip ought to be ear-
ned ? Mull I reveal to my friend all my fentiments,
opinions, and defigns ? Mud I coinmuiiicate to one
friend the fecrets \vhich have been intruiled to me by
another ? Or mull I rather oblerve the moll fufpiclous
caution in my intercourfe with my friends, remember-
ing that he who is now my friend may one day become
my enemy ? It feems mod prudent to obferve a me-
dium between fufpicious- caution and unlimited confi-
dence. Were human virtue perfefl, and were there
no inilances of friends ever becoming enemies, thofe
who regard each otbcr \vith friendly aileclion might
very reafonably be required to fet no bounds to their
mutual confidence. But as this is far from being the
cafe, different meafures are to be obferved. Contract
no friendlhips, if you think it neccflary to treat a
friend with the fame referve as an enemy. Yet venture
not to difclofe to your friend all the foollfh or evil
defigns which the wantonnefs of imagination may fe-
duce you to form. When you feel the emotions of
pride, of vanity, or of any evil paffion, if you are
able to reprefs them by the llrength of reafon and con-
fcience, it feems unnecelTarj- for you to tell the llruggle,
or to boaft of the vidlory. If, at any former period
of life, you have been fo unfortunate as to commit
adlions which you cannot now recollect without fhame
and contrition, there can be no reafon why you may
not, as far as polTible, bury the remembrance of them
in your own bread. In lliort, not to become tedious
by defcending to minute particulars, the laws of friend-
ihip do not require friends to unbofora themfelves to
each other any farther than is neceffary — to give them
jud ideas of each other's charafler and temper, — to
enable them to be ferviceable to each other in the pro-
fecution of fioned defigns, — and to afford each of
them proper opportunities of exxitlng the other to vir-
tue and wifdom, and of interpofing his influence to
preferve him from vice and folly. WHiatever is necef-
fary for any of ihefe purpofcs ought to be mutually
communicated ; whatever is not, may be concealed
without violating the laws of friendfliip. As mutual
edeem is the foundation of friendfliip, and as human
friendlliips are not always lading, you ought not to
pour into the ear of your friend all the impertinences,

37 . } F R I

whicli you mny happen to co!iceive, nor even all tlie Fn.
projeas which may liuat in your imngiuation : but as
much of the felicity of friendfliip arifes from the mu-
tual confidence to which it affords room, call not any
man your friend in whofe prefence you find it proper
to obferve the lame fufpicious caution as if he were
your enemy. The ancients, ivho talked of friendfliip
with eiithufiafm as one of tlic mod ele\ated among lh«
virtues, required flill a clofer union and a more difin-
tereded attachment among friends than we dare ven-
ture to infift upon. Tiie mutu.^i' duties which they
have deftribed as incumbent on friend':, appear fome-
wliat extravagant. Among other things, fome of them
have gone fo far as to require a degree of mutual con-
fidence which would foon dedroy all confidence, and
could not fail to counteraift all the purpofes of friend-
diip : they have required one friend to communicate
to another, not only all his own thoughts and purpofes,
but even thofe fecrets which have been confided to his
honour by any other friend. But the evil confequen-
ces which would refult are eafily to be forefeen. Per-
haps, like Atticus, you enjoy the friendlhip of men
who are mutual enemies ; and by communicating the
fecrets of the one to the other, you will then become
the betrayer of both. Or, though not abfolutely ene-
mies, yet thofe who are ijour friends may happen not
to be in habits of friendihip with each other ; and they
may then perhaps not fcruple to divulge thofe fecrets
of one another which you have imprudently blabbed
to them. Indeed, might we fuppofe all mankind ab-
folutely faultlefs, and not liable to moral imperfciflioii,
we need not fear thefe bad confequences from unbound-
ed confidence in our friends. But friendihip would
in fuch a date of fociety be unknown : j'.ill as in the
golden age of the poets there are fuppofed to have
been no diftintlions of property. We cannot here
forbear dropping an obfervation, which xvill readily be
acknowledged as jud by all who have any tolerable
knowledge of the morality of the phVlolophers of an-
cient Greece. All their doflrines and precepts appear
calculated for a different order of beings than mankind.
They glanced carelefsly at the phenomena of the moral
world J- and gleaning a few fafls, immediately fet them-
felves to ereS fyilcms : From thefe, however wild and
theoreticalj they then pretended to deduce laws for
the regulation of human conduft ; and their rules are
generally fuch as might be expetled from the means
which they appear to liave emplayed in order to arrive
at them. An apology has however been offered for
fome of them, which, in our opinion, could occur
only to fuperficial obfervers of human life. It has
been alleged in behalf of the Stoics, that their fydem
indeed required more exalted virtue than human nature
is capable of attaining ; but that^ notwitlillanding this,
it could not fail to produce the happied cffcfls on the
manners and it ntiments of its vot:iries. Iliflances, too,
have been produced in fupport of this affcrtiou ; a Cato,
an Epitletus, an Antoninus. When we contemplate
a model of perfeftion beyond what we can hope to
reach, fay the advocates of the Stoic philofophy,
though we defpair of attaining, yet wc are prompted
to afpire after it. Now, the moll natural way of rea-
foning here feems to lead to a very different conclii-
fion. If an objcft is fet before me which I mud not .
hope to obtain, I am unwilling to wade my time and

rxlisull

F R I I 2:

Fricr.'iliip. exliauft iny vigour in the puiTuit of it : bid me afcciid
* an inacceflible height, I view the vale below with new

fonduels. Philofophy, as well as fuperllition and cn-
thuiiafm, might in a few inftances triumph orer the
principles of nature ; but ^\•^s it always equally poiver-
ful f Were all the difciples of Zcno Catos or Epifle-
tufes r Have all the monks and anchorites of the Ro-
miln church been holy as the founders of their orders ?
No ; The Greek philofophers who infefted Rome, and
taught thofe luhimjical doftrines nhich we hear fre-
quently dignified with the name fub/itne, were fin-
gularly corrupted and licentious in all their manners.
If thofe of the regular clergy of the church of Rome
liave been always more pure, they have been cruelly
calumniated. Alk, then, only what I am capable of
performing ; if you demand what is above my ftrength,
I fit flill in indolence. In its general tendency, the
Stoic pliilofophy was favourable rather to vice than to
virtue.

But ^ve have not yet exhaufted all the duties of
"Triendlhip. We have inculcated finceiity, and mutual
refpeCl and obligingnefs of manners ; we have alfo en-
deavoured to aicertain what degree of mutual confi-
dence ought to take place between fnends. But an
Important cjueftion llIU remains to be confidered ; how
far is an union ofinterejls to take place between friends ?
Am I to lludy the interefl of my friend in preference
to my own ? May I lawfully injure others, in order to
ferve him ? Here, too, we mull confider the circum-
(lances and the ftrength of human nature ; and let us
beware of impofmg burdens too heavy to be borne.
The greater and more perfeft the union which reigns
in fociety, the greater will be its ftrength and happi-
nefs ; the clofer the union of friends, the more advan-
tages will each of them derive from their union.
Where other ties befides thofe of friendlhip concur to
unite two individuals, their interefts will be more clofe-
ly conjoined than if they were connecfed by the ties
of friendftiip alone. The order of nature feems here
to be, — the huiband and wife — the parent and child —
brothers and fifters, the offspring of the fame parents —
friends, connefted by the ties of friendlhip alone.
And, if we may prefume to guefs at the intentions of
the Author of nature from what we behold in his works
and read in his word, the clofeft union in fociety ought
to be that betiveen the hufband and the Avife ; their in-
terefts are altogether the fame ; they ought mutually
to forego convenience and gratification for each other's
fake. The interefts of parents and children are fome-
what lefs clofely connefted ; much is due from the one
to the other, but fomewhat lefs than in the former
relation •, their interefts may fometiraes be feparate,
but never ought to be oppofite. Next come brethren,
and other more diftant relations •, and next, the friend.
In thefe cafes, where we fuppofe the attachment of
friendlhip to operate together with the ties of na-
ture, we perceive that interefts are varioufly united,
and various duties are due •, fcarce in any of them does
it appear that the interefts of two can become entirely
one. Still lefs can that be expeded to happen, where
the ties of friendftiip aft not in concert with thofe of
nature. We give up, therefore, all thofe romantic
notions, which fome have fo earneftly infifted on, of
requiring the friend to confider his friend as himfelf.
We cannot expeft any two individuals to poffefs pre-
3

.8 ]

F R I

cifely the fame degree of knowledge, to entertain es-ffiendili »>•
aftly the fame fer.timents, or to ftand in circumftances ' " ^
prccifely limilar. But till this happen, the interefts of
two can never be precifely the fame. And we will
not, therefore, require the triend aftually to prefer his
friend to himlelf ; nay, we will even allow him to prefer
himfelf to his friend j convinced that fuch is the defign
of nature, and that by prefuraing to counteraft the
principles of nature we ftiall be able to ferve no ufeful
purpofe. But as far as the finl principles of human
adion and the inftitutions of fociety permit, we may
reafonably require of friends, that they mutually endea-
vour to contribute each to the other's intereft. You
will not defert your own family, nor negleft what is
abfolutely neceflary for your own prefervaticn, in order
that you may ferve a friend. It is not requifite that
you be either a Damon or a Pythias. Away with
what is romantic ; but fcruple not to fubmit to what
is natural and reafonable. When your friend needs,
your direction and advice, freely and honeftly give it :
does he need more than advice ; your aftive exertions
in his behalf the laws of friendftiip require you not
to refufe them. Is it neceflary for him to receive
ftill more fubftantial affiftance ? You may even be
expefted to aid him with your fortune. But remem-
ber, that even the amiable principle of benevolence muft
be fubjeft to the direftions of prudence : if incapa-
ble of taking care of ourfelves, we cannot be expefled
to contribute to the good of others : fociety would not be
favourable to the happinefs of the human race, if every
individual ftudied the general intereft fo far as to negleil
his own. We are not horn to be citizens of the world;
but Europeans, Britons, Engliftimen or Scotchmen.
Let every one, then, feek the intereft and happinefs of
his friends with \vhom he is connefted by the laws of
friendllUp alone, in lubordlnation to his own particular
intereft and happinefs, and to the inteieft and happi-
nefs of thofe with whom he is connefted by the ties
of nature and the general inftitutions of fociety. En-
gage not in the fervice of your friend, nor lavifti your
fortune in his behalf, if by that means you are likely
to injure either yourfelf or your family. Still lefs
will you think it requifite to carry your friendftiip to
fuch romantic excefs as to commit crimes in the fervice
of your friend. The ancients, whofe ideas of the na-
ture and duties of friendftiip were romantic and extrava-
gant, have, fome of them, required that a friend Ibould
hefitate at no aclion, however atrocioufty wicked, by
which he can be ufeful to his friend. Have I been
guilty of theft or murder, or any other heinous viola-
tion of the laws of morality or the inftitutions of fo-
ciety : when I am brought to jullice for my crime, if
you, being my friend, are appointed to fit as my judge,
the laws of friendlhip, fay thofe admirable mailers of
morality, require tliat you pronounce me innocent,
though convinced ol my guilt. Bat we need not de-
claim againll the abfurdity of enjoining fuch bafe deeds
as duties of friendlhip. The idea of a conneftion, the
laws of which ire inimical to the order of fociety, muft;
ftrike with horror every perfon who tiiinks of it.
Such a conneflion is the union of a knot of villains,
confpiring againft the peace, nay even the exiftence oi CxenttAX
fociety. _ Tifwofthe

Such we apprehend to be the nature of rational »>lvantages
friendfliip ; fuch the circumftances in the order of na- '' '"ena-
_ ture

.Ihfp,

Mlftakes
forming
friendOiii'.
and cGnit
quent in-
tonftaiic)

F R 1 [2

lip tuie and of Ibciety ^vhich are mod favourable to this
■"• union ; and fiich the duties, by the performance of
which it may be maintained. When founded on
thcfe principles, and regulated by thefe laws, fricnd-
fliip is truly virtuous, and cannot but be highly bene-
ficial to the individuals between whom it fubfilh, and
to the intereil of fociety in general. How delightful to
have fome perfon of an amiable and virtuous charafter
in whom you can confide; who will join with you in
the profecution of virtuous defigns, or will be ready to
call you back when you hcedlefsly ftray into the paths
of vice and folly ! who will adminifter to you honeft,
upright advice ; will rejoice in yoiu- profperity, will
glory over your virtues, and will be ready to confole
and relieve you when finking under the preffure of
diftrcfs ! Mull not your connexion with fuch a per-
fon be favourable to your virtue, your intereft, and
your happinefs ? When we funey any fublime or beau-
teous fcene in nature, we willi for fome perfon of con-
genial tallc and feelings to participate with us in the
noble enjoyment which the profpeft affords ; when we
read any fine piece of compofition, the pleafure which
we receive from it is more exquifite if others join with
us In applauding it. The landlcape ^vhich we have
often furveyed, the poem which we have often read,
pleafe us aneiv, with all the charms of novelty, when
we have an opportunity of pointing out their beauties
to fome perfon to whom they have been hitherto un-
known. Friendfliip communicates new charms and a
more delicate relifli to all our moft refined and elegant
pleafures. It enlivens our joys, it foothes and alleviates
our forrows. What Cicero has faid of polite letters
and philofophy, may be with ftill flronger propriety
faid of friendfliip. In every condition of life the intlu-
ence of virtuous friendfhip is favourable to our welfare
and our happinefs : in profperity, in adverfity ; in the
filence and tranquillity of retirement, as well as araid
the hurry of bufinefs ; in the bofom of your family,
and when furrounded by your nearell connexions, no
lefs than when removed to a ftrange country. Indeed,
whatever advantages fociety beito'.vs above what are to
be enjoyed in a favage flate, not lefs numerous nor lefs
. important are thofe which we may derive from uniting
in the bonds of friendlTiip, rather than living in a flate
of enmity or indifference.

But though friendlliip, when founded on mutual
efleem, and regulated by the laws of prudence, benevo-
s_ lence, and honefty, be produftive of fo many happy
- effects ; yet many inftances occur in the world,
ni which connexions dignified with the name of
friendlhip are unfavourable both to the virtue and
the happinefs of thofe betv.een whom they fubfiil.
When men affociate from views of convenience ; when
their union is haftily formed without a knowledge
of each other's temper and charader \ when they are
drawn together by accident, as when they happen to
agree in the purfuits of the fame interefts or pleafures ;
when the young and the gay refort together to the
haunts of diiTipation, and the covetous and ambitious
find it convenient to toil in concert for riches and
po^ver : on all fuch occafions, the conne.xion which is
formed and dignified with the name of friendfliip is
unv.ortliy of that honourable appellation. It is not
virtuous ; it is produflivc of no happy effcdls, and is
quickly dilTolvcd. He, therefore, who is net incapa-

39 ]

F R I

ble of virtuous friendfliip, and is dcfiious of enjoying itbFritndilnp.

advantages, muft carefully confider the nature' of the « '

connexion which he \\i(hes to form, gain a thorougli
acquaintance with the charader of the perfon whole
efteem and affcdion he wiflies to acquire, and attend to
thofe rules by the obfervance of which true friendlhip
may be maintained.

Many inftances are related, which fliow what power Rtlafjon il-
it is poffible for friendfliip to acquire over the human iuftrating
heart. We need not here repeat the well-known llory'l><' power
of Damon and Pythias, whole generous friendlhip af- "'/"'''"'"
forded a Ipeftacle which foftened even the lavage heart "rirmln
of Dionyfius. It is known to every fchool-boy ; and, heart,
after the afFefting narrative of Valerius Maximus, has
been ftudioufly detailed and commented on by almoft
every fucceeding floiy-teller or raoralift. Addifon, in
one of his Speilators, gives a beautiful little relation,
we know not upon what authority, which finely illuf-
trates the power of both friendlhip and love. Two male
negroes, in one of our Weil Indian illands, nearly of
the fame age, and eminent among their fellows in fla-
very for gracefulnefs of figure, ftrength, agility, and
dexterity, were alio dillinguilhed for their mutual friend-
fliip and for their common attachment to a young fe-
male negro, who was generally efteemed the moil beau-
tiful of her complexion in the whole ifland. The young
female appeared to be equally pleafed with both her
lovers ; and was willing to accept either of thera for a
hulband, provided they could agree between them-
felves which of them fliould yield to the pretenfions of
the other. But here lay the difficulty ; for while nei-
ther would treacheroufly fupplant, neither of them was
willing to yield to his friend. The two youths, there-
fore, long fuffered the fevereft aflliflion, while their
hearts were torn between love and friendfliip. At
length, when they were no longer able to endure the
agony of fuch a contefl, being ftill unable to reprefs
their paflion for their lovely countrywoman, and inca-
pable of violating the laws of friendthip, — on a certain
day, they both, in company with the objeft of their ill-
fated love, retired into a wood adjoining to the fcene of
their labours. There, after fondly embracing the
maid, calling her by a tlionfand endearing names, and
lamenting their own unhappy fate, they llabbed a
knife into her breaft ; which, while ftill reeking with
her blood, was by each of them in his turn plunged
into his own. ■ Her cries reached the people who were
at work in the ne.xt field : fome of them hailening to
the fpot, found her expiring, and the two youths already
dead befide her.

We have introduced this little narrative as a ftriking
inftance of the noble effecls which naturally refult from
genuine friendfliip. Here we fee it fuperior to the
force of the moft violent of pafTions. Had the eleva-
ted fouls of thofe negro youths been refined and en-
lightened by culture and education in the principles of
morality and true religion, we may reafonably fuppofe
that their fiiendfliip would have triumphed over their
love, without prompting them to the ralli and dcfperate
deed which they committed.

Friendlhip, thus amiable in its chara6ler, thus be- not incon-
neCcial in its influence and efFet^s, the theme of im-filcnt with
bounded panegyric to the philofophcrs and moralifts ofl'^.*^^.'"'. "'
every age, has been faid by fome refpCflable modern ['''"'''*"''
wittrs to be inconfillcnt wiUi the fpirit of tliat holy ^'
religion

F R I [2

Trifriifliip. religion wliich we profel?, and which we regard as the
• revelation' of heaven. General bene\-olence is fre-

quently inculcated through the gofpel : " .Tefus often
eamcftly intreated his difciples, " to love one ano-
ther ;" and divefled them in what manner to difplay
their mutual love, by telling thera, that " whatfoever
things they could rcafonably ivilh to receive from
others, the lame ought they to do to thera." The writers
of the epiftles often enlarge on the topics of charity
and brotherly love. But private friendthip is nowhere
recommended in the code of Chrifiianity. Nay, it is
fo inconfiftent ^vith that univerfal benevolenrc w^hich
the gofpel enjoins, that where the one is recommended
and enforced, the other may be underliood to be tacit-
ly forbidden. But can that religion be true, or can it
be favourable to the happinefs of its votaries, which is
inimical, nay, wliich is even not friendly to virtuous
friendllrip ? Such are the fuggeftions of Lord Shaftef-
bury and Soame Jenyns on this head.

We mud grant them, that the fyftem of morals or
religion which difcourages a connexion fo noble in
its origin, fo amiable in its charafter, and fo benefi-
cial in its influence, as virtuous friendfliip, is rather
unfavourable to the happinefs and virtue of its vota-
ries. But we mull confider the genius of Chriilianity
with more careful attention, before we fufFer ourfelves
to be perfuaded that friendfl'ip is inconfiftent with it.
Univerfal benevolence is, indeed, inculcated in the
gofpel : we are required to love our neighbours as our-
lelves : and our Saviour feems to infinuate, in the ifory
of the humane Samaritan, that we ought to regard as
neighbours all our brethren of the human race, however
feparated from us by any of the diftinclions of fociety.
But it would be unfair to conclude from this, that the
great Author of the gofpel meant to abolilh the order
of focial life, or to oppofe the ties of nature. Thefe
may flill be refpecled, though the laws of this bene-
volence be obeyed. The parent is not required to de-
fcrt his child, in order that he may alTift or relieve his
neighbour ; nor the child to leave liis parent to perilh
under the infirmities of old age, while he haftens to lend
affirtance to a ftranger. The gofpel was not intended
to diflfolve communities, or to abrogate the diftindlions
of rank. In Jefus, the end of the ceremonial law was
accomplifhed : by him, therefore, that burden of types
and ceremonies with which the Jews had been loaded
was taken away. But he ivho abolilhcd the ceremo-
nial law declared, that the obligations of the moral law
Ihould be more permanent than heaven or earth : The
duties which it enjoined ^vere ftill to be religiouily dif-
charged : The precepts of the gofpel were to Uluftrate
and enforce, not to contradict, the inftitutions of the
moral law. The relative duties of parents and chil-
dren were flill to be performed ; though men were di-
reiEled not to confine all their fentiments of benevolence
to domellic relations. Jefus, in his condu6l, did not
fct himfclf to oppofe the order of f >ciety. In various
parts of the New Teftament all the focial duties are
defined and deforced ; the mutual duties of parents and
children, of hulhands and wives, and of matters and
fervams. The fubmiflion of all the inembeis 'f a com-
munity to that power which is veiled with :".:■; autho-
rity of the whole, is alio llriclly enjoined in the gofpel.
Jefus, when in his laft moments he recommended his
mother to the proteClion of his beloved difciple, chofe
4

40 ] F R I

to aflc /iim to confider /rr as a parent ; and direfted Friendfi
/ler to expeft from /am the refpecl and kindnefs ef —"'V-
a fon. Thefe facts and obfervations teach us in
what fenfe to underiland that univerfal benevolence
which is inculcated in the gofpel. Though we are
to love all mankind, yet it is not neceflary that all
the individuals of the human race fhare our afFeflion
alike. Were we powerful, and wife, and benevolent,
as the Deity, fuch e.xtenfive benevolence might be
required of us : But our fphere of aiilion and obferva-
tion is narrow ; we cannot extend our acquaintance or
influence beyond a very limited circle. Were we to en-
deavour to be equally ufeful to all mankind, we Ihould
become incapable of being ufeful to any individual.
We cannot become citizens of the world in the fenfe
in which fome philofophers have affected to call them-
felves fuch, without becoming outcafls from every par-
ticular fociety. A fon, a brother, a countryman, a
flranger, lie around you, each in circumftances of ex-
treme dillrefs ; you pity their misfortunes, and would
gladly adminiiter relief ; but fuch is your benevolence,
that you feel precifely the fame degree of compalTion
for each of them ; you cannot determine to whom you
fhould firfl Itretch out an helping hand ; and you
therefore ftand like that venerable afs of the fchool-
men, whofe tantalizing fituation between two bundles
of hay has been fo long celebrated and lamented by
metaphj-ficians ; and fuffer fon, and brother, and coun-
tryman, and flranger, to perifli, without relieving any
of them by your kind offices. It is therefore the de-
fign of the gofpel, that we iliou'.d fubmit to the laws
of nature, and comply with the inftitutions of fociety.
Firft, attend to felf-prefervation 5 next, perform the
duties of a wife or liulband, — a parent, — a child, — a
brother, — a citizen — , an individual of the human race.
You will do well, indeed, to regard all manlund ^vith
benevolence ; but your benevolence inll be unavailing
to the objects of it, if you overlook the diilinclions of
nature and thofe inftitutions which fupport the union
of focial life.

But if the fpirit of CRriflianity be not inimical to the
inftitutions and relations of fociety, neither can it be un-
favourable to friendihip. If that benevolence whicii the
gofpel enjoins admit of any modifications, why not of
that particular modification which conflitutes private
friendfliip ? It is not, indeed, diredtly enjoined ; but
neither is it forbidden. It is perfeftly confiftent with
the general tendency and fpirit of the gofpel fyftem :
being favourable to the intcrefts of fociety, it cannot
but be agreeable to our holy religion.

But it is recommended by no direft precept, fay
thofe who would reprefent Chrifiianity as inimical to
it ; while it has been the favourite theme of the philo-
fophers and moralii's of the heathen w orld.

But why flioifld friendfhip be recommended by
means different from thofe which the gofpel employs
for the purpofe ? Make yourfelf \\e\\ acquainted with
that admirable fyilem which you fo earneflly oppofe ;
you will find that even the duties of private friendfliip
are better explained and more powerfully enforced in
the gofpel, than by all the heathen philofophers and
poets from Hefiod to Plutarch. The gofpel makes a
dillinction between the virtuous and the vicious ; it re-
prefents one character as more amiable and refpettablc
than another. As it diftinguifbes between virtue and

F R T

[ 241 ]

F R I

Friei'.dfliip
countei.ar.
ced by our
Sav!our-s
esample.

♦ V.\ Mi!,
moth, E.q,
in the cou.

rote to his

. vice, between piety and impiety ; fo its gieat ob-
' je6l is to deter us from vice, and to encourage us to
the pradlice of virtue. It cannot be fuppofed, then,
that the gotpel ivill direfl us to afl'ociate indifferently
with virtuous and proriigate characters. It does not.
It direfts us to teck. improvement, by affociating with
thole whom we have reafon to efteem. It dire^s thofe
who are incorrigibly wicked to be expelled from fo-
ciety. What is this but to command us to enter into
♦>abits of intimacy wherever there is ground for mutual
efteem ? But this is the only bafis of genuine friend-
Ihip. When all the means which lead to a certain
end are laid before you, and when you are particu-
larly direiJled by fome high authority to employ thofe
means ; though the end which you thus attaiij be not
pointed out, yet the commanding you to employ fuch
a feries of means, is evidently the fame as if you were
diretled to accomplifli the purpofe to which they tend.
Thus, though the precepts of Chriftianity do not di-
reiRly enjoin private friendfliip ; yet they have a direft
tendency to form thofe exalted charafters who alone
are capable of true friendlliip ; they inculcate thofe
virtues ivhich naturally give rile to this generous at-
tachment, and are ablolutely necelTarv to fupport it
where it is formed •, they inculcate benevolence by
the moft effectual motives, and admit of modifications
of that benevolence, correfpondent to the relations and
inllitutions of fociety ; And therefore they may be
confidered in as ftrong and direft terms as if it had
been exprefsly laid, " Cultivate private friendfliip."
Belldes, friendfhip is rather an accident of fociety, a
natural confequence of our charader as moral and fe-
cial beings, than a relation to be regulated and defined
by inftitutions.

This union, fo natural between virtuous perfons,
has been countenanced by the example of the Author
of our religion ; to whofe life, no lefs than to his doc-
trines and precepts, we will do well to look for a ftan-
dard by which we may regulate our condutl. W^e al-
lude to two remarkable inftances which occur in the
evangelical hillory ; and with the recital of which, as
ftated in all their ftriking circumftances by a very ele-
gant writer *, we fhall conclude the prefent article.

" The evangelift, in relating the miracle which
Chrift performed at Bethany by rcftoring a perfon to
life who had lain lome days in the grave, introduces
his narrative by emphatically obfcrving, that ' Jefus
loved Lazarus' ; intimating, it ihould feem, that the
fentiments which Chrift entertained of Lazarus were
a diftinft and peculiar fpecies of that general benevo-
lence with which he was aftuated towards all mankind.
Agreeably to thi, explication of the facred hiftorian's
meaning, when the fillers of Lazarus fent to acquaint
Jefus with the ftate in which their brother lay, they
did not even mention his name ; but, pointing him out
by a more honourable and equally notorious defigna-
tion, the terms of their melTage were, ' Behold 1 he
whom thou loveft is fick I' Accordingly, when he in-
forms his difciples of the notice he had thus received,
his expreffion is, ' Our friend Lazarus lleepeth.' Now
that Chrift did not upon this occafion ufe the word
friend in its loofe undiftinguiftied acceptation, but in a
reftrained and ftridly appropriated fenfe, is not only
manife.l from this plain account of the fa£l itfelf, but
appears farther evident from the fequel. For as be
Vol. IX. Part I.

was advancing to the grave, accompanied with the re- Frlerdilu!
lations of the deceafed, he difcovcred the fame emotions F'icfli'"^
of grief as fwelled the bofoms of thofe with whom La- *'~"
zarus had been molt intimately connefled ; and fympa-
thizing with their common Ibirow, he melted into tears.
This circumftance was too remarkable to efcape particu-
lar obfervalioii : and it drew from the fpeiJlatois, what
one Ihould think it niuft neceffarily draw from every
reader, this natural and obvious retleclion, ' Behold I
how he loved him !'

" But in the concluding cataftrophe of our Saviour's
life, he gave a ftiU more decilive proof that fentimei.Js
of the llrongeft perfonal attachment and friendlhip
were not unworthy of being admitted Into his facred
bofom : they were too deeply, indeed, impreffed, to be
extinguiihed even by the moll excruciating torments.
In thofe dreadful moments, obferving among the af-
tlifted witnefles of his painful and ignominious fuf-
ferings, that faithful follower who is defcribed by the
hiftorian as ' the difciple whom he loved ;' he di-
ftinguilhed him by the moft convincing inflance of fu-
perior cor.tidence, efteem, and aiiedion, that ever was
exhibited to the admiration of mankind. For, under
circumftances of the moft agonizing torments, when it
might be thought impolTible for human nature to re-
tain any other fenfibility but that of its oivn inexpref-
fible fufferings, he recommended to the care and pro-
tetilion of this his tried and approved friend, in terms
of peculiar regard and endearment, the moft tender
and facred object of his private affections. But no lan-
guage can reprefent this pathetic and affecfing fcene
with a force and energy equal to the fublime fimplicity
of the Evangelift's oivn narrative : ' Now there ftooJ
by the crofs of Jefus, his mother and his mother's
fnler, and Mary Magdalene. When Jefus law his
mother and the difciple (ftanding) by, whom he loved;
he faith to his mother. Behold thy fon ! then he faith
to the difciple, Behold thy mother I And firom that
hour that difciple took her to his own home.'

" It may fafely be alTerted, that among all tho.'e
memorable examples of friendlliip, which have been
celebrated with the higheft encomiums by the ancients,
there cannot be produced a fmgle inftance in which
the moft dirtinguillied features of exalted amity are
fo ftrongly difplayed as in the foregoing relation.
The only one, perhaps, that bears even a faint fimili-
tude to it. Is that famous tranfaclion recorded by a
Greek author, which paffed between Eudamidas and
Aretheus. But when the very diftcrcnt circumftances
attending the refpedive examples are duly confidered,
it muft be acknowledged, that the former rifes as much
above the latter in the proof it exhibits of fublime
friendlliip, as it does in the dignity of the chaiaclers
concerned.

" Upon the whole, then, it appears, that the divine
Founder of the Chriftian religion, as well by his oivu
example as by the fpirlt of his moral doftrine, has not
only encouraged but confecratcd friendlhip."

FRIESLAND, one of the united provinces of the
Low Countries. It is bounded on the eaft by the ri-
ver Lauvcrs, which parts it from the lordQiip of Gro-
ningen, on the fouth by Overyffel, on the weft . by
the Zuider-Zec, and on the north by the German
ocean. It is 30 miles from north to fouth, and 28 from
eaft to weft. The land is very fertile in corn and pa-
H h Jiurc ;

Fright.

F Pi I [2

flare •, the horfes are large, and tlio cows and fliecp
prolific. If is divided into three parts ; V/eRergo to
; the weft, Oftergo to the eaft, and Sevemvalden to tlie
fouth. The illands of Sheling, Ameland, and otlier
fmall onef, are dependent on this province. The prin-
cipal towns are Leiuvarden t!ie capital, Franeker, Doc-
kuni, Harlingen, and Sta'veren.

Frieslanu, Eaft, a province of Germany, in the
circle of Weftphalia, lying near the German ocean. It
is bounded on the louth by the bidiopric of Munfter,
on the eaft by the county of Oldenburgh, on the weft
by the province of Groningen, and on the north by
the fea, being about 50 miles in length, and 30 in
breadth. It belongs to PrulTia, and was formerly call-
ed the coiinlij of Embden. It is a very fertile country,
and feeds a great number of cattle ; but it was greatly
damaged by an inundation in 1 71 7, and the repair of
the dykes coft an iramenfe fum. The principal towns
are Norden, Leer, Ellens, Whitmunde, and Aurick.
Embden was an imperial city, and the principal place
in the country ; but now belongs alfo to the king of
Pruftia, who bought it of the Dutch.

FRIGATE, in naval affairs, a fliip of war, ufually
of two decks, light built, defigned for fwift failing.
When it hath but one deck, and confequently is of a
fmaller nze, they call her a light frigate.

Frigates mount from 20 to 44 guns, and are efteem-
ed excellent cruifers. The name was formerly known
only in the Mediterranean, and applied to a long kind
oT veffel navigated in that fea with fails and oars. The
Engliui were the firft who appeared on the ocean with
thefe iliips, and equipped them for war as well as for
commerce.

pRiGA'TE-Buih, denotes the difpofition of the decks
of fuch merchant ihips as have a defcent of four or five
ileps from the quarter-deck and forccallle into the
waift, in contradiftinclion to thofe whofe decks are on
a continued line for the whole length of the ftiip, which
are called gal/fi/-hiii/t,

FRIGATOON, a Venetian veffel, commonly ufed
in the Adriatic, built with a fquare ftern, and without
any forcmaft, having only a mainmaft, mizenmaft, and
bowfprit.

FRIGHT, or Terror, a fuddcn and violent degree
of fear. See Fear.

Sudden fear is frequently produftive of very remark-
able effefts upon the human fyftera. Of this many
inrtances occur in medical writings. — In general, the
cffe6ls of terror are a contraftion of the fmall vef-
fels and a repulfion of the blood in the large and in-
ternal ones J hence proceed a fuppreflion of perfpira-
tion, a general oppreffion, trembling, and anguifh of
the heart, and lungs overcharped with blood.

Frights often occafion incurable difeafes, as epilep-
fy, ftupor, madnefs, &c. In acute difeafes, they have
evidently killed many, by the agitation into which
they have thrown the fpirlts, already too much dlfor-
dcred. We have alfo accounts of perfons abfolutely
killed by terrors when in perfeft health at the time of
receiving the (hock from them : people ordered to be
txcruted, but with private orders for a reprieve, have
expired '•. the block without a wound. — Out of many
inf\ances of the fatal effects of fear recorded in writers,
the following is felefted as one of the moft fingular.
«' George GroQhantzjf, a Pglander, who had inliikd as

a foldier in the fervlce of the king of Prullia, defertcd Friglit
during the war. A fmall party was fent in purfult "~"v~
of him j and when he leaft expetled it, they furprifcd
him finging and dancing among a company of peafants,
ivho were got together in an inn and were making
merry. This event, fo fudden and unforefeen, and at
the fame time fo dreadful in its confequences, ftruck
him in inch a manner, that, giving a great cry, he be-
came at once altogether ftupid and infenlible, and
was feized without the leaft refiftance. They carried
him away to Glocau, where he was brought before the
council of war, and received fentence as a dtferter. He
fuffered himfelf to be led and dilpofed of at the will of
thofe about him, without uttering a word, or giving
the leaft figH that he knew ^vliat had happened or would
happen to him. He remained immoveable as a ftatue
wherever he was placed, and ^vas wholly paft'ive with
refpedl to all that was done to him or about him. Du-
ring all the time that he was in cuttody, he neither ate,
nor drank, nor llept, nor had any evacuation. Some
of his comrades were fent to fee him ; after that he was
vifited by fome othcers of his corps, and by fome priefts •.
but he ftill continued in the fame Itate, without difco-
vering the leaft figns of fenfibility. Promifes, intrea-
ties, and threatenings were equally ineffeilual. 'J'he
phyficians who were conlulted upon his cafe, were of
opinion, that he was in a ftate of hopelefs idiocy. It
•svas at firft fufpefted, that thofe appearances were feign-
ed ; but thefe fufpicions neceffarily gave xvay, when it
was known that he took no fuftenance, and that the in-
voluntary fundions of nature were i» great meafure fuf-
pended. After fome time they knocked off his fetters,
and left him at liberty to go whither he %vould. He
received his liberty with the fame infenfibility that lie
had ftiowed upon other occafious : he remained fixed
and immoveable ; his eyes turned wildly here and there
without taking cognizance of any objeft, and the
mufcles of his face were fallen and fixed like thofe of
a dead body. Being left to himfelf, he paffed 20 days
in this condition, without eating, drinking, or any eva-
cuation, and died on tli« 20th day. He had been fome-
times heard to fetch deep fighs ; and once he ruftied
with great \ iolence on a foldier, who had a mug of li-
quor in his hand, forced the mug from him, and having
drank the liquor with great eagemefs, let the mug drop
to the ground."

When a perfon is affefled with terror, the principal
endeavour ftiould be to reftore the circulation to its due
order, to promote perfpiration, and to allay the agita-
tion of the patient. For thefe purpofes he may drink a
little warm liquor, as camomile tea, &c. the feet and
legs may be put into warm water, the legs rubbed, and
the camomile tea repeated every fix or eight mi-
nutes ; and when the ikin is waini, and there is a ten-
dency to perfpiration, fleep may be promoted by a gen-
tle opiate.

But frights have been known not only to caufe, but • tVoris
alfo to cure, difeafes. Mr Boyle * mentions agues, gout, ■^t''- P- S
and fciatica, cured by this raeans. ^^•

To turn from the ferious to the ludicrous cffefts of
fear, the following inftance of the latter fort, quoted
from a French author by Mr Andrews in his volume
of Anecdotes, fliows upon what ftight occafions this
paffion may be fometimes excited in a very high
degree, even iii perfons the rooit vuilikel;' to enter-

of Moral

F R I [243

tain fuch a gucft. " Charles Guftavus (the fucceffor of fai
Chriftina of Sweden) was belieging Prague, when a
boor of moft extraordinary vifage defired admittance to
his tent ; and being allowed entrance, offered, by way
of arauling the king, to devour a whole hog of one
hundred weight in his prefence. The old general Ko-
nigfmarc, who ftood by the king's fide, and who, fol-
dier as he was, had not got rid of the prejudices of his
childhood, hinted to his royal mailer that the peafant
nuoht to be burnt as a forcerer. ' Sir,' faid the fellow,
irritated at tlie remark, ' if yoar majelly will make but
that old gentleman take off his fword and his fpurs, I
will eat him immediately before I begin the hog.' Ge-
neral Konigfmarc (who had, at the head of a body of
Swedes, performed wonders againrt the Auftrians, and
who was looked upon as one of the braveft men of the
age) could not ftand this propofal, efpecially as it was
accompanied by a moft hideous and preternatural e\-
panfion of the frightful peafant's jaws. Without utter-
ing a word, the veteran fuddenlv turned round, ran out
of the court, and thought not himfelf fate until he had
arrived at his quarters ; where he remained above
twenty-four hours locked up fecurely, before he had
got rid of the panic which had fo feverely affefted
him."

Fear (Dr Beattie f obfer^'es) fliould not rife higher
than to make us attentive and cautious ; when it gains
an afcendancy in the mind, it becomes an infupport-
able tyranny, and renders life a burden. 'l"he objeift
of fear is evil ; and to be exempt from fear, or at leaft
not endaved to it, gives dignity to otir nature, and in-
vigorates all our faculties. Yet there are ewls which
we ought to fear. Thofe that arife from ourfelves, or
which it is in our poAver to prevent, it would be mad-
nefs to defpife, and audacity r-ot to guard agalnft.
External evils, which we cannot pre\''ent, or could not
avoid without a breach of duty, it is manly and ho-
nourable to bear TOth fortitude. Infenfibility to dan-

ger is not fortitude, n

feeling pain can be called patience ; and to expofe
ourfelves unneceflfarily to e%il is worfe than folly, and
very blameable prefumption. It is commonly called
forj-hardinefs ; that is, fuch a degree of hardinefs or
boldnefs as none but fools are capable of. See the
article Fortitude.

FRIGID (frigidui), in a general fenfe, denotes the
quality of being cold. It is frequently applied to a
jejune ftyle, that is unanimated by any ornaments, and
confequently without any force or vigour.

FRiGiD-zone. See Zone, Geogr.vfhy Index.

FRIGIDITY, in Medicine, the fame with Imfo-

TEXCE.

FRIGORIFIC, in Phyfwh^y, fmall particles of
matter, which, according to Gaffendus and others, being
actually and effentially cold, and penetrating other
bodies, produce in them that quality which is called
cold, or, according to others, merely the abfence or
diminution of the particles of heat. See CoLD, Che-
MTVIRY Index.

FRILAZIN, the name of a clafs or rank of people
:Mnong the Anglo-Saxons, confifting of thofe who had
been ilavcs, but had either purchafed, or by fome other
ms^.ns obtained, their liberty. Though thefe were in
ri;j1ity free men, they were not confidcrcd as of the

] F R I

rank and dignity with thofe wlio liad been born
free, but were Hill in a more ignoble and dependent
condition, either on their former mafters or on Ibme
new patrons. This cullom the Anglo-Saxons fcem to
have derived from their ancellors in Germany, among
whom tliofe who had been made free did not differ
much in point of dignity or importance m the Hate
from thofe vho continued in fervitude. This diftinc-
tion between thofe who have been made free and thofe
wlio enjoy freedom by dcfcent from a long race of free
men, Hill prevails in many parts of Germany, and
particularly in the original feats of the Anglo-Saxons.
Many of the inhabitants of towns and cities in England,
in this period, feem to have been of this clafs of men,
ivho were in a kind of middle ftate between flaves and
freemen.

FRILL, in Falconry. Wlien a hawk trembles or
iliivers, they fay ihe frills.

FRINGILLA, a genus of birds belonging to the
order of palTeres. See Ornithology Index.

FRIO, a fmall illani on the coaft of the Brafils,
fituated in 32° a' S. Lat. and 41° 31' 45" W. Long.
Tlie land of Frio is high, with a hollow in the middle,
which gives it, at a diltance, the appearance of two fe-
parate ilknds. The paffage between the illand and the
continent is about a mile broad, and feemed to Sir Eraf-
mus Gower to be clear from Ihoals.

FRIPPERY, a French term fometimes ufed in our
language to fignify t!ie trade or traffic of old fecond-
hand clothes and goods. The word is alfo ufed for the
place where lucli lort of commerce is carried on, and
even for the commodities themfelves. The company
of frippiers, or fripperers, at Paris, are a regular cor-
poration, of an ancient llanding, and make a conCder«
able figure in that city.

FRISII, Frisei, Frisiones, and Frisoses, in An-
cient Geography, a people of Germany, fo called either
from tbeir ardent lo\e of freedom, or from the fredi
rfian the incapacity of and unbroken lands they occupied, contradiftinguiihed

from the old lands. Tacitus divides them, from their
extent of power and territory, into the Majores^'tuated
on the coafts between the Rhine and the Emsj and h»to
the Minores, occupying the parts about the lakes lying
between the channels of the Rhine.

FRIT, or Fritt, in the glafs manufa(Elure, is the
matter or ingredients wiiereof glafs is to be made, when
they have been calcined or baked in a furnace.

A fait dra\vn from the alhes of the plant kali or from
fern, or other plants mixed with fand or dint, and baked
together, makes an opaque mafs called by glafsmenyr//,-
probably from the Italian _//7//<7rf, to fry ; or becaufe the
frit, when melted, runs into lumps, like fritters, called
by the Italians _/>//<>///.

Frit, by tlie ancients, was called ammonilriim, of
afijutf, fand, and »(T{e», nine ; under which name it !•?
deicribed by Pliny thus: Fine fand from the \'olturnian
fea, mixed with three times the quantity of nitre, and
melted, makes a mafs called amnunitrum ; which being
rcbaked makes pure glafs.

Frit, Neri obferves, is only the cal.\ of the materials
which make glafs ; which, though they might be melted,
and glafs be made, without thus calcining tliem, yet it
would take \\\) much more time. This calcining, or
making of frit, ferves tn mix and incorporate the ina-
H h 2 teriab

F R I

[ 244 ]

FRO

I'atia tcrials tcgeiher, and to evaporate .all the fupertluous
. I! humidity. The frit, once made, is readily fufed, and
'"'^S' turned into glafs.

There are three kinds of frits. The firft, ci7ftal frit,
or that for cryftal metal, is made mth fait of pulverine
End fand. The fecond, and ordinaiy frit, is made of
the bare allies of pulverine or barilla, vnthout ex-
tracting the fait from them. This makes the ordi-
nary white or cryftal metal. The third is frit for green
glafles, made of common allies, vnthout any prepara-
tion. This laft frit will require ten or twelve hours
baking.

The materials in each are to be finely powdered,
waftied, and fearced ; then equally mixed, and frequently
llirred together in the melting pot. See Glass.

FRITILLARIA, fritili.ary : a genus of plants
belonging to the he.xandria clafs ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 10th order, Coronarus. See
EoTAKY Index.

The different fpecies of fritillary were, according to
Beckman, introduced into gardens about the middle of
the 16th century. The crown imperial (fritillaria im-
pcrialii) is fuppofed by fome to be the lily which is
much celebrated in facred fcripture ; becaufe a figure
relembling this fplendid plant, they imagine, is found
repreftnted on the coins of Herod. Invent, vol. iii.

FRIULI, a province of Italy, fubjecl to Venice, and
bounded by Carinthia in Germany on the north, by Car-
hiola on the eaft, by the gulf of Venice on the fouth,
and by the Bellunefe and Feltrin on the weft.

FRIZcE, or Frieze, in ArchiteBure, a part of the
entablature of columns, more ufually written and ^\o-
ncunced free'ze. See Freeze.

Frize, or Freeze, in Commerce, a kind of woollen
cloth or fluff for winter wear, being frized or knapt
on one fide ; whence, in all probability, it derives its
name.

Of frizes, fome are croffed, others not croffed ; the
former are chiefly of Englifli manufaflure, the latter of
Irilh.

FRiZING of Cloth, a term in the woollen manu-
faftory, applied to the forming of the nap of cloth or
fluff into a number of little hard burrs or prominences,
covering almoft the whole ground thereof.

Some cloths are only frized on the back fide, as black
cloths J others on the right fide, as coloured and mixed
cloths, rateens, bays, freezes, &c.

Frizing may be performed two ways. One with the
hand, that is, by means of two workmen, who conduft
a kind of plank that ferves for a frizing inftrument.
The other is by a mill, worked either by water or a
horfe, or fometiroes by men. This latter is efteemed
the better way of frizing, by reafon tlie motion being
uniiorm and regular, the little knobs of the frizing are
formed more equably and regularly. The llructure of
this ufeful machine is as follows :

The three principal parts are the frizer or crifper, the
frizing table, and the drawer or beam. The two firft
are two equal planks or boards, each about 10 feet
long and 15 inches broad ; differing only in this, that
the frizing- table is lined or covered with a kind of
coarfe woollen fluff, of a rough flurdy nap ; and the
frizer is incruftated with a kind of cement compofed
of glue, gum arable, and a yellow fand, with a little
3qtja-\it8e, or urine. Tbtbeanj or drawer, tlus called,

becaufe it draws the fluff from between the frizer and Frizing
the frizing table, is a wooden roller, befet all over with II
little, fine, fliort points or ends of wire, like thofe pf Frobi'h':--.
cards ufed in carding of wool. '

The difpofition and ufe oi' the machine is thus : The
table flands immoveable, and bears or fuftains the cloth
to be frized, which is laid with that fide uppermofl on
^vhich the nap is to be railed ; over the table is placed
the frizer, at fuch a dlflance from it as to give room
for the fluff to be paffed between them : fo that the
frizer, having a very flow femicircular motion, meedng
the long hairs or naps of the cloth, twifls and rolls
them into little knobs or burrs ; while at the fame time,
the drawer, which is continually turning, draws aivay
the fluff from under the frizer, and winds it over its own
points.

All that the workman has to do while the machine
is a-going, is to flretch the fluff on the table as fafl as
the drawer takes it off, and from time to time to take
off the fluff from the points of the drawer.

The defign of having the frizing table lined with
fluff of a fliort, fliff, flubby nap, is that it may detain
the cloth between the table and the frizer long enoucrh
for the grain to be formed, that the drawer may not
take it away too readily, which mufl otherwife be the
cafe, as it is not held by any thing at the other end.
It were unneceffary to fay any thing particular of the
manner of frizing fluffs with the hand, it being the aim
of the workmen to imitate, as near as they can with,
their wooden inflrument, the How, equable, and circular
motion of the machine : it needs only be added, that
their frizer is but about two feet long and one broad ;
and that to form the nap more eaCly, they moiften the
furface of the fluff lightly, with water mingled with
whites of eggs or honey.

FROBENIUS, John, a famous and learned print-
er in the l6th century, was born at Hamelburgh in
Franconia, and fettled at Bafil. He had before flu-
died in that univerfity, where he acquired the reputa-
tion of being uncommonly learned ; and now fetting
up a printing houfe in that city, was the firft of the
German printers who brought that admirable art to any
degree of perfe£tion. Being a man of great probity
and piety, as well as {kill, he was particularly choice
in the authors he printed ; and would never, for the.
fake of profit, fufter libels, or any thing that might
hurt the reputation of another, to go through his-
prefs. The great charafler of this printer was the
principal motive which induced Erafmus to refide at
Bafil, in order to have his own works printed by him.
A great number of valuable authors were printed by
Frobenius, with great care and accuracy ; among^-
ivhich were the works of St Jerome, Auguftine, and
Erafinus. He defigned to have printed the Greek
Fathers; but died in 1527, before he could execute
his defign. Erafmus wrote his epitaph in Greek and
Latin.

John Frobenius left a fon named Jerome Frobenius,,
and a daughter married to Nicholas Epifcopius ; who,
joining in partnerfliip, continued Frobenius's printing
houfe v»ith reputation, and printed correct ediuons of
the Greek Fathers.

FROBIbHER, or Forbisher, Sir Martin, an
excellent navigator and fea officer in the 1 6th century,
ivas born near Doncafter in Yorkfliire, and was from

his

FRO [2

Frcbifliei his youth brought up to navigation. He was tlie fiift
ii Engliniman who attempted to find a north-^vell pal'-
. "'^ fage to China, and in 1576 he failed vnth two barks

and a pinnace in order to attempt that pafTage. In
ttiis voyage he dilcovered a cape, to which he gave the
name oi ^een Elia.abel/i's Foreland, and the next day
difcovered a ftrait to wliich he gave his own name. This
voyage proving unfuccefsful, he attempted the iame
palTdge in 1577 ; but difcovering fome ore in an ifland.
and his commiliion directing him in this voyage only to
fearch for ore, and to leave the farther difcovery of the
north-well to another time, he returned to England.
He failed again, with 15 ihips and a great number of
adventurers, to form a fettlement : but being obllruft-
cd by the ice, and driven out to fea by a violent
florm, they, after encountering many difficulties, re-
turned home, without making any fettlement, but
brought a large quantity of ore. — He afterwards com-
manded the Aid in Sir Francis Drake's expedition to
the Well Indies, in which St Domingo in Hifpaniola,
Carthagena, and Santa Jutfina, in Florida, were taken
and facked. In 1588, he bravely exerted himfelf in
defence of his country againll the Spanilh armada,
when he commanded the Triumph, one of the largeft
fhips in that fervice ; and, as a reward for his dillin-
guilhed bravery, received the honour of knighthood
from the lord high admiral at fea. He afterwards
commanded a fquadron which was ordered to cruife on
the Spanilh coal! ; and, in aS92 took two valuable
fhips and a rich carrack. In 1594 he was fent to the
• lillance of Henry IV. kuig of France againll a body
of the Leaguers and Spaniards, who had llrongly en-
trenched themlelves at Croyzon near Brell ; but in an
aflault upon that fort, on the 7 th of November, Sir
Martin was unfortunately wounded with a ball, of which
he died foon after he had brought back the fleet to
Plymouth, and was buried in that town.

Frobuber's Straits, lie a little to the northward of
Cape Farewell in Weft Greenland, and were difcover-
ed by Sir Martin Frobiftier. W. Long. 48. 16. N.
Lat. 6^. 12.

FRODSHAM, a town of Chefhire in England,
162 miles from London, is noted for its ancient callle.
It has a ftone bridge over the river Weaver near its
conflux with the Merfey, and a harbour for fhips of
good burden. By means of inland navigation, it has
communication with the rivers Dee, Ribble, Oufe,
Trent, Darwent, Severn, Humber, Thames, Avon,
&c. which navigation, including its windings, extends
above 500 miles, in the counties of Lincoln, Notting-
ham, York, Lancafter, Weftmorland, Stafford, War-
wick, Leicefler, Oxford, Worceller, &.c.

FROG. See Rana, 1 ^ , ,

Bui/ F^oo. See Ra^a, j Es^'ETOLOGY Inr/ex.

Frog Fijh of Surinam, a very fmgular animal, of
uhich a figure is given by Mr Edwards, HiJ}. of Birds,
vol. i. There is no fpecimen in the Britilh mufeum,
nor in any private collection, except that of Dr Fo-
tlierglll. It was brought from Surinam in South A-
merica. — Frogs, both in Afia and Africa, according
to Merian, change gradually from filhes, to frogs, as
thofe in Europe •, but after many years jevert again in-
tp filhes, though the manner of their change has never
been inveftigated. In Surinam thefe filhes are called
^(lijes. Tbejr are cartilaginous, of a fublliince like our

45 ]

F n o

mullela, and exquillte food: they are formed widi re-
gular vertebras, and fmall bones all over the body di-
vided into equal parts ; are firft darkifh, and then
gray : their fcales make a beautiful appearance. WTie- ;.
ther this animal is, in its perfeft ftate, a fpecics of frog
with a tail, or a kind of water lizard, MrEdivards does
not pretend to determine j but obferves, that when its
iize is confidered, if it fliould be deemed 3 tadpole at firft
produced from fpawn, and in its progrefs towards a
frog, fuch an animal, when full grown, if it bears the
fame proportion to its tadpole as thofe in Europe do,
murt be of enormous fize ; for our fidl grown frogs ex-
ceed the tadpoles at leall 50 times. See Erfetology
Index.

FROME, a river that rifes from feveral fprings in-
the weftern parts of Dorfetftiire in England, the prin-
cipal of which is near Everfliot ; and direfting its courfe
almoft due weft, palTes under Framptun bridge, waflies
the town of Dorcheller, and falls into a bay of the
Englilli channel called Poo/ltaven, near Wareham.

FkoME-Selwood, a toivn of Somerfetlh: - in England,
150 miles from London. It is the chief towni of thii
part of the countrj', ivhich was anciently one great
foreft called Se/wood/hire ; and in the later end of the
laft cenf.n-y, in thofe called Frotne Woodland', there
was a conliderable gang of money coiners or clippers,
of whom many were taken and executed, and their co-
vert laid open. Though the town is bigger than fome
cities, yet it has only one church ; but it has fix or
feven meeting houl'es of Proteftant diffenters. The-
inhabitants are reckoned about 13,0:0, whofe chief
manufaclory is broad cloth; About 50 years ago,
more wire cards for carding the wool for the fpinners
were made at this place than in all England befides,
^vhich was for the moft part fupplied with them from
hence \ for here were no lefs than 20 mafter card-
makers, one of whom employed 400 men, women, and
children, in that manufai^iory, at one time ; fo that even
children of 7 or 8 years of age could tarn half-a-crown
a-week. The river here ^vhich abounds with trout,
eels, &c. rifes in the woodlands ; and runs ui;der its
flone bridge towards Bath, on the eaft fide of which
it falls into the Avon. This town has been a long
time noted for its fine beer, v.-hich they keep to a great
age, and is generally preferred by the gentry to the
wines of France and Portugal. It was governed for-
merly by a bailiff, and now by two conllubles of the
hundreds of Frome, chofen at the court leet of the
lord of the manor.

FRONDESCEXTIA, from from, " a leaf;" the.
precife time of the year and month in which each fpe-
cies of plants unfolds its firft leaves.

All plants produce new leaves every year; but all do-
not renew them at the lame time. Among ^voody
plants, the elder, and moft of the honeyfuckjes ; a--
mong perennial herbs, the crocus and tulip, are the tirft
that pulh or expand their leaves. The time of fow-
ing the feeds decides with refpecl to annuals. The
oak and aih are conftantly the lateft in pulhing their
leaves : the greateft numoer unfold them hi fpring ; the
moffes and iirs in winter. Thefe ftriking differences-
with rtfpccl to fo capital a circumllance in jilanls as
that of unfolding their leaves, feem to indicate ti/at
each fpecies of plants has a temperature proper or pe-
culiar to itfelf, and requires a certain degree of heat"

to.

Fromt
Fromlcf-

FRO [24(5

to extricate the leaves from tlieir bud>, and produce
the appebirance in oueflion.

Tlii^ temperature, however, is not fo fixed or con-
ftrrit as it may appe;;r to a fuperficial obferver. A-
rcong ph'.nts of the fame fpecies, there are fome more
early than others ; whether that circiimriance depends,
as it moll commonly does, on the nature of the plants,
or is owing to differences in heat, expolure, and foil.
In general, it may be affirmed, that fraall and young
trees are always earlier ■ lian larger or old ones.

1 he puiliing of the leaves is liicewile accelerated or
retarded according to the temperature of the feafon ;
tha' is, according as the fun is fooner or later in dif-
peniing that certain degree of heat which is fuitable to
each fpecies.

FRONT, the forehead, or that part of the face
above the eyebrows. The word is formed of the Latin
from ; and that from the Greek, (p^tmi, " to think, per-
ceive ;" of ip^iiv mens, " the mind, thought." Marti-
nius, to make out this etymology, obferves, that from
the forehead of a perfon we perceive what he is, A\hat
he is capable of, and what he thinks of.

Front is alfo ufed where feveral perfons or things
are ranged fide by fide, and (how their front or fore
parts.

Front, in Ai-chkeBure, denotes the principal face
or fide of a building, or that prefented to their chief
afpeft or view.

FRONTAL, in ArcUteBure, a little fronton or
pediment, fometimes placed over a fmall door or win-
dow.

Frontal, Frontlet, or Brow-hand, is alfo ufed in
fpeaking of the Jewifli ceremonies. This frontal con-
fills of four feveral pieces of vellum, on each whereof
is written fome text of fcripture. They are all laid on
a piece of a black calif's leather with thongs to tie it by.
The Jews apply the leather \vith the vellum on their
foreheads in the fynagogue, and tie it round the head
with the thongs.

FRONTIER, the border, confine, or extreme, of
a kingdom or province, which the enemies find in front
when they would enter the fame. Thus vie. fay, a
firontier town, frontier province, &c. Frontiers were
anciently called marches.

The word is derived from the Yxtx\c!n frontiere, and
that from the 'L?l\.\i\ frontnria ; as being a kind of front
oppofed to the enemy. Skinner derives frontier from
front ; inafmuch as the frontier is the exterior and moft
advanced part of a ftate, as the front is that of the face
of a man.

FRONTIGNIAC wine, is fo called from a town
of Languedoc in France, fituated i6 miles fouth-weft
of Montpelier, remarkable for producing it.

FRONTINAC, a fortrefs in Canada, fituated at
the head of a fine harbour, on the north-weft fide of the
outlet of Lake Ontario, where veffels of every defcrip-
lion may ride in perfeft fafety. It is 300 miles from
(Quebec, and in comparifon of that place has a very fliort
winter.

FRONTINUS, Sextiis Julius, an ancient Roman
writer, was of confular dignity, and liouriilied under
the emperors Vefpafian, Titus, Domitian, Nerva, and
Trajan. He commanded the Roman armies in Bri-
tain ; was made city pr*tor w-hen Vefpafian and Ti-
tus were confuls ; and Nerva made him curator of the
3

] FRO

aquedu£ls, \vliic!i occafioned his writing De AqtiittluBi-
lius urbis Romx. He wrote four books upon the Greek
and Roman art of war ; a piece De Re Agrana, and
anotiicr De Limitibus. Thefe have been often feparate-
ly reprinted ; but were all colledled together in a neat
edition at Amfterdam in 166 1, with notes by Robertus
Keuchenius. He died under Trajan.

FRONTISPIECE, in ArchiteBure, the principal
face of a fine building. The word is formed of the
'Lzxmfrontifpiciurn, q.d.frontis/iomim'j infpeBio. Hence
alio, by a figure, we fay, the frontifpiece of a book ;
meaning an ornament ivith an engraven title on the
firft page.

FRONTLET. See Frontal.

FRONTO, Marcus Cornelius, waschofen for his
eloquence to inilruft the emperors Marcus Aurelius and
Lucius Verus in rhetoric ; in recompenfe of which he
was promoted to the confuiate, and a Itatue was erc6t-
ed to his honour. He taught Marcus Aurelius not
only eloquence, but the duty of kings, and excellent
morals. Some fay he wrote againll the Chriftians. A
feci was formed ot thofe who looked upon him as a mo-
del of perfeft eloquence, and thoie were called Fronto-
niani. The Civilians, whofe names were Fronto, men-
tioned in the Pandecls, were probably defcended from
him.

FROST, in Phyftology, fuch a ftate of the atmo-
fphere as occafions the congelation or freezing of water
and other fiuids. See CoLD, Chei.iistry Index, and
Meteorology Index.

Water and other fluids are capable of containing the
element of fire or heat in two very different ftates. In
the one, they feem to imbibe the fire in fuch a manner,
that it eludes all the methods by which we are accuf-
tomed to obferve it, either by our fenfation of feeling,
or the thermometer ; in the other, it manifefts itfelf
obvioufly to our fenfes, either by the touch, the ther-
mometer, or the emilhon of light.

In the firll of thefe ftates, we call the body cold;
and are apt to fay that this coldncfs is occafioned by
the abfence of heat. But this manner of exprelhn^
ourfclves, excepting in a relative degree, is certainly
improper ; for even thofe fluids -wliich are coldeft to the
touch contain a vaft deal of heat. Thus vapour, which
is colder to the touch than the water from which it was
raifed, contains an immenfe quantity of fire, even more
than fufficicnt to heat it red hot. The like may be faid
of common fait, and fnow, or ice. If a quantity of
each of thefe fubftances is feparately reduced to the de-
gree of 28 or 30 of Fahrenheit's thermometer, upon
mixing them together, the heat which would have raif-
ed the thermometer to the degree above-mentioned,
now enters into the fubftance of them in fach a manner
that the mercury foils down to o. — Here an exceflive
degree of cold is produced, and yet we are fure that ihe
fubftances contain the very fame quantity of heat that
they formerly did : nay, they will even feem exceeding-
ly cold, when they mull certainly contain a great deal
more heat than they originally did ; for they abforb it
from all bodies around them j and if a fmall veiTel full
of water is put into the middle of fuch a mixture, it will
in a Ihort time be full of ice.

It appears, t'lerefcre, that our fenfes, even when
afTifted by thermometers, can only judge of the llate In
which the element of fire is with relation to the bo-
dies

FRO

r 247 ]

FRO

dies around us, without regard to the quantity contain-
■' ed in them. Thus, if heat flows from any part of our
body into any fubflancc aftually in contaft with it, the
fenfation of cold is excited, and we call that fubftance
i',ld ; but if it flows from any lubflance into our body,
the fenl'ation of heat is excited, and we call that fub-
rtance h'j, without regard to the abfolute quantity con-
tained '•.) either cafe.

Of all known fubftances, the atmoiphere either ab-
forbs or throws out heat with the moil remarkable fa-
cility : and in one or other of thefe Hates it always is
with refpeft to the furface of the earth, and fuch bo-
dies as are placed on or near it ; for thefe, properly
fpeaking, have no temperature of their own, but are
entirely regulated by that of the atraofphere. — When
the air has been for fome time abforbing the heat from
terrefliial bodies, a froll mull be the undoubted con-
fcquence, for the fame reafon that water freezes in a
vcfTel put into a freezing mixture ; and were this ab-
forptlon to continue for a length of time, the whole
earth would be converted into a frozen mafs. There
are, however, certain powers in nature, by which this
eiTeft is always prevented •, and the moll %iolent froll
we can imagine, mull always as it were defeat its own
purpofcs, and end in a thaw. To underftafid this fub-
jeft, we mull obferve,

1 . In that llate of the atmofphere which vre deno-
minate froil, there is a moft intimate union between
the air and the water it contains , and therefore frolly
weather, except in very high latitudes, is generally
clear.

2. When- fuch a union takes place, either in winter
or fummer, we obferve the atmofphere alfo inclined to
p.bforb heat, and confequently to froft. Thus in clear
fettled weather, even in fummer, though the day may
be excelTively hot by reafon of the continued funfliine,
yet the mornings and evenings are remarkably cold,
and fometimes even difagreeably io.

7,. The air being therefore always ready in the time
of froll or in clear weather, to abforb heat from every
fubllance which comes into contact with it, it follows
that it mull alfo abforb part of that which belongs to
the vapours contained in it.

4. Though vapour is capable of becoming much
colder than water without being frozen, yet by a con-
tinued abforption it mufl at lad part with its latent
heat, i. e. that which efTentiilly conftitutes its vapour,
and without which it is no longer vapour, but water
cr ice. No fooner, therefore, does the froll arrive at
a certain pitch, than the vapours, everywhere dif-
perfed through the air, give out their latent heat :
the atmofphere then becomes clouded : the froft either
totally goes off, or becomes milder by reafon of the
great quantity of heat difcharged into the air ; and
the vapours defcend in rein, hail, or fno^v, according
to the particular difpofition of the atmofphere at the
time.

5. Even in the polar regions, where it may be
thouglit that the froil mufl increafe beyond meafure,
there are alfo natural means for preventing its running
to extreme?. The principal caufe here is, the mixture
of ? great quantity of vapours from the more tempe-
rate regions of the globe with the air in thofe dreary
climates. It is well known, that aqueous vapour al-
ways flies from a warm to a colder place. For this

reafon, the vapours raifed by the fun in tlic more fem- Froft.

perate regions of the earth, mull continually travel v—

northward and fouthward .in great quantities. Thus
they furnilh materials for thofe iramenfe quantities of
fnow and ice which arc to be found in tlie neighbour-
hood of the poles, and which we cannot imagine the
weak influence of the fun in thefe parts capable of rail-
ing. It is impoflible that a quantity of vapour can be
mixed with frolly air, without communicating a great
deal of heat to it ; and thus there are often thaws of
tortiiderable duration even in thofe climates where,
from the little influence of the fun, we Ihould fuppofe
the froll would be perpetual.

6. We may uow account with fome probability for
the uncertain duration of frolls. In this country they
are feldom of a long continuance -, becaufe the vapours
raifed from the fea with which our ifland is furround-
ed, perpetually mix with the air over the ifland, and
prevent a long duration of the froll. For the fame
reafon, frofts are never of fuch long duration in mari-
time places on the continent as in the inland ones.
There is nothing, however, more uncertain than the
motion of the vapours with which the air is conllantly
filled ; and therefore is is impolfible to prognofticate
the duration of a froll with any degree of certainty.
In general, we may always be certain, that if a quan-
tity of vapour is accumulated in any place, no intenfe
froft can fubfift in that place for any length of time j
and by whatever caufes the vapours are driven from
pl.ace to place, by the fame caufes the frofts are regu-
lated throughout the whole world.

The effefls of froll in different countries are enu-
merated under the article Congelation. In the
northern parts of the world even folid bodies are li-
able to be affefted by froil. Timber is often appa-
rently frozen, and rendered exceedingly difficult to law.
Marl, chalk, and other lefs folid terreftrial concre-
tions will be Ihattered by llrong and durable frofts.
Metals are contracted by froft : thus, an iron tube, 1 2
feet long, upon being expofed to the air in a frofty
night, loft two lines of its length. On the contrary,
froft Iwells or dilates water near one tenth of its bulk.
Mr Boyle made feveral experiments with metalline
velfels, exceedingly thick and llrong ; which being
filled with water, clofe flopped, and expofed to the
cold, burft by the expanlion of the frozen fluid with-
in them. Trees are frequently deftroyed by froll, as
if burnt up by the moll exceftive heat 5 and in very
ftrong frofts, walnut trees, aflies, and even oaks, are
fometimes fplit and cleft, fo as to be feen through,
and this with a terrible noife, like the explofion of (ire-
arms.

Froft naturally proceeds from the upper parts of bo-
dies downwards : but how deep it will reach in earth .
or water, is not eafily known ; becaufe this depth may
vary with the degree of coldnefs in the air, by a longer
or Ihorter duiation of the froft, the texture of the
earth, the nature of the juices wherewith it is impreg-
nated, the conftitution of its more internal parts as to
heat and cold, the nature of its effluvia, &c. Mr
Boyle, in order to afcertaiu this depth, after four
nights of hard froll, dug in ^n orchard, where the
ground was level and bare, and found the froft had
icarce reached three inches and a half, and in a garden
nciuer the houfe only two inches below the furface.

Nine

FRO [248

Nine or ten fucceirive frofty nights froze the bare ii
^ ground in the garden fix inches and a half deep ; and
in the orchard, ^^llere a waU iheltered it from the I'outh
fun, to the depth of eight inches and a half. 'He alfo
dug in an orchard, near a wall, about a week after-
warks, and found the froft to have penetrated to the
depth of 1 4 Inches. In a garden at Mofcow, the froll
in a hard feafon only penetrates to two feet : and the
utmoft eft'eft that Captain .Tames mentions the cold to
have had upon the ground of Charlton illand, was to
freeze it to 10 feet deep : whence may appear the dif-
ferent degrees of cold of that illand and Ruffia. And
as to the freezing of water at the above mentioned
illand, the Captain tells us, it does not naturally con-
geal above the depth of iix feet, the reft being by ac-
cident. Water alfo, expofed to the cold air in large
velTels, always freezes tirft at the upper furface, the
ice gradually increafing and thickening do\\Tiwards :
for ivhich reiifon, frogs retire in frofty weather to
the bottom of ditches ; and it is faid, that ihoals of
fifli retire in winter to thofe depths of the fea and ri-
vers, where they are not to be found in fummer. Wa-
ter, like the earth, feems not difpofed to receive any
very iutenfe degree of cold at a confiderable depth or
diftance from the air. The vaft maffes of ice found
in the northern feas being only many flakes and frag-
ments, which. Hiding under each other, are, by the
congelation of the intercepted water, cemented toge-
ther.

In cold countries, the froft often proves fatal to
mankind ; not only producing gangrenes, but even
death itfelf. Thofe who die of it have their hands and
feet firft feized, till they grow paft feeling it ; after
which the reft of their bodies is fo invaded, that they
are taken with a drowfinefs, which, if indulged, they
awake no more, but die infenfibly. But there is ano-
ther way whereby it proves mortal, viz. by freezing
the abdomen and vifcera, which on dilTeiftion are found
to he mortified and black.

The great power of froft on vegetables is a thing
fufficiently kno^ni ; but the differences between the
frofts of a fevere winter, and thofe which happen in
the fpring mornings, in their effecls on plants and
trees, were never perfeflly explained, till by Meff. Du
Hamel and Buffon in the Memoirs of the Paris Aca-
demy.

The frofls of fevere winters are much more terrible
than thofe of the fpring, as they bring on a priva-
tion of all the produiEls of the tenderer part of the ve-
getable \vorld ; but then they are not frequent, fuch
winters happening perhaps but once in an age ; and
the frofts of the fpring arc in reality greater injuries to
us llian thefe, as they are every year repeated.

In regard to trees, the great diflcrence is this, that
the frofts of fevere winters affecl even their wood, their
trunks and large branches ; whereas thole of the fpring
have only power to hurt the buds.

The winter frofts happening at a time when moft of
the trees in our woods and gardens have neither leaves,
Howers, nor fruits upon them, and have their buds fo
hard as to be proof againft (light injuries of weather,
efpecially if the preceding fymmer has not been too
wet; in this flate, if there are no unlucky circumftan-
/:cs attending, tlie generality of trees bear moderate
winters very well ; but hard frofls, which happen late
4

] FRO

in the winter, caufe very great injuries even to thofe
trees which they do not utterly dellroy. Thefe are, ■"

1. Long cracks folloiving the direftion of the fibres.

2. Parcels of dead wood encloied round ^vith %vood yet
in a living ftate. And, 3. That diftemperature which
the fbrefters call the double hlea, which is a perfect
circle of blea, or foft white wood, which, when the
tree is afterwards felled, is foimd covered by a circle
of hard Snd folid wood.

The opinions of authors about the expofition of
trees to the different quarters, have been very different,
and moft of them grounded on no rational foundation.
Many are of ouinion that the effefts of froft are moft
violently felt on thofe trees which are expofed to the
north ; and otliers think the fouth or the weft the moft
ftrongly aft'eiiled by them. There is no doubt but the
north expofure is fubjeft to the greateft cold. It does
not, however, foilou' from this, that the injury muft
be always greateft on the trees expofed to the north in
frofts : on the contrary, there are abundant proofs
that it is on the fouth fide that trees are generally
more injured by froft : and it is plain from repeated
experiments, that there are particular accidents, under
which a more moderate froft may do more injury to ve-
getables, than the moft fevere one which happens to
them under more favourable circtmiftances.

It is plain from the accounts of the injuries trees re-
ceived by the frofts in 1709, that the greateft of all
%vere omng to repeated falfe thaws, fucceeded by re-
peated new frofts. But the frofts of the fpring feafon
futniih abundantly more numerous examples of this
truth ; and fome experiments made by t';e Count de
Buffon at large in his o^\ti woods, prove inconteft-
ably, that it is not the fevereft cold or moft fixed froft
that does the greateft injury to vegetables.

This is an obfervation directly oppolite to the com-
mon opinion ; yet is not the lefe true, nor is it any way
difcordant to reafon. We find by a number of experi-
ments, that humidity is the thing that makes froft
fatal to vegetables 5 and therefore every thing that can
occafion humidity in them, expoles them to thefe in-
juries, and every thing that can prevent or take off an
over proportion of humidity in them, every thing that
can dry them though with ever fo increafed a cold,
muft prevent or preferve them from thofe injuries. Nu-
merou^ experiments and obfervations tend to prove
this. It is well known that vegetables always feel the
froft very feverely in low places %vhere there are
fogs. The plants ivhich ftand by a river fide are fre-
quently found deftroyed by the fpring and autumnal
frofts, while thofe of the fame fpecies, which ftand in
a drier place, fuffer little or perhaps none at all by
them ; and the low and wet parts of forefts are well
known to produce worfe wood than the high and drier.
The coppice wood in wet and low parts of common
woods, though it pufti out more vigoroully at firft than
that of other plucts, yet never comes to fo good a
growth ; for the froft of the fpring killing thefe early
top ftioots, obliges the lower part of the trees to throw
out lateral branches : and the fame thing happens in a
greater or leffer degree to the coppice wood that grows
under cover of larger trees in great forefts ; for here
the vapours not benig carried off either by the fun or
ivind, ftagnate and freeze, and in the fame manner de-
ftroy the young Ihoots, as the fogs of marftiy places.

It

FRO

It is a geueril obfervation a!fo, that the froft is never
■"' hurtful to the late Ihoots of the vine, or to the flower-
buds of trees, except when it follows heavy dews, or a
long ruiiiy feafon, and then it never fails to do great
niitchief, though it be ever fo llight.

'J"he froft is always obferved to be more mifchievous
in its confequences on newly cultivated ground than in
other places ; and this is becaufe the vapours which
Continually arife fxoin the earth, find an ealier paffage
from thofe places than from others. Trees alio which
have been newly cut, futfer more than others by the
fpring frolls, ^vhich is ov\ing to their {hooting out
more vigoroufly.

Froils alfa do more damage on lijjht and fandy
grounds, than on the tougher and firmer foils, fuppo-
ling both equally dry ; and this feems partly owing to
their being more early in their produflions, and partly
to their lax texture futfering a greater quantity of va-
pours to tranfpire.

It al'o has been frequently obfer\'ed, that the fide-
(hoots of trees are more fubjefl to perilh by the fpring
frofts than thofe from' the ton; and M. BufTon, who
examined int6 this with great accuracy, always found
the effeSs of the fpring frofls much greater near the
ground than elfe^vhere. The Ihoots within a foot of
the ground quickly perilhed by them •, thofe which
flood at two or three feet high, bore them much bet-
ter ; and thofe at four feet and upwards frequently re-
mained ^vholly unhurt, while the lower ones were en-
tirely deftroyed.

There is a feries of obfervations, which have pro-
ved beyond all doubt, that it is not the hard frofls
which fo much hurt plants, as thofe frofts, though lets
fevere, which happen when they are full of moiilure ;
and this clearly explains the account of all the great
damages done by the fevere frolfs being on the fouth
fide of the trees which are affecled by them, though
that fide has been plainly all the while lefs cold than
the north. Great damage is alfo done to the weftern
fides of trees and plantritions, when after a rain with a
welt wind the wind ihifts to the nonh at funfet, as is
frequently the cafe in fpring, or when an eaft wind blows
upon a thick fog before funrifing.

Fioll, it is well known, is particularly deftruftlve to
the bloffom of fruit trees. The following method of
fecuring fuch trees from being damaged by early frofls
may be acceptable to many of our readers. A rope is
to be intenvoven among the tranches of the tree, and
one end of it brought down fo as to be immerfcd in a
bucket of v. liter. The rope, it is faid, will aft as a
conduftor, and convey the eftecls of the froll from the
tree to the water. This idea is not new, for the fol-
lov.ing paffage may be found in Colerus. " If you dig
a trench around the root of a tree, and fill it with wa-
ter, or keep the roots moift till it has bloomed, it will
not be injured by the froft. Or, in fpring, fufpend a
vefTel filled wnk w ater from the tree. If you wifli to
prefer\'e the bloffom from being hurt by the froll, place
a vefTel of water below it, and the froft will fall into
it."

Hoar Frost, a cold moift vapour, that is drawn up
a little way into the air, and in the night falls again on
the earth, where it is congealed into icy cryflals of va-
rious figures. Hoar froft, therefore, is notliing but dew
turned into ice by the coldnefs of the air.
Vol. IX. Part I.

49 1 FRO

Meiioration of Aromatic Sfiiriis by Frost. Mr Beauroe
obferves, that aromatic fpirituous waters have Icfs fcent
when newly diftillcd than after they have been kept .,
about fix months : and he found that the good efiecl
of age was produced in a fhort time by means of cold ;
and that, by plunging quart bottles of the liquor into
a mixture of pounded ice and fea fait, the fpirit, after
having fufti:red for fix or eight hours the cold hence
reluhing, proves as grateful as that which hath been
kept many years. Simple waters alfo, after having been
frozen, prove far more agreeable than they were before.
Geoflroy takes notice of this melioration by froft. HiJI.
.i^cad. 1 713. •

Melioration of Land by Frost. See Agriculturi;
Index.

FROTH, a white light fubftance, formed on the
furface of tiuids by vehement agitation, conlilling of
air included in thin films of water.

Froth Spit, or Cucio'j Spit, a name given to a white
froth, or fpume, very common iu the fpring and firft
months of I'ummer, on the leaves of certain plants, par-
ticularly on thole of the common white field lychnis or
catchtly, thence called by iom^ fpatiin^ poppy.

All wrhers on vegetables have taken notice of this
froth, though few have underflood the cauf'e or origin
of it till of late. It is formed by a little leaping animal,
called by fome the_/?ffl gra/ljopper, by applying its anus
clofe to the leaf, and difcharging thereon a fmall drop
of a white vifcous fluid, which, containing fome air in
it, is foon elevated into a fmall bubble ; before this is
well formed, it depofits fuch another drop ; and fo on,
till it is every way overwhelmed with a quantity of thefe
bubbles, which form the white froth which we fee.
Within this fpume it is feen to acquire four tubercles on
its back, wherein the wings are enclofed : thefe burft-
ing, from a reptile it becomes a winged animal : and
thus, rendered perfeft, it flies to meet its mate, and
propagate its kind. It has an oblong, obtufe body,
and a large head with fmall eyes. The external wings
(for it has four) are of a dufky brown colour, marked
with two white fpots : the head is black. It is a fpecies
of Cicada.

FROWDE, Philip, an Englith poet, was the foii
of a gentleman who had been poftmafter in the reign of
Q^ueen Anne. He was fent to the univerfity of Oxford,
where he had the honour of being diflinguilhed by Ad-
difon, v,ho took him under his proteftion. While he
remained there, he became the author of feveral pieces
of poetry, fome of which in Latin were pure and ele-
gant enough to entitle them to a place in the Miife
Anglicance. He likewife %vrote two tragedies : The
Fall of Saguntum, dedicated to Sir Robert Walpole ;
and Philotas, addreffed to the carl of Chcfterfield. He
died at his iodgings at Cecil otreet in the Strand, in
1738^ and in the London Daily Poft had the follow-
ing character given him : " Though the elegance of
Mr Frowde's writings has recommended him to the ge-
neral public efteem, the politenefs of his genius is the
leafl amiable part of his charafter ; for he efleemed the
talents of wit and learning only as they were conducive
to the excitement and praflice of honour and humanity.
Therefore, with a foul cheerful, benevolent, and virtu-
ous, he was in converfation genteelly delightful, in
friendlhip punClually fincere, in death Chrillianly re-
fjgned. No man could live more beloved, no private
li maa

F R U [2.

Fni^lefcen-rnan could die more lamented." A fine eloge ! and we

"" have no reafon to doubt the truth of it.

Frmt. FRUCTESCENTIA, (from fruBus, " fruit,")

^ , ' comprehends the precife time in which, after the fall of

the tiowers, the fruits arrive at maturity, and dil'perfc

their feeds.

In general, plants which flower In fpring, ripen their
fruits in fummer, as rye ; thofe wjiich dower in fum-
mer have their fruits ripe in autumn, as the vine.; the
fruit ot autumnal tiowers ripens in winter, or the fol-
lowing fpring, if kept in a llove or otherwife defended
from excelFive frofts. Thefe frofts, f.iys M. Adanion,
are frequently fo pernicious and violent as ta deftroy
the greateft part of the perennial pliuits of Virginia
and MilTilfippi, that are cultivated in France, even
before they have exhibited their fruit. The plants
which flower during our winter, fuch as thofe of the
Cape of Good Hope, ripen their fruit in fpring in our
iloves.

FRUCTIFEROUS, fignifies properly any thing
that produces fruit.

FRUCTIFICATION of pl.^nts, Is defined by
Linnieus to be the temporary part of a vegetable appro-
priated to genei'atlon, terminating the old vegetable,
and beginning the new. It coniirts of the following
feven parts j viz. the calyx, corolla, ftamen, plfHilum,
pericarpium, femen or feed, and receptaculimi. See

BOTANV.

FRUIT, in its general fenfe, includes whatever the
earth produces for the nourifiiment and fupport of ani-
mals J as herbs, grain, pulfe, hay, corn, and flax,
every thing expreffed by the Latins under the name

Fruit, in Natural Hiftory, denotes the laft produc-
tion of a tree or plant, for the propagation or multipli-
cation of Its kind ; in which fenfe fruit includes all kinds
of feeds, with their furniture, &c.

Fruit, in Botany, is properly that part of a plant
wherein the feed is contained ; called by the Latins
fruBiis ; and by the Greeks xa^xo;. The fruit in the.
LInniean fyflem is one of the parts of fruftification,
and is dlflinguifhed into three parts, viz. the pericar-
pium, feed, and receptacle, or receptaculum feminvm.
See BoT.\NY.

Colours extraBed from pRuirs. See the article Co-
J.OUR-Making.

BreaJ-FRuiT. See Artocarfus, Botany Im/ex.

Fruits, with regard to commerte, are difllnguilhed
into recent, frefli, and dry.

Recent FRVtrs are thofe fold juft as they are gather-
ed from the tree, wichout any farther preparation j as
are nioft of the productions of our gardens and orchards,
fold by the fruiterers.

Dry Fruits are thofe dried in the fun, or by the
fire, with other ingredients lometimes added to them
to make them keep ; imported chiefly from beyond fea,
and fold by the grocers. Such are raifins, currants, figs,
capers, olives, cloves, nutmegs, pepper, and other fpi-
ces ; which fee under their refpeflive articles.

Under the denomination of t/ri/ fruits are alfo fre-
quently included apples, pears, almonds, filberds, &c.

Fruit-FUc's, a name given by gardeners and others
to a fort of fmall black, tiles found in vaft numbers
among fruit trees, in the fpring feafon, and fuppofed to
do gr«at! Injury to them. Mr Leeuwenhoeck prcfervcd

CO ] F R U

feme of thefe flics for his microfcopical obfervations.
He found that they did not live longer than a day or T
two, but that the females during this time laid a great
number of longiih eggs. The gardeners who fuppofe
that thefe Hies wound the leaves of the trees, are mif-
taken : it is true that they feed on their juices ; but
they have no inllruraents wherewith they can extratl
thel'e for themfelves ; they feed on fuch as are naturally
extravafated ; and when there is not a fufficient quanti-
ty of thefe for their purpofe, they haunt the places to
which the pucerons reiort, and feed on the juices which
thele little creatures extravafate by means of the IkjIcs
they bore in the leaves with their trunks.

Fruit Stones. The mifchiefs ariiing from the cuftoni
which many people have of fwallouing the llones of
plums and other fruit are very great. Tlie Philofophi-
cal Tranfaftions give an account of a woman who fut-
fered violent pains in her bowels for 30 years, return-
ing once in a month or lefs. At" length, a ftrong
purge being given her, the occafion of all thefe com-
plaints was driven down from the bowels to the anus j
where it gave a fenfation of dlllenfion and ftoppage,
producing a continual defire of going to flool, but
without voiding any thing. On the alfilfance of a
careful hand in this cafe, there was taken out with a
forceps a ball of an oval figure, of about ten drachms
in weight, and meafuring five inches in circumference.
This had caufed all the violent fits of pain which the
had fuffered for lo many years ; and, after voiding It,
Ihe became perfeftly well. The ball extracted looked
like a flone, and felt very hard, but it fwam in water.
On cutting it through with a knife, there was found
in the centre of it a plum ftone ; round which fcveral
coats of this hard and tough matter had gathered.
Another inflance given in the fame papers is of a man,
who, dying of an incurable colic which had tormented
him many years, and baffled the effetfs of medicines,
was opened after death •, and in his bowels was foimd
a ball fimilar to that above meritioned ; but fomewhat
larger, being fix inches in circumference, and weighing
an ounce and a half. In the centre of this, as of the
other, there was found the ftone of a common plum,
and the coats were of the fame nature with thofe of the
former.

Thefe and feveral other Inftances mentioned in the
fame place, fufficiently (how the folly of that common.
opinion that the ftones of fruits are wholefome. For
though by nature the guts are fo defended by their
proper mucus, that people very feldom fuffer by things
of this kind ; yet if we confider the various circumvo-
lutions of the guts, their valves and cells, and at the
fame time conlider the hair of the Ikins of animals we
feed on, the wool or down on herbs and fruit, and the
fibres, veflels, and nerves of plants, which are not al-
tered by the ftomach ; It will appear a wonder that
inftances of this lort of mifcliief are not much more
common. Cherry ftones, fwallowed in great quanti-
ties, have occafioned the death of many people ; and
there have been inftances even of the feeds of llraw-
berries collcding Into a lump in the guts, and caufing
violent diforders, which could not be cured ^vithout
great difficulty.

Fruit Trees. With regard to thefe it may be ob-
ferved, i. That the cutting and pruning thera when
yoiuig hurt their bearing, though it couuibutes to

the

F R U

fruittry t!',e richnefs and llnvour of the fruit, as well as to the
_ " beauty of the tree. 2. That kernel fruit trees come
"' later to bear than ftone fruit trees : the time reouired
by the firft, before they come to any fit age for bear-
ing, being one with another five years ; but when they
do begin, they bear in greater plenty than ftone fruit.
3. That ftone fruit, figs, and grapes, commonly bear
confiderably In three or four years, and bear full crops
the fifth and fixth year •, and hold it for many years,
if well ordered. 4. That fruit trees in the fame neigh-
bourhood will ripen a fortnight fooner in fome grounds
than in others of a diflerent temperature. 5. 'i'hat in
the fame country, hot or cold fummers fet confiderably
fonvards, or put backwards, the fame fruit. 6. That
the fruit on wall trees generally ripen before thofe on
flandards, and thofe on ftandards before thofe on
dwarfs. 7. That the fruit of all wall trees planted in
the fouth and eaft quarters commonly ripen about the
fame time, only thofe in the fouth rather earlier than
thofe in the eaft ; thofe in the weft are later by eight
or ten days ; and thofe in the nonh, by 15 or 20.
For the planting, pruning, grafting, &c. of fruit trees,
fee Gardexivg.

FRUITERY, a place for the keeping of fruit, a
fi-uit houfe, or fruit loft.

A fruitery (hould be inacceflible to any thing of
■moifture ; and (hould be as much as poflible fo, even
to froft.

FRUMENTACEOUS, a term applied by bota-
nifts to all fuch plants as have a conformity \vilh
wheat, in refpeft of their fruits, leaves, ears, or the
like.

FRUMENTARII, a kind of foldiers or archers
under the weftern empire.

Tl:e firft time we read of thefe officers is in the reign
of the emperor Adrian, who made ule of them to inform
himfelf of whatever pafled. They did not make any
particular corps diftinft from the reft of the forces, but
there was a certain number of them in each legion. It
is fuppofed, that they were at firft a number of young
perfons, difpofed by Augu.lus throughout the pro-
■i-inces, particularly on all the grand roads, to acquaint
the emperor, with all expedition, of every thing that
happened.

Afterwards they were incorporated into the troops
themfelves, where they ftill retained their ancient name.
As their principal oftice was the giving intelligence,
the.y were often joined unth the curioli, wilh whom
they agreed in that part of their office.

Th»ir name oi frurnentarii liAmwcA irom their be-
ing alfo a fort of purveyors to the armies, cities, &c.
collecting all the corn from the feveral provinces to
fumifli the commonwcalt+i.

FRUMENTATION, in Roman antiquity, a lar-
gefs of com beftowed on the people. 'J'his praflice of
giving com to the people was very ancient among the
Romans, and frequently ufed to ibothe the turbulent
humour of the populace. At firft the number of thofe
to whom this largcfs was given was indeterminate, till
Auguftus fixed it at 2CO,oco.

FRUSH, or Running Thrush. See F.irriEry
Index.

FKUSTUM, in Mathematics, a part of fome foUd
body fecarated from the reft.

The frulum of a cone is the part that remains,

I ] F R U

when the top i, cut oft' by a plane parallel to the ba(e ;
and is otherwife called a truncated cone. See Come
Seltions.

The fruftum of a pyramid is alfo wh.at remains af- "
ter the top is cut off by a plane parallel to its bafe.

The frullum of a globe or fpherc is any jiart there-
of cut off by a plane, the folid contents of which may
be found by this rule : To three times the fquare of
the femidiameter of the bafe add the fquare of it-S
height ; then multiply that fum by the height, and
this produft multiplied by .5236 gives the folidity of
the fruftum.

FRUTEX, a shrub. Shrubs, according to Lin-
nteus, make a branch of the feventh family in the ve-
getable kingdom j and are diftinguiflied from trees, in
that they come up without buds. But this diftinclion
is not univerfal, though it be generally juft with regard
to thofe of Europe. Nature hath made no abfolute di-
ftinclion between trees and ihrubs. Frutex, in its ge-
neral acce nation, is a plant whofe trunk is perennial,
gemmiparous, woody, dividing and fubdividing into a
great number of branches. In ftiort, it is the epitome
of a tree, exemplified in the rofe bufh.

FRY, in Zoology, fignifies the fpawn, or rather
young, of fifli.

FRYING-PAN, a dangerous (hoal, which has receiv-
ed this appellation from its figure. It is fituated at the
entrance of Cape Fear river, in North Carolina, the
fouthern part of which is in 33' 22' N. Lat. 24 miles
fouth-eaft by fouth of the light-houfe on Bald Head.

FRY'J'H, John, a martyr to die Proteftant reli-
gion in the reign of Henry V'lII. He was the fon of
an innkeeper at Seven Oaks in Kent 5 and educated
in King's college, Cambridge, where he took the
degree of bachelor of arts. Thence he removed to
Oxford, and was made a junior canon of Wolfey's col-
lege. He had not been long in this univerfity before
he became acquainted with William T)Tidale, a zealous
Lutheran, with whom he converfed frequently on the
abufes in religion. Fryth became a convert to Luthe-
ranifm, and publicly avowed his opinions. He was
apprehended, examined by the commiflary, and con-
fined to his college. At length having obtained his
liberty, in 1528 he went over to German}?, where he
continued about two years ; and then returned to
England, more than ever determined in his religious
fentiments. Finding at that time but few affociate?,
he wandered about from place to place, till at laft he.
■was taken up at Reading as a vagrant, and fet in the
ftocks, where he remained till he was near expiring for
want of fuftenance. He was at length relieved by the
humanity of Leonard Cox, a fchoolmaftcr ; who find-
ing him a man of letters, procured his enlargement,
and adminiftered to his neceffitles. Fryth now fet
out for London, where, with more zeal than prudence,
he began to make profelytes ; but was foon apprehend-
ed by order of the chancellpr Sir Thomas More, and
fent prifoner to the tower. Rcfufing to recant his
opinions, he was condemned to the flames, and accord-
ingly burnt in Smithficld, on the 4th of July 1533.
He left feveral works behind him, whicji were printut
in folio in 1573.

FUAGE, in old Englill\ v.-riters, a tax of i2d. for
every fire, levied in the time of Edward III.

FUCINUS lACUS, in yJncient Gco^rabiy, a lake ot
1 i 2 ' Italy

Frutes

II
Fucntn.

F U C [

Italy in the country of the Marfi. Now Lago di Cela-
no, from a cognominal citadel, lying on the fouth of
the Abruzzo Ultra, in the kingdom of Naples, near the
Apennines. This lake was under the proteiElion of a
god of the fame denomination, uhofe temple ilood on
its banks. According to the teftimony of ancient au-
thors, it was fubjeft to extraordinary rifings and de-
creallngs. The actual circumference is 47 miles : tha
breadth in the wideft part is l o, in the narroweft 4 ;
its depth I 2 feet upon an average. But all thefe have
varied prodigioufly. Tivo miles up the plain, behind
Avezzano, the fragments of boats, ihells, and other
marks of its ancient extent, have been cafually difco-
vered : and, on the contrary, there are people uho re-
member ivhen it did not dow nearer than within two
miles of Avezzano. An immenfe traft of excellent
lands is loft at every increafe of its level. All round
this noble piece of water rifes a circle of grand moun-
tains, fome of them the highell in Italj-, if we except
the Alps, and many of them covered with fnow ; and
at the foot of them are numerous villages, with rich
and well cultivated farms. The environs of the lake,
Mr Swinburne defcribes as all well enclofed, and the
lides of the hills as covered with fine woods ; its waters
abound with filh of variotis kinds, and thither repair at
flated feafons innumerable flights of wild fowl. As
the fwelling of the lake was attended with incredible
damage, the Marli had often petitioned the fenate to
drain it : Julius Ciefar would have attempted it, had he
lived longer. His fucceflbrs were averfe to the pro-
ject ; till Claudius, who delighted in expenlive difficult
enterprifes, undertook it. During the fpaoe of 1 1
years he employed 30,000 men in digging a paflage
through the mountain ; and when every thing was
ready for letting ofi" the water, exhibited a fuperb na-
val fpedacle on the lake. A great number of con-
demned criminals were obliged to aft the parts of Rho-
dians and Sicilians in feparate fleets, to engage in ear-
reft, and to deftroy one another for the entertainment
of the court and the multitude of fpeclators that co-
vered the hills : A line of well armed veflels and rafts
loaded with foldiers furrounded the fcene of aftion, in
order to prevent any of the wretches from efcaping •,
but it was with great difficulty and many threats that
they could be brought to an engagement. When
this favage diverfion was ended, the operations for
opening |,the palTage commenced, and the emperor
\vas veiy near being fwept away and drowned by the
fudden loilhing of the waters towards it. However,
either through the ignorance or negligence of the
engineers, the work did not anfwer as was expected,
and Claudius did not live long enough to have the
faults amended : Nero abandoned the fcheme through
envy. Hadrian is faid to have let off the waters of the
Fucinus ; but none now efcape except through hidden
channels formed by nature, which are probably fubjeft
to be obftrufled, and thus occailon a fuperabundance
of water in the lake, till fome unknown caufe removes
the obftrui51ions and again gives free paffage.

Sir Wilham Hamilton, who vifited the Fuclnus in
1785, fays, " it is the moft beautiful 'lake he ever faw,
and would be complete if the neighbouring mountains
were better wooded." It furnilhes abundance of filh,
though not of the beft quality. There are a few large
trout, but moftly tench, barbel and dace. In the

252 ] F U E

{hallow water on the borders of the lake, he faw thou-
fands of water fnakes purluing and preying upon a
little kind of filh like our thornbacks, but much bet-
ter armed ; though their defenfive weapons feeraed to
avail them but little againft fuch ravenous foes. The
opening made by Claudius he defcribes as ftill entire,
though, in many parts, filled with earth and rubbifti. He
went into it with torches as far as he could. It is a
covered underground canal three miles long, and part of
it cut through a hard rock ; and other parts fupported
by maton work, with wells to give light. Hadrian is
faid to have let off the waters of the lake : and our
author is of opinion, that if the canal were cleared and
repaired, it would ftill anfiver that purpofe, and there-
by reftore a great deal of rich land fit for cultiva-
tion.

FUCUS, a name given by the ancients to certain
dyes and paints. By this name they called a purple
fea plant ufed by them to dye woollen and linen things
of that colour. The dye was very beautiful, but not
lafting ; for it foon began to change, and in time
went wholly off. This is the account Theophrallus
gives of it.

The women of thofe times alfo ufed fomething CTtVi-
edfucus, to ftain their cheeks red ; and many have fup-
pofed, from the fame word expreffing both, that the
fame fubflance was ufed on both occafions. But this,
on a ftricl inquiry, proves not to be the cafe. The
Greeks called every thing fucus that would ftain or
p4nt the flefh. But this peculiar fubftance ufed by
the women to paint their cheeks was dillinguilhed from
the others by the name of rixdon am.ong the more cor-
rect writers, and was indeed a root brought from Syria-
into Greece. The Latins, in imitation of the Greek
name, called this root radlcula ; and Pliny very erro-
neoufly confounds the plant v\ith the radix lunaria, or
Jirulhion of the Greeks.

The wor A focus was in thofe times become fuch an
univerfal name for paint, that the Greeks and Romans
had ^ focus melallicus, which was the cerufe ufed for
painting the neck and arms white ; after which they
ufed the purpurijfiim, or red fticus of the rizium, to
give the colour to the cheeks. In after-times they alfo
ufe a peculiar focus or paint for the purpofe, prepa-
red of the creia argentaria, or filver-chalk, and fome of
the rich purple dyes that were in ufe at that time : and
this feems to have been very little different from our
rofe-pink ; a colour commonly fold at the colour-lhopS,
and ufed on like occafions.

Fucus, in the Linmean fyftem of botany, is a ge-
nus of the order of algte, belonging to the cryptoga-
mia clafs of plants.

FUEGO, or FoGO, one of the Capede Verd iflands,
in the Atlantic ocean. It is much higher than any ot
the reft ; and leems, at fea, to be one fingle mountain,
though on the fides there are deep valleys. There is a
volcano at the top which burns continually, and may
be feen a great way off at fea. . It vomits a great deal
of fire and fmoke, and throws out huge pieces of rock
to a vaft height ; and fomelinies torrents of melted mat-
ter run down the fides. The Portuguefe, who firft in-
habited it, brought negro flaves with them, and a ftock
of cows, horfes, and hogs ; but the chief inhabitants
now arc blacks, of the Romilh religion. W. Long.,
24. 47. N. Lat. IC. 20.

FUEL.

FUG [ 253 ]

Fuel FUEL, whatever is proper to burn or make a fire ;

II as wood, turf, peat, bituminous earths, coal, &c.

'^"S"^- , FUEN-HOA, a city of China, in the province of

' Pc-tchdi, celebrated for its extent and the number

of its inhabitmts, as well as for the beauty of its

flreets and triumphal arches. It is fituated near the

great wall, amidil mountains ; and has under its jurif-

diction, befiJes two cities of the lecond, and eight of

FUG

the third clafs, a great number of fortrelTes, which bar
the entrance of China againft tlie Tartars.

FUGALIA, in Roman antiquity, a feafl fuppofed
by fome to be the fame with the refugitim, held on the
24th of February, in memory of the expullion of the
kings and the abolilhing of monarchical government.
Others again diftlnguifh the fugalia from the regifuge.
And others think, that the fugalia was the fame with
the poplifugia, or the feafl of Fugia, the goddefs of
joy, occafioned by the rout of an enemy, which was
the reafon the people abandoned themfelves.to riot and
debauchery.

FUGITIVE, a perfon obliged to fly his country,
or remove from a place where he had fome abode or
elf ablilhraent, on account of his crimes, debts, or other
occafions.

FuairiFE Pieces, among the learned, denote thofe
little compofitions which are printed on loofe (beets
or half (lieets ; thus called, becaufe eafily loll and foon
forgotten.

FUGUE, in Mujic (from the Latin Jltga, " a
chafe"), a piece of mufic fometiraes longer and fome-
times iLortcr, in which, agreeable to the rules of har-
mony and modulation, the compoier treats a fubjecl ;
or, in other words, what exprelTes the capital thought
or lentiment of the piece, in cauling it to pafs fucceflively
and alternately from one part to another.

Thefe are the principal rules of the fugue ; af which
fome are peculiar to itfelf, and others common to it
with what the French call imitaUon.

1. The fubjeiSl proceeds from rfhe tonic to the do-
minant, or from the dominant to the tonic, in rifmg or
defcending.

2. Every fugue finds its refponfe in the part imme-
diately following that which commenced.

5. That refponfe ought to refurae the fubjeft in the
interval of a fourth or fifth above or below the key.

5. It IS neceiTary tliat the fugue ftiould be planned In
fuch a manner, that the refponfe may commence before
the dole of the firll air, fo that both the one and the
other may be in part heard at tlie fame time : that, by
this anticipation, the fuljjtft rr,ay be as it were con-
nefted with itfelf, and that the art of the compofer may
difcover itfelf in this concourfe. It is abfolutc mockery,
inftead of a fugue, to impofe upon the hearers the fame
air, merely tranfpofed from one key to another, with-
out any other relfraint than an accompanimetit after-
wards formed at pleafure. This deferves at bell no
better name than what the French call imitation. See
Imitation-.

Befides thefe rules, which are fundamental, there are
others which, though prefcrlbed by tafte alone, are not
lels eiTential. Fugues, in general, render muCc more noify
than agreeable ; it is for this reafon that they are mor<3
agreeable in the chorus than anywhere elfe. Now, a^
their chief merit confifls in fixing the ear on the prin-
cipal_ air or fubjecl, which for this reafon is made to
pafs incelfantly from part to part, and from mode to
mode, the compofer ought to exert liis care in pre-
ferving that air always diftlna ; or to prevent it from
being abforbed in, or confounded with, the other parts. .
To produce this effefl, there are two different ways ;
one it: the movement, which muft be incelTantly con-
trafted with itfelf; fo that, if the procedure of the
fugue be accelerated, the other parts more gravely and
\yith protraded notes ; or, on the contrary, if the mo-
tion of the fugue be How and folemn, the accompani-
ments muft have more and quicker bufmefs. The other
method is to extend the harmony, by removing the
parts at a greater diftance one from the other ; left the
others, ^ too nearly approximated to that which contains
the fubjetl, ftiould be confounded with it, and prevent
it from being dlftinguiflied with fulficient clearnefc ;
fo that what ivould be an imperfeaion anywhere elfe,
becomes here a beauty.

The imlty of melody ftiould be preferved : this is
the great and general rule, which muft frequently be
praflifed by dift'erent means. The chords muft be
cholen, and the intervals, fo that one particular found
may produce the chief effed ; tlils can only refult from
the unity of the melody. It will fometimes'be neceiTary
to employ voices and inftruments of different kinds.

Fngat

and to purfue it as exaftly as the laws of harmony will that the parts which ought to prevail may be moft*

admit ; proceeding from the dominant to the tonic eafily diftinguilted ; this again ihows the neceftity of

when the fubjeifl is introduced from the tonic to the preferving the unity of the melody. Another objedl of

dominant, and moving in a contrary direction when the -»•—•:-- - - 1 /- <t ~

fubjeft is introduced from the dominant to the tonic.
One part may likewife refume the fame fubjecl in the

oftave or unifon of the preceding ; but in that cafe, it is
a repetition rather than a real refponfe.

4. As the otlave is divided into two unequal parts,
of which the one contains four gradations defcending
from the tonic to the dominant, and the other only
three in continuing the afcent from the dominant to the
tonic ; this renders it neceflary to have fome regard to
this change in the expreftion of the fabjea, and to make
fome alterations in the refponfe, that we m ly not quit
the cords that are effential to the mode. It is a different
cafe wlien the compofer intends to alter the modulation ;
for there the exadnefs of the refponfe itfelf, when taken
in a different tone, produces the alteration proper for
this change.

attention, no lefs neceffary, is, in the different connec-
tions of modulation which are introduced by the pro-
cedure and progrefs of the fugue, to caufc all thefe
modulations to correfpftnd at the fame time in all the
parts, to conneft the whole in its progrefs by an exaft
conformity of modes ; left, if one part be in one mode,
and another in another, the general harmony ftiould be
in none at all, and for that reafon ftiould no longer be
able to produce funple cffefts upon the ear, nor fimple
ideas In the mind ; which is another reafon for pre-
ferving unity of melody. In a word, in every fugue the
confufion of melodies and modulations is at once what
a compofer has moli to fear, and will find the grcatelt
dlfticulty in avoiding ; and as this kind of mufic rfevei
produces a pleafure above mediocrity, one may fay that
a fine fugue is, though the maftcrpicct of an cvccllci.t
harmonift, ungrateful to his toil.

Thcr;

Fulcrum

Fuller.

« See

F U L

are ftill feveral other kinds of fugu

r 254 ]

F U L

There are ftill feveral other kinds of fugues ; fuch as
the perpetual fugue *, the double fugue, the inverted
fUgue.

The inverted fugue is a manner of coijipofition, in
^vhich the flying part proceeds in a contrary direction
to the other fugue, which had been formerly fixed in
the fame piece of raufic. Thus, when the firft fugitive
part is heard in afcending from the tonic to the domi-
nant, or from the dominant to the tonic, the counter
fugue ought to be heard in defcending from the domi-
nant to the tonic, or from the tonic to the dominant,
and vice -verfa. Its other rides are exaftly like thofe of
the common fugue.

FULCRUM, in Mechanics, the prop or fupport by
which a lever is fullained.

FULDA, a confiderable town of Germany, in the
circle of the Upper Rhine, and in the Buchow, with a
celebrated abbey ; whofe abbot is primate of the ab-
beys of the empire, perpetual chancellor of the emperor,
and fovereign of a fmall territory lying between Heffe,
Franconia, and Thuringia. It is feated on the river
Fulda, 55 miles fouth of Caffel, and 58 north-eaft of
Francfort. E. Long. 9. 53. N. Lat. 50. 40.

FULGORA, a genus of infers belonging to the order
of hemiptera. See Entomology IncieK.

FULHAM, a village of Middlefex, four mile^ from
London. The Danes in 869 wintered at this place
till they retired to the continent. It was in the Con-
queror's time held of the king by the canons of St
Paul's ; and there is an ancient houfe here, which is
moated about, and belongs to the fee of London, whofe
bilhop has a palace here, and the demefne has belonged
to that diocefe from 1067. From this place to Putney
there is a ivooden bridge over the Thames, where not
only horfes, coaches, and all carriages, but even foot
paflengers, pay toll. The church here is both a reftory
and a vicarage.

FULICA, the gallinule and coot, a genus of
birds belonging to the order of grallse. See Ornitho-
logy Index.

FULIGINOUS, whatever proceeds from a thick
footv fmoke, fuch as lamp black.

FULIGNO, a city of Italy, in the pope's territories,
10 miles north of Spoletto.

FULIGO, in Natural HiJIonj, a fpecies of pumlce-
ftone. See Pi'mice.

FULLER, Dr Thomas, a learned Englifti divine,
was bom at Alvinckle, near Oundle, in Northampton-
(hire, about the year 1608, and ftudied at Cambridge.
He was chofen minifter of St Bennet's there ; and at
about 23 years of age, his merit procured him a fel-
lowihip in Sidney-college, and a prebend in Salilbury
cathedral. He was foon after prefented to the redtory
of Broad Windfor in Dorfetfliire ; and afterwards ^vas
made leclurer of the Savoy in London : but upon the
preffing of the covenant, he retired to Oxford ; and
foon after accompanied Sir Ralph Hopton as his
chaplain in the army, which he attended in their
marches from place to place. After the death of King
Charles J. he obtained the living of Waltham-abbey,
and was appointed lefturer of St Clement's •, and
fliortly after removed to the leirlure of St Bridge's,

doctor of divinity. It is faid, his memory was <o te-
nacious and comprehenllve, that he could make ufe of "
a fermon verbatim if he once heard it. He once
undertook, in pafling to and from Temple-bar to the
Poultry, to tell at his return every fign as it flood in
order on both fides of the way, repeatnig them either
backivards or forwards ; and this talk he actually per-
formed. He wrote, i. A Hillory of the Holy War.
2. The Church-Hiftory of Britain, in folio. 3. An-
dronicus, or the Unfortunate Politician, in 8vo. 4 A
Pifgah-fight of Palelline. 5. A Hillory of Euglifli
Worthies; and other works.. Fie died in Auguft 1661 ;
and was interred in the chancel of Cranford church, in
Middlefex, whither his body was attended by at.leaft
200 of his brethren of the miniflry.

Fuller, a workman employed in the woollen
manufaclories to mill or fcour cloths, ferges, and other
fruffs, in order to render them more thick, compaft,
and durable. See Fulling.

Fuller's Earth, in Natural Hijlori/, a fpecies of clay,
of a grayilh aHi-coloured brown, in all degrees from
very pale to almoll black, and it has generally fome-
thing of a greeniih call. It is very hard and firm, of a
compact texture, of a tough and fomewhat dully furface
that adheres llightly to the tongue. It is very foft to
the touch, not ftaining the hands, nor breaking eafily
between the fingers. It has a little harftinefs between
the teeth, and melts freely in the mouth. Thrown into
water, it makes no ebullition or hilhng ; but fwells
gradually in bulk, and falls into a fine foft powder. It
makes no effervefcence with aquafortis.

The greateft quantity and the finell earth of this
kind in the world, is dug in the pits at Wavedon, near
Wobum in Bedfordfliire. The llrata in thefe pits lie
thus : From the furface to the depth of fix feet, there
are feveral layers or beds of fand, all reddilh, but fome
lighter coloured than others. Under thefe there is a
thin ibatum of a fand-ilone, which they break through,
and then there is the fuller's earth. The upper ftra-
tum of this is about a foot thick : the workmen call
it cledge, and throw it afide as ufelefs ; being commonly
fouled with the fand %vhich originally covered it, and
which infinuates itfelf a good way into it. After this,
they come to the fine fuller's earth for fale, which lies
to the depth of eight feet more. The matter of this
is divided into feveral layers, there being commonly
about a foot and an half between one horizontal fifiure
and another. Of thefe feveral layers, the upper half,
where the earth breaks itfelf, is tinged red ; which
feems to be owing to the running of the water upon it
from among the fands above ; fome of which are pro-
bably of a ferruginous nature, or have fcrrughious
matter among them. This reddiih fuller's earth the
workmen call crof> ; and between the cledge and this
there is a thin llratum of matter, of lefs than an inch,
which in tafle, colour, and external appearance, re-
fembles the terra Japonica of the (hops. The lower
half of the ftrata of fuller's earth they call wall-eartli.
This is untinged with the red colour of the other, and
feems the moll proper for fulling. Under the fuller's
earth there is a ftratum of white and coarfe flone about
two feet thick. l"hey feldom dig through this j but if

Fleet-ftrcet. Upon the relloration, he recovered his they do, they find more llrata of fand.

prebend in the cathedral of Salifliury, was appointed 'I'his earth is of great ufe in icouring cloths, ftu£&,

• ■haplain extraordinary to his majefty, and created &c. imbibing all the greafe and oil ulfd in preparing,

I dreiTmgj

F U L f 2

drcding, &c. of the wool ; for which reafon it is made
a contraband commodity, and is not to l^e exported
under the penalty of ts. for every pound weight. See
Fltl"i.ixg.

Fl-llek's Weed, or Tea%le. See Dipsacus, Botany
Inhx.

FULLER Y, a place where cloths, &c. are ftilled.
See tl.e ncv article.

FULLING, the art or a£l of cleanfing, fcourin,?,
and preiling cloths, ftufFs, and (lockings, to render
them llronger, clofer, and firmer : called alfo milling.
Pliny (lib vii. cap. 56.) afllires, that one Nicia?, the
fon of Hermias, was the firft inventor of the art of
fulling : and it appears by an infcription, quoted by Sir
G. Wheeler, In his Travels through Greece, that this
feme Nicias was a governor in Greece in the time of
the Romans.

Fulling of woollen cloths, depends, like felling, fo
entirely upon the ftrufture of wool and hair, that thofe
who have read our account of that procefs, will not
find it dilBcult to comprehend the following obferva-
tions.

The afperities with which the furface of wool is
everywhere furrounded, and the difpofition which it has
to alTtime a progrelhve motion towards the root, render
the ipinning of wool, and making it into cloth, difficult
operations. In order to fpin wool, and afterwards con-
vert it into cloth, its fibres mull be covered witli a
coating of oil, which, filling the ca\-ities, renders the
afperities lefs fenfible ; in the fame way as oil renders
the lurface of a very fine file lefs rough, when rubbed
over it. When the piece of cloth is finifhed, it mull be
cleanfed from this oil ; which would Caufe it to foil
whatever it came in contaft with, befides giving it a
dilagreeable fmell, and prevent its taking the colour
which is intended to be given to it by the dyer. To
deprive it of the oil, it is carried to the fulling-mill,
where it is beat with hammers in a trough full of water,
in v.hich fome clay has been mixed ; the clay combines
with the oil, which it feparates from the cloth, and both
together are walhed away by the freih water which is
brought to it by the machine; thus, after a certain time,
the oil is entirely wallied out of the cloth.

But the fcouring of the cloth is not the only objeiSl
in fulling it ; the alternate preflure given by the mallets
to the piece of cloth, occafions, efpecially when the
fcouring is pretty far advanced, an effeCl analogous to
that which is produced upon hats by the hands of the
hatter ; the fibres of wool which compofe one of the
threads, whether of the warp or the woof, affume a
progrellive movement, introduce themfelves among
thofe of the threads nearell to them, then into thole
which follow ; and thus, by degrees, all the threads,
both of the warp and the woof, become feited together.
The cloth, after having, by the above means, become
fhortened in all its diraenfions, partakes both of the
nature of cloth and of that of felt ; it may be cut with-
out being fubject to ravel, and, on that account, we
are not obliged to hem the edges of the pieces of which
clothes are made. Laflly, as the threads of the warp
and thofe of the woof are no longer fo dillinfl and fepa-
rated from each other, the cloth, which has acquired a
greater degree of thicknefs, forms a warmer clothing.
Knit wopfted alfo is, by fulling, rendered lefs apt to
fun, in cafe a ftitch (hould happen to drop ia-it.

SS ] F CJ L

The fulling of cloths and other fluffs Is performed Fulling.

by a kind of water-mill, thence called Si fulling oifcour- '""-

ing mil'/.

Thefe mills, excepting in what relates to the mill-
ftones and hopper, are much the fame v^ith com mills :
and there are even fome which ferve indifferently for ei-
ther ufe : corn being ground, and cloths fulled, by the
motion of the fame wheel. Whence, in fome places,
particularly in France, the fullers are called miilers ; as
grinding corn and milling fluffs at the fame time.

The principal parts of the fulling-mill are, The
wheel, with its trundle; which gives motion to the tree
or fpindle, whofe teeth communicate it to the pellles
or Hampers, which are hereby raifed and made to fall
alternately according as its teeth catch on or quit a
kind of latch in the middle of each peftle. The peftles
and troughs are of wood ; each trough having at lead
two, fometimes three pefllcs, at the difcretion of the
mailer, or according to the force of the flream of wa-
ter. • In thefe troughs are laid the cloths, fluffs, &c.
intended to be fulled ; then, letting the current of
water fall on the wheel, the peflles are fuccefhvely let
fall thereon, and by their weight and velocity Itamp
and prefs the (luffs very flrongly, which by this means
become thickened and condenled. In the courfe of
the operation, they fometimes make ufe of urine
fometimes of fuller's earth, and fometimes of foap.
To prepare the fluffs to receive the firll irapreffions of
the petlle, they are ufually laid in urine ; then in fiol-
ler's earth and water ; and, laftly, in foap diffolved in
hot water. Soap alone would do very well ; but this
is expcnlive : though fuller's earth, in the way of our
drefhng, is fcarce inferior thereto ; but then it mull be
well cleared of all Hones and grittineffes, which are apt
to make holes in the fluff. As to urine, it is certainly
prejudicial, and ought to be entirely difcarded ; not
fo much on account of its ill fmell, as of its Iharpnefs
and faltnefs, ivhich qualities are apt to render the fluffs
dry and harfh.

The true method of fulling with foap is delivered by
Monf. Colinet, in an authentic memoir on that fubjedt,
fupported by experiments made by order of the mar-
quis de Louvois, then fupermtendant of the arts and
manufactories of France ; the fubft^nce of which we
(liall here fubjoin.

Method of FvLLtsa C/oths and Woollen Stuffs nx-it/i
Soap. — A coloured cloth, of about 45 ells, is to be laid
in the ufual manner in the trough of a fiilling-mill ;
without firft foaking it in water, as is commonly prac-
ti fed in many places. To full this trough of cloth, 15
pounds of foap are required ; one-half of which is to
be melted in two pails of river or fpring water, made
as hot as the hand can well bear it. This folution is to
be poured by little and little upon the cloth, in pro-
portion as it is laid in the trough : and thus it is to be
fulled for at Icall two hours ; after which it is to be ta-
ken out and flretched. This done, the cloth is imme-
diately returned into the fame trough, without any
new foap, and there fulled two hours more. Then
taking it out, they wring it well, to cxprefs all the
greafe and filth. After the fccond fulling, the remain-
der of the foap is diffolved as in the former, and caft
four different times on the cloth ; remembering to take-
out the cloth every two hours, to flretch it, and undo
the plaits and wrinkles it has acquired in the trough.

When

F U N

[ 25^ ]

F U N

Wlien they perceive it fufficiently fuUeJ, and brought
to the quality and thicknefs required, they Icour it for
good in hot ^veather, keeping it in the trough till it be
' quite cleEn. As to white cloths 5 in regard thefe full
more eafy and in lefs time than coloured onesj a third
part of the foap may be fpared.

Fulling of Stockings, Caps, &c. fliould be performed
fomewhat differently ; viz. either with the feet or the
hands ; or a kind of rack, or wooden machine, either
armed with teeth of the fame matter, or elfe horfes or
bullocks teeth. The ingredients made ufe of herein
are, urine, green foap, white foap, and fuller's earth.
But the urine alfo is reckoned prejudicial here. Woven
ftockings, &c. ihould be fulled with foap alone : for
thofe that are knit, earth may be ufed with the foap.
Indeed it is fretjuent to full thefe kinds of works with
the mill, after the ufual manner of cloth, &c. But that
is too coarfe and violent a manner, and apt to damage
the work unlefs it be very ftrong.

FULMAR, in Ornithology. See Procellaria, Or-
nithology Index.

Fulmar, or Foumart. See Mustela, Mammalia
Index.

FULMINATING, fomething that thunders or
refembles thunder.

Fulminating Gold, Silver, Copper, ^ichjilver, &c.
See Cheimiscry Index.

FULMINATION, in Chemijlry, the fame with
detonation.

Fulminatiok, in the Romiih canon Iaw> a fentence
of a biflwp, othcial, or other ecclefialfic appointed by
the pope, by which it is decreed that fome bull fent
from the pope fliall be executed.

FUMARIA, FUMITORY, a genus of plants belong-
ing to the diadelphia clafs, and in the natural method
ranking under the 24th order, Corydales. See Botany
Index.

FUMIGATION, in Chemiflry, a kind of calcina-
tion, \vhen metals or other hard bodies are corroded
or foftened by receiving certain fumes for that pur-
pofe.

Fumigation, in Medicine. By the fubtile fumes
that are infpired as well as inhaled into our bodies,
much benefit or prejudice is produced, according to the
nature of the matter, and the conftitution hito which it
is received ; as is evident from the palfies produced a-
mong workers in lead-mines, &c. and the benefits re-
ceived in many caies when the air is impregnated with
falutary materials. Catarrhs and catarrhous coughs are
relieved by fumes received with the breath ; and, by
the fame method, expedloration is aflilled in humoural
allhmas ; and even ulcers in the lungs are faid to have
been healed by this method. The advantage of mercu-
rial fumigations in the cure of venereal ulcers is known
to every praftitioner.

FUMITORY. See Fumaria, Botany Index.

FUNAMBULUS, among the Romans, was what
we call a rope-dancer, and the Greeks fclioenobates. See

Kope-DjNC£R.

There was a funatnbulus, it feems, who perform-
ed at the time when the Hecyra of Terence was
afted ; and the poet complains, that the fpeftacle
prevented the people from attending to his comedy.
Ita populus Jludio Jliipidui in funambalo, animiim oceu-
farat,

2

At Rome, the funambuli firll appeared under the
confulate of Sulpicius Pa;ticus and Licinius Stolo,
who were the tirll introducers of the fcenic repre-
fentations. It is added, that they were firlt exhibit
in the ifland of the Tyber, and that the cenfors
Meffala and Caflius afterwards promoted them to the
theatre.

In the Floralia, or ludi Floralcs, held under Galba,
there were funambulatory elephants, as we are inform-
ed by Suetonius. Nero alfo ihowed the like, in honour
of his mother Agrippina. Vopifcus relates the fame of
the time of Carinus and Numerianus.

FUNCHAL, the capital of Madeira, fituated round
a bay, on a gentle afcent, and containing about i 5,000
inhabitants. It is watered by levcral flrearas from
the mountains ; and is defended by a caiUe on a
deep rock, which is furrounded by the fea -at high
water. The houfes are built of brick or free-flone ;
but the ftreets are narrow, dark and dirty. W. Long,
17. 6. N. Lat. 32. 38.

FUNCTION, the aft of fulfilHng the duties of any
employment.

Function*, being alfo applied to the aflions of the
body, is by phyficians divided into vital, animal, and
natural. The vital fundions are thofe neceifary to Ufe,
and without which the individual cannot fubfill ; as
the motion of the heart, lungs, &c. The natural func-
tions are fuch as it cannot fubfift any confiderable
time without ; as the digeftion of the aliment, and its
converfion into blood. Under animal fundfions are
included the fenfes of touching, tailing, &c. memory,
judgment, and voluntary motion ; without any or all
of which an animal may live, but not very comfort-
ably.

The animal fiindions perform the motion of the
body by the adlion of the mufcles ; and this aftion
confifts .chiefly in the fliortening the flelhy fibres,
which is called contraclion, the principal agents of
which are the arteries and nerves dillributed in the
flelhy fibres.

All parts of the body have their own fimftions, or
anions, peculiar to themfelves. Life confifts in the ex-
crcife of thefe funftions, and health in •Ca.efree and ready
exercife of them.

Function, a term ufed in analytics for an algebraical
expreflion any how compounded of a certain letter or
quantity with other quantities or numbers j and the ex-
preflion is faid to be a funftion of that letter or quanti-
ty. 'J'hus a — 4.V, or fl.r + 3.1;', or ix — av'a" — -v*,
or *^, or c*, is each of them a funftion of the quan-
tity Xi

FUND, in general, fignifies any fum of money ap-
propriated for a particular purpofe. Thus, that part
of the national revenue which is fet apart for the pay-
ment of the national debt, is called the Jinking fund.
But, when we fpeak of the funds, we generally mean
the large fums v.hich have been lent to government,
and conftitute the national debt ; and for which the
lenders, or their aflignees, receive interell from rtve-
nues allotted for that purpofe. The tcrni_/?Of;t is ufed
in the fame fenfe, and is alio applied to the fums which
form the capital of the bank of England, the Fall In-
dia and South Sea companies ; the proprietors of which
are entitled to a Ihare of the profits of the refpeftive
companies.

The

FUN [2:

The praifiice of funding was -introduced by the Ve-
netians and Genoefe in the l6th century, and has been
adopted iince by moft of the nations in Euroi'e. Prin-
ces had often borrowed money, in former times, to
iupply their exigencies, and fometimes mortgaged their
territories in fecurity : but thefc loans were generally
extorted, and their payment was always precarious ;
for it depended on the good faith and fuccefs of the
borrower, and never became a regular burden on po-
llerlty. The origin of funds is derived from the pecu-
liar manners and circumliances of modern Europe.
Since the invention of gunpowder, and the progrefs
of commerce, the milhary occupation has become a
diftincl employment in tlie hands of mercenaries ; the
apparatus of war is attended with more expcnce ; and
the decilion of national quarrels has often been deter-
mined by command of money rather than by national
bravery. Ambitious princes have therefore borrowed
money, in order to carrj' on their proje£ls ^vith more
vigour. Weaker Hates have been compelled, in felf-
defcnce, to apply to the fame refource ; the wealth in-
troduced by commerce has afforded the means ; the
regularity of adrainillration, ellabliihed in confequence
ot the progrefs of civility, has incrcalcd . the confi-
Qence of individuals in the public lecurity ; the com-
plicated fylfem of modem policy has extended the
I'lenes of war, and prolonged their duration ; and the
colonies eftablilhed by mercantile nations . have ren-
dered them vulnerable in more points, and increafed
the expence of defending them.

When a greater lum has been required for the an-
r.a;il expence than could eafily be lupplied by annual
taxes, the government have propofed terms to their
own fubjeds, or foreigners, for obtaining an advance
of money by mortgaging the revenue of future years
lor their indemnification. This mortgage may either
be for a limited period, or perpetual. If the fum allot-
ted annually for the benefit of thoie who advance the
money, be confiderably greater than the interelh of
the lums advanced, they may agree to accept of fuch
;Jlowance, for a limited time, as a full equivalent.
Thus, they may either agree for the cafual produce
of the revenue alFigned ; or a fixed annuity for a great-
er or lefs number of years ; or a life annuity to them-
lelves or nominees ; or an annuity for two or more lives ;
or an annuity, with the benefit of furvivorlhip, called a
tontine, in which fcheme, the whole fiim to which the
original annuitants were entitled continues to be diftri-
buted among the furvivors.

The cltablilhment of the funds was introduced in
Britain at the Revolution ; and has fince been gradually
enlarged, and carried to an amazing extent. The va-
rious methods above-mentioned have been ufed in their
turns, but perpetual annuities have been granted for
the greateft part ; and, even when the money was ori-
ginally advanced on other conditions, the lenders have
been ibmetimes induced, by fubfequent offers, to accept
of perpetual annuities, inilead of the former terms.
The debt for which perpetual annuities are granted, is
railed the rediemable debt, and the other is called the
irredeemable dcot. Although the debts thus contrafted
by government are feldom jraid for a long term of
years ; yet any creditor of the public may obtain
money for what is due him when he pleafts, by trans-
ferring his property in the funds to another; and

Vol. IX. Part I.

7 ] FUN

regular methods arc appointed for tranfacling tiicfe F.iii>!
transfers in an e:ily manner. By means of this, the ■"">""
flocks become a kind of circulating capital ; and have
the fame cffcff, in fome refpeCts, as the circulating
money in the nation. Wiicn a ftockholdcr transfers
his ihare, he may (ometimcs be able to ootain a pieatcr
price than the original value, and at other times be ob-
liged to accept of a lefs one. The value of the hinds
depends on the proportion between the intcrell; they
bear, and the benefit which may be obtanied by ap-
pK-ing the money to other purpofes. It is inthienccd
by the plenty or fcarcity of money, and by the quan-
tity of the public debt ; and it is impaired by any eveiit
which threatens the fafety, or weakens the credit, of
the government.

The bufinefs of flock-jobbing is founded on the va-
riation of the prices of flock. Perfons poffeiTed of real
property may buy or fell flock, according to their no-
tion that the value is likely to rife or fall, in '■xpefla-
tion of making profit by the ditference of price. And
a praclice has taken place among perfons who often
poflefs no property in the funds, to contraft for the
fale of flock againft a future day, at a price now a-
grecd on. For inftance : A agrees to fell B loool. of
bank flock, to be transferred, in 20 days, for I 2oii.
A has, in faft, no fuch flock ; but, if the price of
bank flock, on the day appointed for the transfer,
ftiould be only 1 1 8 per cent. A may purchafe as much
as will enable him to ftdfll his bargain for 1 1 Sol. and
thus gaiuj 20l. by the tranfacfion ; on the contrary,
if the price of bank flock be I 25 per cent, he will lofe
50I. The bufinefs is generally fettled without any
atlual purchafe or transfer of flock, by A paying to B,
or receiving from him, the difference between the cur-
rent price of the flock on the day appointed and the
price barganied for.

This praclice, which is really nothing elfe than a
wager concerning the price of flock, is contrary to
law ; yet it is carried on to a great extent. In the
language of Exchange Alley, where matters of this
kind are tranfafted, the buyer is called a bu//, and the
feller a bear. As neither party can be compelled by
law to implement thefe bargains, their fenfe of honour,
and the difgrace and lofs of future credit, which at-
tend a breach of contraft, are the principles by which
the bufinefs is fupported. When a perfon declines to
pay his lofs, he is called a lame duck, and dare never
afterwards appear in the Alley. This opprobrious
appellation, however, is not bellowed on thofe whofe
failure is owing to want of ability, providing they
make the fame furrender of their property voluntarily,
which the law would have exafted if the debt had been
entitled to its famflion.

The interefl or dividend on the flock is paid half-
yearly ; and the purchafer has the benefit of the inte-
refl due on the flock he buys, from the lafl term to the
time of purchafe. Therefore the prices of the flocks
rife gradually, ccdcris fiaribur, from term to term, and
fall at the term when the interefl is paid. In compar-
ing the prices of the different flocks, it is neceffary to
advert to the term when the hft interefl was paid ;
and, allowance being made for this circumflance, the
prices of all the government flocks, which bear inte-
refl at the fame rate, muft be nearly the fame, as they
all depend on the fame fecurity.

K k When

FUN [25

When a loan is pvopofed, i'uch terras muft be offer-
ed to the lenders, as may render the trania61ion bene-
ficial : and this is now regulated by the prices of the
old flocks. If the Hocks, wl-.ich bear intereft at 4. per
cent, fell at par, or rather above, the government raay
expeft to borrow money at that rate ; but, if thele
flocks are ur.der par, the goveniraent muil either grant
a higher intereft, or fome other advantage tg tlie lend-
ers, in compenfation for the difference. Fot this pur-
pole, befides the perpetual annuity, another annuity
has fometimes been gra^ited for lite, or for a term ot
years. Lotteries have frequently been employed to
facilitate the loan, by entitling the fubfcribers to a cer-
tain number of tickets, for which no higher price is
charged than the exaft value dillributed in prizes, though
their market price is generally 2I. or 3I. higher. Some-
times an abatement of a certain proportion of the ca-
pital has been granted, and a lender entitled to hold
I col. ftock, though in reality he advanced no more
perhaps than 95I.

It belongs to the chancellor of the exchequer to
propofe the terms of the loan in parliament : and he
generally makes a previous agreement with fome weal-
thy merchants, Avho are willitig to advance the money
on the terras propofed. The fubfcribers to the loan
depofit a certain part of the I'um fubfcribed ; and are
bound to pay the rell by infialments, or ftated propor-
tions, on appointed days, under pain of forfeiting what
they have depofitcd. For this they are entitled, per-
haps, not only to held their (hare in the capital, but to
an annuity for 10 years, and to the right of receiving
a certain number of lottery tickets on advantageous
terms. They may fell their capital to one perfon, their
annuity to a fccond, and their right to the tickets to a
third. The value of all tbefe interells together is call-
ed omnium ; and, in order to obtain a ready fubfcrip-
tion, it ought to amount to 102I. or upwards, on tool.
of capital. This difference is called the bonus to the
fubfcribers.

The capital advanced to the public, in the form of
transferable flocks, and bearing interell from taxes ap-
propriated for that purpofe, is called the funded debt.
BeCdes, there is generally a coniiderable fum due by
government, which is not difpofed of in that manner,
Mnd therefore is dillinguillied by the appellation of the
unfunded debt. This may rife from any fort of national
cxpence, for which no prov-ifion has been made, or for
which the provUion has proved infufficient. The chief
branches are,

1 ft. Exchequer Bills. Thefe are iffued from the ex-
chequer, generally by appointment of parliament, and
ibmctimes without fuch appointment, when exigencies
require. I'hey bear intereft from the time when ilTued,
and are taken in by the Bank of England, which pro-
Tnotes their circulation.

2d, i^amj Bills. The fums annually granted for the
navy have always f.-.'len fliort of what that fervice re-
quired. To fupply that deficiency, the admiralty if-
fucs bills in payment of viduals, llores, and the like,
which bear intereft fix montlis after the time iffued.
The debt of the navy thus contraftcd is diichargcd,
from time to lime, by parliament.

In time of war, the public espences, fmce the Revo-
lution, have always been much greater than the annual
Tcvctiue ; and large fums have confcquently been bor-

8 ] FUN.

rowed. In time of peace, the revenue exceeds the Fi.

expence, and part of the public debt has frequently v

been paid oft". But, though there have been more years
of peace than of war fince the funds were eftablilhed,
the debts coutraiiled during each war have much ex-
ceeded the payments during the fubfequent peace.
This will appear by the following abllraft of the pro-
grefs of the national debt.

Debt at peace of Ryfwick, 1697 L. 21,515,472

Debt at the beginning of war 1701 16,394,701

Difcharged diu-ing peace 1697 '^'^ '7°' 5>' 21,071

Debt at peace of Utrecht 1714, includ-
ing value of annuities afterwards fub-
fcribed to South Sea ftock - 55,282,978
Conlrafted in war 1701 to 17 1 4 38,888,277
Debt at beginning of war 1740, includ-
ing l,occ,ocol. charged on ci\'il lift 47,954,623
Difcharged during peace 1714 to 1739 7)328,355
Debt at peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, i7-t8 79i'93,3t3
Contracted during war 1740 to 1 748 31,238,690
Debt at beginning of war 1756 73,289,673
Paid off" during peace 1748 to I 756 5,903,640
Debt funded at the peace 1763, includ-
ing 9,839,5971. then owing, which
was funded in the fubfequent years I33i957>270
Eefides this, there was about 6,ooo,oool.
of debt paid otF, without ever being
funded.
Funded debt, 1775 - . . 125,000,000
Paid ofl" during peace 1763 to 1 775, be-
fides unfunded debt above mention-
ed . V . - - 8,959,270
Funded at the peace 1783 21 1,363,254

The following is a ftate of the national debt at a
later period.
Amount of funded debt on 5th January

1805 - - L. 603,925,792

Stock created by loan of 1805 - 38,700,000

L. 642,625,792
Transferred for the redemption of the

land-tax - - 22,000,000

L. 620,625,792
Redeemed by the commiffioners for ma-
naging the finking fund - 113,500,000

Leaving as the amount of the national

debt on the 31ft January 1806. L. 507,1 25,792

It is to be obferved that nearly 100 millions of the
above amount of 507 millions, confift of 4 and 5 per
cent, ftock ; and if this be converted into 3 per cent,
ftock, it will make the total amount 557 millions; and
taking the 3 per cent, ftock at 60 per cent, the prefent
average price, the total capital of the debt in money is
334 millions of pounds fterling.

The original provifion of the ftnking fund, of a mil-
lion per annum, with the additions that have fince been
made to it ; and the dividends on ftock, bought up by
the commiftioneis for m.inaging that fund, amount ;it
this time (1806) to about eight millions per annum. It
has been calculated that the future rate of accumulation
of the finking fund, continuing the fame as hitherto,

uamcly,

FUN

t 259 1

FUN

Pmdamjn^ namely, at 5 per cent, the whole amount of the nation-
II al debt will be e\tinguiilied in 24 years ; for the an-
^^Y'"^ ""^ '"'^°'"^ "f *^-^ '^o"i"™»'^'°"6'^ for the management
•_ ^ ' ■ of the finking fund being eight millions, this will pro-
duce by the year

1810 the fum of L. 34,480,000

1820 156,700,000

1830 356,000,000

ivhich laft fum exceeds the prefent national debt.

FUXDAJ-IENT, in Anatomy, the lowell part of
the intertinum reClum, called by anatomills the anus.
.See Anatomy.

FUNDAMENTAL, in general, fomething that
fcr\ es as a bale or found.;tion for another.

FuKD.VMENT.%L, in Muftc. \ fundamental found is
that which forms the loweft note of the Chord, and
from whence are deduced the harmonical relations of
■f S£e TVn/V. the reft ; or, which ferves for a iiey to the tone f . The
fumiamenlal bafs is that which ferves for a foundation
to the harmony. A fundamental chord is that whofe
bafs is fundamental, and in which the founds are ran-
ged in the fame order as ^vhen they are generated, ac-
cording to the experiment fo often repeated by M.
d'AIembert, in his Preliminary Difcourfe and Elements
iSeeAf.'/i.jjf Mufic J, But as this order removes the parts to an
extreme diftance one from the other, they muft be ap-
proximated by combinations or in%erfions ; but if the
bafs remains the fame, the chord does not for this rea-
fon ceafe to bear the name oi fundamental. Such an
example is this chord, ul mifol, included in the inter-
val of a fifth : whi>"eas, in the order of its generation,
tit fo/ mi, it includes a tenth, and even a feventeenth ;
iiwce the fundamental ut is not the fifth oifol, but the
oSave of that fifth.

FvsDAMF.yTAL Bafs. This part in mufic is, accord-
ing to RoufTeau, and indeed according to all authors
who have proceeded upon JM. Rameau's experiment,
■n its primary idea, that bafs which is formed by the
fundamental notes of every perfect chord that conlfi-
tutes the harmony of the piece ; fo that under each
I hord it c.iufes to be heard, or underPtOod, the fun-
■ damental found of that particular cliord ; that is to
lay, the found from whence it is derived by the rales
of harmony. From whence v.e may fee, that the
fundamental bafs can have no other contexture than
that of a regular and fundamental fucceffion, without
which the procedure of the upper parts would be illegi-
iim.ite.

To underftand this well, it is iieceffary to be knouii,
that, according to the fyftem of Rameau, which Rouf-
feau has followed in his Didionary, every chord, though
compofed of feveral founds, can only have one which is
its fundamental, viz. that which produces this chord,
and which is its bafs according to the direct and natu-
ral order. Now, the bafs which prevails under all the
other parts, does not always exprefs the fundamental
founds of the chords ; for amonglf al! the founds which
form a chord, the compofer is at hbert; to transfer to
the bafs that v.-hich he thinks preferable •, regard being
had to the procedure of that bafs, to the beauty of the
melody, and above all to the cxpretTion, as may after-
wards be explained. In this cafe the real fundamental
found, inllead of retaining its natural ftation, which is
in the bafs, will either be transferred to fome of the

other parts, or perhaps even entirely i'upprcfTcd, W\A Fumiaci::
I'uch a chord is called an inverted chord. '^'-

In reaUty, fays Rameau, a chord inverted docs not '
differ from the chord in its dircft and natural order from
which it \vas produced : but as thefe founds form differ-
ent combinations, thefe combinations have long been
taken for fundamental chords ; different names have
been given them, (which may be feen at the word Ai -
CORD, in RoulTeau's Diiftionary). Thefe names, by the
perfons uho bellowed them, nere thought to create and
fanSify their diilinclions ; as if a difference in name';
could really produce a difference in the fpecics.

M. Rameau in his Treatife of Harmony has fliov.r,,
and M. d'AIembert in his Elements of iVIufic has Ifil!
more clearly evinced, that many of thefe pretendedly
different chords were no more tlnn inveriions of one
fingle chord. Thus the chord of the fixth is no more
than the perfect chord of the third trar.sfcrred to the
bafs •, by adding a fifth, we Ihall have the chord of the
fixth and fourth. Here there are three co.mbinations
of a chord, which only connlis of three founds ; thole
which contain foiu: founds are fufceptible of four
combinations, fince each of thefe founds may be tranf-
ferred to the bafs. But in adding beneath this another
bafs which, under all the combinations of one and the
fame chord, always prefents the fundamental found ; it
is evident, that confonant chords are reduced to the
number three, and the number of diffonant chords to
four. Add to this all the chords by fuppofition, which
may likewife be reduced to the fame fundamentals, and
you u-ill find harmony brought to a degree of fimplicity
in which no perfon could ever hope to fee it whillf its
rules remained in that ftate of confufion where M. Ra-
meau found them. It is certainly, as that author ob-
ferves, an aKoniihing occurrence, that the practice of
this art could be carried fo far as it really was, without
knowing its foundation ; and that all the rules v>ere fo
exactly found, without having difcovered the principle
on which they depended.

After having ihown what is the fundamental bafs be-
neath the chords, let us nov; fpeak of its procedure, and
of the manner in ^vhich it connects thefe chords among
therafelves. Ui^on this point the precepts of the art
may be reduced to the fix following rides.

1 . The fundamental bafs ought never to found any
other notes than thofe of the feries or tone in which
the compofer finds himfelf, or at lead thofe of the fe-
ries or tone to Avhich he choofes to make a tranfition.
This of all the rules for the fundamental bafs is the firil
and mod indifpenfahle.

2. By the fecond, its procedure ought to be fo impli-
citly fubjefted to the laws of modulation, as never to
fulTer the idea of a former mode to be lo;l till that of a
fubfequent one can be legitimately alTumcd ; that is to
fay, that the fundamental bafs ought never to be devi-
ous, or fuffcr us to be one moment at a lofs in \\ hat
mode we are.

3. «y the third, it is fubjefted to the connexion of
chords and the preparation of diflonances : a manituvre
which, as we fliall afterwards fee, is nothing clfe but
a method of producing this connexion, and which of
confet|uence is only neccflary when the connexion can-
not fublilt without it. See Connexion, Pklpara-

TIOX.

4. By the fourth, it is nccefTitated, after every dif-

Kk

fonance,

FUN r

Fundamen-lonance, to purfue that career which the refolution
tal. the diflbnance indifpenfably prefcribes. See Resolu-

' " ' ' TION.

5. By the fifth, which is nothing elfe but a confe-
quence of the former, the fundamental bafs ought
only to move by confonant intervals ; except alone
in the operation of a broken cadence, or after a chord
of the fevenlh diminilhed, where it rifes diatonically.
Ever)' other motion of the fundamental bafs is illegi-
timate.

6. By the fixth, in fliort, the fundamental bafs or
harmony ought not to be fyncopated ; but to diftin-
guiih the bars and the times wliich they contain, by
changes of chords properly marked with cadences ; in
fuch a manner, for inilance, that the diffbnances which
ought to be prepared may find their preparation in the
imperfect time, but chiefly that all the repofes may hap-
pen in the pcitetl time. This fixth rule admits of an
infinite number of exceptions ; but tiie compofer ought
however to be attentive to it, if he would form a mutic
in which the movements are properly marked, and in
which the bars may end gracerully.

Wherever thefe rules are obferved, the harmony fiiall
be regular and without fault : this, however, will not
hinder the mufic from being deteftable. See Composi-
tion.

A W'ord of illuftration on the fifth rule may not be
ufelefs. Whatever turn may be given to a funda-
mental bafs, if it is properly formed, one of thefe
alternatives muft always be found ; either perfect
chords movirkg by cunfonant intervals, without which
thefe chords would have no connexion ; or diflonant
chords in operations of cadence : in every other cafe,
the diiTonance can neither be properly placed nor pro-
perly refolvcd.

From thence it follows, that the fundamental bafs
cannot move regularly but in one of thefe three man-
ners : I ft, To rife or defcend by a third or by a fixth.
2dly, By a fourth or a fifth, sd'ly, To rife diatonically
by means of the diffonance which forms the connexion,

FUN

compofmg good mufic, if it muft even be^'iinclamer.

or by a hccnie upou a pcrfeft chord. With refpecl
;o a diatonic defcent, it is a motion abfolutely prohibit-
ed to the fundamental bafs; or, at moll, merelv tolerat-
ed in cafes where two perfefl chords are in fuccelTion,
di\ided by a clofe exprelfed or underftood. This rule
has no other exception : and it is from not difcerning
the foundation of certain tranfitions, that M. Rameau
has caufcd the fundamental bafs to defcend diatonically
under chords of the feventli ; an operatibn which is
injpraflicable in legitimate harmony. See Cadence,

DiSSOKAKCK.

The fundamental bafs, which they add for no other
reafon than to ftrve as a proof of the harmony, muft
be retrenched in execution, and often in praftice it
would have a very bad effcft ; for it is, as M. Rameau
very properly obferves, intended for the judgment, and
not for the ear. It would at leaft produce a rao'notony
txtremely naufeous by frequent returns of tlie fame
chord, which they difguife and vary more agreeably
by conibi:iing it in dilTerent manners upon the continued
bafs, wi-.hout reckoning upon the different inverfions of
harmony, which furnifti a thoufand means of adding
new beauties to the mufic and new energy to the expref-
f^on. See CflORD, Ikvirsion.

But

.ill be objected, I f the' fundamen'al bafs i?

260 ]

jf not ufeful

retrenched in praftice, what good piurpofe, then,
it ferve ? We anfiver, that in the firft place. It ferves "
for a rule to fcholars, upon which they may learn to
form a regular harmony, and to give to all the parts
Inch a diatonic and elementary procedure as is pre-
fcribed them by that fundamental bafs. It does more,
as we have already faid : it proves ^vhether a harmony
already formed be juft and regular ; for all harmony
which cannot be fubjecled to the teft of a fundamental
bafs, muft according to all rules be bad. Finally, It
ferves for the inveftigation of a continued bafs under a.
given air : though, in reality, he who cannot direftly
form a continued bafs will fcarcely be able to form a
fundamental bafs, which is better ; and much lefs flill
will he be able to transform that fundamental bafs in-
to a legitimate continued bafs. Thefe which follo\v
are, however, the principal rules which M. Rameau
prefcribes for finding the fundamental bafs of a given
air.

1. To afcertain with precifion the mode in which the
compofer begins, and thole through which he pafles.
There are alio rules for inveftigating the modes ; but
fo long, fo vague, lb incomplete, that with refpeft to
this, the ear may be formed long before the rules are
acquired ; and the dunce who ftiould try to ufe them
would gain no improvement but the habit of proceed-
ing ahvays note by note, without even knowing where
he is.

2. To try in fuccefllon under each note the princi-
pal chords of the mode, beginning by thofe which are
moll analogous, and palTmg even to the moft remote,
when the compofer fees himfelf under a neceftity of
doing fo.

3. To confider whether the chord chofen can fuit the
upper part in ivhat precedes and in what follows, by a
jull fundamental luccelTion ; and when this is irapradli-
cable, to return the way he came.

4. Not to change the note of the fimdamental bals.
till after having exhaufted all the notes which are allow-
ed in fuccelTion in the upper part, and which can enter
into its chord ; or till fome fyncopated note in the air
may be fufceptible of two or a greater number of notes
in the bafs, to prepare the diffonance ^vhich may be af-
terwards refolved according to rule.

5. To rtudy the intertexture of the phrafes ; the
poflible fuccellion of cadences, whether full or avoided ;
and above all, the paufes which for ordinary return at
the end of every four, or of every two bars, fo that
they may always fall upon perfecl ar.d regular ca-
dences.

6. In fliort, to obferve all the rules formerly given
for the compofition of the fundamental bats. — Thefe
are the principal obfervations to be made for fiiidmg
one under any given air ; for there are Ibmetimes feve-
ral different ones which may be inveftigated. But,
whatever may be faid to the contrary, if the air has ac-
cent and charaftcr, there is only one juft fandamental
bafs which can be adapted to it.

After having given a fummary explication of the
manner in which a fundamental bafs iliould be com-
pofed, it fhould remain to fuggeft tlie means of tranf-
forming it into a continued bafs •, ar.d this would be
eafy, if it were only neccflary to regard the diatonic
procedure and the agreeable air of this bafs. But let

FUN

[ 261 ]

FUN

us not imagine that the bafs, which is the guide and
ibpport of the harmony, the foul, and as it were the
interpreter, of the air, ihould be limited to rules fo
fimple : there are others ivhich depend upon principles
more certain and more radical ; fruitful, but latent
principles, which have been felt by every artill of ge-
nius, without having been detected by any one. Rouf-
fcau hopes, that in his letter upon French mufic he
inlinuated this principle. For thofe who underftand
him, he imagines he has faid enough concerning it,
and can never fay enough of it for tliofe who do not.
See R')ii(feau''s Mifce/lanies, vol. ii. p. I.

He does not here mention the ingenious fyftem by
]\I. Serre of Geneva, nor his double fundamental bafa 5
becaufe the principles which, with a fagacity merito-
rious of praife, he had half detected, have afterwards
been unfolded by M. Tartini, in a work of which Roul-
leau has given an account in his article SvsxKM.

FUNDI, in Ancient Geography, a to\vn of Latium,
on the Via Appia, near Cajeta ; enjoying all the privi-
leges of Roman citizens, except the right of furtrage
and of magiitracy. Now Fondi; a city of Naples, on
the confines of the pope's dominions. E. Long. 14. 20.
N. Lat. 41. 3 J,

FUNDY, a bay of confiderable extent in North
America, opening between the illands of Penobfcot
bay, in the county of Lincoln, and Cape Sable, the
fouth-weft point of Nova Scotia. It reaches about 200
miles in a north-eaft direction, and forms a very nar-
low illhmus with Verte bay, ^vhich reaches into the
land in a fouth-weft direction from the llraits of Nor-
thumberland. It is 12 leagues from St John's in New
Brunfwick, to the Gut of Annapolis in Nova Scotia,
where the tides are remarkably rapid, and rife to the
height of 30 feet. The tides in this bay are fo rapid,
that it is faid, they will overtake animals feeding on the
Ihore.

FUNEN, or Fjonia, a confiderable illand in Den-
mark, feated on the Baltic fea, and feparated from Jut-
land by a ftrait called the Lejfer Bell, and from the
island of Zealand by another called the Grent Belt. It
is fertile in wheat and barley ; and abounds in cattle,
liorfes, game of all forts, and fifli. Odenfee is the ca-
pital tOUTl.

FUNERAL RITES, ceremonies accompanying the
interment or burial of any perfon. The word is form-
ed of the 'L.iXm funus; and that oiftinntia, on account
of the torches (which were jQ/z/f j- cera ciraimdati) ufed
Jn the funerals of the Romans ; thougli othets derive
fitnu! from the Greek ^avof, death ot Jlaughter .

The(e rites differed among the ancients according to
the different genius and religion of each country.

The tirit people who feem to liave paid any particu-
lar refpect to their dead, were the Egyptians, the po-
Iterity of Ham, the firit cultivators of idolatrous wor-
ihip and fuperftition after the flood ; they were alfo
the firft who afferted the immortality of the foul, its
migration into all kinds of animals in earth, air, and
fea, and its return to the human body ; which they
luppofed to be within the term of 3000 years: Hence
proceeded their very great care in embalming of their
dead bodies, and their being at inch vail expences, as
they were, in building proper repofitories for them ;
for they were more folicitous about their graves than
their houfes : This gave birth to thofe wonders of the

world, the pyramids, ^vhich were built for the burial of Fur,
their kings, with fuch vail charges, and almoll inerc- ' *
dible magnificence. S;e PvR.v.MlD.

Whenever a perfon died among the Egyptians, his
parents and friends put on mournful habits, and ab-
Itained from all banquets ami entertainments. Tiiis
mourning laltcd from 40 to 70 days, during which
time they embalmed the body. See E.MBAi.Mi.vr..

When this ceremony was finiflied, the embalmed bo-
dy was reftored to the friends, who placed it in a kir.-.i
of open cheit, which was preferved either in their
houfes, or in the fepukhres of their anceltors. But
before the dead were allowed to be depofited in the
tomb, they underwent a folemn judgment, which ex-
tended even to their kings. Of this remarkable culloni
we have a particular account in the firll book of Dio-
dorus Siculus. " Thofe who prepare to bury a rela-
tion, give notice of the day intended for the ceremony
to the judges, and to all the friends of the deceafed ;
informing them, that the body will pafs over the lake
of that diltrift to which the dead belonged : when, on
the judges affembling, to the number of more than 40,
and ranging themfelves in a femicircle on the farther fide
of the lake, the veflel is let afloat, which thofe wlio fu-
perintend the funeral have prepared for this purpofe.
This veffel is managed by a pilot, cilled in the Egyp.
tian language Charon ; and hence they lay, that Or-
pheus, travelling in old times into Egypt, and feeing
this ceremony, formed his fable of the infernal regions,
partly from what he faw, and partly from inveiition.
The veffel being launched on the lake, before the cof-
fin which contains the body is put on board, the law
permits all, who are fo inclined to produce an accufa-
tion againft it. If any one fleps forth, and proves that
the deceafed has led an evil life, the judges pronounce
fentence, and the body is precluded from burial ; but
if the accufcr is conviifled of injuflice in his charge, he
falls himfelf under a confiderable penalty. When no
accufer appears, or when the accufation is proved to be
an unfair one, the relations, who are affemblcd, change
their expreflions of forrow into encomiums on the dead ;
yet do not, like the Greeks, fpeak in honour of liis
family, becaufe they confider all Egyptians as equally
well born ; but they fet forth the education and man-
ners of his youth, his piety and jultice in maturer life,
his moderation, and every virtue by \vhich he was di-
ilinguillied ; and they fupplicate the infernal deities to
receive him as an affociate among the bleft. The mul-
titude join their acclamations of applaufe in this cele-
bration of the dead, whom they confider as going to
pal's an eternity among the jult below." Such is the
defcription which Diodorus gives of this funeral judi-
cature, to which even the kings of Egypt were fub-
jccl. 'I'he fame author afferts, that many fovercigns
had been thus judicially deprived of the honours of
burial by the indignation of their people : and that
the terrors of fuch a fate had the moll falutary infl'.!-
ence on the virtue of their kings.

The funeral rites among the Hebrews were folemn
and magnificent. When any perfon was dead, his re-
lations and friends rent their clotlie.s ; which cuffom is
but faintly imitated by the modern Jews, who only
cut off a bit of their garment, in token of atfliiflion. It
was ufual to oend the dead perfon's tliumb into the
hand, and faflen it in iliat pollure with a llring ; be-

Ciufe

F U N

Funeral, caufe tlic tluimb then lir.ving the figure of the name of
''—-!~~~' God, they thought the devil would not dare to ap-
proach it. Vv'hen they came to the burying place, they
m.ide a fpeech to the dead in the following terms :
" BleQed be God, who l:as formed thee, fed thee,
maintained thee, and taken away thy life. O dead I he
knows your numbers, and (hall one day reftore your
life," &c. Theti they fpoke the elogiura, or funeral
oration, of the deceafed ; after which they faid a pray-
er, called the righteoufnefs of judgnunt i then turning
the face cf the deceafed tou'ards Jitaven, they called
out, " Go in peace."

x\mong the ancient Greeks it was ufual fometimes
before the interment, to put a piece of money into the
mouth of the deceafed, wliich was thought to bs Cha-
ron's fare for wafting the departed foul over the infer-
nal river. This ceremony was not ufed in thofe coun-
tries which were fuppofed to be fituatcd in the neigh-
bourhood of the infernal regions, aad to lead thither
by a ready and direft road. The corpfe \yas likex\ife
furniflied with a cake, compofed of- flour, honey, &c.
which was defigncd to appeafe the fiu-y of Cerberus
the door-keeper of hell, and to procure the ghofl a
fafe aiid quiet entrance. During the time the corpfe
continued in the houfe, there flood befoie the door a
'.•cffel of water : the defign of which \vas, that thofe
concei-ned about the body might purify themfelves by
walhing ; it being the opinion of the Greeks, as well
as of the Jews, that pollution was contracled by touch-
ing a dead body.

The ceremonies by which they expreffed their for-
row for the death of their friends ^vere various ; but
it feems to have been a conllant rule to recede as much
iis polTible in habit and behaviour from their ordinary
culloms. For this reafon they abftained from banquets
and entertainments •, they divefled themfelves of all or-
naments ; they tore, cut off, or Ihaved their hair, which
they call into the fiineral pile, to be confumed with
the body of their deceafed friend. Sometimes they
threw themfelves on the ground and rolled in the dull,
or covered their head with allies ; they beat their
breafts, and even tore their flcih \vith their nails, upon
the lofs of a perfon they much lamented. When per-
ibns of rank, fuch as public magiftrates or great ge-
nerals died, the whole city put on a face of mourn-
ing ; all public meetings were intermitted ; the fchools,
baths, (hops, temples, and all places of concourfe, were
Iliut up.

After interment followed the epuLe or feafts, at which
the company ufed to appear crowned ; when they fpoke
in praife of the dead, io far as they could go with
truth, it being elleemed a notorious wickedncfs to lie
upon fuch an occafion. And not only at thofe leafls,
but even before the company departed from the fe-
pulchre, they w:re fometimes entertained with a pane-
gyr'c upon the dead perfon.

The Grecian foldiers, who died in war, had not
only their tombs adorned with infcriptions (bowing
their names, paientage, and exploit*, but were al(o
honoured with an oration in their praife. Particularly
the cullom among the Athenians in the interment of
tlieir foldiers was as follows, nan-'ely, " They ufed to
place the bodies of their dead in tents three days before
the funeral, that all perfons might have oppcrtunity
to find out their relations, and pay their laft reipeflts
J

[ 262 ] FUN

to them. Upon the fourth day, a coffin of cyprefs
was lent from every tribe, to convey the bones of riieir '
own relations ; after which went a covered herfe, in
mernory of thofe w hofe bodies could not be fotmd. All
thefe, accompanied with the whole body of the people,
Avere carried to the public burymg place, called Cerami-
cus, and there interred. One oration u-as fpoken in cora-
niendaucn of them all, and their monuments were adorned
with pillars, infcriptions, and all other on aments uiiial
about the tombs of the molt honourable peilons. The
oration was pronounced by the fathers of the deceafed
perions who had behaved themfelves moft valiantly.
Thus after the famous battle at Marathon, the fathers
of Csllimachus and Cyntegyrus were appointed to
make the funeral oration. And upon the return cf
the day, upon which the folemnity was firlt held, the
fame oration was conftantly repeated every year.''

Interring or laying the dead in the ground feems
to have been the molt ancient praclice among the
Greeks ; though burning came afterwards to be gene-
rally ufed among them. It was cuftomary to throw
into the funeral pile thofe garrcents the deceafed
ufually wore. The pile was lighted by one of the de-
ceafed's neareft relations or friends, who made prayers
and vo^YS to the winds to affift the flames, that the
body might quickly be reduced to allies 5 and during
the time the pile was burning, the dead perfon's friends
flood by it, pouring libations of wine, and calling upon
the deceafed.

The funeral rites among the ancient Romans were very
numerous. The deceafed was kept feven days ; and
every day waihed ^vith hot water, and fometimes with
oil, that, in cafe he were only in a fiumber, he might
be thus waked ; and every now and then his friends
meeting, made a horrible outcry or thout, with the
fame view ; which la ft action they called conclnmali..
The third conclamation was on the feventh da)' ; when,
if no figns of life appeared, the deftmct was dreiled and
embalmed by the pollinctores •, placed in a bed near
tiie door, with his face and heels towards the flreet ;
and the outfide of the gate, if the deceafed were of
condition, ivas garniihed with cyprefs boughs. In
the courl'e of thefe feven days, an altar was railed near
his bed fide, called ocerra ; on which his friends every
day offered incenfe : and the libitlnarii provided things
for the funeral.

On the feventh day a crier was fent about the city,
to invite the people to the folemnization of the fune-
ral in thefe words ; Exe/juias L. Tit. Jilii, qiiihus eft
commodum ire, jam tempus cj}. O'lus (i. e. ?//?) ex iedibus
effi-rlur. The people being aifembled, the laft concla-
mation ended, and the bed was covered with purple :
a trumpeter marched forth, followed by old women
called /)/VF^r<^.», (inging fongs in praife of the deSsafed :
laitly, the bed followed, borne by the next relations ;
and if the perfon were of t[uality and ortice, the waxen
images of all his prcdeceflfors were carried before him
on poles. The bed was followed by his children, kindred,
&c. alrati, or in mourning : from which aft of follow-
ing the corpfe, thefe funeral rites were called exequiee.
The body thus brought to the roitra, the next of kin
laudabat defunBtnn pro roflris, made a funeral oration in
his praife and that of his ancellors. This done, the
body was carried to the />yra, or funeral pile, and there
burnt : his friends firft cutting oiF a finger, to be bu-
ried

FUN

risd with P. f-cornl folemnity. The
the aihes were gathered ; and the prieft Iprinkling the
company thrice with clean water, the eldell of the
pra-Jicce crying aloud, IUcct, difraifled the people, who
took their leave of the deceafed in this form, Va/e,
vale, vale : ties te ordine quo natura pirmiferit fequemiir.
— The alhes, enclofed in an um, were laid in the le-
pukhre or torab.

Tl'.e ardent Chriflians teftified their abhorrence of the
Pagan cuftom of burning their dead ; and ahvays depo-
lited the body entire in the ground : and it was ufual
to bellow the honour of embalming upon the martyrs
at leaft, if not upon others. They prepared the body
for burial, by walhing it with water, and dreffmg it
in a funeral attire. The exportation or carrying forth
of the body was performed by near relations, or perfo!is
of fuch dignity as the circuraftances of the deceafed
required. Pfalmody, or finging of pfalms, was tlie
great ceremony ufed in all fiineial procellions among
the ancient Chriuisns.

la tlie Romijh church, when a perfon is dead, tliey
walh the body, and put a crucifix in its hand. At its
feet (lands a velTel full of holy water, and a fprinkler,
that thev who come in may fprinkle both themlclves
and the deceafed. In the mean time fome priell llands
by the corpfe, and prays for the deceafed till it is laid
in the earth. In the funeral proceflion, the exorcirt
walks firft, carrying the holy water; next the crofs-
bearer, afterwards the reft of the clergy, and laft of all
the officiating pri.-'l. They all fmg the mifercre, and
fome other pfalnr> ; and Ft the end of each pfahn a re-
ijulem. We learn from Alct's ritual, that the faces of
deceafed laymen mult be turned towards the altar,
%vhen they are placed in the church ; and thofe of the
clergy to^vards the people. The corpfe is placed in
the church fuTounded with lighted tapers ; after the
office for the dead, mafs is faid 5 then the officiating
prieft fprinkles the corpfe thrice with holy water, and
as often throws incenfe on it. The body being laid in
the grave, the friends and relations of the deceafed
fprinkle the grave with holy water.

The funeral ceremonies of the Creek church are
much the fame with thofe of the Latin. It needs
only be obferved, that, atter the funeral fer\'ice, they
kifs the crucifix, and falute the mouth and forehead of
the deceafed ; after which each of the. company eats a
bit of bread and drinks a glafs of wine in the church,
\villiing the foul a good repofe, and the afflided family
all confolation.

Funeral Games, a part of the ceremony of the an-
cient fiinerals.

It was cuftomary for perfons of quality, among the
ancient Greeks and Romans, to inftitute games with
all forts of exercifer., to render the death of their friends
more remarkable. This pratlice was generally received,
and is frequently mentioned by ancient writers. Pa-
troclus's funeral games take up the greatell part of one
of Homer's Iliads •, and Agamemnon's ghcil is intro-
duced by the fame poet, telling the ghoft of Achilles,
that he had been a fpeclator at a great number of fuch
folemnities.

The celebration of thefe games among the Greeks
moftly confilled of horfe races; the prizes were of dif-
ferent ioi-.s and value, according to the quality and
magnificence- of the jrfferfon that cekbrated them. The

[ 263 ] FUN

oJy confunied, garlands gifeu 'o viflors on this occafiot! were uJiiaily
of parfley, which was tliought to have fome relation to
the dead.

Thofe games, among the Romans confided chitlK-
cf proccflions ; and fometimes of mortal combats of
gladiators ground the funeral pile. They, as well as
the Greeks, had alfo a cuftom, though very ancient, 01
cutting the throats of a number of captives before the
pile, as tidims to appeafe the manes oP the deceafed.
Ctefar relates, that the Gauls had this cuftom.

The funeral games were abolifhed by the emperoi
Claudius.

Funeral Oration, a difcourfe pronounced in praife of
a perfon deceafed, at the ceremony of his funeral.

This cuftom is very ancient. In the latter part 01
the account above given of the Egyptian ceremonies
of interment, may be perceived the firft rudiments of
funeral orations, and what was the fubjeft of them,,
which were afterwards moulded into a more polite and
regular form by other nations, who adopted this cuftom.
Nor can we ornit remarking, that thofe funeral folemni-
ties were attended not only with orations in praife of
the deceufed, but ^vlth prayers for him ; which prayers,
it feems, v.ere made by one who perfonated the de-
cealed : an entire foim of one of them Is preferved by
Porphyry, and perhaps It may in fome raeaiure gratlly
the reader's curiofity to recite it from him. " When
(fays he) they (the Egyptians) embalm their deceafed
nobles, they privately take out the entrails, and lay
them up In an ark or cheft : moreover, among other
things which they do in favour of the deceafed, lifting
up the ark or cheft to the fun, they invoke him ; one of
the libitinarii making a prayer for the deceafed, ^vhlch
Euphantus has tranllattd out of the Egyptian language,
and is as foUo^vs : — O lord, the liin, and all the gods
ivho give life to men, receh'e me and admit me into
the fociety of the immortal ones ; for, as long as I
lived in this world, I religioufly worlhipped the gods
whom my parents ihcwed me, and have ahvays ho-
noured thofe ivho begat my body ; nor have I killed
any man, nor have I defrauded any of what has been
committed to my truft, nor have I done anything
which is inexpiable. Indeed, whilft I was alive, if
I have finned either by eating or drinking anything
which was not lawful ; not through myfclf have 1
finned, but through thefe, (howing the ark and cheft
where the entrails were. And having thus fpokc, he
cafts it into the river, but the reft of tlie body he era-
balms as pure."

The Grecians received the feeds cf fuperftillo!! and
idolatrous worfnip from the Egyptians, th.rough the
coming of Cecrops, Cadmus, Danaus, and Ercchtheu.',
into Greece; and among other cuftoms tranfplanted
from £gypt, were the folemnities ufed at the burial of
the dead. Of thefe, an encomium on the deceafed
always formed a part, as particularly noticed under the
preceding article.

From the Egyptians and Grecians, efpeclally from
the latter, the Romans received many of their laws
and cuftoms, as well as much of their polytheiiim and
idolatrous worftiip. It is well known, that tlic cuftom
of making funeral orations In praife of the dead ob-
tained among them ; and the manner in which thcit
funeral fervices were performed has been already de-
fcribed. The corpfe being brought into their great

FUN [2

oratory, called the rajlra, the next of the kin lamakat
' defanclum pro rojlris, that is, made a funeral oration, in
the commendation principally of the party deceafed,
but touching the worthy acts alfo of thofe his prede-
ctflors whofe images were there prefcnt. The account
given by Dr Keiuiet is in thefe words : " In all the
funerals of note, efpecially in the public or indiclive,
the corple was firft brought with a vail tram of follow-
ers into the forum ; here one of the neareft relations
alter.ded the roftra, and obliged the audience with an
oration in praife of the deceafed. If none of the kin-
dred undertook the olhce, it was difcharged by forae
of the molt eminent perfons in the city for learning
and eloquence, as Appian reports of the fiineral of
Gylla. And Pliny the younger reckons it as the lalt
addition to the happinefs of a very great man, that he
had the honour to be praifed at his funeral by the moft
eloquent Tacitus, then conful ; which is agreeable to
Q^uintilian's account of this matter. Nam tt funebres,
&.C. For the funeral orations (fays he) depend very
often on fome public office, and by order of fenate
are many times given in charge to the magiftrates to
be performed by themfelves in perfon. The invention
of this cuftom is generally attributed to Valerius Pop-
licola, foon after the expuhion of the regal family,
Plutarch tells us, that honouring his colleague's obfe-
quies with a funeral oration, it fo pleafed the Romans,
that it became cuftomary for the beft men to celebrate
the funerals of great perfons with fpeeches in their
commendations." Thus Julius Csefar, according to
cullom, made an oration in the rofua, in praife of his
wife Cornelia, and his aunt Julia, when dead ; wherein
he Ihowed, that his aunt's defcent, by her mother's
fide, w.-is from kings, and by lier father's, from the
gods. Plutarch fays, that " he approved of the law
of the Romans, which ordered fuitable praifes to be
given to women as well as to men after death." —
Though by wliat he fays in another place, it feems
that the old Roman law was, that funeral orations
ihould be made only for the elder women ; and
therefore he fays, that C;efar was the firll that made
one upon his own wife, it not being then ufual
to take notice of younger women in that way : but
by that action he gained much favour from the popu-
lace, who afterwards looked upon him, and loved him
as a very mild and good man. The reafon why fuch
a law was made iu favour of the women, Livy tells us
was tliis. That when there was fuch a fcarcity of money
in the public treafury, that the fum agreed upon to
give t'.ie Gauls to break up the fiege of the city and
capitol could not be raifed, the women colleded
among themfelves and made it up ; who hereupon had
not only thanks given them, but this additional ho-
nour, that after death, tliey fliould be folcmnly praifed
as well as the men: which looks as if, before this
time, only the men had thofe funeral orations made
for them.

This cuftom of the Romans very early obtained
among the Chrillians. Some of their funeral fermons
or orations are now extant, as that of Eufebius on
Conftantine ; and thofe of Nazianzen on Bafil and
Caefarius ; and of Ambrofe on Valentinian, Theodofius,
and others. Gregory, the brother of Bafil, made
iiriKttitiet >.«■/«>, a ftmeral oration, for Melitus bilhop of
Antioch ; in ivhicb orations, they not only praifed the
2,

64 ] FUN

dead, but addreflfed themfelves to them, which fecms Fnry.'al,
to have introduced the cuftom of praying to departed ?""?'•
faints. Now thefe orations were ufually made before ^^"V^-^
the bodies of ti-.e deceafed were committed to the
ground ; which cuftom has been more or lefs continued
ever fmce, to this day.

Thus it appears, that thofe rites and ceremonies
among the heathens, which have been delivered from
one people to another, are what have given birth to

FusERAL Sermons and Oralior,', among Chriftians,
Though this practice is confiderably improved, and
cleared of many things which would fmel! too rank of
paganifm, and is thrown into a method which, perhaps,
may be of feme fervice to chiiftianity ; yet, not^\ ith-
ftanding this new drefs, its original may very eafily be
difcemed. The method in which the cliarafters of
deceafed perfons are given In our funeral fermons, is
very much the fame with that obferved in thofe pagan
orations ; where firft an account is given of the paren-
tage of the deceafed, then of his education ; after that,
xve hear of his conduct in riper years : then his many
virtues are reckoned up, with his generous, noble, and
excellent performances, — Nor let the practice be con-
demned becaufe of its rife and original ; for why may
not the cuftoms of heathens, if juft and laudable in them-
felves, and nowife pernicious to Chriltianity in their
confequences, be followed by Chriftians ? Only, iince
we are come into this practice, ther« is one thing we
ftiould take care to follo^v them in ; and that is, not
to make thofe fermons or orations for ever)' one ; but
for thofe only whofe characters are diftinguilhed, who
have been eminently ufeful in the world, and in the
church of Chrift. The old heathens honoured thofe
alone ^vith this part of the funeral folemnity, who were
men of probity and juftice, renowned for their wifdom
and knowledge, or famous for warlike exploits : This,
as Cicero * informs us, being part of the law for burials, * Di Lig.
which directs, that the praifes only of honourable per- '• »•
fons (hall be mentioned in the oration. It would be
much more agreeable, therefore, if our funeral dif-
courfes were not fo common, and if the charafters
given of the deceafed were more juft -, devoid of that
fulfome flattery with which they too often abound,

FUNGI (from o-fityyt!, fungus), the name of the
4th order of the 24th clafs of vegetables, in the Lin-
naean lyftera ; comprehending all thofe which are of
the muftiroom kind, and which in Tournefort confti-
tute the 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th genera of
the firft feftion in the clafs xvii. This order in the
Linnsean arrangement, contains 10 genera ; and it con-
ftitutes one of the natural order of plants in the Frag-
menta Methodi Naturalis of Linnaeus. See Botany
Index.

But as the claflification of this order only has been
given under the article Botany, we ftiall here detail
fome of the fpeculations of naturalifts concerning their
nature and mode of produftion.

The ancients called fungi children of the earth, mean-
ing, no doubt, to indicate the obfcurity of their origin.
The modems have likewife been at a lofs in what rank
to place them •, fome referring them to the animal,
fome to the vegetable, and others to the mineral, king-
dom.

Meflrs Wilck and Munchaufen have not fcrupled to

rank thefe bodies in the number of ai amal productions }

becaufe.

w

FUN [

becaufe, when fragments of thera or tlieir feeds were
' macerated in water, thefe gentlemen perceived a quan-
tity of animalcules diicharged, which they fuppofcd
capable of being changed into the fame fubftance. It
^vas the ancient opinion, that beef could produce bees ;
but it was referved for MelTrs Wilck and Miinchaufen
to fuppofe, that bees could produce beef. Wilck af-
ferts, that fungi confiil of innumerable cavities, each
inhabited by a polype ; and he does not hefitate to
afcrihe the formation of them to their inhabitants, in
the fame way as it has been faid that the coral, the
lichen, and the mucor, were formed. Hedwig has
lately llioivn how ill founded ihJs opinion is ^vith re-
fpedl to the lichen •, and M. Durande has demonftra-
ted its fiilfity with regard to the corallines. " Indeed
(fays M. Bonnet, talking of the animality of fungi)
nothing but tlie rage for parados could induce any one
to publilh fuch a fable ; and I regret that pofterity
will be able to reproach our times with it. Obferva-
tion and experiment iliould enable us to overcome the
prejudices of modem philofophy ; now, that thofe of
the ancient have difappeared and are forgotten."

It cannot be denied that the muQiroom is one of the
moft perilhable of all plants, and it is therefore the
nioft favourable for the generation of iufecls. Con-
Cdering the quicknefs of it» growth, it mult be fur-
nifhed with the power of copious abforption ; the ex-
tremity of its veffels muft be more dilated than in other
plants. Its root feems, in many cafes, to be merely
intended for its_ fupport : for fome fpecies grow upon
llones or moveable fand, from which it is impoiTible
that they can draw much nourifliment. We mull
therefore fuppofe, that it is chiefly by the (lalk that
they abforb. Thefe flalks grow in a moift and tainted
air, in which float multitudes of eggs, fo fmall, th.it
the very infects they produce are with diiticulty feen
by the microfcope. Thefe eggs may be compared to
tre particles of the bxfTus, Too,OCO of which, as M.
Gleditlch fays, are not equal to the fourth of a grain.
-May we not fuppofe, that a quantity of fuch eggs are
abforbed bv the veiTels of the fungus, that they remain
there, without any change, till the plant begins to
decay ' Befdes, the eggs may be only depofited on the
furface of the plant, or they may e.xilt in the water
into which they are throv,n for examination. Do
not we fee that fuch eggs, difperfed through the air,
are hatched in vinegar, in paile, &c. and wherever
they find a convenient nidus for their developement ?
Can it be furprifmg then, that the corruption of the
mulhroom Iliould make the water capable of difclo'ing
certain beings that are really foreign to both '

It is not more eafy to acquiefce in the opinions of
thofe naturalifts who place the fungi in the mineral
kingdom, becaufe they are found growing on porous
ftones, thence called /afiiWes fungarii ; which, how-
ever, mull be covered with a h'ttle earth, and be ^va-
tered with tepid water, in order to favour the growth.
Such muflirooms are no more the produce of the ftone,
than the lichen is of the rock to which it adheres, or
the mofs of the tree on %vhich it is found. We have
only to obferve the growth of mulhrcoms, to be con-
\inced, that this happens by developement, and not by
addition or combination of parts as in minerals. The
opinion of Eoccone, who attributed tlitm to an unftu-
ous matter performing the funfticn of Iced, and acqui-

Voi.. IX. Part I.

265 ]

FUN

ring extenfion by appofition of fimilar parts", and that of F«n?i.

MoriRm, who conceived that they grew fpontancoully "^"^

out of the earth by a certain mixture of fait and ful-
phur, joined with oils from the dung of quadrupeds ;
have now no longer any adherent.s. Fungi arc produ-
ced, they live, they grow, by developement ; they are
expofcd to thofe viciliitudes natural to the different pe-
riods of life which charaacrize living fubftances ; they
perilh and die. They extra^, by the extremity of
their veiTels, the juices with which they are nourilhed ;
they elaborate and affimilate them to their own fub-
rtance. They are, therefore, organized and living be-
ings, and confequently belong to the vegetable king-
dom. But whether they are real plants, or only the
production of plants, is itill a matter in difpute with the
ablelt naturalilts.

Some ancient authors have pretended to difcover the
feed of mulhrooms ,; but the opinion was never gene-
rally received. Petronius, when he is laughing at the
ridiculous magnificence of his hero Trimalcio, relates,
that he had written to the Indies for the feed of the
morelle.

Thefe produftions were generally attributed to the
fuperfluous humidity of rotten wood, or otlier putrid
fubftances. The opinion took its rife from obferving
that they grew moft copioully in rainy weather. Such
was the opinion of Tragus, of Bauhin, and even of Co-
lumna, who, talking of the peziza, fays, that its fub-
Ifance was more folid and harder, becaufe it did not
originate from rotten wood, but from the pituita of the
earth. It is not furprifing, that, in times when the
^vant of experiment and obfervation made people be-
lieve that inlecls could be generated by putrefaiftioii,
we (hould find the opinion general, that fungi owed
their origin to the putrelcence of bodies, or to a vif-
cous humour analogous to putridity.

IMalpighi could not fatisfy himfelf as to the exiftcnce
of feeds which other botaniif s had pretended to difcover.
He only fays, that thefe plants muft have them, or
that they perpetuate themfelves and Qioot by fragments.
Micheli, among the moderns, appears to have employ-
ed himfelf moft fuccefsfuUy on this fubjecl. He ima-
gined, that he not only faw the feeds, but even the fta-
raina, as well as the littie tranfparent bodies deftined to
favour the diffemination and the fecundation of thefe
feeds. Before tliis author. Lifter thought he perceived
leeds in the Yungvs perofus crajfiis mognus of .Tohn Bau-
hin : the little round bodies that are found in the pezi-
'zx and helvella;, at that time, palled for feeds 5 which
did not appear at all probable to Marfigli, coiifidering
that the eye, when alllfted with the very bell micro-
fcopes, could perceive nothing fimilar in much larger
fungi. Indeed thefe bodies may be the capfules or co-
vers of the feeds, if they are not the feeds themfelves.
However this may be, Marfigli, obferving that fimgi
were often without roots or branches, and that they
wanted flowers and feeds, the means which nature em-
ploys for the produflion of perfe(5l plants, thought him-
felf warranted in doubting whether thefe beings could
be ranked in the numljer of vegetables.

The doubts of Marfigli prompted him to obftrve the
formation of fungi. Their matrix he called Situs : he
imagined they grew in places where they met with an
unctuous matter, comjjofed of an oil mixed with nitrous
fait, which, by fermentation, produced heat and rnoif.'
L 1 ture.

FUN

Tvngi. tiirc, and infmuated itfelf between tlie fibres of wood ;
"""""^'^ that :s, lie imagined ihcm to be the produclion of a vi!'-
cous and putrefcent humour. Lancili, in like manner,
eonfidered fungi as owing their exillar.ce to the putrefac-
tion of vegetables, and fuppofed them a difeafe in the
plant ; but he imagined, " that the fibres of the tree
were necelTary to their produftlon," as is the cafe in
the formation of galls ; he compared them to the warts
and other excrefcences of the human body. He added,
that fuch fungous vegetable tumours muft neceffarily af-
fumc various forms and figures, from the fluids -.vhich
diftend the tubes and vellels relaxed by putrefccnce,
from the dudlility of the fibres and their direction, and
from the a<ftion of the air.

This opinion has been refuted by the celebrated na-
turalift M. de Juflieu, in the Memoirs of the Academy
of Sciences for the year 1728. He maintains, that the
fungi have a great analogy with the lichen, which is al-
lowed to be a vegetable ; that, like the lichen, they
arc dive.fled of ftalk, branches, and leaves; that,
like it, ihey grow and are nourilhcd upon the trunks
of trees, on pieces of rotten wood, and on all forts of
putrid vegetables ; that they refenible the lichen too in
the rapidity of their growth, and the facility with which
many of them may be dried and reftored to their for-
mer figure, upon being immerfed in water ; and, laft-
ly, that there is a great fimilarity in the manner in
T.-hich their feeds are produced. He affirms, that only
the warts and excrefcences which grow on animal bo-
dies, and the knots and other tumors that are to be
found on trees, can be compared with one another ; for
they are compofed equally of the folid and liquid fub-
ftaiice of the plant or animal on which they grow ;
whereas, the matter of the fungi is not only quite di-
fiinfl from that of the plants on which they are found,
but often entirely fimilax to the fubftance of thofe that
fpring immediately from the earth.

The organization, fays M. de Juflieu, which diftin-
guiflies plants and other produdlions of nature, is vifi-
ble in the fungi ; and the particular organization of
each fpccies is conftant at all times and in all places ; a
circumllance which could not happen if there were not
an animal reprodu(5tion of fpecies, and confequently a
multiplication and propagation by feed. This is not,
he fays, an imaginary fuppofition ; for the feeds may
be felt like meal upon muflu-ooms with gills, efpecially
when they begin to decay ; they may be feen with a
magnifying glafs, in thofe that have gills with black
margins: and, laftly, fays he, botanifls can have no
doubt that fungi are a dillinft clafs of plants, becaufe,
by compaiing the obfer\'ations made in different coun-
tries with the figures and defcriptions of fuch as have
been engraven, the fame genera and the fame fpecies
are everywhere found.

Notwithfianding this refutation by M. de JulTieu,
another naturalifl, M. de Necker, has lately maintained,
in his work entitled Mycito/ot(ia, That the fungi ought
to Le excluded from the three kingdoms of nature, and
be eonfidered as intermediate beings. He has obfer-
ved, like Marfigli, the matrix of the fungi : and has
fiibflituted the word carchte (iuitium faciens) inflead
oi Jilus ; imagining that the rudiment of the fungus
cannot exift beyond that point in which the develope-
fllent of the filaments or fibrous roots is perceived. He
allows, that fungi arc nourifhcU and grow like vege-

266 ] F U N

tables;. but he thinks that they differ very much from
them in refpecf of their origin, llrufture, nutrition,
and rapidity of growth. He fays, that the various vef-
fels which compofe the organization of vegetables are
not to be found in the fungi, and that they feem en-
tirely compofed of cellular iubflance and bark ; fo that
this fimple organization is nothing more than an ag-
gregation of vefiels endowed with a common nature,
that fuck up the moiflure in the manner of a fpOnge ;
with this difference, that the moillure is afl^imilated in-
to a part of the fungu?. Laftly, That the frufltfica-
tion, the only elTential part of a vegetable, and which
diftinguiflie-s it from all other organized bodies, being
wanting, fungi cannot be eonfidered as plants. This
he thinks confirmed by the conftant obfervation of
thofe people who gather the morelle and the mufli-
room, and who never find them in the fame fpots
where they had formerly grown. As the generation of
fungi (fays M. Necker) is always performed when the
parenchymatous or cellidar fubftance has changed
its nature, form, and funftion, we muft conclude that
it is the degeneration of that part which produces
thefe bodies.

But if fungi were owing merely to the degeneration
of plants, they would be ftill better entitled to confti-
tute a new kingdom. They would then be a decom-
pofition, not a new formation or new bodies. Bc-
lides, we cannot deny, that in thofe- bodies which
form the limit between the animal and vegetable king-
doms, the organization becomes fimple, as the organs
deftined for nutrition are multiplied : but, as the laft in
the clafs of infefts belongs to the animal kingdom,
fimgi ought, notwithftanding the fimplicity of their
organization, ftill to belong to the vegetable kingdom.
The parenchymatous or cellular fubftance, which, as
Mr Bonnet lays, is univerlally extended, embraces the
whole fibrous I'yttem, and becomes the principal inftru-
ment of growth, muft naturally be more abundant in
thefe produdlions ; and this accounts for the rapidity
of their enlargement. Befides, growth, w'hether flow
or rapid, never was em.ployed to determine the pre-
fence or abfence of the vegetable or animal characler.
The tli-aba verna, which in a few weeks (hoots, puts
forth its leaves, its flowers, and fruit, is not lefs a
plant than the palm. 'J"he infeft that exifts but for a
day, is as much an animal as the elephant that lives for
centuries. As to the feeds of the fungi, it is probable
that nature mear.t to withdraw from our eyes the dif-
femination of thefe plants, by making the feeds almoft
imperceptible ; and it is likewife probable that natu-
ralifts have feen nothing but their capfulcs. Since,
however, from the imperfeffion of our ienfes, ^ve are
unable to perceive thefe feeds, ought we to infer that
they do not exift ? Are we authorized to conclude tliis,
becaufe we do not find mufhrooms where we have
found them a year before ? Undoubtedly not ; for the
greater part of plants require a particular foil, and the
fame mould that tliis year will foller a rare plant, will
next year allow it to periih. Neither are we at liberty
to deny the exiftence of thefe feeds, becaule thofe bo-
dies which have been called their feeds, and the frag-
ments or cutting? of the plants themfelvcs, have not
produced others of the fame Ipecies. Nature feems to
have referved for herfelf the care of difl'eminating cer-
tain plants ; It is in vain, for iiiftance, that the bota-

rur.gi
r«rlHlhe

FUR [2

nift fows tlie dull found in the capfules of the orchis,
which every one allows to be the feed. But, after all,
j what are thofe parts in the fungi cafually obferved by
naturalllls, and which they have taken for the parts of
fructiHcation ? Thefe are quite diliinifl from the other
parts ; and whatever may be their ufe, they cannot
have been formed by a prolongation of the cellular
fubftance, or of the fibres of the tree on which the
fungus grows ; they are, therefore, owing, like flower
and fruit, to the proper organization of the plant,
rheie plants, therefore, have a particular exiilence,
independent of their putrefying nidus. The gills of
certain fungi, which differ ellentially from the reft of
the plant in their conformation, would be fufficient to
authorife this latter opinion. But can putrefacl:ion
CJeate an organic iubftance ?

Natiure undoubtedly dilTeminates through the air,
and over the furface of the earth, innumerable feeds of
fungi, as well as eggs of infecls. The plant and the
animal are excluded, when the nidus or the tempera-
ture is favourable for their developement. No fortui-
tous concourfe, either of atoms or fluids, could pro-
duce bodies fo exquintely and fo regularly organized.
It is fufHcient to throw one's eyes on the beautiful
plates which SchxfFer has publidied of them, and com-
pare them, by the glafs, with the warts and other
excrefcences of animals, to be convinced that they
have not the fame origin. The function of the cellu-
lar fubftance in vegetables muft be greatly fuperior to
that in animals, if it could produce any thing but de-
formities.

The greater part of fungi exhibit a configuration
much too regular, conftant, and uniform, to be the ef-
feft of chance or putrefaftion. As this form is pre-
iersed the fame in all places where fimgi have been
found, it folloivs, that they contain in themfelves the
principles of their reproduction. They refemble the
milletos, and other parafitic plants, which are p:rfed-
ly diftincl from the trees on which they grow. The
fungi,' therefore, are organized and li^^ng fubftances,
or true plants. If the manner of their produclion is
unknown, that of fome infecls is fo too.

FUNGIBLES, in Scots Law, are fuch things as
are eftimated by number, weight, or meafure ; as coin,
butter, ale, &c.

FUNGIT.E, in Natural Hi/lory, a kind of foflile
coral, of a conic figure, though fometimes flatted and
llrjated longitudinally.

FUNGUS, in Surgery, denotes any fpongy excref-
cence. See Surgery Index.

FUNNEL of a Chimney, the (haft or fmalleft
part of the wafte, where it is gathered into its leaft di-
menfions.

Palladio directs, that the funnels of chimneys be
i:arried through the roof four or five feet at leaft, that
they may carry the fmoke clear from the houfe into
the air. See Chimsev.

He alfo advifes, that chamber chimneys be not m.ade
narrower than lo or i i inches, nor broader than i 5 ;
for if too narrow, the fmoke will not be able to make
its way ; and, if too wide, the wind will diive it back
into the room.

FUR, or FuRR, in commerce. See Furr.

FURBISHER, a perfon \vho furbiilies, polilTics, or
cleans arms, as guns, fwords, piftols, &c. which is

^7 1

F U K

chiefly performed with emery. See the article E-

MERY.

FURCA, in antiquity, a piece of timber rcfombling .
a fork, ufed by the Romans as an inllrument of pu-
nilhment.

The punilhment of the furca was of three kinds :
the firft only ignominious, when a matter, for fmall
oftences, forced a fcrvant to carry a furca on his ftioul-
ders about the city. 1"he fecond \vas penal, when the
party was led about the circus, or other place, with
the furca about his neck, and whipped all the way.
The third was capital, when the malefactor having his.
head faftened on the furca, was whipped to death.

FURCHE', in Heraldry, a crofs forked at the ends.

FURETIERE, Antony, an ingenious and learned
Frenchman, was bom at Paris in 162OJ and after a
liberal education became eminent in the civil and canon
law. He was firft an advocate in the parliament ; and
afterwards taking orders, was prefented with the abbey
of Chalivoy, and the priory of Chuines. Many works
of literature recommended him to the public •, but what
he is chiefly known by and valued for, is his Univerfal
Dictionary of the French Tongue, in which he explains
the terms of art in all fciences. He had not, however,
the pleafure of feeing this ufeful work publi'.hed before
his death; which happened in 1688. He was a member
of the French academy ; and the difputes and quarrels
wliich he had ^vith certain members of it made a great
noife in the world.

FURIA, in Zoologi/, a genus of infects belonging
to the order of vermes zoophyta. There is but one
fpecies, viz. the infernalis, which has a linear fmooth
body ciliated on each fide, with refle.xed feelers prefled
to its body. In Finland, Bothnia, and the northern
provinces of Sweden, it was not unfrequently that
people were feized with a pungent pain, confined to a
point, in the hand or other expofcd part of the body,
which prelently increafed to a moft excn.-.ciating de-
gree, and hath fometimes been fuddenly fatal. This
diforder was more particularly oblerved in Finland,
cfpecially about boggy and marftiy places, and always
in autumn. At length it was dilcovered that this pain
inftantly fucceeded fomewhat that dropped out of the
air, and in a moment penetrated and buried it.'elf In
the flclh. The Finlanders had tried variety of applica-
tions to no purpofe, until at length a poultice of curds
or cheefe was found the moft effectual in eafing the
pain : and the event confirmed that the infect was al-
lured by this application to leave the flefli ; as, on its
removal, this worm, no longer than the fixth of an inch,
was found in it, and thus the caufe of this painful difeafe
explained. But by what means this creature is raifed
into the air, is as yet unknown.

FURIES, in Pagan antiquity, certain goddefles
whofe oflice it was to punifti the guilty after death.
They were three in number : Alecto, Mcg;era, and
Tifiphone ; who were defcribed with fnakes inftead of
hair, and eyes like lightning, carrying iron chains
and whips in one hand, and in the other flaming
torches ; the latter to difcover, and the former to punilh,
the guilty : and they were fuppofed to be conftantly
hovering over fuch perfons as had been guilty of any
cnoi^ious crime,

Mythologifts fuppofe, that Tifiphone punidied the

crimes which fprang from hatred or anger ; Megsera,

L 1 2 tlwfe

F U R

[ 268 ]

FUR

Furling tliofe from envy ; aiid Alcdo, tliofc from an infallable
11 purfuit after riches and pleaiure. Tliey were vvoillupped
' at Cufir.a in Arcadia, and at Camiia in Peloponnefus.

They had a temple at Athe'.is near the Areopagus, and
and their prielU were cholen from amongft the judges
of that court. At Telphiifia, a city in Arcadia, a black
ewe '.vas facrificed to them.

FURLING, in naval affairs, figniiies the operation
of wrappiiig up and binding any fail clofe to the yard ;
which is done by hauling upon the clew-lines, bunt-lines,
&.C. ^vhich wraps the fail dole together, and being
bound fail to the yard, the fail is furled.

FUR.LOXG, an EngUru long meafure containing
the one-eighth of a mile, and therefore equal to 660
feet, or 220 yards.

FURLOUGH, in the military language, is a licenfe
granted by an officer to a foldier to be abftnt from his
duty for a liraited time.

FURNACE, is a vefiel or building, for the purpofe
of containing combuftible materials, whether of coal or
woud, and 'io conllrufted that great heat may be pro-
duced and concentrated. There is great variety of
furnaces, and they are varioully conftrudled, according
to the vieivs of the operator, and the purpofes to which
they are applied. But in all furnaces there are four
things which require to be particularly attended to. i.
iquilitei 'fo be able to concentrate the heat, and direft it as
» E"^" much as poflible to the fubftances which are to be ailed
upon. 2. To prevent the difllpation of the heat after
it is produced. 3. To obtain the greatell quantity of
heat from the fraallell quantity of fuel ; and 4. To be
able to regulate at pleafure the neceflary degree of heat,
or to have It under proper management.

I. To accomplilh the firll obje£l, namely to concen-
trate the heat, it is ufual to confine the fire in a chamber
or cavity, properly conllruded, furnilhed with a door
or opening, by which the fuel is introduced ; a grate
for fupporting it, and allowing a free paffage to the air,
as well as for the afhes to fall through into the cavity
below, called the afh-pi^. In this way the heat pro-
duced by the combuilion of the fuel is confined by the
lidcs of the furnace, and fo concentrated that its force
is chieHy fpent on the fubllances inclofed.
To prevent j. The diflipation of the heat is prevented by keeping
:icn.' " ^^ ''°°'^ °^ ^^ furnace Ibut, by conllruding the chimney
no wider than to allow a paffage for the fmoke, and
placing the fubllance to be afted upon in fuch a manner
tlrat the fire may have its full eSeft- as it gges up the
chimney.
To produce j_ -j'he third objcft, which Is not the leaft important,
p'uu^riton '' '° produce the greatell quantity of heat from the
ui htjt. fmalleA quantity of fuel. In an economical point of
view, this objccl is wortliy of the greatell attention,
though it is often difficult to attain it. In this view much
depends upon the proportion between the fpaces between
the bars of the furnace, and the widcnels and height of
the chimney. This is obvious from conudering the
circumllances which regtdate the proccfs of ccmbullion ;
for this depends on the current of air paffiiig through
the combuftiblc matter. When the fuel in the furnace
is kindled, a certain degree of heat is produced ; but
without a current of frelh air paffing through the burn-
ing matter, the fire is inflantly extinguilhed ;■ and with-
out this ftream of frefh air the inllammalion cannot go
•n. But when this takes olace, the air within the fiir-

lo concen.
trate the
heat.

nuce is rart-fieJ, and being no longer a balance for the Furrr.r'-.

exten-iul air, it is driven up the chimney by a current of /— -"

denfer air, ruihing in at the openings. This having
paffed through the fuel, is alfo rarefied, and paffcs otf,
giving place In its turn to a nc'iv current, fo that in tins
way there is a conllant tlux of air up the chimnev.
From this it mull appear, that the greater the rarefac-
tion of tlie air in the fire-place Is, the greater will be
the intcnfity of the heat produced. By conlfruiEling a
furnace in a particular way, the heat may be fo ma-
naged that the under part of the chimney may be
nearly as ftrongly heated as the fire- place itfelf ; fo that,
although a llrong current ot air paffes through the fuel,
yet as the heat is ufelefsly fpent on the chimney, there
Is a great and unneceffary waile of fiael. To prevent
this, there is a contrivance by which the throat of the
chimney is occaficnally contracted, by means of a Hiding
plate, wliich, when it is pulhed in, doles up the whole
vent 5 but may be drawn out In fuch a way as to foini
a larger or fmaller opening as may be thought ncceffary.
Till the fuel is thoroughly kindled, and the furnac»j
fully heated, the plate Ihould be quite drawn out, fo
that the largeil column of air which the furnace will
admit, may pafs through the fuel. The plate is ther»
put in to a certain length, and fo regulated that the
fmoke may be prevented from iffuing at the door of the
furnace. The current of air increafes in proportion to
the rarefaftion of the air In the fire-place, and this in-
creafes the intlammatlon of the fuel ; and the heat now
being retiefted from every point of the furnace, except-
ing the narrow paffage by which the fmoke paffes off,
becomes extremely intenfe. 11 a large quantity of fuel
be introduced at once, it will confume llowly, and re-
quire little attention, in comparifon with thofe furnaces
where this precaution is not obferved. When the in-
tenfity of the heat is not very great, the Hiding plate
may be of call iron j but to refiil great degrees of heat.
It will be found more convenient to have it made of
fire-clay. But it muft be obferved, that the advantage
derived from the flidlng-plate is loft to thofe furnaces
which are of a large conftruiSion, and where great
quantities of metal are to be melted j and there it is
commonly found, that the walle of fuel is very great.

4. To attain the fourth objeil, namely, to be able to Method of
regulate conveniently the degree of heat, a certain pro- ''<■?»•»''"£
portion of air only is to be allowed to pafs through the *
fuel. With this view it is neceffary to have the com-
mand of the furnace below, becaufe the parts above are
often filled with imall quantities of foot. To manage
this in the moll effetlual manner, the door of the alh-pit
is to be perfeilly cloftd, and furnilhed with a feries of
round holes which have a certain proportion to each
otiicr. Ill the furnaces conllrudled according to Dr
Black's direiJtion, the areas of thefe holes are as i, 2,
4, 8, 1 6, tec. in geometrical progrcffion. .Seven or
eight of thefe in the door of the alh-pit give a fufficieut
command over the fire. When the utnioU intenilty of
heat is required, all the paffages are thrown open, and
the height of the chimney is increafed, fo that the
height of the column of rarefied air being augmented,
the motion of the current of air through the fuel is
proportionably more rapid, and confcquently the heat
of the furnace becomes more intenfe. In the conllruc-
tlon of a furnace recommended by Macquer, another
U;be is applied to the afli-pit, having the extremity

moll

1/

FUR

1 f.^ ?• moll dillant from the furnace ivideil, and gradually
' tapering as it approaclies it. By this contiivance, it

was propofed to increafe tlie velocity of the current of
air as it pafles from a wider into a narrower tube.
But it is found that the air will not ultimately move
with greater velocity than if the tube were not ap-
plied. It may indeed be • ufcful wlierc the furnace
is placed in a fmall apartment, and the tube itfelf
forms a communication with the external air.

After thefe preliminary obfervations on the gene-
ral principles of furnaces, we propofe, in the follow-
ing treatife to give a (liort account of the coiillrudion
and application of lome of the more important furnaces
^vhich are employed in the arts and manufafturcs.

But before we enter into the detail and deicription

of particular furnaces, we ihall lay before our readers

the defcription of one which was -invented by Mefl'rs

Robertons of Glafgow, for the purpofe of confuming its

own fmoke, and ra\'ing fijel.

Furnace for " To conllruft furnaces (fays the editor of the Phi-

coniiiming lofophical Magazine, from which this account is taken),

fmoke" °" '"'"'^ ^ principle as iliould enable them to confume

their own fmoke, has long been a defidcratum ; and we

believe the public in general, but efpecially thole who

have been annoyed by the fmoke of ileam engines,

founderies, and firailar ereftions in their neighbourhood,

will be glad to learn that a furnace has been contrived

which effeftuallv gains this end.

" The conllruc^ion is extremely fimple, and will be
eafily underllood by the followuig defcription, and the
plate to which it refers.

Fig. I. reprefents a vertical feSion, and fig. 2. a
front vleiv of a fteam-engine boiler, furniihed with one
of Meflrs Robertons furnaces ; and the fame letters
refer in both to the fame parts of the conlfruc^ion.

" The opening A, through which the fuel is intro-
duced into the furnace, is (haped fomewhat like a
hopper, and is made of cart iron built into the brick-
work H, H. From the mouth it inclines downward
to the place where the fire rerts on the bottom grate B.
The coals in this mouth-piece or hopper anfwer the
purpofe of a door (a), and thofe that are loiveft are by
this means brought into a ilate of ignition before they
are forced into the furnace. Below the lower plate of
the hopper K, e the furnace is provided with front bars
G (b), which not only ferve to admit air among the
fuel, but offer a ready way to force the fuel back, from
time to time, from c Xo d (c), to make room for frelh
quantities to fall into the furnace from the hopper or
mouth-piece. By this arrangement the fuel is brought
into a rtate of ignition before it reaches the farther lide
of the bottom grate, where it is llopped by the rifing

[ 269 1

FUR

Plate

ccxxv

breaft, b, of the brick-work, i'l tliat any fmoke liberated
from the raw coals in the mouthpiece muU pafs over "
thefe burning coals before it can reach the Hue F^JJ".
But this, though it would caufe a large quantity of the
fmoke to be burnt, would not completely prevent the
efcape and afceiit of fmoke up the chimney j for it is
not merely neceffary that the fmoke (liould be expofed
t? a heat fufhcient to ignite it before it efcapes : unlefs,
at the lame time, a quantity of frelli air, able to furnifh
a lufficiency of oxygen for the combuflion of the fmoke,
can be brought into contact with it, it will Hill efcape
in an undecompofed Hate. The judicious admilllon of
frelh air, in fuch a manner that it can reach the fmoke,
without previoufly paffing through the fire, and parting
with its oxygen in its palTage, and in fuch quantity as
not to cool the bottom of the boiler, but merely to
caufe the fmoke to burn, conftitutes the chief merit of
this invention ; and to us it appears that it \\\\\ fully
anfiver the propofed end. Below the upper fide of the
mouth-piece or hopper, and at about the diltance of
tliree-fourths of an inch from it, (this fpace being a
little more or lefs, according to the iize of the furnace),
IS introduced a cart iron plate a n. This plate is above
the fuel, and the fpace between it and the top of the
hopper is open for the admillion of a thin ftream of air,
which, rulhing down the opening, comes firrt in contact
with that part of the fire which is giving oif the great-
ert part of the fmoke, viz. the fuel that has been lart in-
troduced, mixes with it before it palTes over the fuel in
the interior, which is in a high ftate of combit.tion, and
enables it to inflame lb completely, that not a particle
of fmoke ever efcapes undecompofed.

" The quantity of air thus admitted to pafs over the
upper furface of the fire, is regulated by a very fimple
contrivance. The plate n n rerts at eich end on a rtud,
or pin, projecting from the cheeks of the mouth-piece
A, or is furniihed at each end with a pivot which works-
m the cheeks j the faid pins or pivots being placed
about midway between the outfide and inlide of the
mouth-piece or hopper, fo that, by elevating or de-
prelTmg the edge a of the plate, the opening at n is
enlarged or dirainirticd. When that degree of opening
which produces the beft efle(^s is obtained, which is
eafily known, the plate an is kept in its place by
means of a piece of iron introduced above it, and
anfwering the purpofe of a wedge.

" Under the grates is the allt-hole I, the upper part
of which is fumiftied with doors SS, which, when (liut,
prevent the heat from the front bars G from coming
out into the apartment, and incommoding the work-
men.

" Invited by an advertifcment, we went to Meflrs
Bunnell

(a) " In the management of this furnace, what is chiefly to be attended to is, that the hopper be kept full of
coal, and either wholly or in part fmall coal, to prevent, as much as polTible, air getting in by that paflage ; it is-
alfo necelTary at fome times to ufe a ftiutter of thin plate-iron, to be applied to the mouth of the hopper to exclude
the entrance of air by that paflage.

(b) " Thefe bars are, in faft, a grated door, kept in their pofition by a catch L, and which may be opened
at pleafure for cleaning the fire out. In fmall furnaces an opening here is all that is neceflary ; the bars
may be difpenfed vvith.

(c) " Between the back end, </, of the bottom bars, and the, breaft brickwork b, is rcprefented in the plate
a feclion of a fliutter, which is fometimcs opened for the purpofe of getting out the refufe of the fuel.

U R

[ 270 ]

FUR

rumace. Bunnell and Silver, Bedf »rd-ftreet, Covent Garden, to
'-—~r~^^ fee one of thefe furnaces at work, and we were not a
litrie gralified in obferving that the fmallefl appearance
of fmoke could not be perceived ifiuing from the top of
the chimney. The advantages of fuch an improvement
can- hardly be better illuftrated than by mentioning
what had actually happened with this ileam engine.
The fmoke, before the improved furnace was employed,
incommoded the neighbourhood fo much, that it ^vas
flopped as an intolerable nuifnnce. Now it is fo far
from diRurbing any one, that, without being admitted
to fee the engine, it would be aftually impoffible to
know when it is at work.

" Thefe furnaces, we underftand, have alfo been a-
dopted by many intelligent manufaiSurers at Leeds and
at Mancheller. At the latter place, if we may credit
newfpaper reports, feveral manufadlurers have had their
works indicled as nuifances for not having adopted the
improvement ; the magifliates arguing, that, though
the welfare of the place required that luch inconveni-
ences fliould be fubmitted to ^vhile no polTible cure for
them was known, the health and comfort of the inhabi-
tants equally demand, now that the evil can be done
away, that fmoking furnaces fhould not be permitted in
the place.

" We eameftly recommend to owners of fteam en-
gines, and alfo to thofe who are annoyed by them, to
endeavour to bring this improvement into general ufe.
Indeed, we entertain no doubt of its being univerfally
adopted looncr or later ; for it yields advantages not
only in point of cleanlinefs, comfort, and health, but
alfo in point of intereft ; all the fmoke ufually difchar-
ged at the top of the chimney, being in faft, fo much
good fuel, that only wanted the contaft of frelli air to
inflame it under the boiler. It is a fact well known,
that the flame which is often feen ifluing from the chim-
neys of founders, &c. has no exillence except at the
top of the cliimney : while afceiiding the flue it is only
denfe fmoke, confilHng of the azote of the atmofphcric
air decompofed in paffing through the fire, of hydro-
gen, coal tar, and carbonaceous matter, of fuch a high
temperature, that it only wants oxygen to make it in-
flame fpontaneoufly : this it obtains from the atmofphe-
ric air into which it afcends, and then prefents fuch ap-
pearances as would make a hally obferver adopt the opi-
nion that the flame bad afcended, as flame, from the
fuel in the furnace ; which is by no means the cafe. A
eonfiaeration of this fimple faft will convince any per-
fon that it is not an inconfiderable proportion of the
fuel that is thus wafted. Nor is this the only lofs fuf-
tained ; the quantity of heat required not merely to ren-
der fuch a portion of the fuel volatile, but to give to it
a temperature able to produce the effedl of which we
have taken notice, is itfelf furniflied at the expence of
an extra and unneceflary quantity of fuel. The whole
wafte in many cafes is, we are pcrfuaded, not lefs than
an eighth of the whole fuel employed."
Furnace for One of the moft important furnaces, particularly for
fmdting this country, where, althoagh great and eflential im-
"°"' provements have been made by induftry and ingenuity,

the manufafture is yet in its infancy, is that for the
fraching of iron.

We Ihall therefore enter more fully into the detail of
the hiftory, conllruflion, and general principles of the
operation of blaft furnaces ; and in tracing their pro-
3

greflive hillory, it may be obferved, that in this coun- Furnace,
try it has experienced a revolution, of which no analo- """"v— ■
gous inftance has occurred in other countries.

In the early and barbarous periods of fociety, before Hiftoiy
the introduftion of agriculture, the furface of a country
is ufually covered with extenfive forells. From this cir-
cumftance wood, as being moft acceflible, abimdant,
snd of eafieft application, is ufually employed by man-
kind for the purpofes of fuel. In the progrefs of popu-
lation and improvement, other advantages were derived
from the general ufe of wood as fuel ; and among thefe
the improvement of the climate, and clearing land for
the purpofes of agriculture, were none of the leaft. The
application of wood as fuel to different manufaiflorics,
had no doubt alfo an early origin ; and in the manu-
fafture of iron, if conduced on a Icale of any extent,
the demand for fuel of this kind muft have been very
great. If, then, during the gradual improvement and
profperity of this country, this manufacture, in place
of remaining llationary, or declining, from diminiftied
confumption, has increaled in capital and extent, with-
out fome fubftitute for wood, the art would have been
long before this time entirely loft, becauie it depended
on a flock which muft have rapidly declined, and even
its very exiftence was often far from being compatible
with the views and intereft of landholders. Such were
the circumftances in which Great Britain was placed,
from the reign of Charles II. to the middle of the iStti
century. During this period, being in a profperous
flate, the manufaclures and commerce of the country
increafed the demand for iron, while the fupply of
wood, one of the moft necelTary materials in its manu-
fadlure, was greatly diminiftied. It is true, indeed,
that, previous to this period, pit-coal had been employ-
ed as a fubftitute -, but the prejudice of fome, and the
felfifti views of others, and el'pecially the ivant of fufti-
cient mechanical powers, obftrutli.d the progrefs of
this mode of manufaflure. When, however, thefe dif-,
Acuities were furmounted, and it was found that the
change of fuel in the blaft furnace was Ukely to prove
beneficial, this manufadiire acquired new vigour, and
improvements fucceeded each other in rapid fuccefl"ion.
In a period of about 50 years, a complete revolution
was effefled, not only in relinquiflnng the mode of ma-
king iron with charcoal and in employing pit-coal in
the blaft furnace, but alfo in the immenfe increafe of
tlie manufafture.

At what period the manufaflure of iron commenced and p:o-
in Britain, cannot be precifely afcertained. It has,K''«'^.o*. '"
however, been fuppofed, that the Phoenicians, who^"^'**'"'
wrought the tin mines of Cornwall, may have introdu-
ced into the country men who were fkilled in metallic
ores, and were capable of eftimating their value, by
converting thefe mineral riches to fuch purpofes as their
own neceihties, or the wants of the inhabitants, might
require. It is probable alfo, that the invafion of Eng-
land by the Danes, • and their eftabliftiment in this
country, added foraething to their former knoivledge
in the art of mining and manufacturing the ores of iron.
In fupport of this conjedure, the large heaps of fcorla
found in many parts of England, and having a conft-
derable thickneis of foil upon them, have been denomi-
nated from time immemorial, " Danes cinders ;" and
indeed fo early as the year 1620, large oaks were found
in a ftate of decay, upon the tops of fome of thofe hills

of

FUR [ 271 ] FUR

of fcoiiii. But although thefe may have been very an- None of the adventurers, however, fuccecded in their

cient manufacfures, it is the lefs probable that the pro- attempts till the year 16 19, when Dudley made pij^- ''

duclion of thefe cinders is to be afcribed to the blall iron in a blaft furnace, but produced only three tons in

furnace ; for at that remote period the manufacture was the week. At this time the price of iron had rifen, in

chiefly direfled to the fabrication of fmall portions of confequence of many of the iron works having Hopped

malleable iron, in what ^vere called foot-blalls and tor want of wood as fuel. To thofe manufadurers,

b'.comeries. The art of calling or moulding in iron therefore, who could Ifill be furniflied with a fupply of

^vas either altogether unknown, or in fo rude a i^^te, wood, the manufadure was highly profitable, fo that

that it could not be profecuted with much profpeft of they oppofed any new attempt by which the price of

advanta<je. Pig or call iron, if it was at all produced, iron was likely to be diminilhed.

was then of the molt refraclory nature tor being con-
verted into malleable iron. It was not till a future pe-
riod, when improvements had been made in machinery,
and the advantages of a divilion of labour were known,
that ditferent furnaces were conftruiled ; one for manu-
faduring pig iron, and another for converting it into
malleable iron. To this the blaft funiace fec-ras to have
owed its exiftence, and it is to be confidered as an im-
prosement of the advantages which are derived from a
divifion of labour. The blaft furnaces being exclufively
appropriated to the makhig of pig iron, the attentive

After this period, the progrefs of the iron manufac-
ture was greatly interrupted from other caufes. Amidll
the dillraclion occafioned by the civil wars which raged
in England, little improvement was to be e-xpeded.
It appears, however, that patents were granted during
the Commonwealth, for the exclulive privilege of ma-
nufacturing iron in the new way ; and in one of thefe,
it was beheved at the time, that the Protector himfelf
had a fliare. AH thefe experienced the fate of the
former, and no raanufa6ture of any extent was fucccfs-
fully eltabli(l\ed. In the year 1663, Dudley in his ap-

manufafturer would foon perceive that the produds of plication for his tail patent, ftated that he could pro

Number (
furnaces i

the furnace were often different from each other. R
peated obfervation and experience would enable him to
afcertain what was the caufe of this difference. Obfer-
ving that an additional quantity of fuel rendered the
forged pig iron more fulible, this circumltance would
fuggell the pradicabillty of calling it into ihape. Hence
probably arofe the art of moulding, \vhich afterwards,
as well as the bar-iron forge, became an appendage to
the blall furnace. After this new manufadure became
I'amihar, the advantage of dividing the produd of the
blall furnace into gray melting iron, or into forged pigs,
accordhig to the demand, would be obvious.

In the year 1613, according to Dudley, who has
Hated the fad in his Meta/lum Marlis, there were no
lefs than 300 blaft furnaces in England tor fmelting
iron ore with charcoal, and each furnace was fupplied
\vith fuel upon an average of 40 weeks in the year.
Taking the average produce of pig iron at each furnace
of 15 tons per week, or 600 tons per annum, the total
•innual quantity v.ill amount to l8o,OOD tons, which is
a greater quantity than has ever been produced in Bri-
tain Jince that period. It is fuppofed that this quantity
may be greatly exaggerated, but at the fame time it is
allowed that the iron manufadure was, at this early pe-
riod, highly profperous and produdive. But in the
pi-ogrefs of agriculture and the increafe of population,
it was neceffary to clear the land for the purpofe of cul-
tivation. From this clrcumftance, as well as from the

duce at one time feven tons of pig iron in the week
with a furnace of an improved conftrudion, 27 feet
fquare, and with bellows which one man, without much
fatigue, could ^vork for an hour.

Thas, as the demand for wood for the purpofes of
fuel in this manufadure increafed, and the growth of
timber was greatly diminilhed, the manufadurer was
forced by necelTuy to have recourfe to the ufe of pit-
coal ; and when various valuable improvements had
been made en machinery, and particularly wlien the
benclicial effedi of the lleam engine had been afcer-
taincd, the iron manufadurer faw himfelf in poffelTioa
of a command of power in the management of his ma-
terials, of which he had formerly no conception. The
fmall furnace fupplied with air from bellows conftruded
of leather, which was moved by means of oxen, horfes,
or men, went into difufe, when larger furnaces were
introduced, with an increafe of the column of air, for
the purpofe of exciting combuftion. But at this period,
when the manufadure derived new vigour from the in-
trodudion of the fteam engine, and the general im-
provement in machinery, it feemed, from tlie operation
of other caufes, and particularly from the deficiency of
fuel, to decline rapidly. The demand for iron in the
raanufadured ftate, and particularly for bar iron, had
increafed, while the quantity produced gradually dimi-
nirticd. Recourfe was now had to foreign markets for
fupply, and the importation of Ruffian and Sivedifh

great confumption of wood fsr the navy, the fupply of iron theii commenced. Of the 300 blaft furnaces fpo-
fuel was greatly diminilhed ; fo that the iron manufac- " -- — -

ture became confequently lefs produdive.

It is curious to remark that, although pit-coal was
known long before this period, and was wrought at
Ncwcaftle previous to the year I 27 2, and great quan-
tities of it were annually exported to Holland and the
Low Countries, and was ufed in the fmith's forge, and
other manufadures which require a ftrong continued
heat, yet in England the prejudice againil its ufc in the
manufadure of caft iron w as fo inveterate, that w hen it
was firlt propofed and attempted, every obftacle which
could be devifed was thrown in its way. During the
reign of James I. feveral patents were granted for the
■csclufive privilege of manufaduring iron ^vith pit-coal.

ken of by Dudley, 59 only exilled ; and eftiraating their
annual produce at about 295 tons to each furnace, the
total amount did not much exceed 17,000 tons.

Such was the ftate of the manufadure of iron in
England and Wales, before the introdudion of pit-
coal ; and thus it apjjc-ars, that in a period of from 100
to 130 years, it had fuftered a diminution of more than
50,000 tons annually. It proved of lingular benefit to
this manufadure, that the lleam engine, which hail
then become a powerful machine, was introduced, for
the purpofe of railing and compreffmg the air, and
could be employed in thofe places where materials were
abundant, but w here there was a deficiency of water for
moving the machinery. Bcfides, experience now taught

tile

FUR [2

Vuinace. the mamifafturcr, that the produce of his furnace could
*~~v be increafed by enlarging the diameter of the fleam cy-

linder, for rendering the vacuum imder the pirton more
perfect ; and it was loon found that, by increafing thefe
efl'efts, fuch a quantity of pig iron could be produced
from the coak of pit-coal, as would be attended «ith a
fultable profit. It is fcarccly to be> wondered at, that
tliis circumftance ihould have long remained a fecret ;
for a fmall quantity of air only being neccffary to ig-
nite the charcoal furnace, whether it arofe from the pe-
culiar inflammability of the fuel, or the fmall capacity
of the furnace, it was always under the eye of the ma-
nufafturer, and he would more frequently experience
the inconveniences of overblowing than underbloivlng
the furnace. It feems too extremely probable, that
pit-coal, being cenfidered in every refpeft inferior to
charcoal, the manufafturer would proceed with great
caution in enlarging the column of air, or increafing
its denfity ; and thus the advantages to be derived from
its ufe would be in a great meafure lolf. When, how-
ever, experience had taught them a different lefTon, the
limits to the quantity of air that might be directed to a
coak blall furnace, before any injurious effefts arofe,
were not very obfervable. It was found, indeed, that
the denfity of air diminilhed the quantity of the pro-
duce, and the fame law feemed to hold with regard to
pit-coal as well as to wood, — that the fofter qualities
might be overblown, while the llrata of a denier and
more compafl confiflence remained undiminil'hed before
a heavier blalf.
Comes into Between the years 1753 and 1 7 60 the coak of pit-
geucralufe coal was pretty generally fubllituted for charcoal, in the
blaft furnace. The iron manufaffure alTumed new vi-
gour, and in a period of 30 years it experienced in
Kngland and Wales a very remarkable progrefs. From
the general and increafing ufe of pit coal, it is probable
that many of the charcoal works were iooner relinquilh-
cd than they would otherwife have been. The hirtory
of the celebrated foundery of Carron in Scotland, af-
fords us a curious inllance of the progrefs of the ufe of
pit-coal in this manufaffure. Thefe extenfive opera-
tions commenced about the year 1760. The blowing,
as was the practice at the time, was performed by means
of large bellows, moved by a water wheel. But as
there was a fcanty fupply of air, and as this was defi-
rient in denfity, the weekly produce of the furnace
rarely exceeded I o or 12 tons, and often in fumraer this
quantity was confiderably diminilhed. With a view to
improve the operation, immenfe quantities of wood
charcoal were prepared, and it was found that the pro-
ccfs of fmelting fucceeded much better with this kind of
fuel than with the mineral coal which was dug out in
the neighbourhood. But in the improvement of ma-
chinery, more elfedual means were difcovered to pro-
cure a blalt of fufhcient force and denfity for the igni-
tion of ])it-coa], wheels of greater power were conflruc-
ted ; the ufe of the bellows was relinquilhed, and in
their place large iron cylinders, fo contrived as to blow-
both up and down, were introduced. Thus, a larger
column of air, of three or four times the former denfity,
was obtained, and the ben"ficial ciTerts arifing from the
improvements \vere foon perceived ; lor the fame fur-
nace which formerly produced 10 or 12 tons in the
week, fbmetimes yielded 40 tons in the fame time ;

FUR

lual average, not lefs than I5,-300 tons Furnace

2 ]

and on an
of metal.

About the end of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, we
are informed by Dudley, that blall furnaces had been
conftrufted on lb large a fcale, and with fuch a power
of machinery, as to yield a daily produce of more than
two tons of charcoal iron ; but it is probable that fo
large a produce could only be obtained in fituations
where there was a copious fupply of water, and where
the water wheels and belloivs employed were of large
fize. In the more ordinary modes of conducting this
procefs, furnaces of a much fmaller fize were employed,
and thefe received the fupply of air from hand Isellows
which were moved by men, and foraetimes by cattle.
From the fuperiority of the manufaflure of iron guns,
mortars, ike. England pofTefTed at this time a confider-
able export trade ; but as pit-coal had not yet been ap-
plied to any departments in the manufafture of iron, it
feems probable that thefe articles were call from the
large blafl furnaces, becaufe the flame of wood, com-
paring it with that of pit-coal, polTelTmg but feeble ef-
feds, would render the application of the reverberating
fiirnace (if It was then known), of no ufe in the calling
of guns and mortars. The want of pit-coal in every de-
partment of the foundery, greatly retarded the perfec-
tion to which the art of moulding might have arrived,
and even obftrutled its improvement. The backward
ftate in which the art of calling and moulding long re-
mained in this country, fliened that the ivant of this
material of the fmelting fuel in the blall furnace was
long feverely felt ; and owing to this, other nations,
who in many other refpecls enjoyed fewer advantages,
made more rapid progrefs in the improvement of this
manufaflure. Before this period, it is not improbable
that the ule of pit-coal might have been fuggeiled to the
manufacturer, and that this material, employed as a
fuel, might have been confidered as an auxiliary, or as
a fubllitute in various departments of the procefs. The
inflammability of this fubflance, and its tendency to be
converted into a cinder, as well as the general decay ef
wood, would aiTord futficient ground for what might be
confidered by many as a ufelefs fpeculation. The be-
nefits of this manufafture as it then flood, had been
carefully inveftigated, and fully appreciated by thofe
who were interefled in it. The fupply of ^vood only
feemed to limit its extent, but for want of a futlicient
fupply of materials, the ellablilhment of new works be-
came impradlicable, thofe already engaged in the bufi-
nefs were anxious to preferve the fupply they enjoyed,
however limited, than encourage any innovation or
change in the procefs, which, by the I'ubfiitution of pit-
coal for charcoal from wood, would probably give to
new adventurers. and fpeculators a fuperiority ef the
market. Befides, many of the furnaces which were
then gi'ing, were at a great diflance from pit-coal, fo
that the general ufe of this fubflance, and the advan-
tages to be derived from it, ^vouUl be highly injurious
to their interelts.

Such was the flatc of this manufufture when the ufe
of pit-coal in this procefs ^vas difcovered, or when it was
propofcd to employ it for this purpofe. With this view,
.Tames I. in the year l6j2, granted 2 patent to Simon
Sturtcvant, for the exclufive mEnufadlurc of iron with

pit-coal, for the period of 31 years. In obts

privilege.

f F U R [

Pamace. privilege, the patentee obliged hiir.felf to publilli a full
/~"~^ account of his diicoveries, and this appeared in a work,
in quarto, under the title of " Metallica." It appears,
however, that Sturtcvant had not fuccecded in his
fchemes •, for in the following year he gave up his privi-
lege, but it is not knowni to what caufes the failure is
to be afcribed.
Another After Sturtevant, a John Ravenfon embarked in the

* adventurer. fame liazardous undcrtakino -, and altliougli he procured
a patent without mucli trouble, he had loon to encoun-
ter diihculties in the way of ultimate lliccefs, analogous
to thofe which had prevailed over the perfeverance of
Sturtevant, and induced him to relinquiih the farther
profecution of his fchemes. He obtained his patent on
conditions fimilar to thofe on which his predeceflor pro-
cured it, in conl'equence of which he publilhed his
" Metailica" in l6i:f. All his luccelTors were like
him, obliged to relign their patents from the want of
adequate fuccefs.
Dudley ob- Dudley procured his patent in the year 1619, and
tains a pa- notwithllanding he alhrmed that he manufadured not
**"'■ more than three tons per ^veek, he found it a lucrative

undertaking. This difcovery he brought to perfeclion
at the \Torks of his father in Worceltertlure •, but by
the intluence of thofe who w iflied to ihare in the emolu-
ments arifing from the manufadure of iron with pit-
coal, his patent was limited to 14 iiillead of 31 years.
He informs us hiraCelf, that, during the greater part of
this period, he was enabled to fell pig and bar iron
much cheaper than any of his competitors ; but as his
remarkable fuccefs drew their envy upon him, his de-
voted \n3rks were at length deftroyed by a lawlefs mob,
urged on, it is fuppofed, to perpetr;.te fo atrocious a
V <ised by his rivals in bufinefs. In this uirnierited treat-
ment of the fai.guiiie but unfortunate Dudley, the coke
pig procefs unqueltiunably experienced an irreparable
iofs. He had io many rivals to contend with, by virtue
of the original ground he occupied as a manufafturer,
and his attachment to the caufe of royalty was fo fin-
cere, that his improvements were effeftually prevented
from arriving at lafting or general utihty. Could he
have procured a new patent after tlie relloration, there
is little doubt but he would have again entered with
avidity on the laborious paths of difcovery. In peti-
tioning for the recovery of his ancient privileges, we
find him declaring that inllead of three, he was enabled
to manufacture leven tons per week of coke pig iron, in
confequcnce of a large furnace, and an improved bel-
lo^vs.
Attemt.ts To ftand clear as much as poffible of the method of
£0 evai'.e it. Operation which Dudley had difcovered, one Captain
Buck, Major Wildmaii, and fome others, conllructed
large air-furnaces in the forelt of Dean, into which they
put clay pots, for containing the requifite preparations
ef ore and charcoal. Pit-coal was employed for the
purpofe of heating the furnaces ; and it is highly prob-
able that thefe new adventurers were fanguine enough
to beHcve that, by tapping the pots belo\v, the feparat-
cd metal would tiow out. This if range metliod of alfay-
ing was foon found imprafticable ; for the heat was not
of fufficient intenfity to produce an entire feparation ;
the pots gave way, and the profecution of this ridiculous
'cheme was fpeedily relinquilhed

Tlie manufacture of iron received no farther im-
provements for about a century after this period. It
Vol. IX. Part I.

273 ] F

was found to be prafticabl
quantity as to produce

U R

but how to procure fuch a ^unlace.
rative return, was not to """^^"^
be derived fiom the mere kno^^ledge of the particular
proportions of the raw materials. Had machinery
reached that degree of perfection in the time of the ill
fated Dudley which it has fince done, we have good
reafon to beUeve that the rapid progrels of the pig iron
manufadture would have dated its origin from the £era
of that enterpriling genius.

We thall conclude this hiftorical account of the iron Produr- -f
manufaflure, ivith a view of the progreffive quantity;'.'.: a -s in
produced at the different furnaces in Great Britain at Britain,
ditferent periods.

Tons.
In 1620, the 300 blall furnaces mentioned by
Dudley, which exilled in England and Wales,
produced each at an average - - 250

At a later period, but previous to the ufe of pit- '

coal, 59 furnaces produced each on an average 294

In 1788, 24 charcoal furnaces, which were then

going in England, produced each on an

average - . . 345

In 1788, 53 blaft furnaces, in which coak from

pit-coal was ufed, yielded each on an average,

nearly - - .

In 17S8, eight furnaces in Scotland produced

on an average, each
In 1 796, there were in England and Wales,
104 furnaces, from each of which was obtain-
ed on an average - - .
In 1796, 17 furn;
each on an avevai

907
875

1048

in Scotland produced

946

But from the above flatement we are not enabled to
draw an accurate conclufionof the degree of improvement
which has been introduced in blowing machinery ; for
among the furnaces mentioned in 179''^, were included
a number of charcoal blafts, which yielded only a fmall
produce. But the average produce of iron manufac-
tured at pit-coal blaft furnaces, at no lefs an amount than

Tons.
At melting furnaces - - 1 200

At forge pig works - - 2000

To what we have now faid, we ihall only ^ive a view Prices it
of the prices of the produce of this manufadlure, anddiflVrent

the channels of
of materials.

ifumption for this

quantity t

9 10

4 o

5 10

7 13

8 10

Charcoal pig iron fold in 1620 for

Ditto for melting in 1788

Ditto in 1798

Coak pig iron in the time of Dudley

Ditto in 1788,

Ditto in 1798,

Melting iron in 1802,

The produce of pig iron in England and Wales,
and in Scotland, from 168 funiaces, has been calculated
at the immenfe quantity of 172,000 tons. It will be
impollJble to fay with abfolute precifion what are the
channels into which this immenfe quantity of raw ma-
terials paffes for confumption ; but the foUovnng vie\vsconfiimp-
will enable the reader to account for part of it. tion of pig-

Tons, iion.
Annual confumption in the ereftion of new fur-
naces, forges, &c. - - jooo
M m Annual

F u n

Annual cor.fuxription at forges in Biitaiii, for

the inanafaiflure of bar iron - - 70,000

Purchafed by government in the ftate of can-
nons, mortars, &c. on an average of three
years, including the waft'e in belting, &c.
with what h employed in the navy as bal-
laft . • . . 14,899

Ditto by the India Company - - J, 700

Ditto for merchantmen - - 11,000

Ballafl for India and merchar.traen - 5000

Pnnci|)lts I^et lis now confider the conftrufiion and general
?|^''"^ '''"'''principles of the blaft furnace. The term t/ajl is em-
ployed at iron fcunderies, to fignify the column of air
which is forced into the furnace for the purpofe ofpromot-
ing corabuliion. The velocity of this blaft is produced
by the blowing machine impelling the contents of the
air-pump through one or two fmall apertures, and in
lliis way a column of air of various denfity is produced.
Here we propofe to avail oiirftlves of what has been
'ijne by IVIr Mulliet, formerly of the Calder iron works
;:car Glafgow, a manufaihirer himfelf, who with r-.uch
philofophical difcrimination joinsa great deal of excellent
pradical cbfervaticn. The many valuable hints which
he has fuggefted, will, we tpail, not only be acceptable,
but prove highly beneficial in direfting and affifting the
viev.s and operations of thofe concerned in this impor-
tant manufadure.

To have a clear view of his reafonings and obferva-
ticns on the nature and principles of the blaft furnace,
«e (hall firft give his defcription of the building and
apparatus, and then detail what he has faid concerning
its management and mode of operation.
Plate Fig- 3. reprefents a blall furnace with part of the

CCXXV. blowing machine. A the regulating cylinder, eight
Defcription fggj diameter and eight feet high. B, the floating pifton,
jj.^^j_ '" loaded with weights proportionate to the power of the
machine. C, the valve, by which the air is pafled from
the pumping cylinder into the regulator : its length 26
inches, and breadth 1 1 inches. D, the aperture by
ivhich the blaft is forced into the furnace. Diameter
of this range of pipes 18 inches. The wider thefe
pipes can with conveniency be ufed, the lefs is the fric-
tion, and the more powerful are the effects of the blaft.
E, the blowing or pumping cylinder, fix feet diameter,
nine feet high : travel of the pilton in this cylinder
from five to feven feet per ihoke. F, the blowing
pifton, and a view of one of the valves, of which there
are fometimes two, and fometimes four, diftributed over
the furfacc of the pifton. The area of each is propor-
tioned to the number of valves : commonly they are
itf-f-46 inches. G, a pile of folid ftone building, on
which the regulating cylinder refts, and to which the
rianch and tilts of the blowing cylinder are attached.
H, the fafety-valve, or cock j by the fimple turning
of which the blaft may be admitted to, or ftmt off from
the furnace, and palTed off to a collateral tube on the
oppofite fide. I, the tuyere, by which the blaft enters
the funiace. The end of the tapered pipe, which ap-
proaches the tuyere, receives fmall pipes of various dia-
meters, from two to three inches, called nofe-fiifies.
Thefe arc applied at pleafure, and as the ftrength
and velocity of the blaft may require. K, the bottom
of the hearth, two feet fquare. L, the top of the

74 ] _ F U R

hearth, two feet fix inches fquare. KL, the height Furnr.cc

of the hearth iix feet fix inches, L is alio the bottom v— ~

of the bolhcs, which here terminate of the fame fize as
tl;e top of the hearth ; only the former are round, and
the latter fquare. M, the ton of tlie bolhes, 12 feet
diameter and- eight feet of perpendicular height. N,
the top of the furnace, at which the materials are
charged ; commonly three feet diameter. MN, the
internal cavity of the furnace from the top of the bolhes
upwards, 30 feet high. ISiK, total height of the inter-
nal parts of the fi;rnace, 44^ feet. 00, the lining.
This is done in the niceft manner with fire-bricks made
on purpofe, 13 inches long and three inches thick.
PP, a vacancy which is left all round the outfide of
the firft lining, three inches broad, and which is beat
full of coke-duil. This fpace is allowed for any e.\-
panfion which might take place in confequence of the
fvvelling of the materials by heat when defcending to
the bottom of the furnace. OQ^, the fecond lining,
fimilar to the firft, R, a caft-iron lintel, on whicli the
bottom of the arch is fupported. RS, the rife of the arch.
ST, height of the arch ; on the outfide 14 feet, and 18
feet wide. VV, the extremes of the hearth, ten feet
fquare. Tliis and the bofli-flones are always made from
a coarfe gritted freellone, whole fracture prelents large
rounded grains of quartz, connected by means of a ce-
ment lefs pure.

Fig. 4. reprefents the foundation of the furnace, and a
full view of the manner in which the falfe bottom is
conftrufted.

AA, the bottom ftones of the hearth. B, ftratum
of bedding fand, CC, paffages by which the vapours,
which may be generated from the damps, are palTed off.
DD, pillars of brick. The letters in tlie horizontal view, ^
of the fame figure, correfpond to funilar letters in the
dotted elevation.

Fig. 5. A A, horizontal fedion of the diameter of the
boflies, the lining and vacancy for ftufhng at M. C,
view of the top of the hearth at L.

Fig. 6. vertical fide-feclion of the hearth and boflies ;
fhewing the tymp and dam-ftones, and the tymp and
dara-platcs. <7, the tymp-ftone. /', the tymp-plate,
wliich is wedged firmly to the ftone, to keep it firm in
cafe of fplitting by the great heat, c, dam-ltone, which
occupies the whole breadth of the bottom of the hearth,
excepting about fix inches, which, when the furnace is
at work, is filled every caft witii ftrong fand. This
ftone is funnounted by an iron plate of confiderable
thicknefs, and of a peculiar lliape {/, and from this call-
ed the dam-plate. The top of the dam-ftone and plate
is two, three, or four inches under the level of the tu-
yere hole. The fpace betwixt the bottom of the tymp
and the dotted line is alfo rammed full of ftrong land,
and fometimes fire-clay. 1 his is called the tymp-ftop-
ping, and prevents any part of the blaft from being un-
neceffarily expended.

The fquare of the bafe of this blaft-fumace is 38
feet ; the extreme height from the falfe bottom to the
top of the crater is 55 feet.

Having given the above defcription of the conftruc- Mode of
tion of the furnace, Mr Mulhet next proceeds to take a operation,
view of its mode of operation and management. " The
operations (he obferves) I am about to defcribe have
never as yet received any explanation confonant to true
philofophy or chemical fads ; yet there are few which

prefent

FUR

[ 27

inact. prefent a more beauiful chain of arTuiiuts, decompofi-
V— — lion, and recombination, than the manufatlurc of iron
in all its various images. An extenfive foundery is a la-
boratory fraught with phenomena of the moll intereil-
ing nature in chemiftry and natural philofophy : are
ne not then juflly furprifed to find that prejudice ftill
reigns there ; and that the curious manipulations of thefe
regions are liill ihrouded with error and mifconception •,
as if their dingy llrudure forbade the entrance of genius,
or configned her laborious unlettered fons to an endlefs
Itretch of mental obfcurity r"

Having defcribed the furnace, he continues, " I
fhall proceed to detail the train of preparation neceffary
before the fiunace is brought to produce good melting
iron.
ing " The furnace being finiftied, the bottom and fides

'•ei"- of it, for two feet up the fquare funnel, receive a lining
of common bricks upon edge, to prevent the ftone from
Ihivenng or mouldering when the fire comes in contact
ivilh it. On the front of the furnace is ereiiled a tem-
porary fire-place, about f lur feet long, into the bottom
of which are laid correfponding bars. The fide-walls
are made fo high as to reach the under-furface of the
tymp-llone ; excepting a fmall fpace, which afterwards
receives- an iron plate of an inch and a half thick, by
way of a cover : This alfo preferves the tymp-ltone
from any injury it might fullain by being in contacl «-ith
the flame. A Sre is now kindled upon the bars, and
is fed occafionilly ivith fmal. coals. As the whole ca-
vity of the furnace 'erves as a chiinnev for this fire, the
driiugnt in c jnfequence is violent, r.r.d the body of heat
carried up is very coniiderable. I.i t'le courfe of three
weeks the furnace ivill thus become entirely free from
damp, and fit for the reception of the material-: : when
this is judged proper the fire-place is removed, but
the interior bricks are allowed to remain till the opera-
tion of bio ving commences. Srj.me loofe fuel is then
thro«Ti upon the bottom of the furnace, and a few baf-
kets of cokes are introduced ; thefe are allowed to be-
come thoroughly ignited before more are added. In
this manner the fmnace is gradually filled ; fometi'iies
entirely full, and at other times 5-8ths or 3 4ths fiill.
The number of baikets full depend entirely upon the
fize of the furnace : that i;i the plate ivill contain 9 -.o
bafliets. If the coal is fplint, the weifi;ht of each baf-
ket-full will be nearly iiolb. X930r=99,ooolb. cokes.
As tliis quality of cokes is made ^vith a lofs of nearly
50 per cent, the original weight in raw coals will be
equal to 198,0001b. When ne rctlecf that this vaft body
of ignited matter is replaced every third day, when the
furnace Is properly at woik, a notion -.nay be formed of
the immenfe quantity of materials requifite, as alfo the
confequent industry exerted to fupply one or more fur-
naces for the fpace of one year.

" When the fun- ce is fuihciently heated through-

;5 ] FUR

out, fpecific qu.mtitics of cokes, iron-flonc, and blaft- Fui^ac-e.
furnace cinders are added: thefe are called charges. T ^'. 7'
The cokes arc commonly filled in balkcts, which, at ' ^ "^
all the various iron-works are nearly of a fize. The
weight of a balket, however, depends entirely upon the
nature and quality of the coal, being from 70 to I12lb.
each (d). The iron-ftone is filled into boxes, which,
when mocfcrately heaped, contain 561b. of torrefied iron-
ftone ; they often exceed this when the ftone has been
feverely roaftcd. The firft charges which a furnace re-
ceives, contain but a fmall proportion of iron-ftone to
the weight of cokes : this is afterwards increafed to a
full burden, which is commonly four bafkets cokes,
3;olb. ; two boxes iron-ftone, 1 lalb. ; one box of blaft-
furnace cinders, 60 or 7olb. (e). At new works, where
thefe cinders cannot be obtained, a fimilar quantity of
limeftone is ufed.

" The defcent of the charge, or burden, is facilitated
by opening the furnace below two or three times a-day,
throwing out the cold cinders, and admitting, for an
hour at a time, a body of frelh air. This operation is
repeated till the approach of the iron-ftone and cinder,
which is always announced by a partial fufion, and the
dropping of lava through the iron bars, introduced to
fupport the incumbent materials while thole on the bot-
tom are carried away. The filling above is regularly
continued, and when the furnace at the top has acquired
a confiderable degree of heat, it is then judged time to^''™' *"
introduce the blaft ; the preparations neceffary for which ^f''i* ''""
are- the following:— _ ''''*•

" The dam (tone is laid in its place firmly imbedded
in fire-clay ; the dam-plate is again imbedded on this
with the fame cement, and is fubjefl to the fame incli-
nation. On the top of this plate is a ilight depreflion,
of a curved form, towards that fide fartheft dillant from
the blaft, for the purpofe of concentrating the fcoria,
and allowing it to How oS" in a connecled ftream, as it
tends to furmount the level of the dam. From this
notch to the level of the floor a declivity of brick-work
is erefted, down which the fcoria of the furnace flows
in large quantities. The opening betwixt the dam and
fide-walls of the furnace, called the fai//^, is then built
up iviih fand, the loofe bricks are removed, and the fur-
nace bottom is covered with powdered-lime or charcoal-
duft. The ignited cokes are now alloived to fall down,
and are brought forward with iron bars nearly to a level
with the dam. The fpace between the furface of the
cokes and the bottom of the tymp-plate is next rammed
hard with ftrong binding fand ; and thefe cokes, which
are expuled on the outfide, are covered with coke-duft.
Thefe precautions being taken, the tuyere-hole is then
opened and lined with a foft mixture of fire-clay and
loam : the blaft is commonly introduced into the fur-
nace at firft ivitii a fmall difcharging-pipe, which is
aftcrwr<rds increafed as occalion may require. In two
M m 2 hours

(d). "This fame variety in the coal renders it almoft impolTible, under one defcription, to give a juft idea of the
proportions ufed at various blaft furnaces : to avoid being too diffufe, I ftiall confine my defcription conneiled
with a coal of a medium quality, or a mixture of fplint and free-coal, a balket of which will weigh from 781b.
to 841b.

(k). " A preference at firft is always given to blaft-furnace cinders in place of lime; being already vitri-
f.^d, they are of much caficr fufion, and tend to prefcrvc the furface of the hearth by glazing it over with a black
vitrid cruft.

FUR

[ 275 ]

FUR

Fufed me.
tal let out,

Lours after blowing, a confiderable quantity of lava ivill
be accumulated •, iron bars are tlien introduced, and
perforations made in the comprefled matter at the bot-
tom of the furnace ; the lava is admitted to all parts of
the hearth, and foon thoroughly heats and glazes the
furfares of the fire-ftone. Shortly after this it riles to a
level with th^ notch in the dam-plate, and by its own
accumulation, together with the forcible aftion of the
blaft, it flows over. Its colour is at firil black ; its
fradlure denfc, and very ponderous ; the form it alTumes
in running off is flat and branched, fometimes in long
itreams, and at other times lefs extenfive. If the pre-
paration has been well condufled, the colour of the cin-
der will foon change to white ; and the metal, which
ill the ftate of an oxyde formerly coloured It, will be
left in a difengaged ftate in the furnace. When the
metal has rifen nearly to a level with the dam, it is
then let out by cutting away the hardened loam of the
fauld, and conveyed by a channel, made in fand, to
its proper deftination ; the principal channel, or run-
ner, is called the Jov}, the lateral moulds are called
the pigr.

" In fix days after the commencement of blowing,
tlie furnace ought to have wrought her/elf clear, and
have acquired capacity futhcient to contain from jcco
to 7000 weight of iron. The quality ought alfo to be
richly carbonated, fo as to be of value and eftimation
in the pig-market. At this period, with a quality of
coal as formerly mentioned, the charge will have in-
creafed to the following proportions : — Five balkets
cokes, 40olb. ; fix boxes iron-ftone, 3361b. ; one box
limetlone, loolb.

" An analyfis of the fmelting operation, and the ten-
dency which the individual agents have to produce
change in the quality and quantity of the iron, come
next under conlideration. Let us, however, firfl notice
the charafteriftic features exhibited by the different kinds
of iron while in fufion, whereby the quality of the metal
may be jUlUy defined.

" When fine (N° I .) or fupercarbonatcd crude iron is
run from the furnace, the ftream of metal, as it iffues
from the fauld, throws off an infinite number of bril-
liant fparkles of carbone. The fiilface is covered
with a fluid pellicle of carburet of iron, which, as it
flows, rears itfelf up in the moft delicate folds : at firfl
the fluid metal appears like a denfe, ponderous ftream,
but, as the collateral moulds become filled, it exhibits
a general rapid motion from the lurface of the pigs to
the centre of many points •, millions of the fmeft undu-
lations move upon each mould, difplaying the greatelt
liicety and rapidity of movement, .conjoined with an
imcommonly beautiful variegation of colour, which
language is inadequate juftly to dcfcribe. Such metal,
in quantity, will remain fluid for 20 minutes after it is
run from the furnace, and ^vhen cold will have its fur-
face covered with the beautiful carburet of iron, al-
ready mentioned, of an uncommonly rich and brilliant
appearance. When the furface of the metal is not car-
bureted, it is fmooth like forged iron, and always con-
vex. In this ftate iron is too rich for melting without
the addition of coarfe metal, and is unfit to be ufed in a
cupola furnace for making fine Cijftings, where thinnefs
ai»d a !^ood Ikin arc requifite.

" N' 4. or oxygenated crude iron, when iffuing from
the blaft-fiunace, throws off from all parts of the fluid

furface a vaft number of metallic fparks : they srife Furnace.

from a different caufe than that exerted in the former ''"~~v~--<"

inftance. The extreme privation of carbone renders the

metal fubjeft to the combination of oxygen fo foon as

it comes into contact vnt\\ atmofpheric air. This truth

is evidently manifefted by the ejeclion of fmall fpherules

of iron from ail parts of the liarface : the deflagration

does not, however, take place till the globule has been

thrown two or three feet up in the air ; it then inflames

and feparates, with a flight hiffing explolion, into a

great many minute particles of brilliant fire. When

thefe are collefted they prove to be a true oxyde of

iron, but fo much faturated with oxygen, as to poifefsno

magnetic obedience. The furface of oxygenated iron,

when running, iscovered with waving fl.ikes of an obfcure

fmoky flame, accompanied with a hifling noife ; foi-m-

ing a wonderful contraft with the fine rich covering of

plumbago in the other ftate of the matal, occafionally

parting and exhibiting the iron in a ftate of the greatelt

apparent purity, agitated in numberlefs minute fibres,

from the abundance of the carbone united with the metal.

" When iron thus highly oxygenated comes to reft,
fmall fpecks of oxyde begin to appear floating upon the
furface : thefe increafe in fize ; and when the metal has
become folid, the upper furface is found entirely covered
with a fcale of blue oxyde of various thickneffes,
dependent upon the ftage of oxygenation or extreme
privation of carbone. This oxyde, in common, contains
about 1 5 per cent, of oxygen, and is very obedient to
the magnet. In place of a dark blue fmooth furface,
convex and richly carbonated, the metal will exhibit a
deep, rough, concave face, which, when the oxyde
is rem.jved, prelents a great number of deep pits.
Tliis iron in fulion Hands lefs convex than carbonated
iron, merely becaufe it is lefs fnlceptible of a ftate of ex-
treme divifion ; and indeed it leems a principle in all
metallic fluids, that they are convex in proportion to
the quantity of carbone with which they are faturated.
This iron flows dead and ponderous, and rarely parts in
ftiades but at the diftance of i'ome inches from each other.

" This is a flight Iketch of the appearance of the
tivo extreme qualities of crude or pig iron, when in a
ftate of fufion. According to the divifion formerly
made, there ftill remain two intennediate ftages of
quahty to be defcribed : thele are, carbonated and
carbo-oxygenated iron ; that is, N° 2 and 3 of the
manufafturers. Carbonated iron exhibits, like N" i, a
beautiful appearance in the runner and pig. The break-
ings of the fluid, in general, are lefs fine •, the agitation
lefs delicate ; though the divifion of the fluid is equal,
if not beyond that of the other. When the internal
ebullition of the metal is greateft, the undulating fliades
are fmalleft and moft numerous : fometimes they affume
the Ihape of fmall fegmcnts ; fometimes fibrated groups;
and at other times minute circles, of a mellower colour
that the ground of the fluid. The furface of the metal,
expofed to the external air, when cooling is generally
flightly convex, and full of pundlures : thefe, in iron of
a weak and fulible nature, are commonly fmall in the
diameter, and of no great depth. In ftrong metal, the
punilures are much wider and deeper. This criterion,
however, is not infallible, when pig-iron of different
works, is taken colkaively. At each individual work,
however, that iron will be ftrongeft vvhofe honeycombs
arc largeil and deepeft.

" Carb'o-

FUR

C 277 ]

FUR

" Carbo-oxygcnated, or N° 3. pig-iron, runs fmootlily,
v.ithout any great degree of ebullition ordifeng;!gement
of metallic Ipark?. The partings upon its furf.ice are long-
er, and at greater dillances from each other than in the
former varieties ; the (liape they affume is either ellipti-
cal, circular, or curved. In cooling, this metal ac-
quires a conGderable portion of oxyde ; the furface is
neither markedly convex nor concave ; the punctures
are lefs, and frequently vanidi altogether. Their ab-
fence, however, is no token of a fmooth face fucceed-
i;ig : in qualities of crude iron oxygenated beyond this,
I have already mentioned that a concave furface is the
conlequence of the extreme abfence of carbon ; and that,
in proportion as this principle is abfent, the iurface of
the iron acquires roughnefs and afperity.

" It may perhaps be proper here to mention, once
for all, that although, for convenience, the manufacturer
has, from a juft eftimation of the value of the metal in
a fubfequent manufaclure, afrixed certain numbers for
determinate qualities of iron, yet it is difficult to fay at
what degree of faturation of carbone each refpetlive
terra commences : fuffice it then to fay, that the two
alterative principles, oxygen and carbone, form two dif-
tinft clafTes, that in which oxygen predominates, and that
in which carbone predominates ; the latter comprehends
N° I and 2 of the manufacturers, the former includes
oxygenated, white and mottled-, and the equalization of
thefe mixtures form, as has already been noticed, the
variety of carbo-oxygenated crude iron.

" I fliall now obferve fome things relative to the va-
rious faces which crude iron afluraes. N° i and :, with
their intermediate qualities, poiTefs furfaces more or lefs
convex, and frequently \vith thin blirters : this we at-
tribute to the prefence of carbone, which being plentiful-
ly interfperfed betivixt and throughout the particles of
the metal, the tendency which the iron has to (brink in
cooling is entirely done away ; it tends to diftend the
aggregate of the mafs, and to give a round face, by
gradually elevating the central parts of the furface,
which are always lall to lofe their fluidity.

■■ " Again, that quality of iron known by the name
of N'' 3, or earbo-o.xygenated, is mod commonly found
with a flat furface. If we ftill farther trace the appear-
ance of the furface of pig iron, when run from the fur-
nace, we ihall find N' 4, either with a white or mottled
fraClure, poSeffed of concave faces rough and deeply
pitted. Beyond this it may be imagined that every de-'
gree of further oxygenation would be produclivc of a
furface deeper in the curve, and rougher, v\'ith addi-
tional afperities. The contrary is the cafe : when crude
iron is fo far debafed as to be run from the furnace in
clotted lumps highly oxygenated, the furface of the
pigs is found to be more convex than that of N° I iron ;
but then the fracture of fuch metal prefents an impure
mafs covered on both faces with a mixture of oxydated
iron, of a blueifh colour, nearly metallic. In fliort, this
quality of iron is incapable of receiving fuch a degree
of fluidity as to enable us to judge whether the convexi-
ty of its furface is peculiar to its ftate, or is owing to its
w«nt of divifion as a fluid, whereby tlie gradual confoli-
dation of the metal is prevented.

" Thefe features fulEcicntly dillinguilli betwixt the
various qualities of crude iron after they are obtained
from the blaft furnace : there are, however, criterions
rot hCi infallible, whereby we can prejudge the quali-

ty of the metal many hours before it is ran from the Furnace,

furnace. Thefe are the colour and form of the fcoria, ' ^ '

the colour of the vilrid cruft upon the working bars.f '^''^''""""^'^
and the quantity of carburet which is attached to it. colour unJ
The variety of colour and form in the cinder almoft form of the
univerfally indicate the quality of the metal on the fcoria,
hearth. Hence, from a long courfe of experience, have
arifen the following denominations : " Cinder of lut-
phury iron-," " Cinder of X" i, X* 2, and X" 3 ;"
and " Cinder of ballalt iron." Although at different
works, from local circumftances, the fame kind of fcoria
may not indicate preclfely the fame quality of iron, yet
the difference is fo fmall that the follo\ving defcription
of the various cinders may convey a very jull idea of
tlieir general appearance.

" When the fcoria is of a whitifli colour and (liort
form, branching from the notch of the dam, and emit-
ting from its llream beautifid fparks of ignited carbone,
refembling thofe ejefted from a crucible of caft fteel in
futlon, expofed to external air, or to the combullion of
fine Heel filings in a white flame ; if, when iiTuing from
the orifice of the furnace, it is of the pureil white co--
lour, poflefltng no tenacity, but in a ftate of the greateft
fliud divifion, and,^vhen cold, refembles a m»fs of heavy-
torrefied fpar, void of the fmallell vitrld appearance,
hard and durable, it is then certain that the furnace
contains //t//>/iuri/ iron, i. e. fuper-carbonated iron. At
blaft furnaces, where a great quantity of air is thrown
in per minute, fuper-carbonated crude iron will be ob-
tained with a cinder of a longer form, with a rough
flinty fradlure towards the outfide of the column.

" That cinder which indicates the prefence of car-
bonated iron in the hearth of the furnace, forms itfelf
into circular compaft ftreams, which become confoli-
dated and inferted into each other -, thefe are in length
from three to nine feet. Their colour when the iron
approaches the tirft quality, is a beautiful variegation of
w liite and blue enamel, forming a wild profufion- of the
elements of every known figure ; the blues are lighter
or darker according to the quantity of the metal and
the action of the external air while cooling. When the
quality of the pig-iron is fparlngly carbonated, the blue
colour Is lefs vivid, lefs delicate ; and the external fur-
face rougher, and more fullied with a mixture of colour.
The fame fcoria, when fufed in veffcls which are allow-
ed to cool gradually, parts with all Its variety and fliadej
and becomes of a yellowHh colour, fometimes nearly
white when the quaiititv of incorporated metals has been
fmall.

" The cinder which is emhted from the blalt furnace
when carbo-oxygenated (or N° 3.) iron is produced,"
aiTumes a long zig-zag form. The Itream is flightly
convex In the middle -, broad, flat, and obliquely fur-
rowed towards the edges. The end of the itream fre-
quently rears itfelf into narrow tapered cones, to the
height of fix or eight inches : thefe are generally holloiv
in the centre, and are eafily demolilhed, owing to their
excefllve brittlenefs. The colour of this lava is very
various •, for the mod it is pale yellow, mixed with
green. It tenacity is fo great, th-^it if, while fluid, a
fmall iron hook is inferted into it ul a certain degree of
heat, and then drawn from it with a quick but ltc-!;i>*
motion, 20 to 30 yards of fine glafs thread m.iy i<f
formed with eafe. If the colours arc vivid and v.ir>
gated, the thread will poiTefs, upon a numite leale, .-v'l

ill-:

F U

the variouj tfnts of colourin;
lumaar mafs. When by ai

R [ 278

which ib fo'jnd in the co-
:ident a quantity of this
lava runs back upon the difcharglng-pipe, it is upon the
return of the blall impelled ivith fuch velocity as to be
blo'.vn into minute delicate fibres, fmaller than the
moft duflile wire ; at firll they float upon the air like
wool, and when at relt very much refemble that fub-
ilance.

" The prefepce of oxygenated crude iron (N" 4,) on
the furnace-heirth, is indicated by the lava refolving it-
felfinto long ftreams, foraetimes branched, fometimeS
columnnr, extending from the notch to the lowell part
of the declivity ; here it commonly forms large, flat,
hollow cakes, or inclines to form conical figures : thefe
are, however, feldom perfect ; for the quantity of fluid
lava, conveyed through the centre of the column, ac-
cumulates fader than the internal fides of the cone are
confolidated ; and thus, when the ftruilure is only half
finirtied, the fmall crater vomits forth its fuperabundant
lava, and is demoliflied. The current of fueh lava falls
heavily from the dam as if furcharged with metal, and
emits dark red fparks refembling the agitation of ifraw
embers. Its colour is flill more varied than the former
defcriptions of fcorije, and is found changing its hues
through a great variety of greens fl>aded with browns.
Another variety of fcoria, which indicates the fame
quality of iron, aiTumes a fimilar form ; but has a black
ground colour mixed with bro\ms, or is entirely black.
When the latter colour prevails, the texture of the cin-
der becomes porous ; the quantity of iron left is now
very confiderable, and fuch as will be eafily extraded
in the aflay-furnace with proper fluxes. In cafes of
total derangement in the fumace, the fcoria will ftill
.retain this black colour, although the quantity of metal
m»y amount to 25 per cent. ; the frafture, however,
becomes denfe, and its fpecilic gravity increases in pro-
portion to the quantity of metal it holds incorporated.

" The next fource of information, as to the quality of
the iron in the furnace, is to be got from the colour of
the fcoria upon the working bars, which are from time
to time infertcd to keep the furnace free from lumps,
and to bring forward the fcoria. When fuper-carbon-
ated crude iron is in the hearth, the vitrid cruft upon
the bars will be of a black colour and fmooth furface,
fully covered with large and brilliant plates of plum-
bago.

" As the quality of the metal approaches to N' 2.
(carbonated), the carburet upon the fcoria decreafes
both in point of quantity and fize.

" When carbo-oxygenated iron (N° 3) is in the fur-
nace, the working bars are always coated with a light-
er coloured fcoria than when the former varieties exift ;
a fpeck of jilumbago is now only fn ;nd here and there,
and that of the fmallell Cze. When the quality of the
metal is oxygenated (N° 4.), not only have the plates
of carburet difappeared, but alfo the coally colour on
the external furface of the fcoria ; what now attaches to
the bars, is nearly of the fame nature and colour as the
lava emitted at the notch of the dam.

" Theft; criterions are infallible j for, as the fufibility
or carbonation of the metal is promoted in a direct ratio
to the comparative quantity of the coally principle in the
furnace, fo in the fame proportion will the vitrid cruil
encircling the working bars exhibit the prcfrncc of that
principle in the furnace.

3 FUR

" In the fmelting operation a juft proportion and af- Fur: a f.
fociation of materials and mechanical conftruClion ought ^— v—
to be blended, in order to produce the bell poflible cf-
fefls. Under the former are comprehended the cokes,
iron-flone, limellone, and blafl ; by the latter is undtr-
llood the furnace, the power of the blowing-machine,
or the compreflion and velocity under which the air is
difchatged into the furnace, and the genius or mechaiu-
cal fkill of the workmen. According to this divil'.on
I Ihall endeavour to point out the very various effecb
which difproportion in any cafe produces, and iiice
ver/a.

" In the preceding obfervations the coal and iron ftone
have been traced through their various ftages of prepa-
ration, and that fl:age pointed out in which they were
moll fuitable for the profitable manufaclure of the me-
tal. It will be neceflary to carry along with us this
facl, that in the exatl proportion which the quantity of
carbone bears to the quantity of metal in the ore, and its
mixtures, fo will be the fulibility, and of courfe the va-
lue of the pig-iron obtained. The importance of this
truth will Hill farther appear when we confider the very
various qualities of pit-coal, the different proportions of
carbone which they contain, and the various properties
attached to every fpecies of this ufeful combuftible.

" Among the many flrata of coal which I have diftil- '^-'^.ifure of
led, fome I have found to contain 70 parts in the loo.toal exa»
This large proportion is peculiar to the clod-coal, ufed ••'"<^<*-
at fome of the iron-works in England, and juftly prefer-
red, for the purpofe of manufeture, to the purell and
hardcii variety of Ipliiit-coal. The latter I have found
to average from 50 to 59 parts of carLone in the loo ;
and the foft, or mixed qualities of coal, from 4? to 53
parts. Such various proportions of carbone plainly point
out, that the operations to be followed at each indivi-
dual iron-ivork ought not to reft upon precedent, un-
lefs borrovved from thofe works where exa?Jy the fame
quality of coal is ufed. This analyfis alfo lays open
part of the fource from v.hence originates the widely
different quantities of metal produced per week at va-
rious blall-furnaces, and the great difproportions of ore
ufed to different coals.

'• Experience has fliewn that the three qualities of coal
juft mentioned, will fmelt and give carbonation to the
following proportions of the fame fpecies of torrefied
iron ftone :

X12 lb. of clod-coal cokes will fmelt - 130 lb.

112 lb., of fplint-coal cokes will fmelt - 105 lb.

112 lb. mixed foft and hard coal cokes will fmelt 841b.

" Let the iron ftone be fuppofed in the-blaft fumace to
yield 40 per cent, then we find that the one-twentieth
of a ton of the refpeftive qualities of cokes will fmelt
and carbonate the following proportions of iron, viz.
112 lb. clod-coal cokes, 1301b. iron ftone, at 40 per
cent. :i: 52 lb. iron ; 112 lb. of fplint-coal cokes, 1 05 lb.
of the ftone =: 42 lb. of iron ; and 1 1 2 lb. foft and hard
coal cokes, 84 lb. of the iron ftone = 33 -,% lb. of iron.
W^e then have for the quantity of metal produced by
one ton of eacli quality of cokes :

Clod-coal 5* X 20 =1040 lb.
Splint ditto 42 X 20 =: 8401b.
Mixed ditto 3S-!^s X 20 rr: 702 lb.

" Tliis furnilhes a datum wfccreby wc eafily obtain

the

F U K [2;

. : -. tV.e qv.antity of ine v?.i-io;is cokes neceilhry to proJuie
— — . one ton of carbenatei] crude iron by common propor-
tion : fcr if 104c lb. of metal are produced by one ton,
or 2i40 lb. of clod-coal cokes, the quantity of tl;c fame
cokes requiiite for the production of one ton, or 2240
lb. of metal will be —

T. C.Q.Ib.

4824.6lb.rr 2 308
Splii>t-coalcokes84o: 2240:: 2 240:5973.31^=2 13 i 9
Mixed ditto 7O2:2240::224O:7i47.5lb.= 3 337

" If to the quantity of cokes neceffary to manufac-
ture one ton of crude iron, we add the quantity of vo-
latile matter driven off in the Frocefs of charring, which
ni?v be thu5 eiliraattd upon the average of each qua-
%:

Clod coal ^ or 37r perc. produce in cokes i a 624perc.
Splint coal | — t;0 ^ox 50

Mixedcoalj — 62,5 \ — 37t

" Then, for the quantity of the refpeclive coals ufed
in the raw ftate, we have the foUoiving refults in pro-
portion :

T. C a lb.

Clod-coal 5:4824.6 :: 8: 7719^ = 3 8 2 19
Splint-coal 4 : 5973.3 :: 8 : 11946 =5 6 2 18
Rii.^edcoal 3 : 7147. 1 :: S : 16158!= 8 II O 16

HifFerfrce " Thefe great difproportions of quantity, ufed to fa-
ct tif'ilicf bricate one ton, or 2240 averdupoife pounds of the fame
from difler-quallty of crude iron, will convey a ftriking and ira-
€11 ki.io' prelTive idea of the multifarious qualities of coal v. hich
may be applied and made to produce the fame eflecls.
It ibould alfo convince the manufacturer that the ftudy
and analyfis of his own materials is the firft and radical
approach to true knowledge, and certainty of operation.
Divert him of this knowledge, and view him guided by
the curtoms and rules prevalent at another manutaclory,
where the coals and ores may be as different as has been
already mentioned, and we will no longer wonder at
the uncertainty of his refults, and the numberlefs errors
of his direction.

'• Before I enter into the praflical difcuflion of the
application of coal, I beg leave to indulge myfelf in the
following calculations : — We have already feen that the
produflion of 2240 lb. of carbonated crude iron requires
48241b. of clod-coal cokes ; thefe may be averaged to
contain 4.5 per cent, of alhes, which, deduced from
4824, gives 4607 lb. of carbono u!ed for one ton of
metal : this funi, divided by 2240, farther gives, for
one lb. of caft iron thus manufaftured, 2.056 lb. of car-
bone.

" We next find that 2240 lb. of the fame metal re-
quires of fplint-coal cokes 5973.3 lb. j we farther find,
from a table of the analyfis of coal, fumilbed in a for-
mer paper, that i CO parts of the raw coal contained

'9 ]

FUR

4.2 parts of aftes. As it is there flatcd to lofc 5: ',■ r 1
cent, in charring, loO parts of cokes will contain I.. 4 ~
of allies ; and 8.4 per cent, dcdufted from 5973-3,
gives 54721b. of carbone. Tliis again, reduced by
224 D lb. gives for each pound of metal manufa(Elured,
2.4421b.

" Again, 7 1 47. 1 lb. of cokes obtained from foft
mixed coals arc conl'umed for every ton of 2 240 aver-
dupoife pounds of crude iron produced j every 100 part?
of the fame coals contain 3.3 parts of allies ; and 1 00
parts of cokes contain nearly d.^ per cent, of alhes,
which, dedafted from 7147.3, gives 6672.6 of car-
bone, which divided by 2240, gives, for the quantity
ufed for one pound of call iron, 2.978 lb.

" From th«fe calculations it appears, that 2240 lb. of
carbonated iron, requires of carbone from clod-coal
46071b. J of carbone from fplint-coal, 54721b. 5 and
of carbone from rai.^ed coal, 6672 lb. ; that one pound
of carbonated iron requires of carbone from clod-coal
cokes 2,05610.5 from fplint, 2,4421b. j from mixed,
2.C)83 lb. ; and that carbonated crude iron may be ob-
tamcd when widely different quantities of carbone have
been confunied.

" In feeking for a folution of the latter faft, we muft
have recouife to the different degrees of inriammability
of the ccrbone, according to the various laws of conti-
nuity impofed upon it in its folTil conitrucHon. It caa
eafily be conceived, that, owing to this llruflure, and
the nature of the interpofed allies, the particles of car-
bone of fome cokes \vill be more eafily oxygenated than
thofe of others ; in the fame way that we find fplint-
coal, when expofed to ignition in contaft with open air,
affords one-third of more cokes than are obtained from
foft mixed coals, though the latter, when diftilled, yield
move pure carbone than the fornler.

" By experiment it is proven that ICO grains of
carbonic acid gas is corapofed of 72 parts of oxygen,
united with 28 parts of carbone : if the quantity of the
carbone of clod-coal, viz. 2.0 j6 lb. ufed for the manu-
fafturing of every pound of caft iron, is reduced to
grahis, we will find it to confill of 14392 grains ; this,
divided by 28, gives the acidifiable principle of 514
X 100^=51400 grains of carbonic acid gas (f) : hence,
as one cubic foot of this gas, at 29.84 of barometrical
preffure, and 54.5 of temperature, weighs nearly 76^
grains, we find that in the formation of every pound ef

caft iron ;^-4 — z;67,?4 cubical feet of carbonic acid
761 ' -^^

gas will be formed ; and in the produflion of one ton.
of metal, the aftonilhing quantity of 151289,60 cubic
feet. This quantity, however incredible it may fcem,
is only what would be formed under the above preffure,
and at the above temperature : when we take into the
account the high temperature at which the decompofi-
tion and recombination are effefted, with the confe-

quenc

(f) " This is fuppofing, for the moment, that the whole of the carbone is oxygenated, either by the oxygen
coiKained in the ore, or obtained from the difcharging-pijie by the dccompofition of the atmofpheric air : this,
however, is not ftriclly true, as the metal takes up a fmall portion, by weight, of the carbone; and when, by
accident, moifture has been introduced into the furnace, either through the medium of the blaft, or of the mate-
rials, its decompofition fumilhes a portion of both oxygen and hydrogen, which may diffolve, and alfo carry off,
a part of the carbone. Atmolpheric air being found to hold water in folution, a Imall (iiwntity of hydrogen
will, even in the drieil v.tather, be prei'enl b the blafl fuinace.

FUR [2

quent iiicreafe of elaftlc force and of volume, our ideas
' ate alinoft unable to commenfurate tlie fum of the gas
hourly formed, and thrown off, ignited to the higheft
degree of heat.

" If the fame mode of calculation is adopted -irith the
other qualities of coal, we ^vill have the following re-
iUlts :

'7094.
28 "
100=61050 grains of carbonic acid, which gives

— -^= 82,85 cubic feet for i lb. and 82,85 X 2240

= 185,584 cubic feet for one ton. For the mixed coal

o 20881
2,983 or — r-r — r= 710 X 100 r= 71000 grams carbo-

■ =z 93,3 cubical feet for I lb. ;

and 93,3 X 2240 rr 208,992 cubical feet for one ton.
By the fame calculation we may attain a pretty accu-
rate notion of the quantity of atmofpheric air neceflary
to produce i lb. or one ton of caft iron ; an average of
the three varieties of coal \vill be fufficiently accurate
for this purpofej thus H392 X .7°942<Jg88i ^

I7455-|- or 2,4935 lb. of carbone are confumed upon
the average of each pound of pig-iron ; this is found to
74SJT,

produce of carbonic acid gas

62.341 X 100

=: 62.30041 grains ; which again divided by 761, the
grains in one cubic foot gives 81.86 cubic feet for the
gas difcharged in manufaciuring one pound of call iron.
As carbonic acid contains, as has already been noticed,
"j 2 parts of oxygen in 100, then we have for the quan-
tity of oxygen gas 100 ; 72 :: 62400.41 : 44856.29
grains oxygen gas ; and as, at the ordinary temperature
and preiTure of the atmofphere, a cubic foot of oxygen
gas weighs 591 grains, we find 44856.29 divided by
igi =: 75-89 cubic feet of oxygen gas neceffary to
form the acidifying principle of 81.86 cubic feet of
carbonic acid gas ; and that the fame quantity of oxy-
gen gas is necclfary to the produftion of one pound of
carbonated crude iron. This leads us td the following
flatement for the quantity of atmofpheric air ufcd du-
ling the fame operation ; firft premiimg-that the conili-
tucnt parts of atmofpheric air are nearly 73 of azote
.ind 27 of oxygen gas 5 of atmofpheric air then necef-
fary, we have 27 : 100 :: 75.89 : 281 cubic feet.

" I fl>all now proceed from mere calculation to matter
of faft, and attempt to prove the correftnefs of the
fomier by the approximation of the latter i.o its refults.
Let a blaft-furnsce be fuppofed to produce 2o4 tons of
pig-iion per iveek, =r 45360 averdupoife pounds ; this,
divided by days, hours, minutes, and feconds, giv»s per
day 6480 pounds, per hour 270, per minute 3^ lb. and
per fecond 525 grains.

" From this it is evident that one pound of cafi iron
is produced in 1 3^ '(^^ feconds j experience has ihe\»n
that a blaft-furnace, producing, in any of the above
periods, ilie refppclive quantity oi metal, lecuires a dif-
charge of air per minute nearly equal to 1350 cubic
feet ; this, divided by 4,5 lb. the quantity produced per
icinute gives, for one pound of iron, 300 cubic feet.
The quantity, by calculation, we have feen '.u be 281
cchic feet, difference 19-, a fum no way confiderable

80 ] FUR

when we re!le£l upon the inequality of the movements Furnace.'

of a blowing machine, and when it is recolledled that >r— '

ferae allowance ought alfo to be made for what sir may
pafs through the furnace undecompofeJ, or may be lott
at the place of entrance.

" From this coincidence of theory with pradice, we
cannot help admiring the rigorous principles on which
the Lavoifierian fyftem is founded ; nor are we lefs pleafed
to find, that, fmall as the operations of the chemill may
be, yet they are a jufl; epitome of what takes place iu
the philofophy of extenfive manufactories. The follow-
ing table exhibits the quantity of carbone which may be
ufed upon an average, ^^ith the relative quantity of car-
bonic acid formed, and air ufed :

" In the manufafture of I. lb. — I ton of iron,^
The pure carbone requifite is 2.49 — 5585.44 lb.
Carbonic acid formed 81.86 — 183366.40 cub. ft.

Oxygen gas ufed 75-89 — 169993.60 cub. ft.

Atmofpheric air employed 281.CO — 629440.C0 cub. ft.

" From the foregoing partlculats upon coal may be
learned how much is dependent upon the native con-
ftruftion of coal and its conftituent parts ; I Ihall next
advert to the eifetls produced by its improper prepara-
tion.

" When coals intended for the blaft-furnace are fuf- Qiialftiee of
ficiently charred, they ought, in point of colour, to bewell-char.
of a fiiver-gray ; their frafture ^vill appear lamellated red coal,
and porous if iplint-coals have been ufed ; fofter coals
form themfelves into branches ilightly curved, and,
^vhen properly prepared, are ahvays very porous. I
have frequently found that the better the cokes were
charred, the more water they will abforb. Coak half
burnt do not take up half fo much water, becaufe
their fradure continues in part to be fmooth and lefs
porous than when thoroughly burnt.

" When half-prepared cokes are introduced into
the furnace, the metal formerly carbonated will lofe
its gray frafture, and approach to the quality of oxy-
genated iron. Their prefence is eafily detefled by the
unufual quantity of thick vapour arifing along with
the flame. Befides, the water and lulphur, which raw
coals introduce into the furnace, and which always
impair the quantity of carbon by the various folutions
effeAed by the prefence of oxygen, hydrogen, &c. the
fitnefs of the coal for combuftion, and the fupport of
the ore, is much diminilbed by this iecond courle of
ignition and difengagement of bitumen. The preflure
of the incumbent ores alfo frafture and reduce the
cokes into fmall pieces, which produce a confiderable
portion of coke-durt ; this is partly carried to the top
of the furnace before the blaft ; lometimes below it
appears in immenfe quantities, ignited to whitenefs,
and liquid as fand. Coal thus detached from the mafs,
expofed to the aftion of a compreffed current of air, is
unfit for conveying the carbonic principle to the metal ;
and as it frequently belongs to the julf proportion of
charcoal necefiary to fmelt the ores, and to carbonate
their iron, its lofs muft be felt, and the quality of iron
impaired.

" When cokes of any quality are expofed to a moift£fie(5ls of
atmofphere, fo as to abforb water, their effefls in tlic cokes great-
blaft furnace become much reduced, and the prefence')''''"""'^'
of the water is produflive of the moft hurtful confe- ^ ^^.j^j^^ ^
quences in the produftion of carbonated crude iron. I water.
have found, by repeated e.xperiment, that one poiuid of

well-

E U- R

[ ^Sr ]

F U U

Different
kinds of
iron-ftone
lequire dil
ff rent pro-
portions of
cokes.

wdl-prepartd cokes will, ulicn laid in water, take up
1 ^ ounces in the fpace of half an hour ; at this rate, a
bafket of cokes weighing Solb. faturated with water,
will contain 1 40 ounces of water, or 8^ lb. If the
charge contains fix bafkets, then we fee that upwards
of 50 lb. of water is introduced regularly along with
the charge, furnilhing an additional (jiiantity of oxygen
equal to 42^ lb. and of hydrogen equal to 7I lb. ; but it
frenuently happens that the cokes contain a larger por-
tion of water than is here (fated. When cokes thus
futcharged are introduced in quantity into the blaft
furnace, the quality of the metal is not always inftan-
taneoufly changed, and frequently the colour and form
of the cinder remain long without any great alteration.
'J'hc contact of wetted cokes with the ore is firft feen
by the great difcharge of pale blue gas, with the whiter
liame at the top of the furnace ; next, the accumulating
oxyde upun the Surface of the pig when conlolidating
indicates their prefence. Iron thus oxygenated fre-
quently exhibits, while fluid, that agitation and delicate
partings peculiar to carbonated metal : the remelling of
this iron is never attended with advantage, and is alw ays
unprofitable to the founder.

" From the properties which have been aflign-
ed to pit-coal, the following fai^s may be dedu-
ced : — That charcoal is the balls of the manufac-
ture of crude iron j that its proper application pro-
duces the moll valuable qualities of pig-iron ; that, by
diminilhing its relative proportion, or contaminating
it? quality by heterogeneous mixtures, the value and
fulibillty of the metal is loll ; but that, by a proper
increafe, and always in proportion to this increafe, will
the fufibility and value of the iron be mended. From
llie whole, an important leflbn may be learned of the
pernicious etfecfs of water in the furnace, and how
abfolutely necelVary it is to prepare the cokes without
ufing water, either to damp the fires, as in the ufual
mode, or to cool the cinders obtained from the tar
kilns, to prevent their conluming in the open air : in
all this hurtful operation confiderable quantities of
water become fixed in the cokes, which require a very
great degree of heat to expel.

" The preparation of iron ftone has already been
fully attended to, and the phenomena which it exhi-
bits under every flage minutely defcribed. In confe-
quence of various experiments we are authoriled to
draw the following concluficns : 'Jhat when pure cal-
careous iron-ftone is ufed, it admits of having the
local quantities of cokes dirainilhed ; that argillaceous
requires a larger portion than the calcareous genus ;
and that filicecus iron-ftone requires a greater pro-
" portion of fuel than any variety of the former genera.
We have alfo feen that fufibility, either conntcfcd
with ftrength or otherwiie, is derived from the mix-
ture of the ores ; and that exceftive brittlenels, inti-
mately connefted with infufibillty, is alfo derived from
the fame fource. From a review of thefe facls, we
are forcibly imprelTed with the importance of com-
bining the prepared iron-ftones with proportions of
fuel fuitcd to their various natures, in order to pro-
duce all the varieties of iron with the greateft poftible
economy. Contemplating farther the iame fubjecl, it
i^ eafy to be conceived that a want of knowledge of
the comijonent parts of iron-ftones, and the eflFecls
which individually they produce, muft lead to great

Vot IX. Part I.

uncertainty or operation

th,

finelting prucels, r^iiT'ice

wherein the beautiful economy of nature, and
real property, will be often unprofitably facrificed to
precedent.

" Befides the above caufcs of alteration, dependent "^''^ °*'-
i»pon mixtures of the earths, the exiftence of oxvgen?'" "J'*"^
in various quantities m the ores ouj^ht never to be
overlooked in proportioning the cokes to the iron-
ftone. This powerful agent, whofe form and fubftance
cbnftantly eludes our vifion ; whofe e.xiftence is onlv
afcertained by the wonderful changes produced by its .
various combinations with the iron ; and ^vhofe pretence
in the fame iron-ftone, in various quantities, may pro-
duce fuch variety of refult as to charailerife the ores,
as containing good or bmi iron, furely forms the mofl
interefting mixture which ores or iron-ftones poflTefs.
It will be a momentous epoch in the manufafture of
iron when the exiftence of fuch a principle fliall be
fiilly admitted by the manufaCtiu'er, and its agency,
from certain vifible effefts produced, adopted to explain
its accompanying phenomena. Till that period he will
not perceive the utility of alcertaining the quantity of
oxygen, and devifing economical methods of taking it
from the ore. An attention to this powerful principle
Can alone root out thofe prejudices fo inimical to the
real interefts of the manufacturer, and which feem to
glance at nature, as having improvidently combined
her moft ufeful metal with mixtures which could refill
the ingenuity of man, or fet his comprehenfive intellefl
at defiance. In the progrefs of this great inquiry, is it
not polTible that the prefent expenfive exertions may in
part be fuperfeded i" Is it not poflible, t+iat, by laying
open the fources of information to individuals at large,
a greater mafs of intellefl may engage in the praftice
of this art ? \Vhile the prefent extenfive and lofty
buildings are neceiTary, the bufinefs is entirely confined
in the hands of men of great capital : the extent of
their manufadures require that a large traft of country
be devoted to their fupply ; a natural confequence is,
that innumerable tradls of land are overlooked, or held
unworthy of notice, merely becaufc they cannot, in a
period necelTary to clear a great capital and infure a
fortune, afford the neceiTary fupply of materials. Such
fituations, according to the prefent ftate of the iron
bufinefs, muft remain unexplored. Should, however,
a defire for truth once gain footing in the manufa6lories
of iron, and ftiould this natural impulfe of the unpreju-
diced mind keep pace witli other branches of intellec-
tual information, wc may not defpair of feeing many
imperfections removed, which were the unavoidable
confequence of the period of their creation.

" In the application of iron-ftone in the blaft furnace,
the follo^nng particulars ought rigoroufly to be attend-
ed- to : —

" I . Their mixtures, whether clay, lime, or filcx •, their and its
relative proportions to each other, judging according to "'''«■■ <J"«1'-
the rules formerly laid down; wliich of them may admit ^'^"([jj.^^j
of a diminution of fuel ; which of them will afford the
quality of iron at the time requifite ; and which of them
will be moft likely, by a judicious arrangement, to give
the greateft produce of metal, united with value and
economy. Iron-ftones, united with large portions of
filex, have already been ftated to require a greater pro-
portion of fuel to carbonate their metal than the other
genera. When ballaft or forge-pigs are wanted, it
N n jj

FUR

[ 282 J

FUR

F'urnr.;e. is obvious tliat filiceous iron-ftones ought to be ufed ,

'^ /—— not that they contain a greater quantity of iron,

but becaufe they form a fubrtitute for the other kinds,

^vhich may be more advantageouily fmelted for the pro-

duilion of more valuable qualities.

" 2. The quantity of metal wliich each individual
iron-ftone may contain, is another objeft of confidera-
tion. Befides the proportion of mixtures, which chiefly
contribute to -the f'.ifibility of iron-rtones, a fecond de-
gree of fufibility is dependent upon the richnefs of the
ore in iron ; this is fo obvious in the ufe of the Cumber-
land and Lancafliire ores, that the confequer.ces of their
intrcduftion will be perceived, by the change of the
fcoria and met?-l, in half the lime that change would be
effeded by ordinary iron-flones. It has been frequent-
ly noticed, that crude iron contained pure carbone in
l)roportion to its fuiibilhy ; then the more fufible or fu-
percaibonated qualities muft take up, comparatively, a
confiderable portion of the carbonaceous principle from
the fuel. From this refults a ftriking confequence, that
the quantity of fuel fhould, over and above its relation
to the mixtures, bear a juft proportion to the quantity
of iron in the ftone : for example, let the weight per
quantity of charge of fuel at a blalx furnace be 40olb. and let this
fuel to be be fup^ofed fufficiei.tly to fufe and carbonate the iron
prcportior.- contained in 36clb. of iron-Ilone ; let the quantity of
ridincfsof metal be fuppofed 35 per cent, then the produce will be
the ore. 1 261b. Should a change take place, and iron ftone
richer in iron be applied, though the lame by weight,
and fliould this iron ftone yield of torrefied ftone 45 per
cent, its produce will be i62lb. or aolb. more than the
former. As tlfere exifts no greater proportion of car-
bone in the furnace, it is e\-ident.that the exifting quan-
tity, being diftributed over nearly one-third of more
metal, muft therefore be in more fparing quantity in
t!:e whole, and the value of the metal confequently re-
duced.

" 3. The weight of oxygen contained in iron ftones
is the next objeft of fcrious confideration. I have al-
ready (he^vn, from experiment, that our iron ftones na-
turally contain from 9 to 14 per cent, of oxygen, which
remains after torrefaCHon ; it has alfo been ftiewn, that
this quantity of hurtful mixture may be eafdy doubled
by over-roarting or under-roafting the ftone •, and that
the bad effefls entailed are in the ratio of its combina-
tion with the iron. From a review of the fafts
^vhich have been adduced on this fubjeft, its agency
and effecls will ealily be credited by men of fcience ;
its property of conftiuiting the acidifying bafe of all
the acids readily explains the unalienable confequence
of its prefence with acidifiable bafes. The effedls are
ftill more pernicious when the oxygen is fumiftied by
the decompofition of water in raw iron ftone ; the hy-
drogen in this cafe let free, alfo feizes a j)ortion of the
carbone ; and thefe abftraftions, united to that produced
by the native portion of oxygen in the ftone, form an
aggregate which frequently reduces the value of iron
40 per cent. So long as the principles of fcience are
overlooked in the manipulations of the foundery and
forge, the exiftence of fuch agents will be treated as
chimeras of the philofopher and chemill, and the effects
hourly produced by them indullrioudy attributed to
* Piil. caufes which, in point of unity or confiftency, will not
^/<>f. vol. V, bear the flighteft touch of inveftigation."*

The compreflion, velocity, and effefts of the air are

of the utinoft importance in blaft furnaces. The pro- Fur:-,a ;.
duclion, management, and direiflion of thefe effecls are ^
therefore ferious objects of confideiation to the manu-
faclurer of iron, fince on their proper application the
fuccefs of his operation chiefly depends. And here we
fliall renew our obligations to Mr Mufhet for his in-
terefting obferv-ations on this fubjecl. " \Vl!en it is
confidercd," he fays, " that in the fmelting operation
the reduftion of immenfe quantities of materials is ef-
feiEled by a compreiTed current of air impelled by the
whole pouer of a blowing machine, the confequences of
the change of air, either in quantity or quality, mult
be very obvious : when, farther, we contemplate the
metal called into exLltence by means of combuftion thus
excited ; when we confider iron as having the moft
powerful affinity for the bafe of that part of the air
^vhich maintains combuiiion ; and when we vie\v the
debafed ftate to wliich the metal is reduced by coming
into improper contaft wnth it, we muft conclude, that
the application of blaft in the manufaifluring of iron
calls for the moft minute and thorough inveftigation.
In order to take a comprelienfive view of this lubjecf,
the following divifion will be requifite : —

" I ft. The intimate conneclion which the quantity of
blaft bears to the area of the internal cavity of the fur-
nace, and to the nature of the pit-coal.

" 2d, The various modes by which air is procured,
and how thefe refpecUvely affeft the quality of the air.

" 3d, The various changes to which air is fubjefted
by a change of temperature in the atmofphere, with the
confequent effecls.

" 4th, How far increafed or diminiflied velocity and
compreflion alter the refults of the furnace.

" 5th, The form and diameter of the difcharging-
pipe.

" I ft. Then, in the conftruclion of a blaft-furnace and (Quantity
blowing-machine, the quantity of air to be ufed ought °' ■''■■ f«g"-
to depend upon the internal dimenfions of the former j^^J"^^^^
^vhich, again, ought to be formed according to theitruflionoi
quality of the pit-coal. Upon the foftnefs or hardnefsthe fur-
of the coal, ought more immediately to depend then3<:e;and
height of the blaft-furnace. This neceffary precaution ^^"^^^^^^^ '
has given rife to a vaft variety of furnaces, of different j^,,^ (,f j^g
capacities, from 30 to 50 feet in height, and from nine coal.
to 16 feet diameter at the bofl^cs. Furnaces from 30 to
36 feet are ufed for the Ibfter qualities of coal, fuch as
a mixture of free-coal and fplint. Furnaces from ^6
to 45 are appropriated to the burning of fplint-coal
cokes ; and in Wales, fuch is the fuperior ftrength and
quality of the pit-coal, that the furnaces admit of being
reared to the height of 50 feet.

" Thefe various qualities of coal, it has been former-
ly ftiewn, have appropriate weights of iron-ftone, and,
to ufe the language of the manufaiSlory, are capable
" of fupporting a greater or lefs burden of mine." The
former qualities admit not of having the air difcharged
in great quantity, unlefs it is impelled under an uncom-
moii degree of compreffion and confequent velocity in-
compatible with the operations of a fteam-engine. The
reafon is obvious : when air, loofely compreffed, or
comparatively fo, is thrown into a bgdy of ignited fuel,
the mechanical ftrudure and continuity of whofe par-
ticles are foft, the air is much more eafily decompofed ;
the ignition, of courfc, is more rapid : the defcent of the
materials is promoted beyond their proper ratio, and

long

FUR

[ 283 ]

FUR

Illuftrated
bj an ex-
ample.

long before tlie carbonaceous matter has penetrated llie
ore, or united to the metal, to conftitute fulibility. I
Ihall adduce an example, as being the moll illullrative
of this dodrine.

" Suppole a blaft furnace, 35 feet hiph, it wide at
the bolhes, properly burdened, and producing, N° I.
pig-iron. Let the diicharge of the air be fuppofed equal to
a pretTure of two pounds and a half upon the fquare inch,
or equivalent to one-fixth of the atmoiphere, or five
inches of mercury : under thefe circumttances let it far-
ther be fuppofed, that 1 ;oo cubical feet of air are dif-
charged in one minute ; and that the diameter of the
difcharging pipe is 2.625, the area of which is equal to
6.89C625 circular inches. Let the difcharging pipe
be increafed to three inches diameter, and let the fame
quantity of air be paJTed into the furnace ; it is evident
that as the area of the difcharging pipe is increafed to
Tiine circular inches, or nearly one-third more than for-
merly, the comprelTion of air mull be proportionally di-
minifhed. The alteration is foon perceived by its ef-
fetls ; the qua I'.ity of fcoria increafes from the tumace,
whilll the confumption of the materials above is alio
conSderably augmented. In a few hours the fcoria will
have undergone a complete change, from pure white,
enamelled with various blue (hades, to a green, browTi,
or black colour, confiderably charged with the oxide
of iron (g). The fame effects will continue, in greater
or lelTer degree, till all the materials are reduced which
were exiiling in the furnace at the period of diminidied
comprelTion. The philofophy of this facl may be in-
vefligated in the following manner : —

" While the jull aflbciation of proportions remained,
the air was difcharged under fuch a degree of compref-
fion as to excite proper coinbuillon : the decompofition
of the air by means of the ignited fuel, was not efFefted
in immediate contaft with the feparating metal, but
had, by its uncommon degree of denfity, rei.Red de-
compofition in the ignited palTage, and had been de-
compofed upon the cokes at a greater elevation in the
furnace. As a proof of this, we frequently fee a tube
formed throughout the whole breadth of the furnace,
quite black and apparently cold, formed of the fufed
materials : when this is removed, a confiderable defcent
momently takes place of cokes heated vifibly beyond
the common pitch : thefe intlame rapidly, but are foon
again cooled to blacknels by the inceffant difcharge of
air upon them. The defcending mi.xture of iron and
lava is in like manner cooled around the line of blall ;
the tube is again formed, and, if not removed, will re-
main for days together, while the furnace will be other-
ways working in the beil manner.

" When by accident or delign the comprelTion and ve-
locity of blall are diminillied, the tube begins to burn,
and throws off a great many fiery-coloured fparks, the
fides and roof fail, and are carried before the blaft in
all direcVions. Sometimes confiderable clots of imper-
fecl iitn are recoiled with fuch violence as to efcape the
vortex of blaft, and iffue from the tuyere- hole with fuch
velocity as to inflame in the air, and fall down in the
ftate of oxide. In the end the tuyere will appear
to flame, and all the paffage inwards fliews an af-

tonifliing degree of whitcnefs. The decompofition of Fnrmce.'
the air is inftantaneoully effecled upon its entering the ~~v~-~'
ignited paflage ; the iron by this means is expofed to
t!ie oxygen tiiat is difengnged ; and the valt quantity of
caloric fet free, ia confequence of its union with the
iron and carbone, produces the aftonilhing heat now vi-
fible, but »vhich formerly took place at a more proper
height in the furnace.

" From this it will appear, that although a greater ap-
parent degree of heat is vifibly produced by the fudden
decompofition of the air, and a more rapid defcent of
materials for fome time is the confequence, yet, as the
quality of the iron is impaired, and as in the end the
furnace will return to its old confumption of materials
as to quantity, the effecls of a loofe foft blaft are ob-
vioully pernicious.

" It fometimes happens, that when a loofe blaft is fur-Pemiciou»
charged with a confiderable portion of moillure, or^*^'-*^ °f .
comes in contaft with cokes which had been wet wher.","","'^'^^'"
introduced into the furnace, the inflammation which ;„ ti,g fu^i.
takes place at the tuyere is prodigious : fine fire clay
will be melted down and blown to flag in a few mi-
nutes ; the fides of the furnace, compofed of very infii-
fible fire ftone, is next attacked, and in a few hours
%s-ill be fo completely dellroyed as to flop the working,
and require immediate repair. Effecls fimilar to thofe
now defcribed will be fe^t when blall is improperly pro-
portioned to coal of a ilronger continuity of fradlure
and fuperior quality. Befides the effecls produced by
the fudden decompofition of iron, others of like nature
are produced where a foft coal is ufed, a fmall furnace,
and a great difcharge of blaft.

" It has been found that crude iron, to be properly
matured, ought to remain in the blaft fiirnace, accord-
ing to circumllances, 48 to 6o hours ; that is, from the
period that the iron ftone is introduced till fuch time as
the metal begins to occupy its place in the hearth in a
ftate of perfect feparation. When the contrat-y is the
cafe, the mixtures arrive at the hotteft parts of the fur-
nace before the metal has taken up a fufficient quantity
of carbone from the fuel ; the aclion of the blall, and
the immediate heat by which the ore is furrounded,
forces the iron from its conneCiions to the bottom of
the furnace. The quality is de-carbonated, and reduced
in its value : to rellore this again, the local portion of
fuel is increafed ; this adds to the expence of manufac-
turing, and diminilhes, in fome meafure, the fmelting
of the furnace.

" When fplint-coal cokes are ufed in the blaft furnace,
the blaft admits of being thrown in under the higheft pof-
iible pitch of comprcffion ; the uncommon denfity of
the charcoal fullains a very powerful difcharge of blaft
before it is dilhpated to facilitate the general defcent.
Moil frequently, large raaffcs of thefe cinders pafs
through the whole ignited cavity, and are thrown out
below, poffelTing all the acutenefs of their original form
and fratlure.

" This quality of coal is ufed in all the Curfon blaft
furnaces, where, to enfure a rcfpeClable produce, the
air is difcharged under a preffute equal to 3^ pounds
upon the fquare inch, or 6 J- inches of mercury.

N n 2 " The

(g) " The metal will have loft nearly all its carbone, and have become inferior in value 25 to 30 per cent

FUR

[ 284 ]

FUR

Methods of

air into the
fiirnace,

By means
of the wa-
ter vault.

" The fame quality of coal was ufcd at the Devon
iron works, where at one time, having all the blall of
a 48 inch cylinder engine thrown into one furnace,
the column of mercury fupported was upwards of feven
inches ; the quantity of air difcharged under fuch an
impelling power, I found to exceed 2600 cubical feet
per minute.

" The coals ufed at the Clcugh, Cleland, and Clyde
iron works, are nearly of the fame quality at each — a
mixture of fplint and foft coal. The Muirkirk and
Glenbuck iron works have a coal different from any of
the former, and in fome particular fpots it confiderably
refembles tlie Englilli clod coal.

" 2d, The various methods of procuring air for the
blaft furnace may be reduced to the follouing : — ill,
That procured by cylinder', and difcharged into the
furnace by means of a tloating pillon heavily loaded,
and working in a large receiver or regulating cylinder :
2d, That wherein pumping cylinders only are ufed, and
the air thrown into cherts inverted in water, called
the luater vault : 3d, That mode wherein the air is dif-
charged from the pumping or forcing cylinder into an
air tight houie, called the air vault.

" I'he firll method is the original mode of blowing,
and is ftill much ufed at thole iron works whofe erec-
tion has been prior to the laft fifteen years. By this
mode the quality of the air is Jefs fubjccl to alteration
by a change of atraofphere. The principal objeflion to
this manner of blowing, is the ^vant of capacity in the
receiving cylinder ; which cannot be increafed fo much
as to take away the confiderable intervals which occur
at different parts of the engine ftroke. This effeft is
fenfibly feen by the fpeedy and irregular afcent and de-
fcent of the colunr-.n of mercury. In water blowing
machines, where the air is raifed by three or four cylin-
ders worked by means of a crank, and where the air is
received into an air cheft, and forced into the furnace
by the continual adlion of the blaft of each fucceffive
cylinder, the current of the air is Heady, and fupports
the column of mercury with great uniformity.

" The life of the water vault has of late years become
very general among new erefted works. Its properties
arc, a Heady and very cold blaft : the largenefs of the
receiving ciftems gives them a fufhcient capacity to re-
tain every pound of air raifed by the furnace, and dif-
tribute it to the greatell advantage. This is not the
cafe with the floating piftons, where a certain quantity
of fpare wind is thrown out at every return of the en-
gine, lell the great pifton and weight fliould be blown
out of the cylinder altogether ; which, indeed, fome-
times happens. The only objedion which remains in
iorce againll the ufe of the water-vault, is tlie tendency
which the air has to take up a confiderable portion ol wa-
ter in (olution, and introduce it into the furnace. A
judicious arrangement of the conducing pipes would in
lome mcalure obviate thir, as well as the more dange-
rous tendency which water has to rife in a pipe fpeedily
emptied of its air by the Hopping of the engine : a
ftream of water thus conveyed to the furnace, would be
produftive of the moft awful ronfequenccs.

" The air afforded by the air vault is much inferior to
that obtained in the former methods. This immenfe
magazine of compreffed air generates a confiderable por-
tion of heat, which greedily feiies the damps, which

are unavoidable in underground excavations, and con- Furnace.
veys them to the furnace. The blalt is, however. Heady '——.——J
and uniform ; and when the infide of the building is
completely fecured againH the paffage of air, it is pro-
ductive of confiderable effecls in the furnace. In the
fummer months, however, the air becomes fo far debaf-
ed as to affecl the quality of the iron, and change it
from gray to white. Every change in the temperature
of the atmofphere during this period, is indicated by
various clianges in the furnace.

" The largeH air- vault hitherto in ufe was excavated
out of folid rock at the Devon iron ^vorks : the fiffiires
of the rock admitted confiderable quantities of water \
and the fame degree of damp would always prevent the
pofllbility of making the fide walls and roof air-tight by
means of pitch and paper, &c.

" Bcfides tlie vaiious natures of blaft, as to theQiiality
Hrength and equality of the current afforded by dif- *'""l="« °^

fcrent modes of conftrudiiiBf the blowing machhies, aij ^'j"^""'

, ,. f ,*^ . , . S; ,,. '. fidered.

variety m the quahty or the air obtained is alio an in-
variable confequence : this is fufficiently known by the
eftefts which it produces in the blall furnace, and
ought to be fubjetl to Icrupulous examination.

" In this, as in other countries, larger produces of
calf iron are obtained in the winter months than during
the fummer and autumn leafons : the quality of the me-
tal is alfo much more carbonated, and with a lefs pro-
portion of fuel. In many parts of Sweden, where the
fummer heats are intenfe, the raanufailurer is obliged to
blow out or Hop his furnace for two or three months :
not only is he unable to make carbonated metal, but
is frequently incapable of keeping the funiace in fuch
trim as to make a produce of any quality whatever. In
Britain, during the months of June, July, and AuguH,
more efpecially in dry feafons, the quality of the iron,
with the local proportion of fuel, will be depreciated
30 per cent, and the quantity reduced to two-thirds
or three-fourths.

" In feeking for a folution of this univerfally ac-
knowledged fad, our attention is naturally direfled to
an examination of the various Hates of air. That the
quality of the air in winter is more fit for combuftjon
than in fummer, is a truth which requires no farther dt-
monHration. Greater coolnefs, whereby an almoH
complete refrigeration of moifture takes place, and the
prefence of perhaps a greater relative proportion of oxy-
gen, may account for this phenomenon. On the con-
trary, ihe quality of air during the fummer months be-
comes much contaminated for combuftion, by holding
in folution a much greater quantity of moillure : the
abundance of nitrous particles may alfo diminilh the
ulual proportion of oxygen.

" This will account for the inferior effefts of com-
buftion both in common fires and in the blaft furnace ;
it will alfo in a great meafure tend to folve the curious
phenomenon of the pig-iron taking up lefs carbone in
fummer, although reduced with a fuperior quantity of
fuel. The air difcharged moft probably contains lefs
oxygen ; yet the metal is much lefs carbonated than at
other times, when contrary proportions of thefe exill.
MoH probably the deficient carbone is carried off by
diffolving in hydrogen, forming a conHant flream of
hydro-carbonic gas, while the oxygen that is fet free
unites to the iron j and while it reduces its quality, at

the

EfFeas of
the airfroi
the cylin-

FUR [2

the fame time the quantity if reduced by a ponion of
the metal being loft in the fcoria (h).

"To correct thele occalional imperfeflions in the quali-
ty of the air, and to dsvife methods to procure air al-
•w.iys fit for proper combuflion, ought to be an objefl
of much confideration to tlie manufadurer of call iron.
Whether fuch a confideration has given rife to the dif-
ferent modes of receiving and difcharging the air now
in ufe, I cannot fay ; I rather think not : a great quan-
tity of air has hitherto been a greater objecl; than a
certain and uniform quality ; and in a country where
there is more temperate and cold weather than hot, it
is by far the mort important objeft : to unite both,
however, would be an attainment of the greateft utility,
and would rank the difco%'erer amongfl the well-deferv-
ing of his country.- How far the mechauifra of our
prefent machinery has been adapted to the exigencies
of our atmofphere, will appear upon examining the na-
ture and properties of tlie air, judged by its effects upon
the blart furnace.

" The air produced by the blowing and receiving
cylinder is Icfs changed, and lefs fubjeft to change, than
that produced and lodged in contact with a vaft body
of air or water. If the blowing cylinder is fixed in a
dry cool fpot, the only difference which the air under-
goes is an increats of temperature ; this is io very con-
liderable, that upon entering the blowing cylinder im-
mediately after flopping the engine, I have found the
thermometer rife 15 to I yi degrees higher than the
furrounding air. That this heat is generated in the
cylinder is unqueftionable ; but whether it is occalioned
by the friction of the pilton leather upon the fides of the
cylinder, or expreiTed from the air by its fevere com-
preflion, I have not yet been able to decide. It very
probably arifes from both caufes, although the latter is
fufficient to produce a much greater degree of heat.
What effect this increafe of temperature has upon co;u-
bullion we are unable to fay, as the degree of heat ac-
cumulated will at all times bear a reference to the tem-
perature of the furrounding air, and as there is no me-
tr:od likely to be devifed where heat would not be ge-
nerated by the action of the particles of air upon each
ether. When the bulb of a thermometer is held in the
middle of the current of blaft, as it iffues from the dif-
charging pipe, a temperature is indicated as much
lower than the temperature of the furrounding air, as
the temperature of the cylinder was higher ; and it is
molt probable that a much lower degree ^vould be ob-
tained, were it not for the previous exprefllon of fome"
heat in the blowing cylinder. Upon the whole, I think,
the quality of the air obtained in this way of blowing
uniformly molt fit for combuftion, provided the nume-
rous paufes and irregularities of the current of air were
done away.

" Air forced into the furnace under water prelTure
always contains a confiderable portion of moilture •, the
blaft of courfe is colder, as it iffiies from the difcharg-
ing pipe. The temperature differs fo nmch from that
of the external air as to fink the thermometer from 54°
down to 28" and 30°. Such effcds are produced by

85 ]

U R

air coming into contaft v.iih water, that, although the Fnniai-?,
temperature of the atmofpLcre is 6c, 6^, to 73, yet the 'Z — "■" —
blall at the orifice feldom rifes aljove 58 : the c/ld pro-
duced in this manner is much iucrtafed if the air is fur-
charged witli fo much water as to be vifible iu tlie llate
of a fine fpray. The leading feature, therefore, of the
water vault, as to its efrefts upon, the quality of the air,,
feems to indicate an almoit uniform degree of tempera
ture in the blalt : this can only be occafioned by the
^varm air in fummer taking up a greater portion of the
water in Iblution, the eicape of which at a linall orifice,
and under a great degree of comprefnon, produces the
very great deprelTion of the thermometer. 1 have al-
ready hinted at the bad effetts produced by raoilt blalls,
and fliall, iu a proper place, more minutely attend to
them.

" The molt inferior quality of air ufed in the blatl From the
furnace is that throvm into the air vault, and afterwards ■'''■*^''''-
expreffed from thence by its own elalticity and the fuc-
ce/hve ftrokes of the engine. The capacity of fuch a
building is from 60 to 70,000 cubical feet ; this, when
filled, generates a much fuperior degree of heat to that
fenfible in the blowing cylinder. As this heat is pro-
duced many feet diftant from any mechanical motion,
it is molt evident that it is extricated from the air, and
will readily unite with the moifture which penetrates
the building : the quality of the air introduced into the
furnace will therefore be in proportion to the quantity
of moilture taken up ; this will be much more in iiira-
mer than in winter, as the temperature of the former
exceeds that of the latter. The fenfation, on entering
the air vault in the coldelt months, immediately after
flopping the engine, is exaflly fimilar to that experi-
enced upon entering a crowded room in the hottelt fum-
mer day ; the walls are covered with damp, and the fu-
perior regions of the vault readily obfcure the tlame of
a candle. The feeling, upon remahiing in the air vault
when the engine is at work, is lefs marked than would
be expected where fo great a comprelTion of air exifted ;
the fenfe of hearing, owing to tlie moifture in the con-
ducting medium, is copfidcrably impaired, and refpi-
ration is performed with fome difficulty ; the light of
a candle is faint, and not vifible at the diftance of a
few feet.

" I have explained the neceffity of jult proportions
exilling betwi.xt the area of the interior of the blail fur-
nace, the quantity of air thrown per miimte, and the
quality of coal. The various modes of blowing, and
their refpe6tive effefts, deduced from ftrict obfervation,
u-ere alfo attended to. We have now, 3d, to adduce
examples where the various changes of the atmofphere, "
as to heat and preffure, occafion the moll fenfible dif-
ference in the quantity of materials confumcd, and in
the quality and cjuantity of metal produced.

" It has been already demonltruted, that the air in
winter, hj containing lefs moilture, is more proper for ■
combultion, and more calculated to produce carbonated
crude iron, than tlie air exilling at any other feafon.
From this fuperior quality the manufaiflurer obtains ad-
vantages, which induce him to wilh for a continuance

f h) " May not the fuperabundant azote of the fummer atmofghere produce part of thefe effects, by diflblving ;
)rtiori of the earbone, and forming carbonajcd azotic gas, as has been proved by M. Lavoifitr?"

FUR I 2

r-jrnsce. of cool air througliout the whole Vc'.r. TV.f fe effefls
'"""^'Ttf are not, however, uniform •, they depend gre-.tly upon
a light or heavy atmofphere. The keener and mere
ilill the air, the more rapid the combullion. During a
iCffeas of a feverc froll, the defcent of the materials is facilitated from
change of one-tenth to oi.e-fifteenth more than in rainy or hazy
weather, xveather, and at the fame time the quality of the iron is
rather improved than impaired. When a change from
frort to fnow or rain takes place, the eiTefts frequently
■ become almoft immediately obvious ; the colour of the
tlame at the furnace head is changed ; the tuyere of the
furnace inflames, and bums w'nh great violence ; the
lava, as it ilovvs from the notch of the dam ftone, be-
comes lengthened and tenacious ; the form of it is
changed, and the colour undergoes the moll vifible al-
terations ; the iron no longer retains its complete fatu-
ration of carbone, but flows out fenfibly impaired of its
fluidity ; and, when cold, the privation of carbone is
moil evident by the examination of its frafture.

" When fuch confequences arife from the tranfition
fo frequent in winter from froll to thaw, it will be ea-
fily conceived that the change effefted during the mild-
er and warmer months mull produce proportionally ad-
ditional eflecfls. The increafe of temperature by taking
up, and holding in folution, a much greater portion of
aqueous vapour, will account for the ordinary effects
■ivhich are annually obfervable in every work. Where
the(e pernicious confequences approach to extremity, a
folution of the phenomenon will likely be obtained by
the examination of the blowing apparatus. Jf air is fit-
ted for corabuftion in proportion as it is free from wa-
tery folutions, we are not to expeft fimilar refults from
tliefe blail furnaces in fummer, which are blown by air
from the regulating cylinder, and thofe blown by air
from a water or air vault. I have for years feen this
faiSt verified, and fuperior quantity and quality of iron
during the hot weather, obtained from a furnace excit-
ed by means of blaft, from the fimple regulating cylin-
der, with a lefs proportion of fuel than from furnaces
%vhofe air \vas exprclTed by means of the water or air
vault. Obfervations thus made, where every day the
efFefts of the dilTerent means could be juflly eflimated
and compared, have led me to the following conclu-
fion : That the quality of the air, as furniihed us by
nature in our atmofphere, is uniformly more fit for the
mamifafture of crude iron to profitable account, when
difchargcd fimply by means of cylinders and piftons,
than ^vhen brought into contaft with moifture either in
the water vault or air vault.

" So iniperfeft has the quality of the fummer air been
found in tliis country for combuftion, where the water
vault was ufed, that experiments have been made to re-
pair the deficiency of effeft by introducing fleam into
the furnace by means of an aperture above the tuyere.
The inducing motive to this aft, was a belief, that
combuflion was diminiflied in confequence of a diminu-
tion of oxygen gas during the fummer ; that, by intro-
ducing water upon a furface of materials ignited to
whitcnefs, decompofition would enfue, a larger quan-
tity of oxygen would then be prefented to the fuel, and
fuperior effefts, -as to combuftion, obtained in this man-
ner than hitherto witneifed. The idea was ingenious,
and, in its application to the manufafture of caft iron,
original ; but the whole train of fafts, which have
been detailed, as to the effefts of a fuperabundaut

86 ] F U R-

quantity of oxygen, ^vas overlooked. The event pro-
ved in the moll complete manner, and on a great fcale, '
the pernicious effefts of moifture. The furnace gra-
dually became cooled where the fteam entered ; the
heat, fet free by the decompofition of the w^ater and the
difengagement of oxygen, increafed to an alarming
pitch a confiderable way up the fi

Air from:
cjlinders
preferred.

the quality of
the iron became brittle, and as white in the frafture as
filver ; the introduiiiion of the fleam was ftill continued,
the defcending materials were inftantly robbed of their
heat to facilitate the decompofition of the water, and
by and by the furnace clofed entirely over, and the ex-
peiiment ceafed.

" This experiment, performed in a furnace 1 8 feet
high, is a complete proof that heat is difengaged from
bodies while they pafs from the fluid to the aeriform
ftate. The firft inftant of the difcharge of fteam, a very
confiderable portion of heat would be withdrawn from
the fufing materials and united to the water. This, in
its turn, would be ignited to whitenefs, and decompo-
fed npon the metals and cokes, in a fuperior region of
the furnace. The procefs continuing for feveral hours,
the materials at the tuyere were at laft fo completely de-
prived of the caloric by the continual torrent of fteam,
that thev loft fluidity, cooled rapidly, and at laft be-
came black. Had another aperture for fteam and for
air been opened above thefe, now entirely ihut up by
the confolidated materials, the fame effefts would have
been produced ; the immenfe quantity of caloric, dif-
engaged by the decompofition of the ignited water,
would now approach nearer to the top of the fiurnace,
another ftratum of fufing materials would again become
confolidated, till in the end the whole furnace would
be fet faft fiom top to bottom. From the introduftion
of fteam into the blaft furnace, either as fuch, or under
a fuperior degree of expanfive force, the following im-
portant truths may be learned : That the quantity of
oxygen which enters into our atmofpheric compound is
generally more fit for the manufafture of the fuperior
qualities of crude iron than any mixture which may be
furniOied by the addition of water : that, although the
decompofition of water, by fumiftiing a fuperior quan-
tity of oxygen, and by throwing off a relative propor-
tion of caloric, incneafes the effefts of combuftion im-
mediately in the vicinity of this chemical analjfis ; yet,
as the water had previoufly abftrafted the heat neceffary
to its decompofition from the inferior ftrata, a greater
quantity by no means exifls in the furnace. The water,
in faft, only ferves as a medium to convey the heat
from one particular fpot ■, but, by attempting to fly off
with it, meets decompofition, and renders up not only
the abftrafted heat, but that which was contained in the
oxygen of its decompofition.

" 4th, The compreffion and velocity of the air dif- Compfef-
chargtd into the furnace, confiderably affeft the refults ''«"J_^^J ^^
of the fmelting operations. In the confideration of this ^i^^ ajV^o^
fubjeft, the various qualities of coals will be found toii^cred.
have an intimate connexion with the area of the dil-
charging pipe and the compreffion of the blaft. It has
already been more than once obferved, that a foft or
mixed quality of coal is more fufceptible of combuftion
than either the fplint or clod coal : the confequence of
this is, that, uiilefs the neceffary compreffion of air is
ufed, decompofition is too early accomplifhed, and the
cokes become oxygenated by combuftion in a greater

ratio

F U 11 [2

mtio than is proper for die carbonation of ihc metal.
To avoid this, the column of atr ought to be difchar-
gcil, in the cafe of foft coals being unavoidably ufed,
under Uich a degree of compreflion, hs to refift entire
dccompoCtion in the ignited palTage. In that cafe, the
iron does not fo immediately come into contact with
oxygen, as the decompofition is. i-hietly cfFeifted in the
fupeiior flrata of the feparating materials. Under the
former circumllunce, of a loofe unconnected llream of
air being thrown upon cokes eaiily corr.bmiible, the
quality of the metal, with the fame quantity of fuel,
becomes oxygenated, the tuyere becomes fiery, and fre-
quently emits fparks of metallic oxyde. The feparating
iron may be viewed as it oozes from the ore in fraall
globular mafles, frequently on fire, changing its ftate
to that of an oxyde. The combination of oxygen, by
altering its denlity, makes it fubjecl to the re-action of
the blall, which at times gives it a direftion from the
tuyere witli confiderable \iolence. 'J'hofe parts of the
iron (by far the greateft) thus oxydated, which efcape
not at the tuyere, mix along with the filled earths of the
ores and limcftone, alter their colour, and fiow from
the furnace more unrevived than at their firft introduc-
tion. It is, however, very different, even \nth this in-
ferior quality of coal, where the denfity of the blall is
proportioned to the inflammability of the fuel. Quali-
ties and quantities of crude iron may be produced from
this, equal to thofe from coals reckoned of a fupcrior
nature. The metal becomes as l-.ighly faturated with
carbonic principle as that made from clod or fplint coal.
The tuyere evinces that decompofitiou is effected in its
proper place. The fluid maffes of iron, as they become
exprelTed from the ore, are fliivered into fpray, before
the denfe column of air, ivithout exhibiting the leaft
fymptom of decompofition. They again unite under
the level of the blail, incrcafe in fize, and fink thiough
the fluid ftratum of earths to the bottom of the furnace.
This fact holds out one of the Itrougefl: proofs of the
great affinity which carbone and iron mutually polTefs
towards each other. In the cafe of the iron feparating
in an oxygenated ftate dellitute of carbone, it immedi-
ately falls a prey to its aflinity for oxygen. In the lat-
ter cafe, the iron, being completely carbonated, rcfifts
decompofition by the faciifice of a very fmall portion
of its carbone. It further proves, that the affinity of
cxygen is greater to carbone than to iron ; and that,
before iron becomes oxydated, all the carbone is taken

" The continuity of the particles of fplint coals ren-
ders the cokes of dithcult combuftion, capable of with-
Itanding a moft powerful difcharge of air, in quantity
and in the degree of comprelTion, without entailing ef-
fecfs fimilar to thofe produced with the ufe of fofter
coals : this renders the operations with fplint coal lefs
fubjeft to cafualty and to change. Carbonated iron
with a proper blall is more uniformly obtained, and
frequently a very fuperior quantity. Similar effccls are
produced with the clod coal, but in a more eminent
degree. Difcharging pipes are ufed four inches in the
diameter, and the comprelTion only equal to two pounds
on the fquare inch ; yet the fame fatal effeds are not
known as in the ufe of foft coal, which, with fuch a co-
lumn of air, would require the preffure to be equal to
three pounds and a half upon the fquare inch at leaft.

" jth, Upon the form and conHrudion of the dif-

87 ] F U K

charging pipe tffeils of more confiderable irapOrtance Fain.;--

depend than is either generally allowed or even concci- ^ ^

ved. At ibmc iron works, no peculiar fiiape is adopt- p^^^^f ,
ed : ifthe tube is furticient to convey the air, and thejif^i ar-r^nir
mouth of it nearly of the fiza wanted, the interior con- pipe iirri
ftruftion is entirely overlooked. This indifference, ("^'t^nt.
however, is by no means general ; varioufly conftrufted
pipes are ufed at different works, and at fome places it
is preferred to throw in the air from nvo pipes whofe
areas are only equal to one of the ufual fize.

" To underftand properly the objedfionable pans of
the conftrudion of nofe pipes, it inuft be recollecled,
that much has been faid to depend upon the blaft reach-
ing the oppofite extremity of the furnace, as little im-
paired of the compaiflnefs and velocity of its original
difcharge as poiFible. When it is otherwife, the refults
in the internal operations of the furnace mull be confe-
quently altered. If the compreflion is diminilhed one-
half cr two-thirds when it reaches the oppolite wall, de-
compofition in that portion muft be effeded before the
air has attained its elevated fituation in the furnace. It
is even pofllble to difperfe the whole column of air in
fuch a manner that the ignited materials of the oppofite
fide may receive little of its effects to promote com-
buftion.

" A difcharging pipe is frequently ufed, in length
12 inches or more, the difcharging aperture 3 inches,
the other end 5 inches ; but this is arbitrary, depend-
ing upon the fize of the adjoining pipe. From a pipe
thus conrtrucfed, the air difpcrfes oc diverges too fud-
denly ; and at a fmall dilfance from the oritice, a con-
fiderable portion of it anfwcrs but impcrfedly the pur--
pofes of combuftion. Part of it is fpeedily decompofed,
and the oxygen brought into immediate contact with
the iron. The quantity of metal is reduced by the
former, and the quality injured by the latter. Though
long cuftom, by a continued ufe of fuch fliaped pipes,
has prevented their pernicious effecls from being obfer-
ved, yet they muft prove in many cafes detrimental to
the economical diftribution of air, and the manufadure
of iron.

" A nofe pipe, of another conftrudion, even more
exceptionable, is alfo ufed ; and the air difperfes ftill
more fuddenly, in a degree fomewhat proportionate
to the more fudden contraction of the pipe, a confider-
able quantity never enters the furnace, but, ftriking
on the exterior v.all, is thence repelled.

" A difcharging pipe, of the following conftrudion. Bed forni
would obviate, in a great meafure, the imperfcdions ofi'i'ccnftnic-
the f.vo former: the length of the tapered piece is 12"°"-
inches, of the ftralght pipe, fix inches ; extreme diame-
ter, as in the others, five inches ; diameter of ftraight
pipe, three inches. From fuch a pipe it is conceived
that the blaft will proceed to the greateft poflible dif-
tance unimpaired in compreflion and velocity. So far,
therefore, as the abfolute force of the blaft and breadth
of the fiimace will permit, decompofition will be pre-
vented on the level of the pipe, and the manufadurer
freed from the evils which I have above detailed, as at-
tendant upon decompofition in that quarter."

The following is a defcription, alfo taken from Mr Defcripti^o
Miilhet, of an air and a water vault which is employed"'^" *"
to equalize the difcharge of air into a blall furnace. vault.

" Fig. 7. reprcfents a vertical fedion of the elevation
of an air-vault 60 feet long and 30 feet wide, conlilling

FUR

r 288 ]

FUR

of lour arches of regularly progreffive fizes. Tliis build-
jiij; is generally conftruAed under the brldgehoufe,
where the materials are daily coUefted for filling the
furiiace. AB, reprefents the acclivity to the furnace
top. The fpace betwixt the arch tops and the level of
the lluor is filled Tvith materials as denfe as can be pro-
cured. The walls of the under part are three feet
thick, befides a lining of brick and platter from 1 8
inches to two feet. Still further precautions are necef-
i'ary, and alternate layers of pitch and flout paper are
re'juiiite to prevent the efcape of the comprelTed air.
C, a view of the arched funnel which conveys the air
from the cylinder to the vault. Large iron pipes with
a iveli fitted door, are preferable, and lefs apt to emit
air. D, an end view of the pipe by which the blafl is
carried to the furnace. ^

" Fig. 8. is a horizontal fedlion of fig. 7. at the dotted
line a b, reprtfenting the width of the crofs arches, which
are tlirown in each partition to preferve an eafy com-
munication betwixt the vaults. D, is a feAion of the
firll range of pipes, meant to conduft the air to the fur-
nace. In like manner pipes may be taken off from any
part of the vault for the different purpofes of blowing
furnaces, fineries, hollow fires. Sec.

" Fig. 9. reprefents a vertical longitudinal fe£lion of
what is generally called the water-vault. The walls of
this building may be erefled to the height of eight or
nine feet, their thicknefs fimilar to thofe of the air
vault. A brick lining, and even puddling with clay
betwixt it and the Hone building, is necelTary to pre-
vent the water from oozing by the accumulated pref-
fure. A, is an end view of the horizontal range of
pipes which conveys the blaft from the blowing cylinder
to the inverted cheft. EBB, the range which condufls
the air to the interior of the inverted cheft, and con-
veys it fo th« furnaces, proceeding along the extremi-
ties of the columns broken off at BB. C, an inverted
chell made of wood, iron, or even of well-hewn flags
iet on end and tightly cemented, is 54 feet within in
length, 18 feet wide, and 1 2 feet high. The diincn-
fions, however, vary at different works. When the
chell is made of wood or iron, it is generally bolted by
means of a flange to the logs on which it is fupported,
kft the great preffure of the air (liould overcome the
gravitation of the cheft, and difplace it. DD, view of
the centre log, and ends of the crofs logs, on which the
clicft is laid. Thefe fliould meafure 1 8 inches in height,
fo as that the mouth of the cheft may be that diftance
from the furface of the floor, and the water allowed to
retreat from the interior of the cheft irith the leaft
poftible obftruiSion. EE, the outfide walls of the
building. FF, the brick-work, made perfeiflly %vater
tight. The doited line G, reprefents the furface of
the water when at reft. Let the depth of the water,
outfide and infide of the cheft, be eftimated at four
feet, \\^len the engine is at work, fliould the preffure
of the air have forced the water down to the dotted line
H, three feet and a half diftant from the line G, and
only fix inches from the mouth of the cheft, it follows,
that the water muft have rifen in the outer building, or
cheft, three feet and a half above G, and have its
higheft furface nearly at reft at L In this cafe i[\e
ftrength of the blaft is reckoned equal to feven feet of
water, or nearly fix inches of mercury. The fpace be-
twixt the cheft and outude building is three feet. When
2

the engine is at reft, and the water has affumed its Ie\el, Fuit.:iI(!.
the quantity of water ^fithin the cheft fnould be equal '—^y——'
to th.at without.

" Fig. 10. is a ground plan of fig. 9. The crofs logs
on which the cittern is fupported are dotted within, but
drawn full in the fpace betwi.xt the flange of the cheft
and outer building. The breadth of the flange-tops of
the binding bolts, and thicknefs of the metal of the
cheft, are aifo drawn. The letters bear a reference to
thofe in fig. 9." *"

An account of fome curious phenomena obferved by5;„ ^^^
Mr Roebuck in the air vault of a blaft furnace has been phenomena
publillied in the Jth volume of the Tranfadioiis of the obferved in
Royal Society of Edinburgh. This, as well as fome "" ^'-^
remarks of praftical utility on the management of bLift ^'"' ^'
furnaces, we doubt not, will be interetting to our
readers. We ftiall therefore give it in his own words.
It is addreffed in the form of a letter to Sir James
Hall.

" I have (fays he) examined my memorandums, con-
cerning the obfervations I made on the condenfed air
in the air vault of the Devon iron works, near Al!oa,
on the north fide of the frith of Forth ; and, according
to your requeft, I now tranfmit you an account of
them ; and alfo of an experiment I made, when a part-
ner and manager of thefe works, in order to increafe
the produce of blaft furnaces.

The t.vo blaft furnaces at Devon are of large dimen-
fions, each being 44 feet high, and about 13 feet vAAc
in the boflies, or wideft part, and are formed on a fteep
bank, by twojpits funk in a very folid ftratum of coarfe-
grained freeftone.

Thefe pits were afterwards fhaped and lined in the
ufual manner of blaft furnaces, with common bricks and
fire bricks, and the hearth was laid with large blocks
of the ftone that had been dug out, and which fer've
the purpofe of fire ftones. At the back of the two
furnaces, next the bank, the air vault is excavated, and
formed by a mine driven in the folid rock, diftant from
the furnaces about 16 feet. The bottom of the air
vault is only about four feet higher than the level of
the bottom of the furnaces. This vault has an aper-
ture at one end to receive the air from the blowing
machine, and has two at the oppofite end, one of which
receives the eduction pipe, and the other is a door to
give admittance occafionally into the vault. As the
rock is extremely clofe and folid, the vault is dry, ex-
cept that a little water oozes very gently from the fide
next the bank in fmall drops, and does not appear to ex-
ceed an Englilh pint in 24 hours.

Thefe furnaces are provided with air, or blaft, as it
is termed, by the means of a "fire-engine of the old, or
Newcomen's conftmftion. The diameter of the fteam
cylinder is 48^ inches j and the fquare area of its piflou
being about 1 866i fquare inches, the power of this
fort of engine cannot be rated at more than 71b. to the
fquare inch, amounting in all to about 130621b. This
power was employed to work an air pump, or blowing
cylinder, of 78 inches diameter, and about feven feet
long. 'i"he number of fquare inches on the pifton of
the air pump is 4778, and therefore this area, being
multiplied by 2^, will produce 13 139, being a reuft-
ance that nearly balances the above-rated power, and
ftiows that the :.ir, which was expelled from the air
pump, could not be condenfed more in the ordinary

way

FUR [2

■J'urnacf. way of n'orking, than with a comprcfTing power of a-
• bout 2j-lb. on each Iquare inch. As tlie engine was

not regulated, iit firft, to make a longer ilroke than
about four fetl eight inches, only one furnace being
ufcd, the quantity of air expelled at each ilroke of the
machine was about 155 cubic feet, which it difcharged
through a valve into the air vault, about 16 times in a
minute. When two furnaces afterwards were blown,
the engine was regulated to work much quicker, and
^.''"^"'"'•'"Mvith a longer ftroke. The air vault is 72 feet long,
v'^U *"' '"^ ^^^^ "ide, and 13 feet high ; and contains upwards
of I •5,000 cubic feet, or above So tiiv.es the contents of
the air pump. The top, fides, and bottom of this vault,
where the leall fiiTure could be difcovered in the beds
of the rock, were carefully caulked with oakum, and
afterwards plaftered, and then covered with pitch and
paper. The intention of blowing into the vault is to
equalize the blall, or render it uniform, which it efietls
more completely than any machinery ever yet contrived
for the lime purpofe. The air is condufled from the
vault by the eduftion pipe, of 1 6 inches diameter, into
an iron box or wind cheft, and from this it goes off to
each furnace, in two fmaller pipes that terminate in
nozles, or blow-pipes, of only 2^ to 3^^ inch diameter, at
the tuyere of the furnace.
Trial of the " \^'hen the furnace was put in blafl, after having
furnace jj^^^j fjlgj ^v;th coakes, and gently heated for more
than fix :veeks, the keepers allowed it to have but little
blaft at firft, giving it a fmall blow-pipe of about 2j
inch diameter, and likewife letting off a very confider-
able quantity of air, at the efcape or fafety valve on
the top of the iron wind cheft, as it is a received though
erroneous opinion among them, that the Wall muft be
let on very gradually for feveral months. From the
conflruiflion of this valve, it was impoflible to afcertain
the exail proportion of the blaft which was thus loft,
but I believe it was very confiderable. The confe-
quence was, that the furnace, after it had been in blaft
/or feveral days, never feemed to arrive at its proper
degree of heat, but was always black and cold about
the tuyere in the hearth, and appeared in danger of
choking, or gobbing, as it is termed.

" Aftcl: various experiments tried in vain, by the
keepers and the company's engineer, and others, (in-
deed they tried every thing, except giving the furnace
a greater quantity of air, which, as I afterwards afcer-
tained, v.as all that it wanted), they concluded, that
the air vault was the caufe of the ivhole niifchief ; and,
to confirm their opinion, they laid they had now dif-
covered that water was, in confiderable quantities,
driven out of the air vault through the blow-pipe, which
cooled the furnace ; and they infifted, that the power
of the engine was fuch as to force water out of the
folid rock ; fo that this method of equalizing the blaft
never would fucceed. The other managing partner
was fo much alarmed by thefe reprefentations, that
he began to confult with the engineer, and others,
about finding a fubftitute for the air vault at any ex-
pence.
The caufcs " As the plan of the blowing apparatus had been
"""j '' adopted at my recommendation, and was now fo loud-
^* ' ■ ly condemned on account of the water, I had other mo-

tives, than mere intereft, for trying to become better
acquainted with the phenomena attending it. I accor-
dingly determined to go into the air vault, and to rc-
VoL. IX. Part I.

89 ]

FUR

clofed in the condcnfed air while tlie engine w.is rurnac*.
; the furnace. It is an experiment that perhaps ""^^ '

vault, and
' peculiar

mam
blowing

never was made before, as there never cxifted fuch an
opportunity. I could not perfuadc the engineer, or any
other of the operative people about the work, to be my
companions, as they imagined that there w^as muclr dan-
ger in the experiment. Mr Neil llyrie, however,
one of the clerks of the Devon company, had fullicient
confidence in my reprefentations to venture liimfelf along
with me.

" The machine had been ftopped about two hours Pheromena
previous to our entering the vault, and we found a '"''*'*'''
dampnefs and miftinefs in it, which difappeared foon'
after the door was Ihut faft upon us, and the engine 'e V".—
began to work in its ufual manner. After four or five of perlbns.
ftrokes of the engine, we both experienced a lingular "'"i'""-
fenfation in our ears, as if they were flopped by the
fingers, which continued as long as we remained in the
condenfed air. Our breathing was not in the leaft af-
fefted. I had no thermometer with me, but the tem-
perature of the air felt to us rhe fame as that ivithout
the vault. Sound was much magnified, as we perceived,
when we talked to each other, or llruck anything ; par-
ticularly, the noife of the air efcaping at the blow-pipe,
or wafie-valve, was very loud, and feemed to return
back to us. There was no appearance of wind to
difturb the flame of our candles ; on the contrary, I was
furprifed to find, that when ws put one of them Into
the educlion pipe, which conveys the wind from the
vault to the furnaces, it \vas not blown out. There
was not the fmalleft appearance of any drops of water
iffaing out of this'"pipe. The oozing and dropping of
water from the fide of the rock, next the bank, feemed
tl : fame as before the condenfation was made in the
vault. In fhort, everything appeared, in other refpefts,
the fame as ivhen we were in the commo:i atmofphere.
Having remained about an hour in the condenfed air,
and fatisfied ourfelves that no water, during that time,
that we could in the leall difcover, was agitated and
forced out of the rock and vault by the power of the
blaft, as was imagined and infifted on, we gave the
fignal to ftop the engine. As loon as it ceafed to work,
and the condenfation abated, and before the door of the
vault was unfcre\ved, the whole vault, in a few feconds,
became filled with a thick vapour, fo that we could
hardly fee the candles at four or five yards diftance.
The door being now opened, tlie work people, anxious
to know our fituatlon, and what had occurred, came
into the vault, and prevented any further obfervations.

" I now endeavoured to account for this curious ap-
pearance of the water, which only ftiowed itfelf occa-
fionally, in very Imall quantities, at the tuyere, at a hole
I ordered to be made in the bottom of the wind cheft
to colledl it more accurately, for it never was ob-
fcrved, but either when the engine, after working'
flowly, was made to work quicker, or, after ha\'ing
been llopped for a few minutes, was let to work again.

" I confidered the vapour which we had difcovered The vapour
in the vault to arife from the moifturc of the fide of, '*^""' '"
the rock next the furnace, which being expelled by a,^^Ju "ted
the great heat of the furnace, and converted into va- ur.
pour, was able to force its way through the pores of
the rock into the vault, but that being in a manner
confined within the rock, by the preiTure of the con.
denfed air, it found itfelf at liberty to come into the
O 0 vault,

FUR [2

vault, only when llic condeiiration abated ccnfidcrably,
"* or was totally removed by the going llow, or flopping
of the engine. It alfo occurred to me, that the air,
in a ftate of condenfation, might pollibly be capable
of lidding a greater quantity of ^vater in folution,
which Height precipitate fuddenly into vapour ov mift
wlscn the condenfation abated. I imagined, there-
fore, that the very fmal! quantities of water we at
times difcovered, proceeded from nothing elfe but this
\apoiu-, in its paitage to the furnace along with the
blait, being condenfed into water, by the coolnefs of
the eduftion pipe and iron wind cheft. The quantity
of water did not appear to amount to a gallon in
twenty-four hours.

" A few days after I had made this experiment,
the water ceafed entirely to make its appearance,
either at the tuyere, or at the hole in the wind cheft,
but the furnace did not come into heat for a long
while after, and indeed not till the keepers let much
more air into it by a larger blov/.pipe, and allowed
lefs air to efcape at the fafety valve. It is probable that
the rock was now become perfeftly dry by the con-
tinued heat of the furnace.

" My experiment had the good effeft to remove all
the prejudices againft the plan I had adopted of blow-
ing the furnaces, and llkewife prevented the other
partner from laying out a large fum of money, by
llopping the works, and altering the blowing machi-
r.ery. Indeed, it has fince been admitted, by all who
have feen it at work, to be the moft fimple and effec-
tive method of equalizing the blaft which has yet been
put in praij^ice.

" This experirp.ent led me, fome time aftenvards,
to apply a wind gauge that I contrived, to afcertain
precifely the ftate of the condenfation of the air thrown
into the furnaces. I found that a column of quick-
iilver was raifed five inches, and fometiraes, though
ieldom, fix inches, and, in the interval of the engine to
receive air into the air pump, it fell only half of an inch.
At this time only one furnace was worked. But when
two furnaces were in blaft, the engine only raifed the
mercurial gage about four inches, becaufe the Devon
company, for feveral reafons, did not, while I conti-
nued a partner, think proper to allow the blowing ma-
chinery to be completed, by putting to work their
fecond boiler of 20 feet diameter for the fire engine,
iiccording to my original defign, which, by adjufting
the machinery, would have enabled us to blow two
furnaces, with two boilers, with as much efftQ, in
proportion, as one furnace with one boiler. This in-
llrument had the advantage of enabling the work
people to difcover the real power of their blaft, and
know the exaft condition of the air valves, and the
gearing of the blowing pifton •, for if thele were not
tight, and in order, (although the engine might, to
appearance, be doing well, by making the fame number
of difcharges of the air pump as ufual per minute),
yet the wind gage would not rife fo high, and would
khew that there was an impcrfeflion fomewhere, by
Trafon of a quantity of air efcaping at the valves, or
pifton, that could not fo eafily otherwife be known.
This contrivance \va5 conlldcred as of much ufe, and
■n-as afterwards always quoted in the company's journal
books, to ftiow the attual ftate of the blowing machine,
jn coanparing the daily produce of the furnaces.

90 ] FUR

" 1 hope you will not think me tedIou=, when I Furnaf<>.
explain to you another experiment, which appears to -"~v— '
me to be of confiderable importance to all manufac-
turers of caft iron.

" I had reafon to conje61ure, from my own obfer-
vations on the effecls of blowing machinery on blaft
furnaces, as well as from the knoivlcdge I had ac-
quired from my father Dr Roebuck, and from my
communications with other experienced iron mafters,
that a great part of the power of fuch machinery was
mifapplied in general praftice, by throwing air into
furnaces with much greater velocity than neceflary, xhe velo-
and that, if this velocity was, to a certain degree di- city of the
miniflied, the fame power, by properly adjufting the'>'^'*>
bloiving machinery, of whatever nature, would be ca-
pable of throwing into the furnace a proportionally
greater quantity of air. For, Since the quantities of
any fluid, ifjiiing through the fame aperture, are as the
fquare roots of the prtffure ; it follows, that it would
require four times the preffure, or power, to expel
double the quantity of air, througli the fame aperture,
in the fams time ; but if the area of the aperture was
doubled, then the quantity of air expelled by the fame
power, and in the lame time, would be increafed in
the ratio of the fquare root of 2 to i, though its velo-
city would be diminillied exaftly in the fame propor-
tion. Again : I confidered that the quantity and in-
tenfity of heat, produced in blaft furnaces, and confe-
quently its etlcifts in increafing the produce, might be
only in proportion to the quantity of air decompofed
in the procefs of combuftion, without regard to its
greater velocity ; that is to fay, whether or not the
fame quantity of air was forced, in the fame time,
into the furnace through a fmall pipe, or through one
of larger dimenfions j for, in attending to the procefs
of a common air furnace for remelting of iron, where
there is a very large quantity of air admitted through
the large areas between the bars, it is well known, that
a much greater intenfity of heat is produced than takes
place in a blaft furnace ; and yet the air does not enter
into the fire through the bars with increafed denfity or
great velocity. I therefore thought it probable, that
increafing the quantity of air thro-,vn into the blaft fur-
nace in a confiderable degree, although the velocity or -,„ j jt;
denfity might be much lefs, would have the effcil of in quantity
creafing its heat, and operations, and produce. And confic'erec?,
as, from the principles above ftated, with regard to the
machinery, I faw I could greatly increafe the quantity
of air thrown into the furnace, by enlarging the dia-
meter of the blow-pipe, and regulating the engine ac-
cordingly, without being obliged to employ more
power, 1 was anxious to make this experiment.

" A fyftem of management, of which I did by no
means approve, was adopted by the other partners of
the Devon company, foon after the works were begun
to be erefled ; and, in the profecution of it, they or-
dered their fecond furnace to be put in blaft, without
permitting thofe meafures to be taken that were necef-
lary to provide and maintain a fufficient ftock of mate-
rials ; and alfo without allow-ing their blo« ing machine
to be completed, according to the original defign, by
the addition of its fecond boiler. As might have been
expefted, a trial of feveral months to carry on two
furnaces, with only half the power of fteam that was
nccefiaryj and an inade<juate ftock of materials, proving
uitfucccfsfulj

FUR

" -?.:?. unfuccefsful, "uie company, as a remedy, iiillead of
' v~~' making up the above deficiencies, ordered one of the
furnaces to be bloivn out, and flopped altogether.
This improper meafure, however, aJForded me the op-
portunity of immediately putting in pra6lice the plan
I have mentioned.

" \\''hen one of the furnaces was flopped, the other
continued to be blown by a bloiv-pipe of 2^1^ inches
diameter, and the produce of the furnace, for feveral
weeks thereafter, was not 20 tons cf iron per week at
an average. The engine at this time ivas making
about 16 ftrokes a minute, with a Itroke of the air
pump, about 4 feet 8 inches long •, but when I altered
the diameter of the bloiv-pipc, firft to 3, and immedi-
and efta- ately after to 33 inches diameter, and regulated the
bliflied by working gears of the engine, fo as to make a flroke of
tijierimei.t. ^ feet 2 inches long, and about 19 ftrokes in a mi-
nute, on an average, the produce was immediately in-
creafed. It continued to be, on sn average of nine
months immediately after this improvement, at the rate
of 33 tons of iron per week, of as good quality as
fcrmerly; for, during this period, from the 21 fl No-
vember 179? to July 30, 1796, this one furnace yielded
liSStonsof iron. No more coals were confumed in
working the blafl engine, or other expences about the
blo^\-ing machine incurred, and therefore no more power
was employed to produce this great effeft. it is alfo of
much importance to remark, that the confamption of
materials, from which this large produce v.as obtained,
was by no means fo great as formerly. I'he furnace
required very comiderably lefs fuel, Icfs ircnjlone, and
Jifi limejlcne, than were employed to produce the fame
quantity of iron by the former method of blovvhig : and
according to the ftatements made out by the companv's
orders, as great a change was effecled in the economical
part of the bufine'.s.

" From the fuccefs of this experiment, fo well au-
thenticated, and continued for feveral months, I am led
to be of opinion, that all blaft furnaces, by a proper ad-
juflment of fuch machinery as they are provided with,
might greatly and advantageoufly increafe their pro-
duce, by affuming this as a principle, viz. ' That tuiih
the given power it is rather hy a great quanlitif of air
thrown into tite furnace, with a moderate velocity, than
by a lefs quantity thrown in with a greater velocity, that
the greatefl benefit u derived, tn the fnielting of iron
Jlones, in order to produce pig-tron.'' Ho^vever, it is by

[ 291 ]

F U R

esptrimeut alone, perhaps, that we can be enabled rurnacc.
to find out the exati relations of poiver, velocity, ' «
and quantity of air requifite to produce a maximum of
effea (I)."

In order to illuftrate what is faid above, a ground
plan of the air vault and furnaces of the Devon Iron
Works Is given in Plate CCXXVI. ; of which the ex-
planation follows.

Explanation of Fig. 1 1 .

A, The a?r vault, formed by a mine driven in the
folid rock of coarfe-grained freeltone.

B, The blowing cylinder.

C, The pipe that conveys the air from the blov.ing
cylinder to the air vault.

D, The eduflion pipe that carries the air from the
air vault to the iron wind-clicfl.

E, The iron wind chefl (about 2\ feet cube),
in which is inferted a wind-gauge, reprefented in
fig. 12.

FF, The two blow-pipes for each furnace, which
terminate in apertures of 3^ inches diameter at the
tuyeres of the iumaces.

GG, The two blafl fiimaces, placed in two pits funk
in the folid rock.

HH, The tymps of the furnaces from whence the
caft iron is run off into the cafting room, LL.

O, The door to give occafional admittance into tlic
air vault.

M, The exca\-ation, in which is placed the blowing
machine.

Explanation of Eg. 12.

A, The end of the wind-gauge (about 12 inches
long), which is open to the atmofphere, being half filled
with quickfilver.

B, The end that is inferted in the iron wind cheft,
and expofed to the preffure of the condenfed air of the
air Mult.

To Mr Mufliet we are alfo indebted for the folloOTng Description
accoimt of air furnaces, which are employed in iron of an ait
founderies for the purpofe of calling large pieces of ord-'""'*^*"
nance, and other heavy a: tides.

Thefe furnaces, he obferves, " are employed fc>r melt-
ing pig iron with the flame of pit coal. Furnaces of
this kind are conftrufted of various fizes according to
circumftances. The fraall fizes ^vill run down from
O o 2 feven

(l) " If (^ be the quantity of a fluid, iffuing in a given time through an aperture of the diameter D, V its
Telocity, and P the power by which it is forced through the aperture : then the area of that aperture being
as D*, the quantity of the fluid ilTuing in the given time will be as VD', or VD'rr^.

" Again, this quantity multiplied into its velocity, will be as the momentum of the fluid expelled, or as the
power by which it is expelled, that is, V'D'=P, or VD= ^P.

" Here, therefore, if D

given,

V is

^/P, as Mr Roebuck aflirms. Alfo, becaufc V =^, and alfo
D increafes, and V will diminifli

V=-^, Q^— Dy'P, fo that, while P remains the fame, Q^ will increafe

in the fame ratio.

" The problem, therefore, of throwing the greatefl quantity of air into the furnace, with a given power,
flriifUy fpeaking, has no maximum, but the largeft aperture of which the engine can admit muft be the beft.
It is probable, however, that there is a certain velocity with which the air ought to enter into the furnace ;
this will produce a limitation of the problem, which, as Mr Roebuck fuggefls, is not likely to be difcovered
but by experiment." Note by Air Ployfair.

FUR [29

Furnact. feven to ten hundred weight, and are ufed in fmall
" founderies for what the trade cMJobbing.

*' Fig. 13. (Plate CCXXVI.) a ground plan of two
large air furnaces, and chimney for melting pig or call
iron with the flame of pit coal.

" The letters ABCD point out the exterior dimen-
fions of the flalk or chimney, which is firft erefted,
leaving tno openings or arches into which the fore-part
of the furnaces are afterwards built. The breadth of
the chimney at the particular place which the plan ex-
hibits is 16 feet from A to B, and from A to D or from
B to C fix feet fix inches. The plan is drawn at that
elevation where the flame enters the chimney by the
flue or throat, narrowed on purpofe to throw back, part
of the flame, and keep the furnace equally hot through-
out, as may be more particularly vie'.ved in the vertical
feftion, fig. 14.

" EE, the furnace bars on which the coals refl^, and
where the combullion is maintained.

" FF, openings called teallng holes, by which the
coals are introduced to repair the fire.

" GG, fire brick buildings called bridges. Thefe
are meant to concentrate the flame, that it may aft as
violently on the metal as poflible. Upon the height of
the bridge much depends in fufmg the metal fpeedily,
and with little lofs. The height of this may be feen ia
the vertical feftion, fig. 14. G.

" HH, the charging doors, by which the metal is
introduced in the Ihape and ftate of pig iron, lumps,
fcraps, &c. &c. The iron generally occupies the fur-
nace acrofs to I, called the back wall, and is never
meant to approach the bridge nearer than the dotted
line, left the metal in melting (hould run back into
the grates, in place of dcfcending into the general re-
fervoir or cavity below. The corners or notches, /;, /i,/i, //,
receive a flout call iron frame lined with fire bricks.
This is hung by means of a chain and pulley, and can
be raifed and depreflfed at pleafure. This frame is, pro-
perly fpeaking, the charging door, and is always tfire-
fully made air tight by means of moiftened fand.

" KK, the flues or openings by which the flame en-
ters the chimney. Thefe are 15 inches by 10. On
maintaining thele openings of a proportionate fize to
ihe other parts depend in a great meafure the powers
and (Economy of the furnace.

" LL, lading doors, by which ladles are introduced,
in the cafe of fmall furnaces, to lift out the metal and
•jiftribute it to the various moulds.

" MMMM, binding bolts to limit within proper
bounds the expanfion which takes place in the building
■tvhen the furnace is highly heated.

" Fig. 1 4. vertical feftion of one of the furnaces, and
its appropriate ftalk or chimney.

" -E, the grates.

" F, the teafing hole.

" G, the bridge.

*' H, the charging door.

" K, the flue or opening into the chimney.

" L, the lading door.

" MM, the binder or binding bolt.

" N, the interior of the ftalk or chimney, 30 inches
iquare.

" 00, the firebrick work, nine inches thick.

" PP, fpace of two inches for (luffing with fand.

" 0.0^ commoa brick building.

^ ] FUR

" RR, Cd([ iron lintels, over which are thrown Furnace,
double nine inch arches, fo that at any time the inferior — v— -^
building can be taken down to make repairs, without
fliaking or in the leaft injuring the chimney.

" S. The dotted lines here are meant to reprefent
what is called the tapping hole. When a large piece
of goods is to be call, lifting the metal with ladles would
be impradlicable. A Iharp pointed bar is driven up
this opening. The iron then flows freely out into a
large bafon of fand made for its reception. It is then
conducted, by collateral channels, into the mould.

" The fpace under the curved dotted line from G to
L, by S, is filled with a mixture of land and aflies. When
the furnace is prep.ired to melt, the whole of the bot-
tom receives a flratum of iharp clean fand about two
inches thick. This is broken up at night, and frefh
fand is fubftituted for it before the fire is kindled in the
morning.

" Fig. 15. is a horizontal fedlion of the chimney or
ftalk, taken where the flues aflume a perpendicular di-
rection. The letters in this figure correfpond to thofe
in the vertical fedion, fig. 14. The height of the
chimney ought not to be lefs than 45 feet : if 50 feet,
the efFe£t will be fooner and of courfe better pro-
duced.

" The effefl wilhed to be produced in air furnaces is
the fufion of a certain portion of pig or cafl; iron, for the
purpofe of being poured or run into moulds to form ar-
ticles of almoft every delcription.

" The preparation previous to melting is as follows : Preparation
After the bottom of the furnace is laid, and fraoothed °^ ^^^ f"'"
with frefli fand, and all the openings made air tight, "^'^^'
the furnace man introduces a kindling at the teafing
hole, accompanied with new pit coal. In a few
minutes a confiderable volume of dark flame mixed
^vith fmoke is produced. The fire quickly gathers
ftrength ; more coal is introduced ; and the furnace now
becomes filled nnth a yellow-coloured flame. By con-
tinuing this operation for an hour, or an hour and a
quarter, the furnace and flame will have become com-
pletely white ; the latter fteady, and at times apparently
without motion. The furnace man now judges the bot-
tom to have been fufliciently hardened for receiving the
pig iron without any rilk of finking. The charging door
is now opened, and the pig metal thrown carefully and
regularly upon that part of the bottom formerly de-
fcribed as being appropriated for its reception. The
door is again clofed and made air tight, and the ope-
ration of firing continued with unremitting care and at-
tention.

" The time of melting depends entirely upon the
quantity of metal introduced. The furnaces defcribed
above are capable of melting from 50 to 60 hundred
weight of metal each, and when there is a moderate
circulation of air they will perform this work in 2-^ or
3 hours. In half an hour after the metal is intro-
duced it alTuraes a blackifli red colour. It then be-
gins to brighten with every additional fire, and in about -
one hour appears white, and begins to lofe ftiape, and
refemblc a wreath of fnow.

" An eye accuftomed to fuch heats will now difcem
the metal beginning to drop, and run down the inclined
plane in very beautiful llreamlets refembling quick-
filver. Eight or ten of thefe are vifible at a time, and
after proceeding half way do^vn begin to form junftions

willr

FUR [2

with e.ic'ii otlitr, and flo-.v connefted iutn the general
' cavity or refervoir. By-and-by this becomes filled,
and literally forms a beautiful molten mirror, in which
Ibmetimes part of the interior furnace is retlefted.

" The furnace man, by fearching at the bridge with
his fire-iron or teafer, judges when the metal is nearly
all gone. Of this he is certain by looking up from the
peep-hole of the lading door. If the ftrenmlets of the
running metal have ceafed, then the whole is melted,
and ready for running out.

" In the operation of melting, the three following
circunillances ought to be particularly attended to : the
thinnefs or hotnefs of the metal ; the wafte or lot's fuf-
tained in melting ; and the quantity of coals em-
ployed.

" The firll is of the utmoft importance, as many ar-
ticles in the foundery bufinels require the metal in a ftate
of the greateft divilion ; otherwil'e they will be found
imperfeft when taken from the fand, and unfit for fale.
The furnace man, therefore, is always on the watch
to replace the fire as it decays, and keep a large
and Iharp volume of flame conftantly pafling over the
metal.

" The wafle or lofs of real metal is alfo an objeft of
great importance. This always bears a relation to the
quality of the iron, the llrength and cleannefs of the
coals, and the judgment and attention of the inciter.
Strong iron is found always more dithciilt to fufe ; this
neceflarily expofes it for a long period in contaft with
the llame. The reverfe happens with metal that is
more fragile, and eafier broken in the pig. The length
of the e.xpofure in fufing depends on this ; and other
circumft ances being alike, the lofs or wafte of metal will
a!fo be in the fame ratio.

" There arc, however, other fafts not unworthy of
notice. X° l . pig iron, or richly carbonated metal,
when run from an air furnace, will be found in point
of quality little better than N° 2. or carbonated iron.
This is owing to a quantity of its carbone being de-
ftroyed during the fufion. The lofs in melting N" i.
iron, therefore, chiefly confills of carbone ; and the de-
ficiency of metal ought never, with a clean bottom., to
exceed i cwt. in 20.

" Carbonated or N° 2. iron alfo becomes deprived of
a confiderahlc portion of its carbonaceous mixture in
fufion ; and when run from the air furnace is ftldom
better than N° 3. metal. The lofs fullained in melting
may be averaged at 7! per cent.

" N"3. pig iron is, after melting in an air furnace,
found whitiih or mottled. It is fcldom fufceptible of
the fame nice degree of divifion as the fuperior quali-
ties, and lofes in fufion a much larger proportion of
metal, feldom under 10 per cent, and frequently 12I-
or 15.

" The quantity of coals requifite to melt a given
quantity of iron is various, as much depends upon the
quahty and fufibility of the metal. If the furnace goes
one heat a day with N° I. or 2. iron, the quantity of
coals will be from 20 to 25 cwt. for a ton of iron. If
two or three heats a day, or as many ton^ of iron are
melted at one kindling, the proportion of coals will be
nearly weight for weight of the iron melted when the
coals are mixed with a fair proportion of fmall : with
llrong large fplint coal?, one ton of good pig iron may

FUR

rurnacr

s, the improvement;^^;';.

93 ]

be completely reduced with from i 2 to 1 5 cwt. intluJing
the previous heating of the furnace *."

In the redu6lion and fulion of (
of the blowing apparatus, or the machinery contrived for 245.
the purpofe of torcing a current of air into furnaces,
where a high degree of temperature was neceffary, has
always been an important objcft of confidcration to the lmpcrlanc«
manuladurer ; and indeed, it appears that the hillory and of blowing
improvement of this kind of machinery have progref- niacliinery^
fively advanced, hi fome cafes have exceeded the im-
provement of other departments of the manufaflures of
this country.

In fmelting fome metallic ores, as for inllance, thofe:
of lead and tin, the magnitude and powers of blowing
machines have been lefs attended to, becaufe the re-
quifite temperature for that purpofe is far inferior to
what is necellary for the redudion of the ores of iron.
Lead and tin being naturally fuiible, and eafily vola-
tilized in a temperature beyond a bright red heat, have
hitherto fixed the limits with regard to the fize of the
furnace, and the quantity of blaft. The air furnace is
generally employed in the manufaclure of copper, except-
ing in fmall blaft furnaces, in which the precipitated
oxide of this metal is received, and they are limilar to •
the furnaces called cupolas, and ufed at iron foun-
deries.

The lead mill, as it is called, or machine for the re-
duftion of the ores of lead, is of a very fimple conftruc-
tion. In the middle of a fquare building a water wheel
is erected, and to the Ihaft of this wheel, four fmall
wheels of caft iron, about 18 inches in diameter, are
attached. Two pairs of bellows placed at equal dif-
tances, and on each fide of the ftiaft, are fupported on
a rtrong frame of wood. During the revolution of the
ftiaft of the water wheel, the fmall wheels are alfo car-
ried round, and alternately deprefs the end of the lever
which is attached by mearis of an iron chain, to an
equally balanced beam. When this lever defcends, tlie
oppofite end of the beam is elevated, and to this end
there is attached by another iren chain, the moveable
furface of the bellows. The blaft produced in this way
is foft, and far inferior, either with regard to quantity
or denfity, to the blaft neceflfary for an iron furnace.
The length of the bellows is ufually about i o feet, the
the breadth acrofs the breech about five or fix, and
they move at the rate of about 30 ftrokes a minute.

But in the manufadlure of iron, and particulaily fince which uiu::
the ufe of pit coal was introduced, it is abfolutcly nc- i"* "f g." i^-
celTary to have a more powerful blowing machinery. P'"''' '"
1 Ills, therefore, has always been an ellential requinte, fa^ure el-
and has been a conftant objeil in this manufa>fture ; for iron,
in proportion to the <|uantity of air thrown into the fur-
nace, the produce and quantity of metal is increafed.
In the earlier periods of this manufadure, when the
fuel employed was charcoal from wood, the procefs was
more eafily managed. Furnaces which were built of
fmall fize, and which were then called bloamerie.t, were
confidered of fullicient capacity to yield profit, if they-
prodnced a bloom or two of iron in the day, each bioom
amounting to about 90 or 1 20 lbs. For Imaller opera-
tions, hand bellows, and what were called fuel blafts,
were deemed of fufticient power ; but when the refining
furnace began to be employed, and the iron manufac-
ture branched out into the making of pig iron, and the

refining

FUR

[ 294 ]

FUR

fclowing
machine by

refining oT it into bar cr malleable iio:';, the advantage
nrd neceffity of a poiveiful blaft were immedir.tcly feen.
'i'he firft moving power introduced was thr;t of ibe wa-
ter wheel ; and this working two or more pairs of lea-
thei-n bellows, was fci;nd to produce efFefis fufficiently
powerful, for the purpofe.

Machinery conftrufted in this way, and fet in mo-
tion by the power of water, continued to be employed
for this purpcie, till the prirtciples of the fteam engine
ivere fully underfScod, and tliis po^veIful machine
came into general ufe. The fleam engine, bcfides ma-
I'.y other advantages, could be employed in fcuations
where the want of water prevented furnaces being erefled,
but otherwife commodious, in being nea'r the neceifary
materials of ore and fuel. The firlt fubftitute for the
leathern bellows were cylinders compofed of ^vood,
clofely jointed, and flrongly hooped. Thefe in their
turn gave place to cylinders of call iron, fmoothly and
accurately bored ; and this kind of apparatus being dif-
covered and applied in the manufafture of iron, the
blowing machine noiv affumed a more perfect and more
manageable form.

But ivithout attempting to defcribc any of tlie blow-
ing machines in our own country, the power and ef-
fects of %vhich are familiar to thofe to whom this know-
ledge is moil interefting, we fliall give aftiort defcription
of an apparatus of this kind, which is (€1 in motion by the
preiTure of a column of water, and is ereded near Na-
rour in the Netherlands. The account of this machine is
given by Baillet, infpcdor of the mines, who obferves,
that its conflruction is fimple, and not very expenfive,
and that it may be kept up without requiring much re-
pair. This machine, befidcs, can be employed to blow
levcral fiirnaces at once. It does not require any great
moving power, and the confumption of water is much
lefs than in the blowing apparatus of leather or wood.
In confequencc of thefe advantages, the number of fur-
naces has been greatly increafed fince this apparatus
was firft erected, and the extent of the manufacture has
been doubled. This apparatus poflefles another fuperi-
ority over the ordinary blowirig machines. The latter,
to be put in motion, require a water wheel ; but the ap-
paratus which is here alluded to, is fct in motion mere-
ly by the preflure of a column of water.

The following is the defcription of this blowing ma-
chine, as it was firft erefted at Marche upon the Meufe.
It was invented and conftrufted by Janniens, proprietor
of the forges, and it confifts of two cylindei s of three
feet eight inches diameter, and of thirty inches high,
placed vertically near each other. One of thefe cylin-
ders is reprefented at fig. 16. A pirton of ivood co-
vered with leather, (fig. 1 7.) moves in each cylinder,
and forces the air through the tubes 0, 0, 0, which are
fitted to the upper part of the cylinders, and are con-
dueled to the different furnaces where combuflion is to
be excited. 'J'he bafe of thefe tubes is furniflied with
valves, to prevent the return of the air. The pifton
is, befidcs, furnilhed with two lids or covers, w, w,
(fig. 18. and 19.) which open when it defcends, and
Ihut when it rifes. The pillon is furrounded with a
band of leather in the ufual way, to make it tight.

The moving power in this apparatus, is a water
wheel erefled on the horizontal fliaft, s. On this (haft
are fixed the arms /, /, projedling from its circumfe-
rence, which alteraately elevate the ftalk of the pillon.
3

The defcent of the pillon is regulated by tlie weight y, Fufn
■\vhidi a61s as a ccunterpoife ; a::d the fpring of \vood, ^~~^
g, ^vliich is balanced when the ftalks of the pillon are
at their loweft defcent, ferves to retard the velocity,
and to prevent any fudden or violent ilroke.

Two of thefe cylinder*, erefted at one of the forges
at Marche, furnilh air to two furnaces, which employ
charcoal from v.ood, and one with coke from pit-coal.
The flroke of the pillon is about i 8 inches, and 25
ftrokes in a minute, and with this length of Ilroke and
velocity, the two pillons produce nearly about 400 cu-
bical feet of air. The confumption of water, having a
fall of about 10 feet, is about So cubical feet.

Tjvo iimilar cylinders, erefted at another furnace at
the fame place,- move with the velocity of 19 llrokes
per minute. The length of each Ilroke is about 22
inches, fo that it produces about 360 cubical feet of air.
For this, with a fall of 10 feet, 75 cubical feet of wa-
ter are neceffary.

In the conihuclion of this blowing machine, no pe-
culiar difficulty occurs. It is not neceffary that the cy-
linders Ihould be accurately turned in the infide. All
that is required is, to grind or polilh their inner furface
with fand llone. It was in this way that the cylinders
and apparatus, jufl defcribed, were prepared.

The pifton, which is made of wood, has in the mid-
dle of it a mortife, u, fig. 17. and 19. to admit the
flalk, f>, which is kept in its place by four bands or
ilraps of iron, .v, fig. i 7.

The band of leather, c, is about three lines in
thickuefs, and about five inches broad. It is nailed t«
the pifton, and ought to be raifed above the groove or
gutter, V.

The grooves y, y, are funk in the pifton, in propor-
tion to the thicknels of the leather, and their external
diameter Ihould be ibmewhat fmaller than that of the
cylinder. The large lids or covers of the pifton are of
wood, lined with iheep-lkin ; and their hinges, which
are made of leather, are fixed with fcrews to the wood :
a bridle of leather limits the extent of the opening.

'i'he fmall valves, which are fixed at the upper open-
ing of the cylinders, at the end of the tubes for con-
dueling the air, are alfo of wood, and covered with
lheep-&.in.

The tubes tjr pipes which conduct the air are made
of iron plates, or of tinned iron, and they terminate in
pipes of a convenient diameter, and proportioned to
the different furnaces. They fhould alfo be furnilhed
with keys or cocks, for regulating at pleafure the quan-
tity of the air.

The frame which fupports thefe cylinders is of a very
fimple conftruftion, as will appear by infpefting fig. 16.
It is attached and fecured to part of the wall of the
building.

All that is neceffary to keep this apparatus in order,
is with a brulh to cover the internal furface of the cylin-
ders with oil once evei-y 10 days.

The following are the dimenfions of the principal
parts in the old French meafure.

The large valves of the pifton, 8 inches by 6.
The interval between thefe valves, 1 4 inches.
Stalk of the pifton, 6 inches fquare.
The rollers on the axis f Length, 12 inches,
of the wheel. (^Diameter, 36 inches.

FUR [2

Diameter of the cylinder, 38 inches.
' Height of ditto, 26 ifo.

Baillet, who has ijiven the above defcription, pro-
pofes a new application of the moving force to this kind
of blon-ing machine ; and he obferves, that a very im-
portant advantage may be derived from thefe cylinders,
Knee the fimple preffure of a column of water may be
lUbrtituted for the moving power. In fig. 20. the ap-
paratus is fo arranged as to fhew in what way this effefl
may be produced.

The ftalk, f, of the cylindrrcal apparatus c, is com-
mon to the pifton of the finall cylinder d. In which it
can convey the column of water h c. When the cock
/;, is open, and that at / is fliut, the prelTure of the co-
lumn mufl elevate the ftalk/", and the pifton of the
bloiving cylinder. Then the cock h being fhut, and
that at / being open, the water of the cylinder d will
flow out, and the ftalk _/" and the pifton of the cylinder
%vill defcend. Thefe alternate motions can be eafily
managed by means of levers, or regulators at /', fitted
to the ftem of the pifton, and in the fame way as in the
fleam engine. The openings at h and / may be regu-
lated according to the velocity which is required in the
motion of the pifton, and the diameter of the cylinder
d will be proportioned to the fall of water b, c, and the
volume of air which is wanted.

Explanation of the Figures.

Fig. 16. exhibits a feftlon and elevation of the blow-
ing machine.

a, the wall of the building, b, the opening In the wall
for the balance beam.

c, one of the two beams which receive the gudgeons
on which the balance beam moves, d, e, the balance
beam ; f, the weight which acls as a counterpoife ; g,
the fpring of wood.

fi, a brace or ftrap of leather, which Is attached to
the curved head of the beam.

1, k, I, m, the frame which fupports the cylinders.

n, the blowing cylinder of caft iron.

o, 0 0, tubes for conveying air to the furnace.

/>, ftalk of the pifton.

rj, a knee or catch attached to the ftalk.

r, the horizontal axis of the water wheel.

.r, X, arms attached to the axis, with rollers which
raife the knee or catch q, and the pifton.

/, /, fimilar arms and rollers for moving the pifton of
the fecond cylinder.

Fig. 17. Seclion of the pifton.

Fig. 18. The pifton feen from above.

Fig. rp. View of the under furface of the pifton.

Fig. 17. 18. and 19.

/>, ftalk of the pifton.

iv, w, lids or valves.

V, V, groove in the circumference of the pifton.

u, mortlfe to receive the ftalk />.

X, X, ftraps of iron to fupport the ftalk />.

1/, y, the band of leather furrounding the pifton.

Fig. 20. a, a refervoir of water j A, r, a column of
water.

95 ] F U R

d, a cylinder for water. Furnatr.

e, the blowing cylinder. v— ,,^-_
/, the ftalk common to the piftoi.s of liic two cylin-
ders, d and e,

g, the pipe for condufting the air.

/;, /, cocks for receiving and letting out the water.

:, /, the regulators, for the purpofe of opening and
fluitting the cocks. ,

i, a fecond blowing cylinder *. Mnti.

The following is a defcription by Torelli-Narci, of aThrsrl
three-blaft furnace, which was conftrufted in the che-'->'^'^ f"'-
mical laboratory of the French fchool of mines. "^"•

" This furnace (fays the author) is defiined for fu-
fing dlft"erent mineral fubftance?. In order to afcertain
the nature of them ; and the experience of fix years
has ftiown that It anlwers the intended purpofe. By its
means a very Intenfe heat is obtained, and It was em-
ployed by C. Clouet for repeating his experiments on
the convcrfion of forged Iron into caft fteel, which were
attended with full fuccefs,

" Chemiih who have feen this furnace feemed defirous
of being better acquainted with the conftruftioa of it :
the council even tranfmltted drawings of It to feveral
perfons •, and what has hitherto prevented a defcription
of It from being given was a defire to afcertain its po^ver
by longer ufe.

" I long ago conceived the Idea of a fufing furnace,
in vvhich the wind was diftrlbuted in three tuyeres
placed in its circumference, and at equal diftances from
each other ; but I had no opportunity of realizing this
Idea till I became attached to the council of mines.

" Nearly feven years ago a plan was In agitation for
conftrucling in the laboratory of the fchool a fufing
furnace capable of producing a very great degree of
heat. In order to operate with facility and fpeed on lar-
ger quantities of mineral, and confequently to obtain
more preclfion in the trials which might be made thart
had been obtained by the fmall furnaces before employ-
ed for docimaftic experiments.

" I propofed my ideas : they were approved by the
council of mines ; and I ivas ordered to caufe the fur-
nace I am about to defcrlbe to be conftrailed. The
principal difference betwsen it and thofe bel'ore ufed for
the fame purpofe Is, that in the prefent one the wind is
introduced through three tuyeres, placed at equal dif-
tances from each other in its circumference, whereas hi
common furnaces it enters only by one.

" This furnace is roiv:id, both outfide and Infide, and
conftrufted of very refractory bricks, fecured by iron
hoops la fuch a manner that they cannot be difpiaced.
It refts 0:1 a fquare bafe of ftrong mafon work, raifed '

to a fulliclent height above the ground to render it eafy
to manage.

" The bellows are four feet in length, and the mean
breadth of them is about 20 or 21 inches : they are of
v.-ood, and the joints are covered with white leather.
The upper part confills of five folds and two half folds;
the inferior, of two folds and two half folds. They are pla-
ced eight or nine feet (k) above a wooden box, the joints
of whlcli arc covered with leather, and into which the

^'.iiid

(k) " This height is arbitrary ; it depends in part on the manner in which the bellows arc di'pofed, and on the
height of the chamber in which the furnace Is placed."

FUR

[ 296 ]

F U R

Fiimaft. wir.d as it comes from the bellou's Is conveyed by a
^ copper pipe, three inches in diameter, adiulkd to th*-
upper part of the box. The box itfelf is fupported by
two iron bars built into the wall. From the lower part
of this box defcend, in a vertical direftion, three pipes
of copper, two inches in diameter, bent at right angles
•about 45 inches below it, to bring them into a horizon-
tal pofition, and to convey the wind to the furnace,
which is about fix feet diftant. The extremities of
thefe pipes are fitted into three tuyeres of forged iron,
^ixed at equal diftances around the circumference of the
furnace : thefe three pipes are more or lefs curved or
•bent, to convey the wind into the furnace by the three
apertures made for that purpofe.

" About fix inches below the box isadjufted, on each
of the three tubes, which defcend in a vertical direc-
tion, a brafs cock about three inches of interior diame-
ter : thefe cocks ferve to intercept entirely the commu-
nication between the bellows and the furnace ; and by
opening them all more or lefs, or each of them fepa-
rately, any required quantity of wind may be obtain-
ed (l).

" Thefe cocks are well fixed to the tubes, and kept
in their place by two clips of iron fuited to the diame-
ters of the tubes, and forming a kind of three collars,
which by means of four fcrews embrace and confine
rhera : thefe pieces of iron are themfelves made faft to
two crutches of iron, which fupport the box and are
fixed to it by fcrews. The box is kept on the crutches
by two ftraps, which embrace it at aach extremity, and
are fixed by female fcrews, which are fitted to fcrews
on the ends of thefe firaps after they have paiTed through
the horizontal part of the two crutches.

" To give the proper llrength to this furnace, a folid
fquare was conifruiled of mafon-work, about a foot lar-
ger on each fide than the exterior diameter of the fides
of the funiace, which were from 21 to 22 inches from
outfide to outfide. Bricks were placed on the ground
in the m.iddle of this ereftion for the extent of I 8 inches,
in order to form a bottom, and on this bafe were placed
the fides of the furnace conftruded in the manner about
to be defcribed.

" I caufed to be forged two iron hoops fix lines in
thicknefs, from 2 to 2| inches in breadth, and about
2 2 inches ot exterior diameter : thefe two circles were
faftened together by three bars of iron, the diftance of
their exterior edge being kept at about nine inches, the
height of the bricks ; thefe bars are pierced with holes
towards the end rivetted on the circles, and placed at
equal diftances on their circumference. One of the
extremes of each of thefe three bars is left of a fufticient
length to pafs beyond the lower circle about an inch, in
order to make them enter into three holes formed in
the brick- work ^vhich forms the bottom of the furnace,

and by thefe means to prevent the furnace from becom- f-^
ing deranged. u—

" This.kind of iron frame was filled with bricks fimilar
to thofe employed for the bottom of the furnace ; they
were rubbed one. on thi other to fmooth them, and the
corners were a little rounded ; fo that, being placed
upright with their broad fides applied to the iron hoops,
the narrow fide flood inwards. By thefe means all thefe;
bricks were adjulled in fuch a manner as to touch each,
otlier by their broadeif faces, and to form the fides of
the furnace, the thicknefs of which was equal to the
breadth of the bricks, and its depth to their length.
Three apertures were referved for the tuyeres which
terminate the three tubes that convey the ^vind, by cut-
ting from as many bricks a portion equal to the thick-
nefs of a brick.

" Thefe bricks thus adjufted were taken from the
iron frame, and then replaced, putting between them a
cement to connect them firmly and to fill up the joints.
The duft produced by cutting the bricks was referved
for this purpofe •, and 1 defired the workman to mix
with it a fmall quantity of clay diluted in a great deal
of water, in order to rr.ake a puddle for daubing over
the bricks, and in particular to put between ihem no
more than was neceffiuy for filling the joints and the
fmall fpace left between their faces in confequence of
any inequality left in drelTing them.

" The furnace thus confirucled was then placed on
its bafe, a ftratum of the fame mortar employed for
filling up the joinings of the bricks being firit interpof-
ed. The extremities of the three iron bars projefling
beyond the lower circle were placed in the holes left in
the bafe to receive them. The body of the furnace en-
circled with iron, both by its weight and the gentle
blows given to the iron hoops above the bars which
connefled them, expelled the excefs of the mortar, and
caufed a part of it to enter and unite with that which
filled up the joints of the brick work of the circumfe-
rence, which rendered it immoveable.

" The bellows is fecured as ufual by crutches of iron
and fupporters fixed in the wall and to the floor : the
handle is difpofed in fuch a manner, that the rope
■which makes it aft may be pulled by the fame perfon
who manages the fire of the furnace, which in certain-
cafes is neceffary.

" The tuyeres of forged iron which receive the ends
of the copper tubes are fecured in their proper apertures
in the circumference of the furnace by pieces of brick
and mortar fimilar to that employed for filling up the
joints ; and the ends of the copper pipes introduced in-
to thefe tuyeres are luted with the fame mortar, a little
thickened with brick duft.

" The apertures of thefe tuyeres towards the interior

of the furnace is only nine lines in diameter ; on which

account,

(l) " Care muft be taken, when the aftlon of the bellows ceafcs, to ftiut the cocks, efpecially when coals are
ufed in the furnace ; for the hydrogen difengaged from that mineral liihftance afcends into the box, and when the
bellows are again made to afl, may inflame, and caufe a violent explofion, or even burft the bellows. This acci-
dent once took place in the furnace here defcribed : the box burft with a loud noife on the firft ftroke of the bel-
lows, the gas which filled them having fuddenly inflamed ; but by good fortune no perfon was hurt. The fame
thing happened at the houfe of C. Gorller, lockfmith, of Paris ; one of his bellows burft \\ith a horrid explofion
at the moment when they were put in motion."

F u n L

:'.i«- account, a<! tlie volume of air fLiruilTieJ by the bellou's

V"- cannot pafs lb quick, as it is produced, it becomes con-

denfed in the box placed above the cocks. By theie

means a very uniform blaft is obtained, which can alfo

be regulated by opening more or fewer of the cocks.

" During more than fix years, fmcc this furnace was
conflrucled, it has fuftered no derangement : it is not
even cracked. It is however ivorn in tl;e infide by the
violence of the heat it has experienced, which has in-
creafed its diameter about two inchc
the three tuyeres have alfo got holl

297 J FUR

■s ed to the box FG, and which convey the wind into
the infide of the furnace by three tuyeres, I, L, N,
OP, mafon work to fupport the horizontal pipes. Q,
the furnace properly lb called, the form of which is
circular, and wliich is placed on the fquare mafon work
R, S, T, U.

" Fig. 22. Elevation of the furnace, the pipes which
convey the blall, the cocks, the condcnfing box, and
the bellows. AB, the bellows mounted in their place;
The parts round and fupported by the iron-work neceffary for fccuring
ed, fo that it has it, which is fixed in the wall and to the lioor. CD,
need of being repaired. It is intended to make it deep- the handle which ferves for moving th.e bellows. E
cr, and to have a kind of moveable muffs or linings the copper pipe which conveys the blatl of the bellows
made of fire clay, in order that its diameter may be to the box FG in which it is condenfed. At G is a
reduced at pleafure : it is meant alfo to conftrucl it in hole flmt by a large cork Hopper, which can be opened
iuch a manner, as to depolit the reft or fupport for tlie at plealure. This box is fupported by two crutches of
Crucible, not on the bottom of the furnace, but on bars 'nov.f,g, and /;, i, built into the wall, and on which it

of forged iron placed at the diftance of fome inches
from that bottom, fo as to leave below them a vacuity
in which the blall-of the bellows may be dlfiufed, and
from which it may rife, paffing between the bars to tra-
verfe the mals of charcoal which furrounds the crucible.
The blart will then produce a more uniform fire, and the
fiame can no longer be directed againll the fides of the
crucibles ; fo that the rilk of their breaking by fudden
inequalities in the heat will be much lefs.

" This alteration is going to be immediately carried
»nto execution, and the method propofed for doing it is
£s follows :

" A round frame will be made of forged iron, in
which bricks will be placed in the fame manner as
above defcribed. In the lower part of the furnace an
aperture will be referved for raking out the aflies, which
will be clofed by means of a door of baked earth care-
'^ally luted v\ith clay. Some inches above the bottom
fcf the furnace will be placed a grate of forged iron, and
between this grate and the bottom of the furnace the
tuyeres will terminate, and the blaft be introduced.
TVIuffs or linings of very refractory earth will then be
"introduced, fo as to defcend to this grate. There will
be two of them, one within the other, and both within
the body of the furnace. At the lower part thefe mufife
will be fumilhed with a rim, projecting outward fo as
to leave between the body of the furnace and the muffs
i. vacuity, v.hich will be luted at the bottom uith clay,
and which will be filled with pounded glafs, or any
other fubftance a bad conductor for heat.

The interior muff, or both of them, may be removed
at pleafure to obtain a furnace of greater or lefs capa-
city according to the operations to be performed. It
is propofed to make the muffs wider at the top than at
the bottom.

Explanation of the Figures.

Piate " ^'g- 21- Plan of the bellows and of the furnace.

CC.XXVII. AB, the bellows made of wood, the folds of which are
alfo of wood covered with leather on the joints. CD,
the handle which ferves for moving the bellows. E, a
copper tube which conveys the wind of the bellows
into the box FG, in which it is condenfed. FG, a
box of wood ferving as a refervoir for the wind conden-
fed by the bello^vs. HI, KL, MN, three pipes adapt-
VoL. IX. Part I.

is fixed by tvvo iron ftirrups /, m,

" Fig. 23. One of the crutches and its flirrup are feen
reprefented fidewife aty, ^, /; the extremities, n, 0, are
built into the wall, and the two ends, />, q, of the iron
piece which keeps the box on the horizontal traverfe of
the crutch, are tapped, and receive fcrews which make
them faft to the crutch/,^. HI, KL, MN, are three
pipes which convey the wind into the interior of the
furnace. (^, R, S, T, U, mafon work on which is pla-
ced the furnace (^, and ^vhich ferves it as a bottom,
OP, mafonry which ferves to fupport the three pipes
that convey the wind to the furnace. XYZ, fig. 22.
are the three cocks fixed to the three pipes which pro-
ceed from the box to convey the wind to the furnace.

" In fig. 24, the dimenfions of which are double thofe
of fig, 22, may be feen the details of one of thefe cocks.
" At r, J-, t, the body of tlie cock is feen in front ; the
flopper being taken out lliows at r and at / the two
holes which receive the tubes that communicate either
with the box or ivith the tuyeres, u exhiljits the body
of the cock feen on one fide ; v the key with its aper-
ture V, and its head y. This key, turned round more
or lefs in its focket, ferves to give more or lefs wind.
1, 2, 3, irbn clips which fecure tiie cocks at tlie diftance
they ought to be from each other, and conneft them at
the fame time to the iron crutches which fupport the
air-box.

" Fig. 25. a plan of thefe two clips. They are bent
at the places marked i, 2, 3, to embraoe^he Ijody of
the three cocks, and fecure them in fuch a miinner
that they cannot be deranged when they are opened or
Ihut.

" Fig. 26. and 27. reprefeiit the plan and fe6tIon of
the changes and additions propofed to be made when
the furnace is re-conftrucled. At I, L, and N, are
feen the extremities of the three pipes that enter the
forged iron tuyeres, and convey the wind to the interior
of the furnace, a, b, and c, indicate the thicknefs at
the upper part of each of the muffs and of the body of
the furnace, between which there are two vacuities
filled with pounded glafs or fome otiicr bad conduflor
of heat. </, the grate on which are depofited the refls
of baked earth deftincd to leceivc the crucibles, e, the
crucible, luted and attached with clay to n reft of
baked earth (m)."

Pp Mr

(m) " The advantage ariling in large fou
ell known ; but I do not believe that fucii

ideries from the application of two or three tuyeres iiiftead of one>
an airangement was ever adopted in imall furnaces.

F U K ^ [2

TurnJce. Mr Collier, in a paper communicated to the I\Iau-
*~^*^~ clieller Pliilclopliical Society, has delivered feme im-
portmt obfervatior.s on iron and iteel, with a more cor-
red account of the procefs for the manufafture of the
latter than ha? hitherto been given. To this account
he has added the delcrlption of a furnace for the con-
Terfion of iron into fleel. As his obfcrvations and rea-
fonings are extremely valuable, we fliall lay tlie whole
before our readers in his own words.
Accounts of " After examining (fays Rlr Collier) the works of
the proccf^ different authors who have ^vritten on the fiibjeiit of
iroiTa'nd"^ making iron and Reel, I am perfuaded that the accounts
ftcel, im- given Ly them of the necefiary proceSes and operations
pcrfefl. are extremely imperfect. Chemills have -examined and
defcribed the various compound niinerals containing irore
ivith great accuracy, but have been lefs attentive to
their reduftion. This obfcrvation more particularly ap-
plies to fleel, of the making of which I have not feen
any correft account.

" It is lingular to obfcrve, how very imperfeflly the
cementation of iron has been delcribed by men of great
eminence in the fcience cf chtmiftry. Citizen Four-
croy ftates the length of time necefiary for the cemen-
tation of iron to be about tiveive hours ; but it is diffi-
cult to dilcover whether he alludes to calt or to bar
f teel : for he fays, that diort bars of iron are to be put
into an earthen box with a cement, and doled up. Now
i'leel is made from bars of iron of the ufual length and
thicknefs : but cart fleel is made according to the pro-
cefs defcribed by Citizen Fourcroy, with this elTential
diiFerence ; the operation is begun upon bar fteel and
not bar iron.

" Mr Nicholfon is equally unfortunate in the ac-
count given in his Chemical Diflionary. He fays,
that the ufual time required for the cementation of
iron is from fix to ten hours, and cautions us againft
continuing the cementation ton long ; whereas the ope-
ration, from the beginning to the end, requires iixteen
days at leaft. In other parts of the operation he is
equally defetlive, confounding the making of bar with
that of call lleel, and not fuily defcrlbing either. In
fpeaking of the ufes of fleel, or rather of what confti-
tutes its fuperiority, Mr Nichollon is alfo deficient.
He cbferves, that ' its moil ufeful and advantageous
property is that of becoming extremely hard when
plunged into water.' He has here forgotten every
thing refpedfing the temper and tempering of ilecl in-
ihuments, of which, however, he takes forae notice in
the fame page. ' Plunging into water' requires a
little explanation : for if very hot fteel be immerfed
in cold water without great caution, it will crack, nay,
fometimes break to pieces. It is, however, iieceffary
to be (lo-ie, in order to prevent the fleel from grow-
ing foft, and returning to the (late of malleable
iron • for, were it permitted to cool in the open air,
the carbone which it holds in combination would be
dilTipated (n).

98 ]

FUR

" I fliall, at prefent, confine my remarks to the ope- Furnace,
ration performed on iron in Sheffield and its neigh- '~~^CT^
bourhood : from ivhence various communications have ctpicprj
been tranfmitted to me by refident friends, and where
I have myfelf feen the operations repeatedly per-
foimed.

" The iron made in that part of Yorkiliire is pro-
cured from ores found in the neighbourhood, -which
are of the argillaceous kind^ but internlixed with r»
large proportion of foreign matter. Thefe, however,
are frequently combined with richer ores from Cumber-
land and other places. The ore is firll roafted with
cinders for three days in the open air, in order to expel
the fulphureous or arfenical parts, and afterwards taken
to the furnaces : iome of ^vhich are conflrucled fo that
thdr internal cavity has the form of two four-fided py-
ramids joined bafe to bafe ; but thofe moft commonly
ufed are of a conical form, from 40 to 50 feet high.
'I'he furnace is charged at the top with equal parts of for the r^-
coal cinder and lirae-ltone. The lime-llone acts as aj'"'^^'"" >-*
flux, at the fame time that it lupplies a fufficient quan-''°" '"^'^'
tity of earthy matter to be converted into fcorite, which
are necefiary to defend the reduced metal from calcina-
tion, when it comes near the lower part of the fuinace.
The fire is lighted at the bottom ; and the heat is ex-
cited by means of two pair of large bellows blowing al-
ternately. The quantity of air generally thrown into
the furnace is from a thoufand to_twelve hundred fquare
feet in a minute. The air paffes through a pipe, the
diameter of which is from two inches and a quarter, to
two and three quarters, wide. The compreflion of air
^vhich is necefiTary is equal to a column of Avater four
feet and a half high. The ore melts as it paflTes through
the fire and is colleifled at the bottom, where it is
maintained in a liquid flate. The fiag, which falls
down with the fufcd metal, is let off, by means of an
opening in the fide of the furnace, at the difcretion of the
workmen.

" When a fufficient quantity of regulus, or imperfecl-
ly reduced metal, is accumulated at the bottom of the
furnace (wliich uluilly happens every eight hciurs), it is
let off into moulds ; to form it for the purpofes intended,
fuch as cannon or pig iron.

" Crude iron is dillinguilhed into white, black, and
gray. The white is the leall reduced, and more
brittle than the other two. The black is that %vith
which a large quantity of fuel has been ufed j and
the gray is that which has been reduced with a fuffi-
cient quantity of fuel, of which it contains a part in
folution.

" The operation of refining crude iron confills in ^"i' '°'' ^^'
burning the combutlible matter which it holds in fo- /j™'^ "^^
lution ; at the fame time that the remaining iron is
more perfeftly reduced, and acquires a fibrous tex-
ture. For this purpofe, the pigs of call iron are
taken to the forge ; wh.tre they are firll put into what
is called the refinery ; which is an open charcoal

fire.

" At Treibach, in Carinthia, C. Le Febrc, and Hafl^eufnatz member of the council and infpeflor of mines, faw,
about twenty years ago, a large furnace with two tuyeres ; drawings of which they brought to France, and whick
they reprefented in the third plate of /'^r/ de fahriquer les Canons, by Monge : two pairs of bellows fupply wind
through two oppofite tuyeres, and fince that arrangement the daily produft of metal has been double."

(n) " It is the opinion of fome metallurgies, that a partial abftradlion of oxygen takes place, by plunging hot
metal into ccld water."

FUR

1 pau- cf bellow

[ 2.;c) ]

F U R^

ruriiace. fire, urged by a pau- cf bellouj:, worked by water
"""v— - or a fteam engine ; but tlie comprellion of air, in
t'le refinePi', ought to be leQ than that in the blaft
furnace. After the metal is melted, it is let out of
the fire by the woikmen, to difcharge the fcoria; ; and
then returned and fahjtfted to the blaft as before.
'J'his operation is fcmetimes repeated two or three
times before any appearance of malleability (or what
the workmen call coming into nature) takes place ;
this they know by the metal's firft afluming a granular
appearance, the particles appearing to repel each other,
or at leaft to have no Iigns of attraction. Soon after-
wards they begin to adhere, the attraciion increafcs
very rapidly, and it is ^vith great difficulty that the
whole is prevented from running into one mals, which
it is deiirable to avoid, it being more convenient to
Ibmp fmall pieces into thin cakes : this is done by put-
ting the iron immediately under the forge hammer and
beating it into pieces about an inch thick, which eafdy
break from the rell during the operation. Thefe fmall
pieces are then collected and piled upon circular ftones,
which are an inch thick, nine inches in: diameter, and
about ten inches high. They are afterwards put into a
furnace, in ivhich the fire is reverberated upon them
until they are in a feini-tluid (late. The workmen
then take one out of the furnace and draw it into a
bar under the hammer ; which being fin>:hed, they ap-
ply the bar to another of the piles of ferai-lluid niel«l,
to which it quickly cements, is taken again to the ham-
rser, the bar firft drawn fer\ing as a handle, and drawn
down as before. The imperfeclions in the bars are re-
raedied by putting them into another fire called the
chafery, and again fubjefting them to the action of the
forge hammer.

" The above method is now moll in ufe, and is
called fiourilhing ; but the iron made by this procefs is
in no refpecl fupericr to that which I am going to de-
fcribe. It is, however, not fo expenfive, and requires
lefs labeur.

" The procefs for refining crude iron, which was moft
common previoufiy to the introduction of flourilhing, is
as follows.

" The pigs of caft iron are put into the refinery, as
above, where they remain until they have acquired a
confillence refembling parte, which happens in about
two hours and a half. The iron is then taken out of
the refinery and laid upon a caft iron plate on the floor,
and beaten by the workmen with hand hammers, to
knock oflP the cinders and other extraneous matters
which adhere to the metal. It is afterwards taken to
the forge hammer and beaten, firil gently, till it has ob-
tained a little tenacity; then the middle part of the
piece is drawn into a bar, about half an inch thick,
three inches broad, and four feet long ; leaving at each
end a thick fquare lump of imperfect iron. In this
'orm it is called ancony. It is now taken to the fire call-
ed the chafery, made of common coal ; after which the
two ends are drawn out into the form of the middle, and
the operation is finlHied.

" Tliere is alio a third method cf rendering crude Fi.ir.afc.
iron malleable, which, 1 think, promifcs to be abun- r~- ''~~~'
dantly more advantageous than either of the two for- pf"^")"
mer, as it will difpenlc both with the refinery and procefs.
chafery, and nothing more will be necelTiry than a
reverberating furnace, and a furnace to give the me-
tal a malleable heat, about the middle of the opera-
tion. The large forge hammer will alfo fall into dif-
repute, but in its place muft be fubftitutcd metal rol-
lers of different capacities, which, like the forge ham-
mer, muft be worked eitlier by a water wheel or a fteam
engine.

" It is by the operation of the forge hammer or metal
rollers, that the iroii is deprived of the remaining por-
tion of impurity, and acquires a fibrous texture.

" The iron made by the three foregoing proceffes is
equally valuable, for by any of them the metal is ren-
dered pure ; but after thofe different operations are fi-
niftied, it is the opinion of many of the moil judicious
"orkeis in iron, that laying it in a damp place, for '
feme time, improves its qtwlity ; and to this alone, Ibme
attribute the fuperiority of foreign iron, more time eho-
fi:ig between making and ufing the metal. To the lat-
ter part of this opinion 1 can by no means accede, as it
is well known that the Swedilh (o) ores contain much
lefs hetetogeneous matter than ours, and are generally
much richer, as they ufually yield about 70 per quintal
of pure iron, whereas the average of ours is not more
than 30 or 40 (p) : .add to this, that the Swedilh ores
are fmelted in wood fires, which gives the iron an addi-
tional fuperiority.

" Iron inftruments are cafe-hardened by heating them
in a cinder or charcoal fire ; but if the firft be ufed, a
quantity of old leather, or bones, muft be burnt in the
fire to fupply the metal with carbone. The fire muft
be urged by a pair of bellows to a futlicient degree of
heat ; and the whole operation is ufually completed in
an hour.

•• The procefs for cafe-hardening iron, is in faft the
fame as for converting iron into ftecl, but not continued
fo long, as the furface only of the article is to be im-
pregnated with carbone.

" Some attempts have been made to give caft iron,
by cafe-hardening, the texture and ductility of fteel,
but they have not been very fuccefsftil. Table and
penknife blades have been made of it, and, when
ground, have had a pretty good appearance ; but the
edges are not firm, and they foon lofe their poiilli.
Common table knives are frequently made of this me-
tal

" The cementation of iron converts it into fteel : —
a fubllance intermediate between crude and malleable
iron.

" The furnaces for making fteel are conical build- Fnrnace far
ings ; about the middle of which are two troughs of"'"'""?
brick or fire ftone, which will hold about four tons of '^"^''
iron in the bar. At the bottom is a long grate for
fire.

" A layer of charcoal duft is put upon the bottom of
P p 2 the

(o) " Steel is commonly made of Swedifti iron."

(p) " The iron made from the ore found in the neighbourhood of Sheffield, contains a great deal of phofphate
of iron, or fiderite, which renders the metal brittle when cold." ' \

FUR

Biiacred
tteel.

ihe trougli ; and, upon that, a layei* of bar iron, and
lb on alteni.itely until the trough is full. It is then co-
vered over with clay to keep out the air ; which, if ad-
mitted, would efieolually prevent the cementation.
When the fire is put into the grate, the heat paffes
round by means of ilues, made at intervals, by the fides
of the trough. The fire is continued until the conver-
lion is complete, which generally happens in about eight
or ten days. There is a hole in the fide by which the
^vorkmen draw out a bar occafionally, to fee how far
the tranfmutation has proceeded. This they determine
by the blifters upon the furface of the bars. If they be
not fufliciently changed, the hole is again clofed care-
fully to exclude the air j but if, on the contrary, the
change be complete, the fire is extingmflied, and the
Heel is left to cool for about eight days more, when the
procefs for making bliftered Heel is finiftied.

" For (mail ware', the bars are drawn under the tilt
hammer, to about half an inch broad and three-fix-
teenths of an inch thick.
I. " The change wrought on bliftered fteel by the tilt
hammer, is nearly fimilar to that effected on iron from
the refinery by the forge hammer. It is made of a
more firm texture, and drawn into convenient forms for
ufe.

" German fteel is made by breaking the bars of blif-
tered fteel into fmall pieces, and then putting a number
of them into a furnace ; after which they are welded
together and drawn to about 1 8 inches long ; then
doubled and welded again, and finally drawn to the
fize and fliape required for ufe. This is alfo called
ihear fteel, and is fuperior in quality to the common
tilted fteel.

" Caft fteel is alfo made from the common bliftered
fteel. The bars are broken and put into large cruci-
bles ^vlth a flux. The crucible is then clofed up with a
lid of the fame ware, and placed in a wind furnace.
By the introduftion of a greater or fmaller quantity of
fiux, the metal is made harder or fofter. When the
iufion is complete, the metal is caft into ingots, and
then called ingot fteel ; and that which aftenvards
undergoes the operation of tilling, is called tilted caft
fteel.

" The caft fteel is the moft valuable, as its texture
is the moft compaft and it admits of the fineft poliih.

" Sir T. Frankland has communicated a procefs, in
the Tranfac^ons of the Royal Society *, for welding
caft tteel and malleable iron together ; which, he fays,
ii done, by giving the iron a malleable, and the fteel a
white heat ; but, from the experiments which have
been made at my requeft, it appears, that it is only
foft caft fteel, little better than common fteel, that will
weld to iron : pure fteel will not ; for, at the heat de-
fcribed by Sir T. the beft caft fteel either melts or will
not bear the hammer.

" It may here be obferved, as was mentioned before,
that Heel is an intermediate ftate between crude and
m.alleable iron, except in the circumftance of its reduc-
tion being complete ; for, according to the experiments
of Reaumur and Bergman, fteel contains more hydro-
gen gas than caft iron, but lefs than malleable iron ; —
lefs plumbago than the firft, but more than the latter ;
— an equal portion of manganefe with each ; — Itfs fili-
ceou5 earth than either — more iron than the firft, but
Jefsthan the fccond. Its fufibility is likewife Jnterme-

Do ] FUR

diate, between the bar iron and the crude. When fteel Furnace,
has been gradually cooled from a ftate of ignition, it is ^— v~-— '
malleable and foft, like bar iron ; but when ignited and
plunged into cold water, it has the hardnefs and brittk-
nefs of crude iron.

" From the foregoing fafts, we are juftified in draw-
ing the fame conclufions with Reaumur and Bergman,
but which have been more perfeclly explained by Van-
dermonde, Berthollet, and Rlonge, that crude iron is
a regulus, the reduction of which is not complete ; and
which confequently \nll differ according as it approach-
es more or lefs to the metallic ftate. Forged iron,
when previoufly well refined, is the pureft metal ; for
it is then the moft malleable and the moft duftile, its
power of welding is the greateft, and it acquires the
magnetic quality fooneft. Steel confUls of iron per-
fectly reduced and combined with charcoal ; and the
various differences in bliftered fteel, made of the fame
metal, ccnfift of the greater or lefs proportion of char-
coal imbibed.

" Iron gains, by being converted into fteel, about the
hundred and eightieth part of its weight.

" In order to harden fteel, it mull be put into a clean Hardenii:g
charcoal, coal, or cinder fire, blown to a fufficient de- fteel.
gree of heat by bellows. The workmen fay, that nei-
ther iron nor fteel will harden properly without a blaft.
When the fire is fufticiently hot, the inftrument intend,
ed to be hardened muft be put in, and a gradual blaft
from the bellows continued until the metal has acquir-
ed a regular red heat ; it is then to be carefully quench-
ed in cold water. If the fteel be too hot when immer-
fed in water, the grain will be of a rough and coarfe
texture ; but if of a proper degree of heat, it wUl be
perfectly fine. Saws and fome other articles are quench-
ed in oil.

" Steel is tempered by again fubjefting it to the ac- Temperirg
tion of the fire. The inllrument to be tempered we it.
will fuppofe to be a razor made of caft fteel. Firft rub
it upon a grit ftone until it is bright ; then put the back
upon the fire, and in a ftiort time the edge will become
of a light ftraw coloiu-, ^vhilll the back is blue. The
ftraw colour denotes a proper temper either for a razor,
graver, or penknife. Spring knives require a dark
brown ; fciffars, a light bro^vn, or ftraw, colour •, forks
or table knives, a blue. The blue colour marks the
proper temper for fwords, watch-fprings, or any thing
requiring elalticity. The fprings for penknives are co-
vered over with oil before they are expofed to the fire
to temper.

'Explanation of the Figures.

" Fig. 28. is a plan of the furnace, and fig. 29. is a
feclion of it taken at the line AB. The plan is taken
at the line CD. The fame parts of the furnace are
marked with the fame letters in the plan and in the
feftion. EE are the pots or troughs into which the
bars of iron are laid to be converted. F is the fire-
place ; P, the fire bars ; and R, the afhpit. GG, &c.
are the flues. HH is an arch, the infide of the bottom
of which correfponds with the line HIT, fig. 28. and
the top of it is made in the form of a dome, having a
hole in the centre at R, fig. 29. LL, 8tc. are fix chim-
neys. MM is a dome, fimilar to that of a glafs-houfe,
covering the whole. At N there is an arched opening,
at which the materi.Us ate taken in and out of the fur-
nace.

Iniprcved

ciipella-
tions.

FUR [ 3<

naco, and which is clofely built up when the furnace is
■' charged. At OO there are holes in each pot, through
which the ends of three or four of the bars are made to
projcft quite out of the furnace. Thefe are for the
purpofe of being dra^vn out occafionally to fee if the
iron be fuificiently converted.

" The pots are made of fire tiles, or fire flone. The
bottoms of them are made of two courfes, each courfe
being about the thicknefs of the finale courfe which
forms the outfides of the pots. The mfides of the pots
are of one courfe, about double the thicknefs of the
outfide. The partitions of the tlues are made of fire
brick, which are of different thicknefles, as reprefented
in the plan, and by dotted lines in the bottom of the
pots. Thefe are for fupporting the fides and bottoms
of the pots, and for direfting the flame eqaally round
them. Tl;e great object is to communicate to the
whole an equal degree of heat in every part. The fuel
is put in at each end of the fire-place, and the fire is
made the whole length of the pots and kept up as equal-
ly as pofTible."

In a memoir publiftied by Du Hamel, the inconve-
nience and ex pence which attend »he procefs commonly
in ufe, for refining lead or feparating the filver from
this metal, are pointed out, and a more economical
procefs is propofed. This procefs, which is known by
the name of cupellation, is performed in a veffel called
the cupei, which is made of the alhes of the bones of
animals, or of vegetables, after feparating, by means
of water, the faline parts which adhere to them. But
the difficulty and expence of obtaining a fufficient quan-
tity of thefe materials, led him to contrive fomething
elfe as a fubllitute, which might be lefs coftly and more
eafily obtained.

For the purpofe of performing the procefs in the way
here recommended, it is not neceffary to make any al-
teration in the general conftmftion of the furnace. All
that is required is, to have a fufficient number of canals
or openings towards its bafe, to allow the efcape of the
moillure. Thefe canals are covered with a bed of fco-
ria, on which is raifed a pavement formed of the mod
porous bricks, and about a brick in thicknefs. On this
floor or area, which (hould be a little concave, in the
fame way as the ordinary cupels are formed when they
are made of alhes, is placed a quantity of cafting or
moulding fand, flightly moillened ; and if the fand has
not a fufficient quantity of earth, iome clay is added,
to give it confidence, and the whole is carefully mixed
together. This fand is beaten together, and a concave
veiTel is made of it, of an equal thicknefs in all its parts.
When the bafon has been uniformly beaten, it will be
proper to fift over its whole furface a fraall quantity of
wood alhes, well waffied with water, and thefe are alfo
beaten doivn with a peille.

The cupel being thus prepared, the head of the fur-
nace is put on, and a moderate fire is kindled and kept
up for fome hours, to carry off part of the moifture of
the fand. The remainder is diflipated without inconve-
nience, by means of the canals, during the procefs.
After it has been fu'.hciently dried, the head of the fur-
nace is again taken off, and alloived to cool a little.
A quantity of ftraw or hay is put upon the bafon or cu-
pel, to prevent any injury from the weight of the bars
of lead on the fand. To avoid this lUll more, it is re-

FUR

commended to have the lead to be purified caft into the Furnace
form of hemifplieres, in place of bars. ' v—

A fufficient quantity of lead being introduced into
the furnace, the head is luted on with baked clay, and
the fire is apphcd in the ufual way. As foon as the
lead is completely fufed, the bafon appears covered wi«.h
the burnt Uraw : this is removed by means of an iron in-
ftrument, and this operation is repeated feveral times.
When the lead begins to grow red, the aftion of the
bellows commences, at firil foftly, and the blaft is fo
directed that it may firike the centre of the cupel. To
effeft this more completely, a frnall round plate of iron
is attached to the extremity and upper part of the pipe
by means of a hinge, fo that at each blaft it is half rai-
led, and the current of air is direfted to the furface of
the fufed metal.

After the whole of the fcum that rifes has been re-
moved, and the lead is covered with a llratum of li-
tharge, a imall gutter is made by means of a hook for
the purpofe, in the fand of the cupel. This is gradual-
ly and cautiouily hollowed, till it is on a level with the
furface of the bath, and then the litharge driven by the
blaft towards the anterior part of the furnace, will flow
this ^vay, and fpread itfelf on the floor in the ufual way.
When the operator perceives that the litharge has been
removed, he ftops up the gutter with moiftened afties,
till another quantity of litharge appears on the furface.
He then re-opens the gutter, which is now made deeper
in proportion to the diminution of the fufed metal, but at
the fame time taking care that no part of the lead ef-
capes, efpecially towards the end of the procefs, be-
caufe then a confiderable portion of filver would be car-
ried off.

In this way the procefs is condudled till the fepara-
rion of the filver begins to take place, obferving at the
fame time to increafe the heat as the quantity of fufed
metal diuiinilhes, becaufe then the filver is colleded to-
gether ; and fince it is much more difficult to keep it in
fuhon than the fmall portion of lead which remains
combined with it, the lepnration would be very imper-
feft, without the application of a fufficient temperature.
Inftead of having only one-twentieth of lead, which is
the ufual proportion in the common procefs, the quan-
tity would be much greater, and this would render the
fecond operation, tlie refining of the filver, much mors
difficult.

Du Hamel obferves, that a cupel of fand, well made,
will anfwer for the repetition of the procefs feveral
times, without renewing it at the end of each opera-
tion, as is the cafe with thofe of allies. The only pre-
caution to be obferved is, to remove tlic khid of varnilh
of oxyde of lead which remains on the fides of the gut-
ter by which the htliarge flowed out, that the new
fand ivith which it is to be filled up may combine eafily
with the old.

The length of time which the reverberatory furnace
may be employed in fmcUing the ores of lead, and even
in reducing litharge, is a proof that the oxyde of lead
afts only on the furlace of the cupel, and penetrates a
very fmall thicknefs. After the procefs has been feve-
ral times repeated, this cruft is removed, and it is fufed
for the purpofe of obtaining the lead. This procefs will
be as cafy as the rcdudion of the metal contained in
the a(hes of the ordiiKTV cupels, and in much fmaller
quantity.

* Afem. dc

F U R

quantity. By the ne-.v method, theve'ore, a greater
■ pro]!Oition of litharge is obtained ; and it may be add-
ed, t'i,.t the fand abforbiiig a fnialler quantity of ox^de
of lead, it will contain alio a finalkr proportion of fil-
vcr ; for it is Avell known that the lead whidi is re-
ds .ed from the allies, contains always much more
than that which is produced from the reduftion of li-
thar^-e.

In place of fand, argillaceous earth may be employ-
ed in the conflruftion of cupels ; but it is ueceflar)' that
this earth be well beaten together, and that this procefs
Ihojld be ftveral times repeated, for fcveral days, ivith-
out which the clay would be apt to crack, and the
melted lead would (low into the crevices ; an inconve-
nience which docs not arife from the ufe of fand, even
although it Ihould be mixed with a little earth. And
belides, it is to be obferved, that the cupel conftrufted
of this Uibllauce, becomes too hard to allow a gutter
to be eafily made for the paflage of the litharge. In
this cafe it would Le necelTary that the place by
which the oxyde is to How out, be made up of fand, or
of alhes.

In the formation of the bafon or cupel, which is here
propofed, it fecms to be advantageous to employ two
kinds of fand, the one fine, like that which is uied by
the founders, the other coarfer, and free from earth.
It is of the latter, the coarfe kind, that the firll ftratum
is formed 5 and this, after being made of fufficient
thicknefs, is well beaten uith peftles for the purpofe ;
on this the fine fand is to be placed, containing a pro-
per proportion of earth, and it is to be beaten together
in the fame way. Both the coarfe and the fine fand
;:re to be moiftened a little, that they may adhere toge-
t-her, and afterwards acquire a fufiicient degree of foli-
dity under the peftles. The fand of the inferior layer
being coarfer than the other, will abforb the moiflure
from it as it evaporates, and will allow it to pais off ea-
fily, by means of the canals or openings which are left
for that purpofe. This ftratum, too, is to remain in its
place, when the fine fand of the cupel is removed, and
that the furface of the ftratum of coarfe fand may not
be difturbed when the other is removed, a thin layer of
aflies may be thrown upon it, and beaten dov.n, before
the other ftratum is laid on *.

The French fchool of mines appointed a commiffion,
compofed of HaHenfratz, Brochant, and Miche, to
confider the beft form for the conftrudion of a furnace
for burning lime-ftone, or plafter of Paris. After confi-
dering different forms of furnaces, and reafoning on their
effecis, they propoie in their report to adopt the follow-
ing, which is reprefented in fig. 30. and 31.

Fig. 30. is a plan of the furnace propofed.

D, the fire-place. E, E, openings for taking out
the fubftances which are converted into lime or plaf-
ter.

P, half of the plan taken at the height of the line
AK of fig. 31.

Q, half of the plan taken at the height of the line,
XY of fig. 3 1.

Fig. 31. exhibits a feflion of the fame furnace.

B, C, are places which remain empty after the intro-
duction of the fubftances to be cxpofed to heat.

B, D, the fires.

E, the opening for the extraction of the fubftances
after they arc converted into lime or plafter.

[ 302 ] FUR

O, the throat or vent. F.!-^,-«

a, b, openings for regulating the lieat. '— v—

We Ihall now conclude this artitle vvith a (liort ac-
courvt tii the conftruftion and rnaua^ement of furnaces
for chemical purpofes.

The following is a defcription of an effay or cupel- chemica!
ling furnace, i . A hollow, quadrangular prifm, 1 1 futcace,
inches broad and nine inches high, is conftrufled with
iron plates, and it ends at top in a liollow quadrangular
pyramid, ieven inches high ; the latter terminating Ln
an opening feven inches fquare. 'I'he prifm is clofed at
bottom with another iron plate, ivhich ferves as a bot-
tom.

2. Near the bottom a door three inches high and
five inches broad, is opened. 'I'his leads to the aiJ»
hole.

3. Above this door, and fix inches from the bafis, ano-
ther door is opened, of the figure of a fegment of a
circle, four inches broad at the bottom, and three inch.es
and a half high in the middle.

4. Three iron plates arc then to be faftened to the
fore-part of the furnace, the firft oi them lliould be 1 1
inches long, half an inch high, and fo faftened with
three or four rivets, that its lower edge may reft againil
the bottom of the furnace. Between this plate aiwl the
fide of the furnace a fpace muft be left, fo wide that the
iliders of the lower door, which are made of a thicker
iron plate, may move eafily in the groove. The fe-
cond iron plate, \vhich is 1 1 inches long, and three
inches high, is faftened parallel to the firft, in the fpace
between the two doors. Both the upper and lower
edges of this plate form grooves with the fjde of the
furnace, for receiving the ftiders which ftiut the doors.
The third plate of tlie fame dimenfions with the firft,
is rivetted clofe above the upper door, and forms a
groove for receiving the edge of the Aiders which move
that door.

5. For the purpofe of clofing the doors, two Aiders
of iron-plates muft be adapted to each of them. Thefe
Iliders are moved in the grooves. The two Aiders be-
longing to the upper door have each a hole near the
top ; in the one there is a fmall hole ' of an inch broad,
4 inch long ; and the other a femicircular opening one
inch high and two broad. To each Aider there is a
handle attached, to lay hold of it when it is moved.

6. Five round holes, an inch diameter, are bored in
the furnace, two in the back part, and two in the fore
part, five inches from the bottom ; but 3I inches from
each fide of the furnace. The fifth hole is at the height
of an inch above the upper edge of the upper door. ^

7. The infide of the furnace muft be armed with
iron hooks, about 3 inches from each other, and pro-
jefting 4 inch. The ufe of ihefe hooks is to fecure the
lute with ivhich the furnace is to be lined.

8. A moveable, hollow, quadrangular pyramid, alfo
of iron, and 3 inches high, is to be fitted to the upper
opening of the furnace, 7 inches broad, and ending
above in a hollow tube, 3 inches in diameter, about
2 inches high, nearly cylindrical, but converging a
little at the top. This tube ferves to fupport a funnel
for con%eying the fmoke into the chimney. This cover
has 2 handles to lay hold of it. To fecure the cover
on the furnace, an iron plate is rivetted to the right
and left of its upper edge, and turned down towards
the infide, fo that a furrow may be made, open be-
fore

FUR

TV-race, f^re and behind, for receiving tlie lateral edges of the
' cover.

9. A fquare ledge, made of thick iron plate, is fixed
Rt the top of the upper edge of the lower door, for
fupporting the grate and the lute, and that it may be
e.jilv- introduced into the cavity of the fiirnace, it ihou'id
be of two pieces.

10. Iron bars are then to be fixed in the infide of
the furnace, for fupporting the fuel. Thcfe mull be
equal in length with the diameter of the funiace, about
-' inch thick, and ^ inch diilant from each other.
They are fupporLed at their extremities by a fquare
iron ledge.

11. To prevent the diiTipation of the heat, and the
deftruolion of the iron, by being repeatedly made red
hot, the infide of the furnace mull be lliied with
lute, about a finger's breadth, or rather more, in
ihickncfs. .

03tin» for For luting funiaces, Doftor Black recommended a
rnaces. fimple mixture of fand and clay. The proportions for
refiding the violence of fire are four parts of fand to
one of clay -, but when defigned for the lining of
furnaces, he ufes fix or feven of fand to one of clay,
the more eSeclually to prevent the contraftion of the
latter ; for it is known from experiments, that clay,
when expofed to a llrong heat, contrafts the more in
proportion to its jurity. The fand fettles into lefs
1 ulk when wet, and does not contraft by heat, which
i: alfo refills as well as the clay itfelf.

Befides this outfide lining next the fire, Dr Black
ufes another to be laid on next the iron of the fiirnace ;
and this confifts of clay mixed with a large proportion
of charcoal dull. It is more fit for containing the
heat, and is put next to the iron, to the thicknefs of
i.:i inch and an half. That it may be pretty dry when
firll put in, he takes three parts by weight of the
charcoal duft, and one of the common clay, which
inuft be mixed together when in dry powder, other-
■..ife it is very ditlicult to mix them perfectly. As
much water is added as will form the matter into balls;
;i!'.d thefe are beaten very firm and compact by means of
J hammer upon the infide of the furnace. The other
Jute is then ipread over it to the thicknefs of about half
" &n inch, and this is alfo beaten folid by hammering ;
alter which it is allowed to drj- flo^vly, that all cracks
and fiiTures may be avoided ; and after the body of the
furnace is thus lined, the vent is fcrewed on and lined
in the fame manner. It nmlb then be allowed to dry
for a long time 5 after which a fire may be kindled,
&nd the furnace gradually heated for a day or two.
'i'he fire is then to be railed to the greatell intenfity ;
and thus the luting acquires a hardnefs equal to that
of free-Hone, and is afterwards as lafting as any part
of the furnace.
)de °^ To perform an operation in this furnace, two iron bars

an inch thick, and of fufbcient length, to projefl a little
beyond the holes pf the furnace, are palled throughfour
luvver holes, which are placed before and behind, direftly
cppofite to each other. Thefe bars fupport the mufP.e,
v.-hich is introduced through the upper opening of the
farnace, and placed upon the bars, in fuch a way that
the open fide of it may be near the inner border of the
•jpper door. The fuel is introduced through the top of
the fjrnace, and the bed fuel ij charcoal made of hard

[ 303 ]

FUR

operati"E
with this
fi;rn.ice.

wood. It lliould be reduced to fmall pieces, that they Furnace,

ni.ny readily f^ll between the muftie and the lides of the ' C"^

furnace. Tlie muffle is to be covered with fuel, to the
height of feveral inches. The pieces of charcoal fhould
not be too fmall, becaufe they may fall immediately
through the interftices of the grate, or be too rapidly
confumed, and thus incrcafing the ruantity of allies,
obftruct the current of air.

As the management of the fire is of great importance, Maragc-
for the fuccefs of operations in the furnace, the follow- mcnt of il.s
ing directions may be attended to. To increafe thc^"-
heat to the utmcfl, the door of the alh-hole may be
left open ; the Aiders of the upper door drawn towards
each other, lb as to touch in the middle, and the cover
and funnel adapted to its tube, placed on the top of
the furnace. The heat is Hill farther increafed by
putting red burning coals into the open upper door.
By Ihuttuig the upper dgor with the Aider, which
has a narrow oblong hole in it, the heat is dimi-
nilhed, and it is Hill farther diminilhed by fhutting
the door with the other Aider, having the femicircular
hole. The heat is alfo diminilhed by removing the
funnel at the top of the cover ; and the heat is lefs
by partially or totally fliutting the door of the alh-
hole, becaufe then the current of air neceffary to ex-
cite comburtion is obArufted.

The heat of the furnace is alfo increafed In propoi -
tion to the diminilhed fize of the muffle. The heat is
flronger too, according as the muffle has more and larger
fegments cut out of it, as the lides of it are thinner, and
as the number of veflels placed iu the hinder part of it
is increafed ; and the contrary. It may be here ob-
ferved, that when many of the conditions neceffary to
produce ftrong heat are wanting, the operator, with all
his fagacity, will fcarcely be able to excite comburtion
m fuch a degree in common affay furnaces as to fucceed
^vell in his operations ; and even when he employs bel-
lows, and introduces coals by the upper door. The
grate, therefore, ought to be placed nearly three inches
below the muffle, that the air rulhing througli the afti-
hole, may not cool its bottom, and that the fraaller
coals, almort already confumed, and the allies, may more
eafily fall through the interftices of the grate; larger
coals, fit for keeping up the requlfite degree of heat,
muft be ufed. The funnel is added, that the blowing
of the fire being increafed by means of it as much as
polTible, may be brought to the degree that is wanted ;
for the fire may be at any time dIminlAied, but without
the afliftance of proper apparatus, it cannot always bo
increafed at pleafure.

Explanation c/Fig. 32, 33, and 34.

fig. 3 2. <7, fl, b, b, body of the afiay furnace.

b b, c c, top of the fame.

(/, opening at the top of the furnace.

f, door leading to the aih-hole.

f, upper door.

g g, /i /t, it, the iron plates rivetted on the furnace,,
which form the grooves in which tlie doors Aide.

it,//, the Aiding doors.

m, the hole in one of the doors ; n, the femicircular
hole.

0 0, the holes for receiving the bars which fupport tb?
muffle.

/.•■

FUR

t 304 1

F U K

y:irr:ice. ji>, a hole above the upper edge of tlie upper door, for
^■~~*^^~ introducing a rod to ftir the fire.
g, the pyramidal cover.
r, tube or funnel at the top.
s J, its handles.

Fig. 33. reprefents a longitudinal feiflion of a re-
verberator)'furnace, 18 feet long, 12 broad, and Cfi
iiigh.

/7, the building.

h, the afli-hole.

c, channel for the evaporation of the raoifiure.

/r/, the grate.

e, the fire-plaae.

y, the inner part of the furnace.

g^, a bafon formed of fand.

/;, the cavity containing the melted metal.

7, a hole thvoiM^h which the fcoria is removed.

k, the paflage for the flame and fraoke, or the lower
part of the chimnev, to be carried to the height of 30
fi:et.

/, a hole in the roof, through which the ore is intro-
duced into the furnace.

Fig. 34. is a longitudinal feclion of a refining fur-
nace.

(7 a, the building.

b, the channels to Carry off the moifiure.

c, other fmall channels, which meet in the middle of
the bafon.

</, the bafon made of bricks.

f, a layer of alhes.

J, the hollow or bafon containing the melted metal.

=■, the hole for the fmoke and flame.

/i /i, two openings for admitting the pipes of the bel-
lows.

;•", the vault or dome of the furnace.

*, the fire-place.

/, the grate.

m, a hole below for the admiflion of air.

n, a hole in rhe vault, which ferves to cool the fur-
nace.
PortabJe A convenient portable blaft furnace, contrived by

Jurnace. jVIr Aikin, and defcribed by him in the 17th vol. of the
Philofophical Magazine, will probably be ufeful to fome
of our chemical readers. " It is (he fays) particularly
r.dapted to thofe who, like myfelf, can only devote a
i'mall room and a moderate ihare of time to thefe pur-
i'uits.

" Dr Lewis, in his Commerce of the Wrts (page 27),
defcribes a very powerful blaft furnace formed out of a
black-lead pot, which has a number of holes bored at
fmall diftances in fpiral lines all over it, from the bot-
tom up to fuch a height as the fiael is defigned to reach
to. This is let half way into another pot, which laft
receives the nozzle of the bellows, fo that all the air
fent in is diftributed through the ipiral holes of the up-
per pet, and concentrates the heat of the fuel upon the
crucible, which is placed in the midft.

" The funiace which I am going to dcfcribe re-
fembles very clofely this of Dr Lewis ; with this dif-
ference, ho^vever, that the air-holes are only bored
through the bottom of the pot, and this merely ftands
upon anoiber piece, inflcad of being let into it. It is
3

afuring 7 1, inches over
nd perforated ivith fix blaft

on this account fomewhat more commodious, and I ima-
gine not lefs powerful.

" Fig. 35. is a view, and fig. 36. a feftion, of the
furnace. It is compofed of three parts, all made out
of the common thin black-lead raeltino pots fold in Lon-
don for the ufe of the goldfniiths. The lower piece. A,
is the bottom of one of thefe pots cut off fo low as on-
ly to leave a cavity of about one inch, and ground
fmooth, above and below. The outfide diameter over
the top is 54- inches. The middle piece or fireplace,
B, is a larger portion of a fimilar pot with a cavity
about fix inches deep, and
the top, outfide diameter, a

holes at the bottom. Thefe two pots are all that are
efi'cntially necell'ary to the furnace for moft operations :'
but when it is wilhcd to heap up fuel over the top of a
crucible contained within, and efpecially to proteft the
eyes from the intolerable d.azzle of the lire when in full
heat, an upper pot, C, is added of the fame dimenfions
as the middle one, and with a large fide opening cut
out to allow an exit to the fmoke and flame. It has
alfo an iron ilem with a wooden handle (an old chifel
will do very well), to lift it off' and on.

" The belloivs (^vhich are double) are firmly fixed,
by a little contrivance which will take off and on, to a
heavy ftool, as is reprefented in the plate ; and their
handle fliould be lengthened, to make them work eafier
to the hand. To increafe their force on particular oc-
cafions, a plate of lead may be tied on the wood of the
upper flap. The nozzle is received into a hole in the
pot A, which condufts the blaft into its cavity. From
hence the air pafles into the fire-place, B, through fix
holes, of the fize of a large gimlet, drilled at equal
diftances through the bottom of the pot, and all con-
verging in an inward dire£lion, fo that, if prolonged,
they would meet about the centre of the upper part of
the fire. The larger hole through the middle of the
bottom of the fame pot is for another purpofc. Fig. 37,
is a plan of the fame, fhowing the diftribution of thefe
holes.

" As a ftand or fupport for the crucible, I have
found no method fo good as to fit an earthen ftopper
into the bottom of the pot B, through the large centre
hole whith is made for this purpofe. This keeps the
crucible in its proper place, in ftirring down the coals
and managing the fuel. Thefe ftoppers are made with
great eafe and expedition out of the foftened fire-brick
fold in London. A piece of this brick, made to re-
volve a few times within a portion of iron or earthen-
ware tube, prefently takes the form of its cavity, and
comes out a very neat portion of a cylinder or cone, ac-
cording to tlie ftiape of the tube, from which the
ftoppers may readily be falhioned. Fig. 38. reprefents
one of thefe ftoppers, which is alfo feen in its proper
place in fig. 36. fupporting a crucible.

" As the conftruclion of this furnace (exclufive of
the bellows and its ftool) is eafy to any one at all ufed
to thefe little manual operations, 1 trull that tlie woriing
chemift \\i\\ allow me to add a few words on the method
which I have found the moft convenient and economi-
cal. Ahnoft any broken pot of the proper width will
furniili the lower piece A ; and often the middle and
upper pieces may be contrived out of the fame refufe
matter. Dr Lewis advifes a faw to cut thefe pots j

but

IMnlf- C '- \

x\

■«:'^

;' ff^.te

"-■rVf/a^ ,'-'«v^. /f aA''/r.^;.

|- ri< X A <'K.

»ryi!iEiiriJ|!'i|«|6|jiSEi»^

>

A,/./jf-.

'-ry

-/y. /J.

/'i^^ /fi^.

,A

7^.

J3:li_>vfl^

'/y, './/■"/■':„. //../.'• /...//-^r/i:'

r rux.ACE

Plate C C X \\

'^W4f &i^^ ^ . //-.//. /<^.//,/t;^ /A v/-.

J

F U H [ 3^

but moft fr.ws arc too thick, and nhcn a little ufed,
the teeth get rounded oiF, which makes them work
intolerably floiv. I have found by far the beft tool
to be an old table knife, or rather two of them, worn
thin by ufe, and hacked and jagged as deeply as pof-
Cble; by rtrikino tlie edges ftrongly againft each other.
I'hefe \vork well and expeditioully, and %vhen they
become dull are again roughened by the fame fimple
means. The holes may be drilled with a common
gimlet of the largeft fize, and a little fteadinefs of
hand will ealily enable the operator to give them the
oblique direftion with fuilicient accuracy ; for much is
not required. To make a fmooth furface to the parts
intended to adapt to each other, firft ivear them down
a httle with the foft fire-brick, and then grind them
with water on a flat free-ftone (a fink-ftone for ex-
ample), and lartly make them entirely fit by rubbing
one lurface on the other.

'■ No luting of any kind is ever required ; fo that
the whole may be fct up and taken down immediately.
Nor is it neceflary to bind the pots with metal hoops ;
for they are thick enough to endure confiderable
blows without breaking •, and yet they ^vill bear, with-
out cracking, to be heated as fuddenly and intenfely as
poflible. In (hort, the black-lead crucible feems to be
the bell material that could pofl'ibly be devifed for thefe
purpofes.

" The heat which this little furnace will afford is fo
intenfe, and fo much more than would at firft fight be
expefted from fo trifling an apparatus, that it was only
the accidental fufion of a thick piece of caft iron in it
that led us to fufpect its power. The utmoft heat which
we have procured in this furnace has been 167'" of a
Wedgwood pyrometer piece, which ^vas withdrawn
from a very fmall Heffian crucible when aflually fink-
ing doivn in a ftate of porcellanous fufion. A fteady
heat of 150" to 155" may be uiually depended on, if
the fire be properly managed and the bellows worked
with vigour. This is fuflficient for moll operations in
chemiftry ; and the economy in time and fuel is ex-
treme, fince a furnace of the given dimenfions will very
well raife to the above point of heat in from five to ten
minutes a Heflian crucible of fuch a diameter, that the
average thicknels of burning fuel around its bottom is
not more than one inch and a half. A fmaller crucible
will take a higher heat, but at the rifli of its ioftening
and falling in by the weight of the incumbent fuel.

" Coak, or common cinders taken from the fire juft
when the coal ceafes to blaze, and broken into very
fmall pieces, with the duft fifted away, form the bell
fuel for the higheft heat. A light fpongy kind of coak,
formed of a mixture of coal and charcoal, called Daveifs
patent coal, alfo anfwers e.xtremely well. Charcoal
alone has not weight enough, when broken fo imall as
it muft be to lie clofe in this little fire-place, to with-
lland the force of the blaft when very \'iolent. A bit
of lighted paper, a handful of the very fmall charcoal,
called in L.onAox\fma/l coal, and ten or a dozen flrokes
of the bellows, will kindle the fire in almoft as many
feconds.

" Various little alterations and arrangements, which
will readily occur to the practical chemill, will fit this
little apparatus for diftillation with an earthen retort,
heating a gun-barrel paffed through the fire, bending
glafs tubes, &c.
Vol. IX. Part I.

] FUR

I (hall only add, that the dimenfions of this fu:

Fiunitii

nace were determined merely by the circumftance of "
having at hand pieces of black-lead pots of this fize, fo " ' ''
that doubtlefs they may be varied without any diminu-
tion, and probably with fome increale of the effed.
The fame may be laid of the number of holes j for \n
another inftance four appeared to anfwer as well as fix,
with this diiTerence, however, that, by long ^vorking,
the melted {lag of the coak will now and then partially
block up one or two of the holes ; on which account
perhaps the greater number is preferable.* « />i,/.

FURNITURE, a term in dialling, which denotes Jlfa^. xv
certain additional points and fines drawn on a dial, by "<*•
way of ornament, Inch as the figns of the zodiac, length
of days, parallels of declination, azimuths, points of the
compafs, meridians of chief cities, Babylonic, Jewilh, or
Italian hours, &c.

FUROR UTERINUS, a diforder peculiar to women.
See Mr.DiciKE Index.

FURR, or Fur, in Commerce, fignifies the £kin of
feveral wild bealls, dreffed in alum with the hair on ;
and ufed as a part of drefs, by princes, magiftrates, and
others. The kinds moft in uie are thofc of the ermine,
fable, caftor, hare, rabbit, &c. See Musj-ela.

It was not till the later ages that the furs of beads
became an article of luxury. The more refined nations
of ancient times never made ufe of them ; thofe alone
whom the former ftigmatized as barbarians were clothed
in the fliins of animals. Strabo defcribes the Indians
covered with the Oiins of lions, panthers, and bears ;
and Seneca, the Scythians clothed with the fkins of
foxes and the lefl'er quadrupeds. Virgil exhibits a
picture of the favage Hyperboreans, fimilar to that
which our late circumnavigators can witnefs to in the
clothing of the wild Americans, unfeen before by any
poliihed people.

Gens effi-cena virum Riphteo tunditur Euro ;
Et pccudum fuhis velantur corpora fetis.

Moll part of Europe ivas at this time in fimilar cir-
cumftances. Caefar might be as much amazed with
the fldn-dreffed heroes of Britain, as our celebrated
Cook was at thofe of his new-difcovered regions.
What time has done to us, time, under humane
conquerors, may effect for them. Civilization may
take place ; and thofe fpoils of animals, which are at
prefent effential for clothing, become the mere objefts
of ornament and luxury.

It does not appear that the Greeks or old Romans
ever made ufe of furs. It originated in thofc regions
where they moll abounded, and where the feverity of
the climate required that fpecies of clothing. At firft
it confirted of the fkins only, almoft in the ftate in
which they were torn from the body of the beall ; but
as foon as civilization took place, and manufactures
were introduced, furs became the lining of the drefs,
and often the elegant facing of the robes. It is pro-
bable that the northern conquerors introduced the
fafliion into Europe. We find, tliat about the year
i;22, when Totila king of the Vifigoths reigned in
Italy, the Suethons (a people of modern Sweden),
found means, by help of the commerce of numberlefs
intervening people, to tranfmit, for the ufe of the Ro-
mans, fnphilinas pellcs, the precious Ikins of the fables.
As luxury advanced, furs, even of the moft valuable
(iq fpcoics

FUR

[ 306 ]

FUR

f]>ecics, were ufed by princes as linings for their tents :
thus Marco Polo, in 1251, found tliofc of the Chnm
of Tartary lined with ermines and fables. He calls
the laft z-ibelines and 's.omboHncs. He fays that thofe
and other precious furs were brought from countries
far north ; from the la::d of Darkncfs, and regions
almoll inacccflible by reafon of moraffes and iee. The
Welfli fet a higii value on furs as early as the time of
Howel Dda, who began his reign about 940. In the
next age, furs became the faihionable magnificence of
Europe. WHien Godfrey of Boulogne and his foUo^v-
trs appeared before the •mpcror Alexis Comnenus, on
their way to the Holy Land, he was llruck. with the
richnefs of their drefies, lai.t ex ojlro qtiam aiirifrigio et
niveo opere harmelino et ex mardnno grijioque et 'uario.
How different was tlie advance of luxury in France
from the time of theiv great monarch Charlemagne,
ivho contented himfelf with the plain fur of the
otter ! Our Henry I. wore furs ; yet in his diftrefs was
obliged to change them for warm Wellh flannel. But
in the year 1337 the luxury had got to fuch a head,
that Edward HI. enafled, that all perfons who could
not fpend a hundred a-year Ihould abiblutely be pro-
hibited the ufe of this fpecies of finery. Thefe, from
their great expence, rauft have been foreign furs, ob-
tained from the Italian commercial Hates, whofe traffic
was at this period boundlefs. How Ifrange is the re-
volution in the fur-trade ! The north of Afia at that
time fupplied us with every valuable kind ; at prefent
ive fend, by means of the poffeffion ef Hudfon's Bay,
furs, to immenfe amount, even to Turkey and the
diftant China.

HJ}onj of the Fur Trade. — During Captain Cook's
laft voyage to the Pacific ocean, befides the various
fcientific advantages which were derived from it, a
new fource of wealth was laid open to future navigators,
by trading for furs of the moil valuable kind on the
north-weft coaft of America. The firft veffel which
engaged in the new branch of trade pointed out by
that great navigator, was equipped by fome gentlemen
in China. She was a brig of 60 tons and 20 men,
commanded by James Hanna. She failed from the
Typa the end ef April 1785 ; proceeded to the north-
ward, along the coaft of China ; paffed through
Diemen's ftraits, the fouth end of Japan ; and arrived
at Nootka in Auguft following. Soon after her ar-
rival, the natives, whom Captain Cook had left un-
acquainted with the effedl of fire-arms, tempted pro-
bably by the diminutive fize of the veiTel (fcarce longer
than fome of their own canoes) and the fmall number
of her people, attempted to board her in open day ;
but were repulfed with confiderable ilaughter. This
was the introduftion to a firm and lafting friendlliip.
Captain Hanna cured fuch of the Indians as were
wounded ; an unreferved confidence took place j they
traded fairly and peaceably ; a valuable cargo of furs
was procured ; and the bad weather fctting in, he left
the coaft in the end of September, touched at the
Sandwich iftands, and arrived at Macao the end of
December of the fame year.

Captain Hanna failed again from Macao in May
1786, in the fnow Sea-Otter of 120 tons and 30 men,
aijd returned to Macao in February 1787. In this
fecond voyage he followed his foriner track, and ar-
rived at Nootka in Auguft; traced the coaft from

thence as far as 53 degree?, and explored the e.xtenilve
found difcovered a Ihort time before by Mr Strange, ■"
and called by him Queen Charlotte's found, the la-
titude of which is 51 degrees north, longitude 128
weft.

The fnow Lark, Captain Peters, of 220 tons and
40 men, failed from Macao in July 1786. Her defti-
nation \vas Kamtfchatka (for which Ihe ^vas provided
with a fuitable cargo of arrack, tea, &.C.), Copper
illands, and the N. \V. coaft. Captain Peters was di-
rected to make his paflage between Japan and Corea,
and examine the iflands to the north of Japan, faid to
be uihabited by hairy people j which, if Captain Cook
had lived, would not have been left to the French to
determine. No account having been received of this
veffel fince her departure, there is every reafon to fear
ftie has periflied.

In the beginning of 1786, two coppered veffels
were fitted out at Bombay, under the diredlion of
James Strange, Efq; who was himfelf a principal owner.
Thefe veffels were, the fnow Captain Cook of 300
tons, and fnow Experiment of 100 tons. Tliey pro-
ceeded iu company from the Malabar coaft to Batavia ;
paffed through the ftraits of Macaffar, where the Ex-
periment was run upon a reef, and was obliged to haul
aftiore upon Borneo to repair ; from thence they fleer-
ed to the eaftvvard of the Palaos illands ; made Sul-
phur ifland j and arrived at Nootka the end of June
following. From Nootka, where they left their fur-
geon's mate (Mackay) to learn the language and col-
left Ikins againft their intended return (but ivho ivas
brought away in the Imperial Eagle the following
year), they proceeded along the coaft to Queen Char-
lotte's found, of wliich they were the firft difcoverers -^
from thence in a direft courfe to Prince William's
found. After Ibme llay there, the Experiment pro-
ceeded to Macao (their veffels being provided with
paffes by the governor-general of Goa) : the Captain
Cook endeavoured to get to Copper illand, but with-
out fuccefs, being prevented by conftant weft wiiids.

Two coppered veffels were alfo fitted out by a i(o-
ciety of gentlemen in Bengal, viz. the fnow Nootka
of 2CO tons, and the fnow Sea Otter of 100 tons,
commanded by John Meares and William Tipping,
lieutenants in the royal navy. The Nootka failed iu
March 1786 from Bengal; came through the China
feas ; touched at the Bafliees, ivhere they \vere very
civilly treated by the Spaniards, who have taken pof-
feflion of thefe iftands ; arrived at Oonalaflika the be-
ginning of Auguft ; found there a Ruflian galliot and
fome furriers ; difcovered accidentally near Cape Gre-
ville a new ftrait near Cook's river, 15 leagues wide
and 30 long ; faw fome Ruffian hunters in a fraall bay
between Cape Elizabeth and Cape Bear ; and arrived
in Prince William's found the end of September.
They determined wintering in Snug Corner Cove,
lat. 6o. 30. in preference to going to the Sandvvich
iftands, which feem placed by Providence for the com-
fort and refrefhment of the adventurers in this trade,
and were frozen up in this gloomy and frightful fpot
from the end of November to the end of May. By
the fcverity of the winter they loft their third and
fourth mate«, furgeon, boatfvvain, carpenter, and cooper,
and twelve of the fore-maft-men ; and the remainder
were fo enfeebled as to be under the neccffity of apply-
ing

F U H

T"i-r- ins; to the commanders of the King George and (.)necn
"■"«""" Charlotte, who jull at this time arrived in the ibund,
for forae hands to alTirt in carrying the veflTel to the
Sandwich illands, where, giving over all further
thoughts of trade, they determined (after getting a
fea-ftock of fith off Cape Edgecumbc) immediately to
proceed. The Nootka arrived at M.icao the end of
Oilober 1787.

The Imperial Eagle, Captain Barkley, fitted out by
a fociety of gentlemen at Oftend, failed from Ollend
the latter end of November 1786; went into the bay
of All Saints ; from thence, without touching any
where, to the Sandwich illands, and arrived at Noot-
ka the beginning of June ; from thence to the touth,
as far as 47" 30', in which fpace he difcovered Tome
good and fpacious harbours. In the lat. of 47° 46',
loft his fecond mate, purfer, and two feamen, who
were upon a trading party with the !o--,g-br)at, and im-
prudently trufting themfelves aftiore unarmed, were
cut off by the natives. This place feems to be the
fame that Don Antonio Mourelle calls the llha tie los
Dolores, where the Spaniards going alhore to water,
were alio attacked and cut off.

The King George of 320, and the Queen Char-
lotte of 200 tons, commanded by Captains Portlock
and Dixon, who ferved under Captain Cook in his laft
voyage, were fitted out by a fociety of gentlemen in
England, who obtained a privilege to trade to the north -
weft coaft of America, from the South Sea and Eaft In-
dia companies.

Thefe veilels^failed from England the beginning of
September 1785 ; touched at the Falkland illands,
Sandwich illands, and arrived at Cook's river in the
month of Auguft. From thence, after coUecling a
few fjrs, they fteered in the end of September for
Prince William.'s found, intending, it is faid, to winter
there ; but were prevented entering, by heavy ftorms
and extreme bad weather, which obliged them to bear
away, and feek fome other part of the coall; to winter
at. The ftorms and bad weather accompanied them
till they arrived off Ncotka found, when they were fo
near the ihore, that a canoe came off to them : but
though thus near accomplilhing their purpofe, a frefh
ftorm came on, and obliged them finally to bear away
fjr the Sandwich illands, v.here they remained the win-
ter months ; and returning again to the coart, arrived
in Prince William's found the middle of May. The
Kine George remained in Prince William's found ;
and during her ftay, her long-boat difcovered a new
paffage from the found into Cook's river. The Queen
Charlotte proceeded along the coaft to the fouth ;
looked into Behring's bay, where the Rufiians have
now a fcttlement ; examined that part of the coaft
from 56° to 50", which was not feen by Captain Cook,
and which confifts of a clufter of illands, called by Cap-
tain Dixon ^uecn Charlotte's I/lands, at a confiderable
diftance from the main, which is thus removed farther
to the eaftward than it ^vas fuppofed to be : forae part
of the continent may, however, be feen from the eaft
fide of thefe illands •, and it is probable the diftance
does not anywhere exceed 50 leagues. On this efti-
malion, Hudfon's Houfe, lat. 53°, long. 106° 27' weft,
will not be more than 800 miles diftant from that part
of this coaft in the fame parallel. It is therefore not
improbable, that the enterprifing fpirit of our Cana-

07 1 FUR

dian furriers may penetrate to this coaft (the com- Furr.
munication with which is probably much facilitated '■'~^>~"
by lakes or rivers), and add to the comforts and luxu-
ries of Europe this invaluable fur, which in warmth,
beauty, and magnificer.ee, far exceeds the richeft furs
of Siberia. Oueen Charlotte's illands are inhabited
by a rnce of people differing in language, features, and
manners, from ail the other tribes of this coaft. Among
other peculiarities, they are diilinguilhed by a large in-
ciilon in the under Hp, in which is in'.ertcd a piece of
polilhed wood, fometimes ornamented wiCn mother of
pearl Ihell, in Ihape and lize like a weaver's fliuttle,
which undoubtedly is the moft eft'edual mode of de-
forming the human face divine that the ingenious de-
pravity of tafte of any favage nation has yet difcovered.
Thefe fliips, after difpofing of their furs in China,
were loaded v.ith teas on account of the Englifti com-
pany, failed from Wampoa, and arrived in England, af-
ter an abfence of three years.

The year after the departure of the King George
and Queen Charlotte, the fame fociety to which they
belonged fitted out two other velTels, viz. the Princefs
Royal of 60 tons, and the Prince of Wales of 2C0
tons, commanded by Captains Cohiet and Duncan,
the former of whom had ferved under Captain Cook.
Thefe veffels left England in Auguft 1786-, touched
at Neu' Year's harbour on Staten Land, where they
left an officer and 1 2 men to kill feals againft the ar-
rival of a veiTel ivhich was to follow them from Eng-
land ; from thence they proceeded direcJlly to Noot-
ka, v.'here they arrived the 6th of July, fickly and in
bad condition, and found here the Imperial Eagle,
which had left Europe fome months after them. Leav-
ing Nootka, they fteered along the fliore to the north-
ward, and loon after fell in with the Queen Charlotte.

In the beginning of 1788, Captain Mears failed
again with two other veffels, the FeHce, ivhich he
commanded himfelf, and the Iphigenia, Captain Dou-
glas, to Nootka found. Here he purchafed of the
chief of the diftricf a fpot, on which he built a houfe
for his refidencc and more convenient intercourfe with
the natives, hoiiling the Britilh colours thereon, fur-
rounding it with a breaft-work, and mounting a three
pounder on the front. Having fo done, he lent Mr
Douglas in the Iphigenia to trade along the northern
coaft, while he himfelf proceeded to the fouth ; and by
prefents to the chiefs otnained the ports Cox and
Effingham, and the promife of an cxdufive trade with
the natives of the diilritl, and alfo fome other places,
which he took poffellion of in the name of the king.
Captain Douglas likcwife, by prefents to the chiefs of
the countries he vifited, obtained fimilar privileges,
no other European veffel having failed there before
him.

On their return to Nootka, they found a veffel fi-
nidied wiiich the commander had laid down before his
departure. This, which he named the North Welt
America, he kft at Nootka with the Iphigenia,
while he failed with a cargo of furs in the Felice to
China.

A few days after his arrival at China, two veffels,
the Prince of Wales and Princefs Royal, came to Can-
ton from their trading voyage above mentioned. Cap-
tain Mears, fearing a competition of interefts might
be injurious to both parties, propofcd a copartnerdiip,
Q q 2 rhich

FUR

[ 308 ]

FUR

Turr. which was mutually agieed to 5 and another fliip was
'~~y^~~ purchafed by tlie Jirni, and called the j^rgonau!. In
the m^nth of April 1787, Captain Mcars gave Mr
Coluet the command of the Princefs Royal and Ar-
gonaut, which vwrc loa<led with llorcs and articles efti-
raated lutHcient Jor three years trade, bcildes feveral
ard'xers, and near 70 Chlnefe, who intended to be-
come fcttlers on the north-well coaft of America, un-
der protcdion of the new company.-

In the mean while, the Iphigenia, and North-Weft
America (the vellll built at Nootka) having wintered
in Sandwich illands, returred to >footka in the latter
end of April. Soon after which, two Spaniih fhips of
WZT, under the command of Don Martinez, anchored
in the found. For a few days mutual civilities pafTed
between the Spanifli captain and Mr Douglas ; but
at the end of about a week, Don Martinez fumraoned
the latter o-a board his own fliip the PrinceiTa, telling
him he Tvas his prifoner, and that the king of Spain
had commanded him, Don Martinez, to feize all vef-
fels he Ihould find on that coaft. He therefore in-
ftrucled his ofticcrs to take polTeflion of the Iphigenia,
which they accordingly did in the name of his Catho-
lic niijefty ; and the ofticers and cre^v were conveyed
i:s prifoners on board the Spaniih fliips, where they
were put in irons, and oth.erwife ill treated. Imme-
tliately after this, Don Martinez took poffeflion of the
little fettlement, hoifting the ftandard of Spain, and
modefily declaring all the lands from Cape Horn to
60 degrees north latitude belonged to his mafter. To
aggravate the infult, he forcibly employed the crew of
the Iphigenia in building batteries, &c. and offered no
kind of wolence to two American veiTels that ivere at
the fame time in the harbour. At this time the
North-Weft America was lent to explore the Archipe-
lago of St Lazarus. On her return to Nootka, (he
met ^vith a fimilar treatment, and the fkins Ihe had col-
lefted were feized, with the reft of her cargo.

A few days after the Princefs Royal (which we
have mentioned as leaving Canton in company with the
Argonaut) arrived. The Spanifti commander, for rea-
fons that do not appear, fuffered her to depart. The
ikins collefted by the North Weft-America were ftiip-
ped on board her for the benefit of her owner, and flie
proceeded to trade in the neighbouring illes. On the
3d of July, the Argonaut arrived at the found ; and
Don Martinez, after making every profelTion of ciw-
llty to Mr Colnet the commander, took poffelTion of
the faid Ihip in the name of his mafter, and made pri-
foners of the crew. Soon after, the Princefs Royal
returning to receive inftrutlions from Mr Colnet, direc-
tor of the enterprife, was feized by the Spanifti cap-
tain.

The crews of the Britilh veflels were differently dif-
pofed of ; fome fent to China by the American veffels,
and others to Spanifti America : but the Chinefe were
.ill detained, and employed in the mines which were
opened on the lands purchafed by Captain Mears.
WTiat thefc mines confifted of, we are ncivhere in-
formed. Mr Colnet was fo much aftefled at the failure
of the enterprife, as to be deprived of reafon.

This, as foon as known, occafioned a fpirited re-
prefentation from the Britilh court to that of Spain ;
at the fame time that vigorous preparations were made
fpr vni ill cufe adequate fatisfacliop ftjould be lefufed.

Matters, however, were prevented from coming to ex-
tremities, by a compliance on the part of Spain, after ~
many delays and much artifice of negotiation, with the
requifitions of Britain : in confequence of which, among
other advantages unneceffary to be here recited, the
whole trade from California to China is completely
laid open ; and the Bridlh allowed the full exercife of
navigation and commerce in thofe parts of the world
which were the fubjeft of difculFion.

In fome accounts of the voyages above mentioned,
the fur trade in thofe parts has been greatly magni-
fied. In that publilhed by Captain Portlock, however,
this officer obferves, that the gains hitherto have cer-
tainly not been enviably great ; though the merchants
have no doubt found the trade lucrative.

Hi/Ion/ of ihe Fur Trade fro?n Canoria to the Norl/i-
ivejl. — The foilo^^ing account of this trade is extracted
from Mr Mackenzie's Narrative of his V/)yages and
Travels from Montneal, through the North-weft Con-
tinent of America, and to the Pacific ocean.

" The fur trade, he lays, from the earlieft fettlement
of Canada, was conlidered of the firil importance to
that colony. The coimtry was then io popiftous, that,
in the vicinity of the ellablilhments, the animals whole
Ikins were precious, in a commercial view, foon be-
came very fcarce, if not altogether extindl. They were,
it is true, hunted at former periods, but merely for food
and clothing. The Indians, therefore, to procure the
neceffary fupply, were encouraged to penetrate into the
country, and ^vere generally accompanied by lome of
the Canadians, who found means to induce the remoteft
tribes of natives to bring the fkins which were moll in
demand, to their fettlements, in the Tvay of trade.

'' It is not neceffary for me to examine the caufe,
but experience proves that it requires much lefs time
for a ci^^lized people to de\iate into the manners and
cuftoms of favage life, than for favages to rife into a
ftate of civilization. Such was the event with thofe
who thus accompanied the natives on their hunting and
trading excurfions ; for they became fo attached to the
Indian mode of life, that they loft all relith for their for-
mer habits and native homes. Hence they derived
the title of Coureurs des Bou, became a kind of pedlars,
and ^vere extremely ufefiil to the merchants engaged in
the fur trade ; who gave them the neceffary credit to
proceed on their commercial undertakings. Three or
four of thefe people would join their ftock, put their
property into a birch bark canoe, which they worked
themfelves, and either accompanied the natives in their
excurfions, or went at once to the country where they
knew they were to hunt. At length, thefe voyages ex-
tended to 1 2 or 15 months, when they returned with
rich cargoes of furs, and followed by great numbers
of the natives. During the thort time requifite to fet-
tle their accounts with the merchants, and procure
frefli credit, they generally contrived to fquander a-
way all their gains, when they returned to their
favourite mode of life : their views being anfwer-
ed, and their labour fufticiently rewarded, by indulging
therafelvas in extravagance and diffipation during the
fliort fpacc of one month in 1 2 or 15.

" The indifference about amafling property, and the
pleafure of living free from all reftraint, foon brought
on a licentioufnefs of manners which could not long
sfcape the vigilant obfervation of the miffionarics, who

had

FUR r 3

had much reafoii to complain of their being a dif-
' grace to tiie Chrilliau religion ; by not only fwerving
from its duties thenifelves, but by thus bringing it in-
to diiVepute with thofe of the natives who had be-
come converts to it ; aiid, confequeiitly, obllrucling
the great obied to whicli thofe pious men had de-
voted their lives. They, therefore, exerted their in-
fluence to procure the fuppreffion of thefe people, and
accordingly, no one was allowed to go up the country
to traffic with the Indians, without a licence from the
government.

" At length, military pofts were eflablilhed at the
confluence of the different large lakes of Canada,
which, in a great mealiure, checked evil confequences
that followed from the improper conduct of thefe foref-
ters, and, at the fame time, protefted the trade. Be-
fides, a number of able and refpeclable men retired
from the a.-my, profecuted the trade in perfoii, under
their refpeciive licences, with great order and regulari-
ty, ar.d extended it to fuch a diftan.ce, as, in thofe
days, -vas conUdered to be an aftonilhing effort of com-
mercial enterprize. Thefe perfons and the miflionaries
having combined their views at the (ame time, fecured
the relpecl of the natives, and the obedience of the peo-
ple receflaril}- employed in the laborious parts of this
undertaking. Thefe gentlemen denominated them-
felves commanders, and not traders, though they ivere
intitlcd to both thofe characters : and, as for the mif-
fionaries, if fuiferings and hardfhips in the profecution
of the great work which they had undertaken, deferv-
ed applaufe and admiration, they had an undoubted claim
to be admired and applauded: they fp^red no labour and
avoided no danger in the execution of their important of-
fice ; and it is to be feriouily lamented, that their pious en-
deavours did not meet with the fuccefs which they dcferv-
ed ; for there is hardly a trace to be found, beyond the
cultivated parts, of their meritorious funiilions.

" This caufe of the failure mull be attributed to a
want of due comideration in the mode employed by the
miffionaries to propagate the religion of which they
ivere the zealous minillers. They habituated them-
felves to the favage life, and naturalifed themfelves to
the favage manners, and, by thus becoming dependant,
as it were, on the natives, they acquired t'.itir contempt
rather than their veneration. If they had been as well
acquainted with human nature, as they were with the
articles of their faith, they would have known, that the
uncultivated mmd of an Indian mull be difpofed by
much preparatory method and inllrudion to receive the
revealed truths of Chrillianit^■, to aifl under its fanclions,
and be impelled to good by the hope uf its rewards, or
turned from evil by the fear of its puriifliments. They
ihoidd have l)egun their work by teaching fome of thofe
tifeful arts wl'ich are the inlets of knowledge, and lead
the mind by degrees to objects of higher comprehenfion.
Agriculture lo formed to fix and combine fociety, and
fo preparatory to objedls of fuperior con'ideration, ihould
have been the firft thing introdaced among a favage
people : it attaches the wandering tribe to that fpof
where it adds fo much to thdr comforts ; while it gives
them a fenfe of property, and of lading poffellion, in-
ftead of the uncertain hopes of the chafe, and the fugi-
tive produce of uncultivated wilds. Such were the
means by which the forefts of Paraguay were converted

09 ] FUR

into a fcene of abundant cuhivation, and its favage in-
habitants introduced to all the advantages of a civilized "
Lfe. *^

'• The Canadian mifllonaries (liould have been con-
tented, to improve the morals of their o.vn countrymen,
fo that by meliorating their character and conduft,
they w^ould have given a ftriking example of the effect
of religion in promoting the comforts of life to the fur-
rounding favages ; and might by degrees have, extend-
ed its benign induence to the remotcft region of that
country, which was the object, and intended to be the
fcene, of their evangelic labom-s. But by bearing the
light of the gofpcl at ojice to the diilance of 2500 miles-
from the civilized part of the colonies, it %vas foon ob-
fciu-ed by the cloud of ignorance that darkened the
human mind in thofe diliaut regions.

" The whole of tlieir long route I have often travel-
led, and the recollection of fuch a people as the mif-
fionaries having been there, was confined to a few fu-
perannuated Canadians, who had not left that country
fince the ceUion to the Englilli, in 1763, and who par-
ticularly mentioned the death of fome, and the dillref-
fing fituation of them all. But if thefe religious men
did not attain the objects of their perfevering piety, they
were, during their million, of great fervice to the com-
manders who engaged in thofe distant expeditions,
and fpread the fur trade as far vseft as the bank cir
the Safkatchiwine river, in 53° north latitude, and lon-
gitude 102° well.

" At an early period of tlieir intercoarfa vsith tlia
favages, a cuftom was introduced of a very excellent
tendency, but is now unfortunately difcontinued, df not
felling any fpirituous liquor to the- natives. This ad-'
mirable regulation was for fome time obferved, with all
the refpeci due to the religion by which it wajfan.£tion-
ed, and whofe fevereft cenfures followed the violation
of it. A painful penance could alone reilore the of-
fender to the fufpended rites of the facrament. The
cafuillry of trade, however, difcovered a way to gratify
the Indians with their favourite cordial, without incur-
ring the eccleiiallical penalties, by giving, inltead of
felling it to theru.

'• But notwithitanding all the reftriclions with v>hich
commerce was opprefled under the French government,
the fur trade was extended to the immenle diilance
which has been already Itated ; and furmounted many
molt difcouraging difficulties, which will be hereafter
noticed ; while, at the fame time, no exertions were
made from Hudfon's Bay to obtain even a ihare of the
trade of a countiy which, according to the charter of
that company, belonged to it, and, from its proximitv,
is fo much more acceffible to the mercantile adventurer,

" Of thele trading commanders, I underftood, that
two attempted to penetrate to the Pacific ocean, but
the utmoft extent of their journey I could never learn ;«
which may be attributed, indeed, to a failure of ths un-
dertaking.

" For fome time after tlieconqueft of Canada, this
trade was fufpended, which mull have been very ad-
vantageous to the Kudfon's Bay company, as all the
inhabitants to the wellward of Lake Superior were ob-
liged to go to them for fuch articles as their habitual
ufe had rendered necelTary. Some of the Canadians
who had ll\ed long with them, and were become at-
tached

ofth: /•<

T U R [31

tacVied to a favage life, accompanied tV.cm tliither an-
nually, till mercantile adventurers again appeared trom
their ou-u country, after an interval of feveral years,
owing, I fuppofe, to an ignorance of the country in
the conquerors, and their want of commercial confi-
dence in the conquered. There were, indeed, other
difcouragements, fuch as the immenfe length of the
journey nece!T-»y to rencii the limits beyond which this
commerce muft begin ; tlie rifk of property j the ex-
pences attending fucli a long tranlport j and an igno-
rance of the language of thofe wb.o, from their ex-
perience, mull be neceifarily employed as the interme-
diate agents between tliem and the natives. But, not-
withftanding thefe difficulties, the trade, by degrees, be-
gan to fpread over different parts to which it had been
carried by the French, though at a great rifk. of the
lives, as well as the property, of their new poffeflbrs, for
the natives had been taught by their former allies to
entertain hoitile difpofitions towards the Engiifti, from
their having been in alliance with their natural enemies
the Iroquois ; and there were not wanting a fufficient
number of difcontented, difappointed people to keep
alive fuch a notion ; fo that for a long time they were
confidered and treated as objeftscf holtility. To prove
•his difpofition of the Indians, we have only to refer to
the conduct of Pontiac, at Detroit, and the furprife and
taking of Michilimakinac, about this peiiod.

" Hence it arofe, that it was fo late as the year
1766, before which the trade I mean to coufider
•omraenced from ]\Iichilimakinac. The firft who at-
tempted it were fatisfied to go the length of the river
Car.ienilliquia, about 30 miles to tlie eaftward of the
Grande Portage, where the French had a principal
ellabliflnnent, and was the line of their communication
witli the interior country. It was once deftroyed
by fire. Here they went, and returned fuccefsful in
the following fpring to Michilimakinac. Their fuc-
ccfs induced them to renew their journey, and incited
others to follow their example. Some of them remained
at Caraenirtiquia, ^vhile others proceeded to and beyond
the Grande Portage, which fince that time has become
the principal entrepot of that trade, and is fituated in a
bay, in latitude 48. north, and longitude 90. weft. Af-
ter pafling the ufual feafon there, they went back to
Michilimakinac as before, and encouraged by the trade,
returned in increafed numbers. One of thefe, Thomas
Curry, with a fpirit of enterprife fuperior to that of his
contemporaries, determined to penetrate to the furtheft
limits of the French difcoveries in that country ; or at
leafl till the froft (liould Hop him. For this purpofe he
procured guides and interpreters, who were acquainted
with the country, and with four canoes arrived at Fort
Bourbon, which was one of their ports, at the weft end
of the Cedar lake, on the waters of the Safliatchiwine.
His rifk and toil were well rccompenfed, for he came
back the follo\ving fpring with his canoes filled with
fine furs, with which he proceeded to Canada, and
was fatisfied never again to return to the Indian
country.

" From this period people began to fpread over every
part of the country, particularly where the French had
''^ eftabliflied fettlements."*

After continuing the detail of the hiftory of the trade
for which we mull refer to the work itfelf, Mr Mac-
kenzie proceeds to inform us of the concern which he
3

FUR

himfelf had in it, tvhen
fumed as a partner, on coi
dian country to take an
After fome ftruggles, fn

in the year l^Sj, he was if-
,dition of going into the In-
aflive Ihare in the bufinefs.
jealoufy and rivallWp, with

another company who had been fome time in the trade,
a union bet^veen the t\vo companies was formed. This
happened in 17S7, nnj the following is Mr Mac-
kenzie's account of its fuccefs, and of the extent and
mode of condudling this trade.

" This commercial eftablilLment, " he proceeds," was
now founded on a more folid bails than any hitherto
known in the country ; and it not only continued in full
force, vigour, and profperity, in fpite of all interference
from Canada, but miintained at leall an equal ftiare of
advantage with the Hudfon's Bay Company, notwith-
ftanding the fuperiority of their local fituation. The
folloiving account of this felf-erefted concern will mani-
feft the caufe of its luccefs.

" It affumed the title of the North-Weft Company^
and was no more than an aflfociation of commercial men,
agreeing among themfelves to carry on the fur trade,
unconneftcd with any other bufinefs, though many of
the parties engaged had extenfive concerns altogether
foreign to it. It may be faid to have been fupported
entirely upon credit ; for, ivhether the capital belonged
to the proprietor, or was borrowed, it equally bore in-
tireft, fur which the affociation was annually account-
able. It confifted of twenty lliares, unequally divided
among the perfons concerned. Of thefe, a certain pro-
portion was held by the people who managed the bufi-
nefs in Canada, and vvere ftyled agents for the Compa-
ny. Their duty was to import the neceffary goods from
England, ftore them at their own expence at Montreal,
get them made up into the articles fuited to the trade,
pack and forward them, and fupply the caffi that might
be wanting f jr the outfits ; for which they received, in-
dependent of the profit on their lliares, a commilTion on
the amount of the accounts, which they were obliged
to make out annually, and keep the adventure of each
year diftinil. Two of them went annually to the
Grande Portage, to manage and tranfacl the bufinefs
there, and on the communication at Detroit, Michili-
makinac, St Mary's, and Montreal, xvhere tliey recei-
ved ftores, packed up, and (hipped the company's furs
for England, on which they had alfo a fmall commillion.
The remaining Ihares were held by the proprietors, who
were obliged to winter and manage the bufinefs of the
concern with the Indians, and their refpeiilive clerks,
&c. They were not fuppofed to be under any obliga-
tion to furnilh capital, or even credit. If they obtain-
ed any capital by the trade, it was to remain in the
hands of the agents ; for wliich they were allowed in-
tereft. Some of them, from their long fervices and in-
fluence, held double Ihares, and were allowed to retire
from the bufinefs at any period of the exilling concern,
with one of thofe Ihares, naming any young man in the
company's fervice to iucceed him in the other. Senio-
rity and merit were, liowever, confidered as affording a
claim to the fucceflion, which, neverthclefs, could not
be difpofed of without the concurrence of the majority
of the concern j who, at the fame time relieved the fe-
ceding perfon from any refponfibility refpedting the
fhare that he transferred, and accounted for it accord-
ing to the annual value or rate of the property ; fo that
the feller could have no advantage but that of getting

the

FUR

t 31

the (hare of ftock which he retained realifed, and re-
■" ceiving for the transferred fhare what was fairly deter-
mined to be the worth of it. The former was alfo dif-
charged from all duty, and became a dormant partner.
Thus, all the young men who were not provided for at
the beginning of the contract, fucceeded in fucceflion to
the charafter and advantages of partners. They enter-
ed into the company's fervice for five or feven years, un-
der fuch expectations, and their reafonable profpedls
were fcldom difappointed : there were, indeed, indances
when they fucceeded to iliares, before their apprentice-
fhip was expired, and it frequently happened that they
were provided for while they were in a flate of articled
clerkihip. Shares were transferable otdy to the con-
cern at large, as no perfon could be admitted as a part-
ner who had not ferved his time to the trade. The
dormant partner indeed might difpofe of his intereft to
any one he chofe, but if the trani'action were not ac-
knowledged by his aiTociates, the purchafer could only
be confidered as his agent or attorney. Every ihare
had a vote, and two-thirds formed a majority. This
regular and equitable mode of providing for the clerks
of the company, excited a fpirit of emulation in the dif-
charge of their various duties, and in fact, made every
agent a principal, who perceived his own profperity to
be immediately connected with that of his employers.
Indeed, without fuch a fpirit, fuch a trade could not
have become fo extended and advantageous, as it lias
been and now is.

" In 1788, the grofs amount of the adventure for
the year did not exceed 40,000!. : but by the exertion,
enterprife, and indulf ry of the proprietors, it w-as brought
m eleven years to triple that amount and upwards ;
yielding proportionate profits, and furpaffing, in ftiort,
any thing known in America.

" Such, therefore, being the profperous flate of the
company, it, very naturally, tempted others to inter-
fere with the concern in a manner by no means benefi-
cial to the company, and commonly ruinous to the un-
dertakers.

" In 1798 the concern underwent a new form, the
fliares were increafed to forty-fix, new partners being
admitted, and others retiring. This period was the ter-
mination of the company, which was not renewed by
all the parties concerned in it, the majority continuin'j
to aft upon the old ftock, and under the old firm ; the
others beginning a new one ; and it nou- remains to be
decided, whether two parties, under the fame regula-
tio?!S and by the fame exertions, though unequal in
number, can continue to carry on the bufinefs to a fuc-

I ] FUR

cefsful ilTue. The contrary opinion has been held, Furr.

which, if verified, will make it the intereft of the par- ' •""

ties again to coalefce ; for neither is deficient in capital
to fupport their obflinacy in a lofing trade, as it is not
to be fuppofed tluit either will yield on any other terms
than perpetual participation.

" It will not be fupertluous in this place, to explain
the general mode of carrying on the fur trade.

" The agents are obliged to order the neceflary goods
from England in the month of October, eighteen
months before they can leave Montreal ; that is, they
are not fhipped from London until the fpring following,
when they arrive in Canada in the fummer. In the
courfe of the following winter they are made up into fuch
articles as are required for the favages ; they are then
packed into parcels of ninety pounds weight each, but
cannot be fent from Montreal until the May following;
fo that they do not get to market until the enfuing
winter, when they are exchanged for furs, which come
to Montreal the next fall, and from thence are fliippcd,
chiedy to London, where they are not fold or paid for
before the fucceeding fpring, or even as late as June ;
which is forty-two months after the goods were ordered
in Canada ; thirty-fix after they had been ihipped from
England ; and twenty-four after they had been for-
warded from Montreal ; fo that the merchant, allowing
that he has twelve months credit, does not receive a re-
turn to pay for thofe goods, and the neceffary expences
attending them, which is about equal to the value of
the goods themfelves, till two years after they are con-
fidered as ca(h, which makes this a very hea\'y bufinefs.
There is even a fmall proportion of it that requires
tivclve months longer to bring round the payment,
owing to the immenfe diftance it is carried, and from
the ihortnefs of the feafons, which prevent the fiirs,
even after they are collected, from coming out of the
country for that period (a).

" The articles neceflary for this trade, are coarfe
woollen cloths of diiferent kinds ; milled blankets of
diflferent fizes ; arms and ammunition ; tv.ifl and carrot
tobacco ; Manchefter goods ; linens, and coarfe iheet-
ings ; thread, lines, and twine ; common hardware ;
cutlery and ironmonger;- of feveral defcriptious -, ket-
tles of brafs and copper, and flieet-iron ; filk and cot-
ton handkerchiefs ; hats, (hoes, and hofe ; calicoes and
printed cottons, &c. &c. &.c. Spirituous liquors and
provifions are purchafed in Canada. Thefe, and the
expence of tranfport to and from the Indian country,
including wages to clerks, interpreters, guides, and ca-
noe-men, with the expence of making up the goods for

the

(a) " This will be better illuftrated by the following Itatement :

We will fuppofe the goods for 1798 ;

The orders for the goods are fent to this country - . .

They are (liippej from London ... - .

They arrive in Montreal ....

They are made up in the courfe of that fummer .-md winter.

They are fent from Montreal - . . . - .

They arrive in the Indian country, and are exchanged for furs the following winter
WTiich furs come to Montreal - - ' -

And are (hipped for London, where they arc fold in March and April, and paid for
May or June ...... ^

25th Oct. 1796.

March 1797.

June 1797.

May 1798.

1798-9.

Sept. 1799.

180P,

FUR

the market, form about half the annual amount againft
the adventure.

" This expenditure in Canada ultimately tends to the
encouragement of Britilli raanufatlory, for thofe ^vho
:ue employed in the different branches of this bufiiiefs,
are enabled by their gains to purchafe fuch Britiih arti-
cles as they mull otherwife forego.

" The produce of the year of which I am now fpeak-
ing, conliiled of the folloiving furs and peltries :

id6,doo Beaver fkins,
2100 Bear (kins,
1500 Fox fkins,
4C00 Kitt fo\ ikins,
4600 Otter fkiiis,
17,000 IVIufquaih ikins,
32,000 Marten lliins,
l8co Mink tins,

6000 Lynx Ikins,

6co Wolverine Ikins,
1650 Fiflier fliins,

100 Rackoon fkins,
3800 Wolf Ikins,

700 Elk fliins,

750 Deer {kins,
1 200 Deer fliins dreffed.

500 Buffalo robes, and a quantity of calloreum.

" Of thefe were diverted from the Britiih market,
being fent through the United States to China, 13,364
ikins, fine beaver, weighing 19,283 pounds ; I 250 fine
otters, and 1724 kitt foxes. They would have found
tjieir way to the China market at any rate, but this de-
viation from the Britifh channel arofe from the follow-
ing circumftance :

" An adventure of this kind was undertaken by a re-
fpeftable houfe in London, half concerned with the
North-Weil Company in the year 1792. The furs
were of the beil kind, and fuitable to the market ; and
the adventurers continued this connexion for five fuc-
ceflive years, to the annual amount of 40,000!. At
the winding up of the concern of 1792, 1793, 1794,
1795, in the year I 797, (the adventure of 1796 not
being included, as the furs were not fent to China, but
difpoled of in London), the North-Weil Company ex-
perienced a lofs of upwards of 40,0001. (their half,)
which was principally owing to the difficulty of getting
home the produce procured in return for the furs from
China, in the Eaft India Company's fhips, together
\nth the duty payable, and the various reflridions of
that company. Whereas, from America there are no
impediments •, they get immediately te market, and the
produce of them is brought back, and perhaps fold in
the courfe of twelve months. From fuch advantages
the furs of Canada will no doubt find their way to Chi-
na by America, which would not be the cafe if Britilli
fubjefts had the fame privileges that are allowed to fo-
reigners, as London would then be found the beft and
fafefl market.

" But to return to our principal fubjeft. — We fhall
now proceed to confider the number of men employed
in the concern : viz. 50 clerks, 71 interpreters and
clerks, 1 1 20 canoe men, and ^^ guides. Of thefe, five
clerks, 18 guides, and 350 canoe men, were employed
for the fumraer feafon in going from Montreal to the
Grande Portage, in canoes, part of whom proceeded
from thence to Rainy Lake, as will be hereafter ex-
plained, and are called porh-ealers, or goers and comers.
'I'htfc \vere hired in Canada or Montreal, and were
abfent from the ifl of May till the latter end of Sep-
tember. For this trip the guides had from 800 to 1000
livres, and a fuitable equipment ; the foreman and
ileerfman from 400 to 6co livres ; the middle men from

2 ] FUR

250 to 350 livres, with an equipment of one blanket, Furr,
one fliirt, and one pair of trowlbrs ; and were maintain- ^- — -r—^
ed during that period at the expence of their emplov-
ers. Independent of their wages, they were allowed to
traffic, and many of them earned to the amount of their
wages. About one-third of thefe \vent to winter, and
had more than double the above wages, and equipment.
All the others were hired by the year, and fome times
for three years ; and of the clerks many were appren-
tices, who were generally engaged for five or feven
years, for which they had only lool. provifion and
clothing. Such of them who could not be provided for
as partners, at the expiration of tliis time, were allowed
from lool. to 300!. per annum, with all neceflaries, till
provifion was made for them. Thofe who afted in the
twofold capacity of clerk and interpreter, or were \o
denominated, had no other expeftaUon than the pay-
ment of wages to the amount from 1 000 to 4C00 li\Tes
per annum, with clothing and provifions. 'I'he ■, uides,
who are a very ufeful fet of men, afted alfo in the ad-
ditional capacity of interpreters, and had a Rated
quantity of goods, confidered as fufficient for their
wants, their wages being from looo to 3000 livres.
The canoe men are of two defcriptions, foremen and
fleerfnr-en, and middlemen. The two firfl were allow-
ed annually l 200, and the latter 400, livres each. The
firfl clafs had what is called an equipment, confiiling of
two blankets, two ihirts, two pair of trowftrs, two'
handkerchiefs, 14 pounds of tobacco, and fome triTiing
articles. The latter had I o pounds of tobacco, and all
the other articles : thofe are called north men, or luin-
terers ; and to the lail clafs of people ^vere attached up-
wards of 700 Indian women and children, viftualled at
the expence of the company.

The firil clafs of people are hired in Montreal five
months before they fet out, and receive their equip-
ments, and one-third of their wages in advance ; and
an adequate idea of the labour they undergo may be
formed from the following account of the country
through which they pafs, and their manner of proceed-
ing-

" The neceflary number of canoes being purchafed,
at alxiut 300 livres each, the goods formed into pack-
ages, and the lakes and rivers free of ice, which they
ulually are in the beginning of May, they are then dif-
patched from La Chine, eight miles above Montreal,
with eight or ten men in each canoe, and their bag-
gage ; and 65 packages of goods, 6oo weight of bil-
cuit, 200 weight of pork, three bulhels of peal'e, for
the men's provifion ; two oil cloths to cover the goods,
a fail, &c. an axe, a towing-line, a kettle, and a
fponge to bail out the water, with a quantity of gum,
bark, and watape, to repair the vefl'el. An European
on feeing one of thefe flender veflels thus laden, heaped
up, and funk with her gunwale within fix inches of the
water, would think his fate inevitable in fuch a boat,
when he reHedled on the nature of her voyage •, but
the Canadians are fo expert that few accidents hap-
pen."* * Ge„.HiJi.

FURSTENBURGH, a town and caflle of Gtx-ofthcFur
many, the capital of a county of the fame name, 30 '^'"'"''^j
miles north-wefl of Conilance. E. Long. 8. 30. N.^"' *°"
Lat. 47. 50.

FUR'rHCOMING, in Laixi, the name of an aaion
competent

F U S [3

competent to any perfon who has ufed arreftment in
the hands of his debtor's creditor, for having the fub-
_ jecl arreted declared his property.

FURUNCLE, or Boil, m Surtrery, a rmall refiil-
itig tumour, with intianiraation, rednefs, and great pairi,
arifing in the adipofe membrane, under the ikin. See
Surgery Imlex,

FURZE. See Ulkx, Botany Index.

FUSANUS, in Bolany, a genus of plants, belong-
ing to the polygamia clals. The hermaphrodite calyx
is quinquefid ; there is no corolla ; there are four (la-
mina ; the germen beneath ; there are four ftigmata j
the fruit a plum.

FUSAROLE, in ArchheBure, a jnoulding or or-
Ti;iment placed immediately under the echinus, in the
3)oric, Ionic, and Compofite capitals.

FUSE or Fuze, in artillery. See Fusv.E.

FUSEE, in clockwork, is that, conical part drswn
by the fpring, and about which t!ie chain or firing is
wound ; for the ufe of which, fee Clock and Watch.

F;-SKE, or Yirelmh. See Mcsqi'ET. -

FlsEK, Tu%e, or Fufe, of a bomb or grenado, is that
irhich makes the whole powder or compoiition in the
faell take fire, to do the deiigned execu'iun.

Fuzes are chietly made of very dry beech wood, and
fometimes of hornbeam, taken near the root. 'I'hey
aie turned rough, and bored at firft, and then kept
for feveral years in a dry place ; the diameter of the
hole is about one-fourth of an inch j the hole does not
rorae quite through, leaving about one-fourth of .an
inch at the bottom ; and the head is made hollow, in
the form of a bowl.

The compoiition for fuzes is faltpetre 3, fulphur i,
and mealed povvder 3, 4, and fometimes 5. 'T his com-
pofition is driven in with an iron driver (whofe ends are
capped with copper to prevent the compofltion from
taking fire), and equally hard as poflible ; the laft
ihovelfull being all mealed powder, and two Hands of
quickmatch laid acrofs each other benig driven in with
it, the ends of which are folded up into the hollow top,
and a cap of parchment tied over it till ufed.

When thefe fuzes are driven into the loaded fliell,
the lower end is cut oif in a flope, fo that the compo-
fition may inflame the powder in the ihell : the fuze
muft have fuch a length as to continue burning all the
time the (hell is in its range, and to fet fire to the
powder as foon as it touches the ground, %vhich in-
ftantly burfls into many pieces. When the diftance of
the battery from the object is known, the time of the
fhcU's flight may be computed to a fecond or two ;
which being known, the fuze may be cut accordingly,
by burning two or three, and making ufe of a watch
or a llring bv wav of a pendulum to vibrate feconds.

FUSIBILITY, m Natural ?hUofot>hy, that quality
of bodies which renders them fufible. Gold is more
fufible than iron or copper ; but lefs fo than filver, tin,
and lead. Borax is frequently mixed with metals, to
render them more fufible.

FUSIL, in Heraldry, a bearing of a rhoraboidal fi-
gure, longer than the lozenge, and having its upper
and lower angles more acute and (liarp than the other
two in the middle. It is called in Latin fufu:, " a
fpindle," from its (liape.

FUSILIERS, Fusii.EERS, or Fuzilnrs, in the mi-
litary art, are foldiers armed as the reft of the infantry,

Vol. IX. Part I.

13 1 F U S

but formerly wove caps like the grenadiers, thoitgh forae- Fulij
what Ihorter There are three regiments in the Britilh i'.
fervice : the royal regiment of Scotch fuzilcers raifed ^"'*"
in 1678 ; the royal regiment of EngUlh fuzilecrs raifed
in 1685; and the royal regiment of Wcllh fuzilcers
raifed in 1688-9.

FUSION, the (late of a body rendered fluid by fire.
See Fluiditv, and Chemistry Index.

FUST, or Faust, John, was a goldfmith of Mentz,
and one of the three artills to whom the valuable in-
vention of printing has been ufually afcribed. The
names of the other two were Guttemberg and SchoefTer.
It feems irapolTible, however, to determine with cer-
tainty, whether Full had any other merit in the bufinefs
than that of fupplying Guttemberg with money, who
had been making fome attempts with carved blocks at
Straihurgh, before he vitited Mentz. To Schoeffer,
the fon-in-law of Fuif , we are indebted for the inven-
tion of punches and matrices, by means of which this
noble art was afterwards carried to perfection. That
work which may be regarded as the origin of the true
typographic art, was the " Durandi Rationale Divinc-
rum Oihciorum," publiflied in 1459, ^ly F"^'^ s"*!
S'chcefier, which was fooi followed by a copy of the
bible, both executed in a very mallerlv manner.

We are informed that Fuil went to Paris in 1 46 2,
in order to dilpofe of a part of the fecond edition of his
bible, which he ^vas enabled to fell coniiderably lon-er
than bibles in manufcript, yet fome reckoned themfelves
overcharged by him, and fome pretend that he was even
accufed of magic, but for the belief of this there ap-
pears to be no rational foundation. It feems certaiu
that Full was never in Paris after the year 1466 ; but
that he was in that metropolis then, is proved by a note
at the end of a copy of Cicero's Oifices, intimating that
the firfl: poffeflbr received it from John Full at Paris, in
1 466. It is extremelv probable that he died that year
of the plague, to which 40,000 of the inhabitants fell
a facrifice in the months of Auguft and September.
This opinion is farther corroborated by tliis circum-
(lance, that the name of Schoeffer alone was prefixed
to the books which were publilhed at Mentz after that
period.

This man has been frequently confounded with John
Faull, better known by the name of Dr Faullus, a pre-
tender to the art of magic, who was finl a theologran,
then a ftudent of medicine, and lall of all fold himfelf
to the devil for 24 years, at the expiration of which
period it feems the devil came to carry off his purchafe,
and dafhed out the doflor's brains againil the wall
about mid-night. This wretched romance has no doubt
been invented by the monks, to blacken the reputation
of the great Fud, whofe art deprived them of the
emoluments arifmg from the copying of manufcripts.
See (Hillory of) PkiVTING.

Fust, in Arcliiteclurc, the fliaft of a column, or the
part comprehended between the bafc and the capital,
called alfo the naked.

FUSITAN, in Commerce, a kind of cotton iluff,
which feems as it were whaled on one fide.

Right fullians (liould be altogether made of cotton-
yarn, both woof and warp; but a great many are made,
the warp of which is flax, or even hemp.

There are fullians made of feveral kinds, wide, nar-
row, fine, coarfe ; with fliag or nap, and without it.

R r FUSTJAN

G A B

[ 5

II

Fuftisatic

^L'STIAK is alio ufed for a borabaft fly!e, or a high
Avelling kind of ^vriling, made up of heterogeneous
; part?.

rUSTICK, or Fl'STOCK, a yellow wood, that
grows in all the Caribbee iflands, and is ufed in dying
yellow. It is a fpecies of MoRus. See Botany In//ex.
And for its properties, fee Chemistry and Dyeing

FUSTIGATIO, in the Roman cuftoms, a punilh-
ment infliifled by beating with a cudgel. This punilli-
ment was peculiar to freemen ; for tlie flaves were
fcourged or lafr.ed with wliips.

14 ] GAB

FUTTOCKS, in a (hip, the timbers raifed over the
keel, or the encompaffing timbers t'hat make her
breadth.

FUTURE, fomething to come hereafter. We fay,
7, future (late, -x future contingency ; there is none but
God to v^\iO\afu'.ure things are prefent.

Future, or Fvturb Tenfc, in Grammar, denotes an
intleftion of verbs, whereby they denote, that a thing
will be in fome time yet to come. See Grammar.

FUZES, or Fusees, in artillerv. See Fusee.

FUZILEERS. See FusiLLi.ks.

G.

GTHE feventh letter and fifth confonant of our
» alphabet ; though in the alphabets of all the
oriental languages, the Hebrew, Pheiilcian, Chaldee,
Syriac, Samaritan, Arabic, and even Greek, G is the
third letter. The Hebrews call it ghhnel or gimcl, q. d.
" camel ;" by reafon it refcmbles the neck of that ani-
mal ; and the fame appellation it bears in the Samari-
tan, Phenician, and the Chaldee : in the Syriac it is
L?.!lcd game/, in Arabic giim, and in Greek gamma.

The gamma (r) of the Greeks is manifeftly the gi-
mel (3) of the Hebreivs or Samaritans. All tlie dif-
ference between the gamma and g-imel confilts in this,
that the one is turned to the right, and the other to
iiie left, according to the different manners of writing
and reading which obtained among thofe different na-
uoi:s ; fo that all the pains Salmafius has taken on So-
linus, to prove that the G was derived frOm the Greek
kappa, is loft.

From the Greeks the Latins borrowed their form
cf this letter ; the Latin G being certainly a corrup-
tion of the Greek gamma r, as might eafily be (hown
had our printers all the charafters and forms of this
letter ^vhich we meet with in the Greek and Xatin
j\'lSS. through which the letter paffed from r to G.

Diomed, lib. ii. cap. Dc Litera, calls G a new letter.
His reafon is, that tlie Romans had not introduced it
t)eforc the firft Punic war -, as appears from the roftnd
column eree^ed by C. Duilius, on which we every-
^vherc find a C in lieu of G. It was Sp. Carvilius ^vho
firft dillinguiflicd between thofe two letters, and in-
vented the figure of the G ; as we are affured by Te-
lentius Scaurus. The C ferved very well for G ; it
being the third letter of the Latin alphabet, as the r
or y was of the Greek.

The G is found iiiftead of C on fcveral medals :
Vaillanl, Num. Imperat. torn. i. p. 39.

M. Rcger produces a medal of the Tamilia Ogu/nia,
where Gar is read infl^ead of Car, which is on thofe
of M. Patin. But the C is more frequently feen on
medals in lieu of G > as, Aucustalis Cai.laxcia
CARTAClVENSrs, &C. for AuGUSTALTS, &C. Not
that the pronunciation of thofe words was altered, but
only tliat the G was unartfully or negligently cut by

the workmen : as Is the cafe In divers Infcrlptions of
the eaftern empire ; where AVC, AUCC, AUCCC, are '"
frequently found for AUG, &c.

The northern people frequently change the G into
V or W ; as in Ga/hs, IVa/lus ; Gal/ia, Wallia, Vallia,
&c. For in this inilance it mull not be laid that the
French have changed the W into G ; becaufe they
nrote Gal/us long before Wallus or Wallia was known,
as appears from all the ancient Roman and Greek
writers. And yet it is equally true, that the French
change the W of the northern nations, and V conlb-
nant, into G ; as, IVilliclmus, " William," into Guil-
laume ; Wulptdlas into Gttlphilas ; Vafcon into Gafcon,
&c.

The letter G is of the mute kind, and cannot be
any way founded without the help of a vowel, It is
formed by the refle^lion of the air againft the palate,
made by the tongue as the air paffes out of the throat •,
which Martianus Capella expreffes thus, G fpiritus cum
palato ■ fo that G is a palatal letter.

The modern G takes its form from that of the La-
tins. In Eiiglillx it has two lounds, one from the
Greek r and the Latin, which Is called that of the
hard G, becaufe it Is formed by a preffure fomewhat
hard on the fore part of the tongue againft the upper gam;
which found it retains before a, 0, u, /,r; as gate, go, gull.
At the end of a word It is always hard, as ring,fing, &c.
The other found, called that of the foft G, refembles
that ofy ; and is commonly, though not always, fourid
before e and i, as in gcflure, giant, &c. To this rule,
however, there are many exceptions j G is often hard
before /', as give, &c. and fonitlimes before e, as get,
&lc. It is alfo hard in derivatives from words ending
In^, asJt/igi/ig,fro/igcr, &c. and generally before er, at
the ends of words, asfnger. G is mute before », as
gnajh, ftgn. Gh has the foimd of the hard G in the
beginning of a word, as ghuJHij ; in the middle, and
fometimes at the end, it rs quite filent, as riglit, though.
At the end of a word Ch has often the found oif, as
laugh, rough, tough.

As a numeral, G was anciently ufed to denote 403 ;
and with a da(h over it thus g, 40,000.

As all abbreviature, G. ftands for Gaius, Gellius,
gens.

GAB

gens, genius, &.c. G. G. iur gcmina, ge/Jit, gcffi;run:,
&c. G. C. for genio civilaiis or Ccefaris. G. L. for
^ Gains Hbertus, or genio loci. G. V. S. for genio urbis
facrum. G. B. for gemo bono. And G. T. for genia
tutelari.

In mufic, G is the charafter or mark, of the treble
cleff ; and, from its being placed at the head, or mark-
ing the firil found in Goido's fcale, the whole fcidc
took the name gamut.

GABALE, in Mythology, a deity worfhipped at
Heliopolis under the figure of a lion, with a radiant
head ; and it is thus reprefented on many medals of
Caracalla.

GABARDINE, from the Italian gavardina, has
been fometimes ufed to denote a coarfe frock, or me:'.u
cirefs. In tills fenfe it is ufed by Shakefpeare in his
Tempeft and Merchant of Venice, and by Butler in his
Hudibrris, book i.

GABARA, or Gabbara, in antiquity, the dead
bodies which the Egyptians embalmed, and kept in
their houfes, efpecially thofe of fuch of their friends as
died with the reputation of great piety and holinefs, or
as martyrs. See Embalmikg, and Mummy.

GABEL {Gahella, Galium, Gablagium), in French
Cabelle, i. e. VcBigal, hath the fame fignification among
the ancient Englifh writers that gahelle hath in France.
It is a tax ; but hath been varioully ufed, as for a rent,
cuilora, fervice, &c. And where it was a payment of
rent, thofe \vho paid it were termed gahlatores. When
tlie word ^abel was formerly mentioned without any
adilition to it, it iignified the tax on fait, though after-
wards it was applied to all other taxes.

In the French cuitoms, the gabel, or tax on fait,
computed to make one-fourth of the whole revenue of
the kingdom, is faid to have had its rife in France in
1 286, under Philip the Fair. Philip the Long took
a double per livre on filt, by an edicl in I3J8, which
he promifed to remit when he was delivered from his
enemies j which was renen'ed by Philip de Valois in
1345 i and the duty was raifed to four deniers per
livre ; King John refumed it in 135J, and it \vas grant-
ed to the dauphin in 1358, to ranfom King John. It
was continued by Charles V. in 1366; after his de-
ceafe it was lupprefled, but revived again by Charles
VI. in 1381. Louis XI. raifed it to i 2 deniers per
livre; and Francis Lin 1 542 to 24 livres permuid:
and it has been confiderably augmented fince that time-,
ib that a minot of fait latterly oaid a duty of 52 livres
8 fois and 6 deniers. Philip de Valois firrt eftabliihed
granaries and officers of the gabelJes, and prohibited
any other pcrfons from felling fait : from which time
the whole commerce of fait for the inland confump-
ticn continued wholly in the king's hands, every grain
thereof being fold and diilributed by his farmers and
officers created for the purpole. — This opprelTive tax
has lately been aboliilied by the National AfTembly.

GAB 1 1, in Ancient Geography, a town of Latium,
midway almoft between Rome and Prenefie to the eaft,
often mentioned in the hillory of Tarquin the Proud.
CinHus Crobinus denoted a particular way of tucking
the gown, by drawing it forwards on the breaif, and
tying it into a knot ; as the people of Gabii did at a
fjlemn facrilice, on the fudden attack of an enemy, in
order to be fitter for aftion. In this manner the conful
ufed to declare war, to fecrifice, and burn the fpoils of

GAB

: was laid to he. prac'nciui.

15 ]

the enemy ; and then 1
place now exluift.

GAEINIAN LAWS, in Roman antiquities; laws (
inftituted upon feveral occalions by perfous of the name i_
ot Gabiiiius. 'I'he firll ^vas the Cabinia lex de Comiiiis, by
A. Gabinius the tribune, in the year of Rome 614. It
required, that in the public aftemblies for elcfiing ma-
gillrates, the votes Ihould be given by tablets, and not
I'lva voce. — Aiother de Cumitiis, which made it a ca
pital punilhment to convene any clandclline allembly,
agreeable to the old law of the i 2 tables. — Another de
Militia, by A. Gabinius the tribune, year of Rome
685. It granted Pompey the power of carrying or.
the war againft the pirates, during three years, and ot
obliging all king- , governors, and llates, to fupply him
with all the neceflaries he wanted, over all the Medi
terranean fea, and in the maritime provinces as far as
^OQ fiadia from the fea. — Anolher de Ufura bj' Au!.
Grfbinius the tribune, year of Rome 6S5. It ordain-
ed that no attion fliould be granted for the recovery of
any money borrowed upon finall intereft to be lent upon
larger. This was an ufual prai^Hce at Rome, which
obtaioed the name ol verfuram facere. — Another againft
fornication.

GABIONS, in Fortijication, bafltets made of ozier
twigs, of a cyUndrical form, v-js. feet high and four
^vide ; which, being tilled vrith earth, ferve as a (helter
from the enemy's fire.

GABLE or Gabel End, of a houfe (Jxora gaval,
Wellh), is the upright triangular end from the cornice
or eaves to the top of the houfe.

GABRES, or Gavres, a religious feft in Perfia
and India; called alfo Gebres, Guebres, Gevres, Gaurs,
&.C. See Magi.

Tlie Turks call the Chriffians Gabres, q. d. Infidels,
or people of a fslfe religion ; or rather, as Le-anclavius
obferves, Heathens or Gentiles: the word Gabre, among
the Turks, having the fame fignification as Paqan or
Infidel among the Chriflians, and denoting any thing
not Mahometan.

In Perfia the word lias a more peculiar fignification ;
wherein it is applied to a fei.^ difperfed through the
country, and faid to be the remains of the ancient Per-
fians or followers of Zoroalfer, being worlhippers of
fire. 1 hey have a fuburb at Ifpahan, which is called
Gaurabad, or " the town of the Grurs,'''' where th.ey
are employed in the meanell and vileft drudgery ; fome
of them are difperfed through other parts of Perfia ;
but they principally abound in Kerman, the moll bar-
ren province in the whole country, where the Maho-
metans allow them liberty and the exercife of their re-
ligion. Several of them tied many ages ago into India,
and fettled about Surat, where their pollerity remain
to this day. There is alfo a colony of them at Bom- '
bay. They are a poor, ignorant, inoffenfive people,
extremely fuperllitious, and zealous for their rites, ri-
gorous in their morals, and honeft in their dealings.
Tiiey profefs to believe a refurreftion and a future
judgment, and to wordiip only one God. And though
lliey peri"orm their worlliip before fire, and dired their
devotion towards the riling fun, for wliich they have
an extraordinary veneration, yet they flreiuioully main-
tain that they worlliip neither ; but that thefe are the
moft cxprelTiVC fyrabols of the Deity, and that for this
reafon they turn tov.ards them i:i their devotional fcr-
R r 2 vices.

G,.d.

G A D ^ C 3T

Gabrel vices. — However, fome have fuppofed, tliat thefe are
'' Perlians converted to Chrhlianity, who, being after-

, wards left to themfclves, mingled their ancient fuper-
ftitions with {he truths and praclices of Chriftianity,
and fo formed for themfelves a religion apart : and they
allege, that throughout the whole of their fyftem of
doclrine and praftice, we may dlfcern the marks and
traces of Chriftianity, tliough grievouily defaced ; the
.nnnunciation, the magi, the malTacre of the iniants,
our Sawour's miracles, his perfecutions, afcenfion,
&c.

GABRIEL, the name of one of the principal an-
gels in heaven. It fignifies thejlrength of God. There
are a few events, in which this exalted being was con-
cerned, recorded in Scripture. He w;;s fent to the pro-
phet Daniel, to explain to him the vifion of the ram and
goat, and the myftery of the feventy weeks, which had
been revealed to him. He was fent to Zecharlas, to
declare to him the future birth of John the Baptift. Six
months after, he was fent to Nazareth to the Virgin
Mary, to vvara her of the birth of Jefus Chriil.

The Oiientalifts add feveral particulars to what the
Scriptures inform us concerning the angel Gabriel.
The Mahometans call him x\\t failfifu/fpirit ; and the
Perfians, by way of metaphor, the peacoch of heaven.
We read, in the fecond chapter of the Koran, that
ivh'foevi'r is an enemy to Gabriel Jhali be cu? founded . It
isas Gabriel, they believe, who brought to Mahomet
their falfe prophet the revelations which he publiihed ;
and it was he who conducted him to heaven mounted
upon the animal Borr.k.

Gabriel, St, an ifland lying in the great river La
Plata, South America, %vhich was difcovered by the
celebrated navigator Seballian Cabot, in the year
1526.

GABRIELITES, in ecclefiaaical hiftory, a fed of
Anabaptifts that appeared in Pomerania in 1530.
They derive their name from Gabriel Scherling ; who,
after having been for fome time tolerated in that coun-
try, was obliged to remove, and died in Poland.

GAD, a Jewifli prophet, the feer, or domeftic prophet
of King David, who was his advifer in all matters of im-
portance. ^Vhen the difpleafure of the Almighty was
roufed againll David and the children of Ifrael for
numbering the people. Gad received a commiffion to
wait upon the king, and make him an offer of three
tvils as a punifhment for his offence. Thefe were fa-
mine, war, or peftilence, the lall of which was chofen
by David, the ravages of which were terrible beyond
defcription, and produced genuine repentance in the
hearts of furvivers. To perpetuate the memory of this
event. Gad ordered an altar to be ereded in the threlh-
ing-floor of Oman the Jebufitc, around which place, it
is laid, the temple was afterwards built. We learn
from the Old Teilamer.t that Gad was an author, who
wrote a hillory of his own times, of which much ufe
appears to have been made by the compilers of the
books of Samuel and Chronicles. Gad was alfo the
ifee name of one of the twelve patriarchs, or fons of
Jacob.

Gad, in j^nclent Geography, a diflrict of the Tranf-
joidan Paleftinc, lltuated between Gilead and the king-
dom of Ba{l;an to the north, and the kingdom of Amo-
rites, to the fouth ; having the Jordan to the weft, and

6 ]

G A F

bounded by various peoples on the eaft ; fo called from
a tribe of that name.

Gad, among miners, a fmall punch of iron, with a
long wooden handle, ufed to break up the ore.

One of the miners holds this in his hand, direfting
the point to a proper place, while the other drives it
into the vein, by llriking it with a fledge hammer.

GjD-Bee, or Gad-F/t/. See Oestrus, Entomolo-
gy Index.

GADARA, in yincienl Geographij, a town of the
Persea, or Transjordan, in the Decapolis, a very ftrong
place. Rertored by Pompey a'ter its demolition by the
Jews (Jofephus). After Herod's death it was joined to
the province of Syria by Auguftus.

GADARENORUM Acer, in indent Geography,
the country of the Gadarenes, called by Matthew the
country of the Gergefenes, becaule it was a diftrift that
lay between Gadara and Gergefa, otherwife called Ge
rqfa, both which lay within the Decapolis on the other
fide Jordan.

GADES, or Gadira, in Ancient Geography, a
fmall illand in the Atlantic, on the Spanilh coait, 2J
miles from the Columns of Hercules. It was fometimes
called Tartejfus and Erythia according to Pliny. Ge-
ryon, whom Hercules killed, fixed his refidence there.
Hercules, furnamed Gaditaims, had there a celebrated
temple in which all his labours were engraved with ex-
cellent workmanihip. The inhabitants are called Ga-
ditani.

GADUS, a genus of fifties belonging to the order of
jugulares. This genus includes the cod, the whiting,
the torfk, &c. See IcHTHYOLOGV Index.

GAELIC Language. See Highlands.

GTETULIA, in Ancient Geography, a country of
Africa, lying to the fouth of Mauritania, called Gatu-
lia Propria, and Vetus, Gcctidi, the people, were dif-
tinguilhed by different epithets ; as Nigri, Aiitololes,
Dane and Baniurce, (Pliny). The G^rti//i were among
the firft inhabitants of Africa -, a rough, unpoliihed peo-
ple, living on venifon and the fpontaneous produftions
of the earth ; a roving, wandering people, wlio took
up wkh the firft place in which night furpriled them,
(Salluft).

GAFF, a fort of boom or pole, frequently ufed in
fmall ftiips, to extend the upper edge of the mizen ;
and always employed for the fame purpofe on thofe fails
whofe foremoll edges are joined to the maft by hoops or
lacings, and which are ufually extended by a boom be-
low. Such are the main fails of all floops, brigs, and
fchooners.

GAFFAREL, James, a French divine, and very
learned writer, born about i6di. He acquired great
Ikill in the. oriental and feveral other languages; and
was particularly verfant in the cabbaliftic and occult
fciences, which he learned, expofed, and refuted. Car-
dinal Richelieu made choice of him for his library
keeper, and fent him into Italy to coUeft the beft ma-
nufcripts and books. He publiflied a book entitled Cu-
riojite-z Innouies, i. e. Unheard-of Curiofitics. It is faid
the cardinal defigned to employ him in his grand pro-
ject for the reunion of religions. He died in 168 r,
aged 80. He had been labouring for many years, and
had almoft finillicd a hiftory of the fubterranean world ;
cont-iiiung an account of the caves, grottoes, vaults,
catacombs,

GAG I 3

catacombs, and mine?, he had met H-ith in 30 years tra-
^ vols.

GAGATE3, or Jkt. See Jf:t, Mineralogy
Index.

GAGE, in our ancient cullotns, fignifies a pledge
or pawn, given by way of fecurity. The word is only
properly ufed in fpeaking of moveables ; for immove-
ables, hytxilheca is ufed.

If the gage perifli, the perfon who received it is
not to anfwer for it, but only for estieme negli-
gence, &c.

■ Gagk is alfo ufed for a challenge to combat : (See
Cartel). In which fenfe, it was a pledge, which the
accufer or challenger cart on the ground, and the other
took up as accepting the challenge ; it was ufually a
glove, gauntlet, chaperoon, or the like. See Combat,
and Duel.

Gage, is only now- retained as a fubftantive. As a
verb, the G is changed into W, and of gage is form-
ed ivage: as to wage law, to wage deliverance,
ci. d. to give fecuritv a thing Ihall be delivered. See
Wage.

If a perfon who has diflrained be fued for not having
delivered what he had taken by diftrefs, he Ihould wage,
or gage, or gager, deliverance j that is, put in furety
that he will deliver them.

Mort-GjGE, is that which is left in the hands of the
proprietor, fo that he reaps the fruits thereof.

In oppolition to vif-gage, where the fruits or reve-
nues are reaped by the creditor, and reckoned on the
foot of the debt, which diminiihes in proportion there-
to. The fecond acquits or difcharges itfelf ; the firll
doee not.

Gage, in the fea language. When one (hip is to
ivindward of another, flie is faid to have the weather-
gage of her. They likewife call the number of feet
that a vefiel finks in the water, the Ihip's f (Tg-f ; this
they find by driving a nail into a pike near the end, and
putting it down befide the rudder till the nail catch
hold under it ; then as many feet as the pike is under
water is the (hip's gage.

Gage, among letter founders, a piece of box, or
other hard wood, varioufly notched ; the ufe of which
is to adjuft the dimenlions, llopes, &c. of the different
forts of letters. See FouXDERY.

Gage, in joinery, is an inftruraent made to ftrike a
line truly parallel to the ftraight fide of any board or

piece

of liufF. Its chief ufe is for

gagmg

of

true, to fit into mortifes ; and for gaging fluff of an
equal thicknefs. It is made of an oval piece of wood,
fitted upon a fnuare fiick, to flide up and down ftiffly
thereon, and «-ith a tooth at the end of a ftaff, to fcore,
to flrike a line upon the ftaff at any diftance, according
to the diftance of the oval from it.

Sliding Gage, a tool ufed by the mathematical in-
ftrument makers for meafuring and fetting off dif-
tances.

Sea G.1GE, an inftrtiment invented by Dr Hales and
Dr Defaguliers for finding the depth of the fea ; the
„f.V^^\i defcription whereof is this. AB (fig. I.) is the gage
CCXXMir ^^j.jjg^ ijj ^^.],j^j^ jj cemented the gage tube ff \n the
brafs cape at G. Tlie upper end of tube F is hermeti-
cally fealed, and the open lower endyis immerfed in
mercury, marked C, on which fwims a fmall thicknefs
or furface of treacle. On the top of the bottle is fcre^v-

17 ] GAG

ed a tube of brafs HG, pierced with feveral holes to ad-
mit the water into the bottle AB. Tiie body K is a ■■
weight hanging by its lliank L, in a focket N, with a
notch on one lide at m, in which is fixed the catch / of
the fpring S, and paffmg through the hole L, in the
fliank of the weight K, prevents its falling out when
once hung on. On the top, in the upper part of the
brafs tube at H, is fixed 'a large empty ball, or full
blown bladder I, which mull not be fo large, but
that the weight K may be able to fink the whole under
water.

The inftrument thus conflrufted is ufed in the fol-
lowing manner. The weight K being hung on, the
gage is let fall into deep water, and finks to the bot--
tom : the focket N is fomewhat longer than the Ihank
L ; and therefore, after the weight K comes to the
bottom, the gage will continue to defcend till the
lower part of the focket lirikes againll the weight ;
this gives liberty to the catch to fly out of the hole L,
and let go the weight K : when this is done, the bail
or bladder I inftantly buoys up the gage to the top
of the water. W hile the gage is under water, the wa-
ter having free accefs to the treacle and mercury in the
bottle, will by its prelTure force it up into the tube
F/, and the height to which it has been forced by the
greateil preffure, viz. that at the bottom, will be Ihown
by the mark in the tube which the treacle leaves behind
it, and which is the only ufe of the treacle. This
fhows into \vhat fpace the \vhoIe air in the tube Yf is
comprefled ; and confequently the height or depth of
the water which by its weight produced that comprel-
fion, which is the thing required.

If the gage tube Vf be of glafs, a fc'ale might be
drauTi on it with the point of a diamond, Ihowng, bv
infpeftion, what height the vvater ftands above the bot-
tom. But the length of 10 inches is not futhcient for
fathoming depths at fea, fince that, when all the air in
fuch a length of tube is compreffed into half an inch,
the depth of water is more than 634 feet, which is
not half a quarter of a mile.

If, to remedy this, we make ufe of a tube 50 inches
long, which for ilrength may be a mufltet barrel, anil
fuppofe the air comprefled into an hundredth part of
half an inch ; then by faying, as 1 : 99 : : 400 : 39600
inches, or ^300 feet ; even this is but little more than
half a mile, or 2640 feet. But fince it is reafonable
to fuppofe the cavities of the fea bear fome proportion
to the mountainous parts of the land, fome of which
are more than three miles above the earth's furface ;
therefore, to explore fuch great depths, the DoClor
contrived a new form for his fea gage, or rather for
the gage tube in it, as follows. BCDF (fig. 2.)
is a hollow metalline globe communicating on the top
with a long tube AB, whofe capacity is a ninth part
of that globe. On the lower part at D, it has alfo a
fhort tube DE, to ftand in the mercury and treacle.
The air contained in the compound gage tube is com-
preffed by the water as before ; but the degree of com-
preffion, or height to which the treacle has been for-
ced, cannot there be fcen through the tube : there-
fore, to anfwer that end, a (lender rod of metal or
wood, with a knob on the top of the tube AB, will
receive the mark of the treacle, and ihow it when ta-
ken out.

If 'Ik tube AB be CO inches long, and of fu-h a

bort

GAG [31

bcre that every inch in length ihoald be a cubic inch
■'of air, and the contents of the globe and tube toge-
ther 500 cubic inches •, then when the air is coni-
prelTed within an hundredth part of the whole, it is
evident the treacle will not approach nearer than five
inches of the top of the tube, which will agree to the
depth of 33CO feet of ^vater as above. Twice this
► <iepth will comprefs the air into half that fpace nearly,
viz. 24- inches, which correfpond to 6600, which is a
mile and a quarter. Again, half that fpace, or i|: inch,
will fliow double the former depth, viz. 13200 feet, or
2 J miles ; which is probably very nearly the greateft
depth of the Tea.

Bucket Sea Gags, an inftrument contrived by Dr
Hales to find the different degrees of coolnefs and falt-
nefs of the fea, at different depths : it confifts of a
common houfehold pail or bucket, wth two heads :
Thefe heads hive each a round hole in the middle,
abrjut four inches in diameter, covered with fquare
valves opening upward ; and that they may both open
and ihut together, there is a fmall iron rod fixed to
the upper part of the lower valve, and the other end to
the lower iide of the upper valve. So that as the buc-
ket defcends with its finking weight into the fea, both
the valves may open by the force of the ^vater, which
by that means has a free paflage through the bucket.
But when the bucket is dra\vi5 u?, then both the valves
fljut by the force of the ^vatcr at the upper part of the
bu'"ket ; fo that the bucket is drawn up full of the
loveft fea water to which it has dticended. When the
bucket is drawn up, the mercurial thermometer fixed
in it is examined ; but great care mufl be taken to ob-
ferve the degree at ^vhich the mercury ftands, before
the lower part of the thermometer is taken out of the
water in the bflcket, left it be affefted by the different
temperature of the air. In order to keep the bucket
in a right pofition, there are four cords fixed to it,
reaching about three feet below it ; to v.hich the fink-
ing weight it fixed. The refult of fevcral trials with
this gage w?s, that when it was let do'.vn to diflFerent
depths, from 360 feet to 5346 feet, in lat. 25. 13. N.
and long. 25. 1 2. \V. it was difcovered by the ther-
mometer, that the cold increafed gradually in propor-
tion to the depths, till it defcended to 3900 feet, viz.
near -Jths of a mile, whence the mercury in the ther-
mometer came up at 53° ; and though it was afterwards
iunk to 5346 feet, i. e. a mile and '6 feet, it came up
no lower : the warmth of the water upon the furface,
and that of the air, was all that time 84°. WTien the
water in the bucket was become of the fame tempera-
ture with that on the furface of the fea, equal quanti-
ties of both were weighed and tried by the hydrometer •,
that from below was found to be the heavieii, and con-
fequently the falteft.

Dr Hales was probably led to the conftruflion of
this fea gage from an inftniment invented by Dr Hook, -
and defigned for the fame purpofc. This confifts of a
fquare wooden bucket C, whofe bottcm.s are fo con-
trived, that as the weight of A finks the iron B, to
which the bucket C is faftened by two handles D, D,
on the end of which are the moveable bottoms or valves
£E, and thereby draws down the bucket, the refift-
a'lce of the water keeps up the bucket in the pofture
C, whereby the water, ^vhilft the bucket was defcending,
Lath a free paffage through it ; whereas, as ibon as the

8 ] GAG

bucket is pulled upwards by the line F, the refiftance Gage
of the water to that motion beats the bucliet down- «~"
wards, and keeps it i:i the pofture G, whereby the in-
cluded water is kept from getting out, and the ambient
water kept from getting in. Pliil. Trani. N" ix. p. 149.
and N° xxiv. p. 447. or Abr. vol. ii. p. 260.

jiqueo-vicrcurial Gags, is the name oi an apparatus
contrived by Dr Hales, and applied in various forms
to the branches of trees, in order to determine tiie
force with which they imbibe moifture. Let e r, Fig. 4.
be a cylindiic glafs, e. gr. of an inch diameter with-
in, and eight inches long. Into this glafs is i'.i^
troduced the branch of a young thriving apple tree
/;, about three feet long, with lateral branches ; the
diameter of the tranfverfe cut 2 being Aths of an
inch. Having fitted the joint r to the tube at /•, by
folding a piece of fheep's ikin round the ftem, it is ce-
mented widi a mixture of bees wax and turpentine
melted tsgether, in fuch proportion as to make a
very ftifi" clammy palte ivhen cold, and over the cement
folds of wet bladders are bound firmly with pack
thread. To the lower end e of the large tube, a fmal-
kr tube -z- e is cemented, being about 4 of an inch dia-
meter, and 1 8 inches long, and in fubftance full \ of
an inch thick. Thefe tubes are cemented together at
e with common hard brick duft or powdered chalk ce-
mented, and the joint is farther fecured with the cement
of bees wax and turpentine, over which a wet bladder
is bound. The apparatus being thus prepared, the
braVich is turned downwards, and the glals tube up-
wards, and then both tubes are filled with water j with
the finger applied to the open end of the fmall tube,
it is inverted and immerfed in the glais clftern s, full
of mercury and water. In this fituation the lower end
of the branch was immerfed fix inches in water, viz.
from r to /; the water was imbibed by the branch at
its tranfverfe cut /; and during its afcent into the fap
\'effe)s of the branch, the mercury rofe in the tube e iS
from the ciftem .v, fo that in half an hour it was rifen
5} inches high, as far as -z. The height of the mer-
cury indicated, in fome meafure, the force with which
the fap was imbibed, though not the whole force ; bc-
caufe, while the water was imbibed by the branch, its
tranfverfe cut was covered v\ith innumerable little he-
mifpheres of air, and many air bubbles iffued out of the
fap veffels, w-hich partly filled the tube e r. as the water
was drawn out of it : and therefore the height of the
mercury could only be proportionable to the excefs of
the quantity of water drawn off above the quantity of
the air which iffued out of the wood. If the quantity
of air iffuing from the wood had been equal to the
quantity of water imbibed, it is plain that the mercu-
ry could not rife at all, becaufe there ^vould be no
room for it in the tube : but if nine parts in twelve of
the water be imbibed by the branch, and only three
fuch parts of air iffue into the tube in the fame time
the mercury muft riie near fix inches, and fo propor-
tionably in other cafes. Dr Halts obfcrved, that tlie
mercury rofe higheft, in moft cafes, when tVie fun was
clear aiid warm,' and that it fubfided three or four
inches towards evening, but rofe again the next day
as it gre\v warm, though feldom fo high as at tint.
Dr Hales adapted the iize and fliape of the glals appa-
ratus !«! a great variety of branches of fevcral fizes and
Oi different kinds of trees, and repeated the experiment

above

GAG

t 3

,?■ n'jove defcribcd, mulalii mutandm, in a variety of in-
~' '~~^ Dances. See his Vegetable Statics, vol. i. chap. ii. p.
84, &c.

Tiih Gage, the nnme of an inftrument ufed for
determining the height of the tides by Mr Bayly, in
the courfe of a voyage towards the fouth pole, &c. In
the Refolution and Adventure, in 1772, 1773, 1774,
and 1775. This inllrument conlifts of a glals tube,
whofe interaal diameter was feven tenths of an inch,
laihcd faft to a ten feet fir rod, divided i-.ito fecr, inches,
and quarters : this rod was fattened to a H/or,g poft
fixed upright and firm in the water. At the lower end
of the tube was an exceeding fmall aperture, through
■which the water T^-as admitted. In confequence of
this conftru£lion, the furface of the water in the tube
iv?.s fo little affecled by the agitation of the fca, that
its height was not altered one tenth of an ip.ch, when
the fwell of the fea 'vas t^vo feet ; and Mr Bayly
ivas certain, that with this inftrument he could dif-
cem a difference of one tenth of an inch in the height
of the tide.

Wind Gags, an inftrument for meafuring the force
of the wind upon any given furface. It was invented
bv Dr Lind, who gives the following defcription of it,
Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixv.
Fig. 5. This inftrument confifts of two glafs tubes AB,

CD, of five or fix inches in length. Their bores, which
are io much the better for being equal, are about fo"ir
tenths of an inch in diameter. They are comiecled '
together like a fiphon, b\r a fmall bent glafs tube a b,
the bore pf which is about one tenth of an inch in
diaineter. On the upper part of the leg AB there is
a tube of latten brafs, which is kneed, or bent per-
pendicularly outwards, and has its mouth open to-
wards F. On the other leg CD, is a cover with a
round hole G in the upper part of it two tenths of an
inch in diameter. Th.is cover and the kneed tube are
connected together by a ilip of brafs e d, which not
only gives ftrength to the whole inftrument, but alfo
ferves to hold the fcale HI. The kneed tube and co-
ver are fixed on with hard cement or fealing wax.
To the fame tube is foldered a piece of brafs e, with
E round hole in it to receive the ftccl fpindle KL ; and
at _/" there isjuft fuch another piece of brafs foldered to
the brafs hoop g h, which furrounds both legs of the
inftrument. There is a fmall ftioidder on the fpindle
at f, upon which the inftrument refts, and a fmall nut
at /, to prevent it from being blown o.f the fpindle by
the wind. The whole inftrument is eafiTy turned round
upon the fpindle by the wii.d, fo as always to prefent
the mouth of the kneed tube towards it. The end of
the fpindle has a fcrew on it ; by which it m.ay be
fcriwed into the tdp of a poft or a ftaiid made on
purcofe. It has alfo a hole at L, to admit a fmall lever
for fcrewing \\ into wood with more readinefs and fa-
cility. A thin plate of brafs k is foldered to the kneed
tube about half an inch above the round hole G fo as
to prevent rain from falling into it. 'i'here is likewifc
a crooked tube AE (fig. 6.) to be put occafionally up-
on the mouth of the kneed tube F, in order to prevent
rain from being blown into the mouth ' of the wind
gage when it is left out all night, or expofed in the
time of rain.

'J'he force or momentum of the wind may be afccr-
taiiied by the affiftance of this inftrument, by filling

19 ] GAG

the tubes \\Ai full of water, and pufliing the fcale a
little up or down, till the o of the fcale, when the in- ^
flrumeht is held up perpendicularly, be on the line with
the furface of the water in both legs of the wind-
gage. X^e inftrument being thus adjufted, hold it up
perpendicularly, and turning the mouth of the kneed
tube towards the wind, obferve how much the water
is dcprefied by it in the one leg, and raifed in the
other. The fum of the two is the height of a column
of water which the wind is capable of fuftaining at
that time ; and every body that is oppofed to that
wind will be preffed upon by a force equal to the
weight of a column of water, having its bafe equal to
the altitude of the column of water fuftained by the
wind in the wind gage. Hence the force of the wind
upon any body where the furface oppofed to it is
known may be eafily found ; and a ready comparifon
may lie made betwixt the ftrength of one gale of wind
and that of another.

_The force of the wind may be likcwife meafured
with this inftrument, by filling it until the water runs
out of the hole G. For if we then hold it up to the
Wind as before, a quantity of water will be blown out ;
and if both legs cf the inftrument are of the fame
bore, the height of the column fuftained ivDl be equal
to double tlie column of water in either leg, or the fum
of what is wanting in both legs. But if the legs are
of unequal bores, neither of thefe will give the true
height of the column of water which the ^vind fuftain-
ed. But the true height may be obtained by the fol-
lowing formula.

Suppofe that after a gale of wind which had blown
the water from A to B (fig. 7), forcing it at the fame
time tlirough the other tube out at E, the furface of
the water ftiould be found flanding at fome level DG,
and it were required to know what was the height of
the column EF or AB, which the wind fuftained.
In order to obtain this, it is only iieceilary to find the
height of the columns DB or GF, which are con-
ftantly equal to one another j for either of thefe added
to one of the equal columns AD, EG, will give the
true height of the column of water which the wind
fuftained.

1. Let the diameters AC, EH, of the tubes, be
refpeftively reprefented by c d ; and let flzr AD, or
EG, and .v=DB, or FG : Then it is evident, that
the column DE is to the column EG, as rx to d^a.
But thefe columns are equal. Therefore c'xzzd'a ;

and confequently .vrr— ^r-.

2. But if at any iiiftant of time whilft the wind w;.-.
blowing, it was obfcrvcd, that, when the water Hood
at E, the top of the tube out of which it is fi-iccd,
it was depreiVed in the ether to fomc given level BF.
the altitude at- which it would have ftood in each, had
it immediately fubfided, may be found in the follow-
ing manner : Let Z'=.\B or EF — Tlicn it is evident
that the column DB is equal to the difference of co-
lumns EF, GF. But the difference of thefe column?

is as J'b — d'-x ; and confequentlv .vzr , , . .

For the cafes when the wind blows in at the narroiv

leg of the inftrument: Let AB=EF=*, EG, or

AD=<7, GF=:DB=a-, and the diameters EH, GA,

rcfpectivclv

Gainage.

Gahnii re'pec^ively z=J, c, as before. Then it is evident,
that the column AD is to the column GF as a c' to
I d'x, Butthefe columns are equal , therefore d'xr=ia c' ;

and confequently x= -^. It is alfo evident that the

column AD is equal to the difference of the columns
AB, DB ; but the difference of thefe columns is as
be' — c'x Therefore (/'rrirzi^r' — c'x. Whence we get

The ufe of the fmall tube of communication a b
(fig. 5.) is to check the undulation of the water, fo
that the height of it may be read off from the fcale
<A-ith eafe and certainty. But it is particularly defigned
to prevent the water from being thro\vn up to a much
greater or lefs altitude than the true height of the co-
lumn which the wind is able at that time to fuftain,
from its receiving a fudden impulfe whilft: it is vi-
brating either in its afcent or defcent. As in fome
cafes the water in this inflrument might be liable to
freeze, and thus break the tubes, Dr Lind recommends
a faturated folution of fea fait to be ufed inflead of it,
wliich does not freeze till Fahrenheit's thermometer
falls to o.

GAHNIA, a genus of plants belonging to the hex-
andria clafs. See Botany Index.

GAIETA, an ancient, handfome, and ftrong town
of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples and in the Terra
di Lavoro, with a fort, citadel, harbour, and billiop's
fee. It was taken by the Auflrlans in 1707, and by
the Spaniards in 1734. It is feated at the foot of a
mountain near the fea, in E. Long. 13. 37. N. Lat.
41.30.

GAIN, the profit or lucre a perfon reaps from his
trade, employment, or induftry. Some derive the word

from the Ge

I gewiii :

jf the Italians had made

guadagno ; the French and Enolilh gam.

There are legal and reputable gains, as well as fordid
and infamous ones. What is gained beyond a certain
fum, by gaming, is all liable to be rellored again, if the
lofer will take \hc benefit of the law.

Gain", in j4rchitc8iire, is the ivorkman's term for
the bevelling fhoulder of a joilt or other timber. It
is ufed alfo for the lapping of the end of the joirt,
&.C. upon a trimmer or girder ; and then the thick-
nefs of the fhoulder is cut into the trimmer ; alfo
bevelling upwards, that it rnay jull receive the gain ;
and fo the joill and trimmer lie even and level with
the furface. This way of working is ufed in floors
and hearths.

To Gain the Wind, in fea language, is to arrive on
the weather fide or to windward of fome other veiTel in
fight, when both are plying to windward or failing as
near the wind as iioffible.

GAINAGE, Gainacium, in our ancient writers,
fignifies the draught oxen, horfes, wain, plough, and
furniture, for carrying on the work of tillage by the
bafer fort of fokemen and villains.

Gainage is the ■ fame with what is othenvife called
li'ainage. Brafton, lib. i. cap. 9. fpeaking of lords and
fervants, fays, Ut fi eoi dcjlrnant, quod Jahum nan pojjit
eis effe •wainagiumfuum. And again, lib. iii. trad. 2.
cap. I. Villanus non cmerciabilur, nljl faho wainngio
fuo : For anciently, as it appears both by Magna
2

20 ] GAL

Ghana and other books, the villain, when amerced, (
had his gainage or wainage free, to the end his plough
might not ftand ftill : and the law, for the fame reafon, _
dots liiil allow a like privilege to the hufbandmcn j
that is, his draught horfes are not in many cafes
diarainable.

Gainage is alfo ufed for the land itfelf, or the profit
raited by cultivnting it.

GAINSBOROUGH, a town of Lincolnfhire in
England, 150 miles fiom London, feated on the river
Trent n«,ir the fea. It is a large well built town,
with a pretty good trade, and has the title of an earl-
dom. W. Long. o. 4c. N. Lat. 53. 26. The north
marlh in its neighbourhood is noted for fiorfe races.
The Danes who invaded the kingdom brougiu their
fhips up to this place. It was here that Sweno the
Dane was murdered by one of the Englilh, who was
never di {'covered.

GALACTITES, in the hiftory of foOils, a fub-
fiance much refcnibliiig the morochthus or French
chalk, in many refpccts •, but different from it in
colour. 'Jlie ancients found it in the Nile and in
fome rivers in Greece, and ufed it in medicine as an
af-lringent, and for delluxions and ulcers of the eyes.
At p.-efcnt it is common in Germany, Italy, and
fome parts of France, and is wholly overlooked, being
efteemed a worfe kind of morochthus. See Moroch-
thus.

GALACTOPHAGI, and Galactofot^, in an-
tiquity, perfons v^ho lived wholly on milk, without
corn or the ufe of any other food. The words are
compounded of y«Aa, yaAaxlof , mtik ; !pa{in, to eat ; nnd
TTOTD! of Tutu, I drink.

Certain nations in Scythia Afiatica, as the Getse,
Nomades, Sic. are famous, in ancient hiftory, in quality
of galaBofiliagi, or milk-eaters. Homer makes their
eloge, Iliad, lib. iii.

Ptolemy, in his geography, places the GalaflophagI
between the Riphitan mountains on one fide, and the
Hyrcanian fea on the other.

GALANGALS, in the Materia Medico. See

KyF.MPFERIA.

GALANTHUS, the Snow-drop, a genus of plants
belonging to the hexandria clafs, and in the natural
method ranking under the ninth order, Spallmcea. See
Botany Index.

GALATA, a great fuburb belonging to Conftan-
tinople, oppofite to the feraglio, on the other fide of the
harbour. It is here the Greeks, Armenians, Franks,
Chriftians, and Jews inhabit, and are allowed the exer-
cife of their refpetf ive worfhips.

GALATj^A and Gai.atHjEA, in fabulous hillory,
a fea nymph, daughter of Ncreus and Doris. She was
palTionately loved by the Cyclops Polyphemus, whom
(he treated with coldnefs and difdain ; while Acis, a
flicpherd of Sicily, enjoyed her unbounded affection.
The happinefs of thefe two lovers was diflurbcd by the
jtaloufy of the Cyclops, who cruflicd his rival to pieces
with a piece of a broken rock while he rcpofiid on the
bofom of Galata-a. The nymph was inconfolable for
the lofs of Acis ; and as llie could not reftore him to
life, Ibe changed him into a fountain.

GAL ATI A, the ancient name of a province of
Afia Minor, now called Aimifia. It was bounded on
the call by Cappadocia, on the weft by Bithynia, on

the

'//Jr// e^l^v;,. //»/.'■ A.,^./'r,

G A J.

fliefoulhby Panipliylia,and on the norlli by tl;e Eu.\ine
fea. It «as the north part of Phrygia Magna ; but
'_j upon being occupied by the Gauls was called Calatia ;
and becaule fituated araidll Greek colonies, and itfelf
mixed with Greeks, Gallvgrircia. Strabo calls it Ga-
lalia and Ga/iognrcia ; hence a twofold name of the
people j Calalis and GaUogrceci. I'he Greeks called it
Gallia Parva ; to diltingHidi it from the- Tranfalpwa,
both which they called Galalia. It was reduced under
the fubjeclion of the Romans in the time of AuguRus,
and is now in the hands of the Turks. Here St Paul
founded a church, to which he direfled that epillle
wliich is flill known by the name of the Epiflic to the
Ga/alians, and was written to reclaim them from the
obfervation of Jewilli ordinances, into which they had
been feduced by fome falfe teachers.

GALAX, a genus of plants belonging to the pen-
tandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking with
thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany.

GALAXY, in Ajironomij, that long, white, lumi-
nous track, which feems to encompr-fs the heavens like
a fwath, fcarf, or girdle : and which is eafdy per-
ceivable in a clear night, efpecially when the moon
does not appear. The Greeks call it r«Aa^i«;, Ga/axi/,
oi VaXa, yaXxxloi;, Milk i on account of its colour and
appearance : the Latins, for the flune reafons, call it
ijia laBea ; and we, the tnilky -way. It pafles between
Sagittarius and Gemini, and divides the fphere into
two parts ; it is unequally broad j and in fome parts is
fingle, in others double.

'I'he ancient poets, and even philofophers, fpeak of
the Galaxy as the road or way by which the heroes
went to heaven.

Ariftotle makes it a kind of meteor, formed of a
crowd of vapours, drawn into that part by certain
large ftars difpofed in the regions of the heavens an-
swering hereto.

Others, finding that the Galaxy was feen all over
the globe, that it always correfponded to the fame
fixed rtars, and that it tranfcended the height of the
highert pjanets, fet afide Arirtotle's opinion, and placed
the Galaxy in the firmament, or region of the fixed
Ifa'rs, and concluded it to be nothing but an affemblage
of an infinite number of minute ftars.

Since the invention of the telefcope, this opinion
has been abundantly confirmed. By direfting a good
telefcope to any part of the milky way ; where before
we only faw a confufed whitenefs, we now defcry an
innumerable multitude of little ftars, fo remote, that
a naked eve confounds them. See Astronomy,

N°2I'.

GALEA, Sergius Si i-picius, a Roman emperor,
born the 24th of December, five years before the
Chrittian era. He was gradually raifed to the greatell
offices of the Hate, and exercifed his power in the pro-
\ inces with the greateft equity and unremitted dili-
j;cnce. He dedicated the greateft part of his time
10 foUtary purfuits, chictiy to avoid the fufpicions of
Nero. His difapprobation of the emperor's opprefTive
command in the provinces was the caufe of new di-
(lurbances. Nero ordered him to be put to death ; but
lie efcaped from the hands of the executioner, and was
publicly faluted emperor. When he was feated on the
throne, he fuffered himfelf to be governed by favour-
ites, w!io expofed the goods of the citizens to fale to

Vol. IX. Part I.

21 ] GAL

gratify their avarice. Exemptions were fold at a higK
price ; and the crime of murder was blotted out, and
impunity purchafcd, with a large fum of money. Such
irregularities in the emperor's minifters greatly dif-
plcafed the people ; and when Galba refufcd to pay the
foldiers the money which he had proniifed them when
he (vas raifed to the throne, they affallirialcd him in the
73d year of his age, and the eighth mjnth of his
reign. The virtues which had flione ib bright in
Galba when a private man, totally difappearcd whciv
he afcended the throne ; and lie who fliowed himfelf
the moft impartial judge, forgot the duties of an em-
peror and of a father of his people.

GALBANUM, in Pharmacy, a gum ifliiing from
the ftem of an umbelliferous plant growing in Perfia
and many parts of Africa. See BuBON.

The juice, as brought to us, is femipellucid, foft,
tenacious ; of a ftrong, and to fome unpleafant, fmell ;
and a bitterilh warm tafte : the better fort is in pale
coloured malTes, which, on being opened, appear com-
pofed of clear white tears. Geoffroy relate^, that a
dark greenilh oil is to be obtained from this limple by
diltillation, which, upon repeated reflifications, becomes
of an elegant Iky blue colour. The purer forts of gal-,
banum are iaid by lome to dilTolve entirely in wine,
vinegar, or water ; but thefe liquors are. only partial
mcnftrua with regard to this drug ; nor do fpirit of
wine or oils prove more eftetlual in this refpeifl : the
bell diffolvent is a mixture of two parts fpirit' of wine
and one of water. Galbanum agrees in virtue with
gum ammoniacura ; but is generally accounted lefs effi-
cacious in afthmas, and more fo in hyfterical complaint?.
It is an ingredient in the gum pills, the gum plafler,
and fome other ollicinal compofitions.

GALE, in the fea language, a term of various im»
port. When the wind blows not fo hard but that a (hip
may caiTy her top-fails a-trip (that is holfted up t'.»
the highell), then they fay it is a loom gale. Wherv
it blows very ffrong, they fay it is a flifF, ftrong, or
frefn gale. WHien two ftiips are near one another at
fea, and, there being but little wind blowing, one of
them finds more of it than the other, they fay that the
one lliip gales away from the other.

Gale, Dr John, an eminent and learned minifter
among the Baptifls, was born at London in 1 680. He
ftudied at Leyden, where he dlllinguiflied himfelf very
early, and afterwards at Amfterdam, under Dr Lim-
borch. He was chofen minifter of the Baptift congre-
gation at Barbican ; where his preaching, being chierly
praftical, was greatly reforted to by people of all per-
fuafions. Four volumes of his fermons were publiihed
after his death, vvhich happened in 1721. His Re-
fledions on Dr Wall's Hiftory of Infant Baptifra is the
bell defence of the Baptifts ever publiflied, and the
reading of that performance induced the learned Mr
William Whifton and Dr Fofter to become Baptifts.

Gale, Theophiju!, an eminent nonconformift mi-
nifter, born in 1628. He was invited to Winchefter
in 1657 j and continued a ftated preacher there until
tlie re-eftabliftiment of the church by Charles II. when
he rather chofe to fuffer the 'penalties of the aft of
conformity, than to fubmit to it contrary to his con-
fcience. He was afterwards engaged by Philip lord
Wliarton as tutor to his fons, whom he attended to an
academy at .Caen in Normandy ) aod when this duty

Sf YiV,

GAL [32:

was fulfilled, he became paftor over a congregation of
private ccnveniiclers in Holborn. He died in 1 678 j
and is principally known by an elaborate Tvork, in-
titled, the Court of the Geiililss, calculated to ihow,
that the Pagan philofophers derived their mod fu'olime
I'cntiments from the Scriptures.

Gale, Dr Thomas, a learned divine, born at
Scruton in Yorklhire, in the year 1636, was educated
St Cambridge, and at length became proteiTor of the
Greek language in that univerfity. He was after-
wards cliofea head mailer of St Paul's fchool, London ;
end was employed by the city in ^vriting thofe elegant
infcriptions on the monument erefted in memory of
the condagration in 1666. In 1676 he was collated
to a prebend in the cathedral of St Paul's ; and was
likcAife elecled a fellow of the Royal Society, to
wliich he prefented a Roman urn with its aihes. About
the year 1 697, he gave to the new library of Trinity col.
lege, in Cambridge, a great number of Arabic manu-
fcripts ; and in the fame year he was admitted dean of
York. He died in that city in 1702; and was interred in
the cathedral, where a monument, \vith a Latin infcrip-
tion, was erefled to liis memory. He was a learned
divine, a great hillorian, one of the bell Greek fcholars of
his age, and maintained a correfpondence with the mort
learned men ahroad as well as at home. He publifiied,
I . Hifloriie Pasticcc Antiqui Scriptores, o£lavo. 2. Optif-
ciila Mythologica, Ethica, et Phijjtca, in Greek and
Latin, oiElavo. 3. Herodoii Hijoria, folio. 4. Hi/fo-
ritc Anglicanx Scriplcres quinque, in folio. 5. HiJIoriie
Britannic.-r, Saxonica-, Jlnglo-Donicce, Scriptores quinde-
cim, in folio. 6. Rhetores Se/ecii, &.c.

GALEA, in antiquity, a light cafque, head piece,
or morrion, coming down to the (boulders, and com-
monly of brafs j though Camillus, according to Plutarch,
ordered thofe of his army to be of iron, as being the
llronger metal. The louver part of it %vas called bucciila,
and on the top was a crelL The velites wore a light
galea, made of the ikin of fome wild beail to make it
more terrible.

GALEASSE, a large low-built-veffel, ufing both
f.iils and oars, and the biggeft of all the veflels that
make ule of the latter. It may carry twenty guns,
and has a (lern capable of lodging a great number of
marines. It has three malls, which are never to be
lowered or taken down. It has alfo thirty-two benches
of rowers ; and to each bench fix or feven Haves, who
fit under cover. Tliis veflel is at prefent ufed only by
the Venetians.

GALEGA, a genus of plants belonging to the dia-
delphia clafs ; and in the natural method ranking
under the jzd order, Papi/ionacete. See Botany
[ndex.

GALEN, Claudius, in Latin Galenus, prince of
the Greek phyficians after Hippocrates, was born at
Pergamus in the lefler Afia, about the year 131. His
father ^vas polTeiTed of a confiderable fortune •, was well
verfcd in polite literature, philofophy, aftronomy, and
geometry ; and was alio well fliilled in architefture.
He himfclf inllrufled his fon in the firft rudiments of
learning, and afterwards procured him the greateft
mailers of the age in philofophy and eloquence. Galen
having finiihed his ftudies under their care, chofe phyfic
for his profeffion, and chiefly ftudied the works of
Hippocrates. Having at length exhaufted all the

GAL

fources of literature that were to be found at home,
he refolved to travel, in order to converfe with the moll
able phyficians in all parts, intending at the fame time ^
to take every opportunity of infpecling on the fpot
the plants and drugs of the countries through which
he pafled. With this view he went to Alexandria,
and llaid fome years in that metropolis of Egypt ;
from thence he travelled through Cilicia ; palled
through Paleiline ; vifited the iiles of Crete and Cy-
prus ; and made two voyages to Lemnos, in order to
examine the Lemnian earth, which was then elleemed
an admirable medicine. With the fame view he went
into the Lower Syria, in order to obtain a thorough
infight into the nature of the opoballan um, or balm
ot Gilead •, and having completed his defign, returned
home by the way of Alexandria.

Galen had been four years at Pergamu', where his
praiSice was attended with extraordinary applaufe,
when fome feditious commotions induced him to go to
Rome; where he refolved to fettle : but the proofs he
gave of his fuperior Ikill, added to the refpeft Ihown
him by feveral perlons of very high rank, created him
fo many enemies among his brethren of the faculty,
that he was obliged to quit the city, after having
refided there four or five years. But he had not long
returned to Pergamus, when he was recalled by the
emperors Aureiius and Verus. After their death, he
retired to his native country ; where he died about the
year 200. He ^vrote in Greek ; and is faid to have
compofed two hundred volumes, which were unhappily
burnt in the temple of Peace. The bell editions of
thofe that remain, are, that printed at Bafil in 1538,
in five volumes, and that of Venice in 1625, in ieven
volumes. Galen was of a weak and delicate conflitu-
tion, as he himfelf afferts ; but he neverthelefs, by his
temperance and fldll in phyfic, arrived at a great age ;
for it was his maxim, always to rife from table with
fome degree of appetite. He is jullly confidered as
the greateft phyCcian of antiquity, next to Hippo-
crates ; and he performed fuch furprifing cures, that he
was accufed of magic. I

Galek, a miltary townfliip in the ftate of New-
York, fituatedon the creek of Cauadaque, about 1 2 miles
north-weft of Cayuga lake, and 13 fouth by eaft of
Great Sodas.

GALENA, a name given by mineralogifts to a
fpecies of lead ore. It was alio the original name
given by Andromachus to the theriaca, from its efFeft
in bringing on a pleafing calm over the blood and fpi-
rits on taking it.

GALENIA, a genus of plants belonging to the oc-
tandria clafs ; and in the natural method rankhig under
the 13th order, Succu/entiC. See Botany Index.

GALENIC, or Galenical, in Medicine, is that
manner of confidering and treating difeafes, founded
on the principles of Galen, or introduced by GaLKK.
This author, collefting and digefting what the phyfi-
cians before him had done, and explaining every thing
according to the llriftell doftrine of the Peripatetics,
fet phviic on a new footing : he introduced the doc-
trine of the four elements ; the cardinal qualities and
their degrees ; and the four humours or temperaments.
Galknic is more frequently ufed as contradiftin-
guiftjed from chemical.

The diftiniftion of galenical and chemical ^vas occa-
fioned

G A L

[ 323 ]

Galemfts fioncd by a divifion of the practitioners of medicine
jl ^ into tivo fefts, which happened on the introduction of
. ^"' ^°' ■ chetniitry into medicine. Then the cheraifts, arrogat-
ing to themfelves every kind of merit and ability, ilir-
red up an oppoiition to their pretenfions, founded on
the invariable adherence of the other party to the an-
cient practice. And though this divifion into the two
feits of galeniils and ciiemills has long fince ceafed, yet
the dillinSion of medicines vphich refulted from it is
ftill retained.

Galenical medicines are thofe which are formed by
the eafier preparations of herbs, roots, &c. by infufion,
decoction, &c. and by combining and multiplying in-
gredients ; while thoie of chemiftry draw their more
intimate and remote virtues by means of fire and ela-
borate preparations, as calcination, digeftion, fermen-
tation, &e.

GALENISTS, a denomination given to fuch phy-
ficians as practife, pre*cribe, or write, on the galeni-
cal principles ; and fland oppofed to the chemifts. See
Galenical. At prefent the galenifts and chemifts are
are pretty well accommodated ; and molt of our phy-
licians ufe the prepaiations and remedies of both.

Galekists, or Galenites, in church hiltory, a branch
of Mennonites or Anabaptilts, who take in feveral of
the opinions of the Socinians, or rather Arians, touch-
ing the divinity of our Saviour. In 1664 the Water-
landians were divided into two parties, of which the
one were called Ga/enifls, and the otiier A^ojlotians.
Tliey are thus called from their leader Abr. Galenus,
a learned lad elGi:;uent phyfician of Amfterdani, who
confidered the Chrillian relir-ion as a fyitem that laid
much lefs itrefs on faith thau practice ; and who was
for taking into the communion of the Mpimonites all
thofe who acknowledged the divine oricin of the books
of the Old and New Teftament, and led holy and vir-
tuous lives.

GALEON. See Galleon.

GALEOPSIS, a genus of plants belonging to the
didynamia clafs ; and in the natural method r:\nking
under the 4 2d order, Verlicil/atte. See Botany

GALERICULUM, was a cap worn both by men
and women amongft the ancient Romans. It confilt-
ed of (kin, which was fo neatly drelTed with human
hair, that the artificial covering could fcarcely be di-
Itinguifhed from the natural. It was ufed by thofe
whofe hair was thin ; and by wreltlers, to keep tlieir
own hair from receiving any injury from the nafty oils
with which they were rubbed all over before they ex-
ercifed. It feems to have refembled our wigs.

GALIC, or Gaelis Lan^uare. See Highlands.

GALICIA, a province of Spain, boundtd on the
north and weft by the ocean, on the fouth by Portugal,
and on the eaft by Afturias and the kingdom of Leon.
The air is temperate along the coalt ; but, in other
places, it b cold and moiil. It is but thin of people :
and the produce is wine, Hax, and citrons : here a!fo are
good pastures, copper, and lead ; and the forefts yield
wood for building of ihips. St Jago di Compoftella is
the capital town.

GALILEE, once a province of Judca, now of
Turkey in Afia, was bounded by Mount Lebanon on
the north, by the river Jordan and the fea of Galilee
Oil the ealt, by the Chifon on the fouth, and bv the

Med

iterranean on

GAL

eft. It was the fcens of many Oa

:les ; but the bounds of the 1

of our Sawour's ni

t!7 are not no^v well known, nor yet the places where "~

many of the towns flood.

GALILEANS, a feft of the .Tews. Their foun-
der was one .ludas a native of Galilee, from which
place they derived their name. Their chief, clteeming
it an indignity for the Jews to pay tribute to Itranger^,
raifed up his countrymen againlt the edict of the em-
peror Auguftus, which had ordered a ta.\ation or en-
rolment of all tile fubjecls of the Roman empire.

They pretended that God alone fiiould be owned as
Malter and Lord, and in other refpefts were of the
opinion of the Pharifees ; but, as they judged it un-
lawful to, pray for infidel princes, they feparated them-
felves from the relt of the Jews, and performed their
facrifices apart.

As our Saviour and his apoftles were of Galilee,
they were fufpefted to be of the feet of Galileans ;
and it was on this principle, as St Jerome obferves, that
the Pharifees laid a fnare for him ; Mfking, Whether it
was lawful to give tribute to C<e(ar ; that in cafe he
denied it,, they might have an occafion of accufing
him.

GALILEO, Galilei, the famous mathematician
and aftronomer, was the fon of a Florentine nobleman,
and born in the year 1564. He had from his infancy
a ftrong inclination to philofophy and the mathema-
tics 5 and made prodigious progrefs in thefe fciences.
In 1592, he was chofen piofcCfor of mathematics at
Padua ; and during his abode there he invented, it is
faid, the telefcope ; or, according to others, improved
that inttrument, fo as to make it fit for aftronomical ob
fervations : (See Astronomy, N" 27.) In 161 1, Cof-
mo II. grand duke of Tufcany fent for him to Pifa,
where he made him profeffor of mathematics with a
har.dfome falary , and foon after inviting him to Florence,
gave him the office and title o^ principal philojhfiher and
mathematician to his highnefs.

He had been but a few years at Florence, before he
was convinced by fad e.'tperience, that Ariflotle's doc-
trine, however ill grounded, was held too facred to be
called in queliion. Having obferved fome folar fpots
in 1612, he printed that difcovery the follov.ing year
at Rome ; in which, and in forne other pieces, he ven-
tured to alfert the truth of the Coptrnican fyftem, and
brought feveral new arguments to confirm it. For thefe
he was cited before the inquifuion ; and after fome
months imprilonnient, was rclcafed upon a fimple pro-
mile, that he would renounce his heretical opinions,
and not defend them by word or writing. Rut haviflg
afterwards, in 1632, publilhed at Florence his " Dia-
logues of the two grcatelt fyftems of the world, the
Ptolemaic and Copernican," he was again cited before
the inquifition, and committed to the prifon of that
ecclefiaitical court at Rome. In June 2 2d N. S. that
year, the congregation convened : and in his prefence
pronounced fcntence againlt him and his books, ob-
liging him to abjure his errors in the moft folemn man-
ner ; committed him to the prifon of their office dur-
ing pleafure ; and enjoined him, as a faving penance,
for three years to come, to repeat once a-wetk the
feven penitential pfalras : referving to themfelves, how-
ever, the power of moderating, changing, or taking
away altogether or in part, the above-mentioned punilh-
'6 i 1. laent

GAL [3

GiIIir-.iceu5 merit and penance. On this fentence, Tie was detained
II a prifoner till 1634 ; and his " Dialogues of the fyllem
,. _^^^"__ of tl-.e World" were burnt at Rome.

He lived ten years after this, feven of which were
employed in making ftill further difcoveries with liiste-
lefcope. But by the continual application to that iii-
ilruraent, added to the damage he received in his fight
from the nodurnal air, his eyes grew gradually weak-
er, till he became totally blind in 1639. He bore
this calamity witli patience and relignation, worthy of
a great philofopher. 'J'he lofs neither broke his fpirit,
nor hindered the courfe of his lludies. He fupplied
the defeft by conitant meditation : whereby he prepared
a large quantity of materials, and began to diftate his
own conceptions ; when, by a diftemper of three months
«-ontiniiance, wailing away by degrees, he expired at
Arcetti near Florence, in January 1642, N. S. in the
ySth year of his age.

Among various ufefiil inventions of which Galileo ^vas
the author, h that of the fimple pendulum, which he
had made ufe of in his atlronomical experiments. He
Iiad thoughts of applying it to clocks ; but did not exe-
cute it : tlie glory of that invention was referved for
Virenzio his fon, who made the experiment at Venice
in 1649 ; and M. Huygens afterwards carried this in-
vention to perfection. He ^vrote a great number of
trealifes, feveral of which were publiihcd in a collec-
tion by Signior Mcndeffi, under the title of Vupera di
Galileo Galilei Lijnceo. Some of thefe, with others of
his pieces, were trunllated into Engliih and publifhed
by Thomas Salilbury, Efq. in his mathematical collec-
tions, &c. in two volumes folio. A volume alfo of his
letters to feveral learned men, and folutions of feveral
problems, were printed at Bologna in quarto. Befides
thefe, he wrote many others, which were unfortimately
loft through his wife's devotion ; who, folicited by her
confeffor, gave him leave to perufc her hulhand's manu-
fcripts J of which he tore and took away as many as he
faid Here not fit to be publilhed.

GALINACEUS lapis. See Gali.inaceus.

GALIUM, a genus of plants belonging to the te-
tran-iria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking un-
der the 47th Older, SlellaUe. See BoTAXY Imiex.

GALL, in the animal economy. See Bile.

Gall was generally given amongft the Jews to per-
ions fuffering death under the execution of the law, to
make them lefs fenfible of their pain •, but gall and
myrrh are fuppofed to have been the fame thing j be-
taufe at our Saviour's crucifixion, St Matthew fays,
they gave him vinegar to drink mingled with gall ;
ivhereas St Mark calls it wine mingled with myrrh :
The truth of the matter perhaps is, that they dillin-
guilhed every thing bitter by the name of gall. The
Greeks and Romans alfo gave fuch a mixture to perfons
fuffering a death of torture.

A great number of experiments have been made
upon the gall of different animals, but few conclufions
can be drawn from them with any certainty. Dr Per-
cival, however, hath fhown, that putrid bile may be
perfectly correfted and fweetened by an admixture of
the vegetable acids, vinegar, and juice of lemons. Thefe,
he obferves, have this effedl much more completely than
the mineral ones : and hence, he thinks, arifes the great
ufefulncfs of the vegetable acids in autumnal difeafes ;
which art always attended wlih a putrelcent difpofition

24 3

GAL

of the bile, owing to the heat of the preceding fummer.
On this occafion he takes notice of a common raiftake
among phyficians, who frequently prefcribe elixir of vi-
triol in thofe difeafes where vinegar or lemon juice
would be much more effecluiil.

From this effefl of acids on the gall, he alfo thinks,
we may fee why the immoderate ufe of acids is lo per-
nicious to digellion. It is neceffary to health that the
gall fliould be in fome degree acrid and alkalefcent :
but as acids have the property of rendering it perfeclly
mild and fweet, they mult be propoitionably pernici-
ous to the due concodtion and alhmilation of the food ;
which without an acrid bile cannot be accomplilhed.
Hence the body is deprived of its proper nourilhment
and fupport, the blood becomes vapid and watery,
and a fatal cachexy unavoidably enfues. This hath
been the cafe with many unfortunate perfons, who, in
order to reduce their exceffive corpulency, have indul-
ged themfelves in the too free ufe of vinegar. From
the mild llate of the gall in young children, Dr Per-
cival alfo thinks it is, that they are io much troubled
with acidities.

CjALL-Elailckr. See Anatomy, N° 97.

Gall, in Kulural Hijloiy, denotes any protuberance
or tumour produced by the pundture of infects on plants
and trees of different kinds.

Thefe galls are of various forms and fizes, and no
lefs different with regard to their internal ilructure.
Some have only one cavity, and others a number of
fmall cells communicating with each other. Some of
them are as hard as the wood of the tree they grow
on, whilll others are foft and fpongy ; the firli being
termed gall ntUs, and the latter berry galls, d?- apple
galls.

The general hiftory of the gall is this. An infetl of
the fly kind (the cyips) is inftrudted by nature to take
care for the lafety of her young, by lodging her eggs
in a woody fubftance, where they will be defended
from all injuries : (lie for this purpofe wounds the leaves
or tender branches of a tree ; and the lacerated veffels,
difcharging their contents, loon form tumours about the
holes thus made. The external coat of this excrefcence
is dried by the air ; and grows into a figure which bears
fome refemblance to the bow of an arch, or the round-
nefs of a kernel. This little ball receives its nutriment,
growth, and vegetation, as the other parts of the tree,
by flow degrees, and is what we call the gall nut. The
worm that is hatched under this fpacious vault, finds in
the fubltance of the ball, which is as yet very tender, a
fubfiltence fuitable to its nature ; gnaws and digefts it
till the time comes for its transformation to a nymnh,
and from that llate of exillence changes into a fly. Af-
ter this, the infcft, perceiving itfelf duly provided with
all things requifite, difengages itfelf foon from its con-
finement, and takes its flight into the open air. The
cafe, however, is not fimilar with refpei^t to the gall
nut that grows in autumn. Tiie cold weather frequent-
ly comes on before the worm is transformed into a fly,
or before the fly can pierce through its cnclofure. The
nut falls with tlie leaves : and although you may ima-
gine that the fly which lies within is loft, yet in reality-
it is not fo ; on the contrary, its being covered up fo
clofe, is the means of its prefervation. Thus it fpcnds
the winter in a warm houfe, where every crack and
cranny of the nut is well flopped up j and lies buried as

GAL [3

it were under a heap of leave:;, which prefeirei it from
the injuries of the weather. This apartment, however,
though i'o coKimodious a retreat in the winter, is a per-
feft piifon in tlie fpring. The ily, roufed from its le-
thargy by the firll heats, breaks its way through, and
ranges where it pleafes. A very iniall aperture is fufH-
clent, fmce at tliis time the tly is but a diminutive crea-
ture. Beiides, the ringlets wlicreof its body is compo-
fed dilate and become pliant in the paffage,

Oak galls put, in a very fmall quantity, into a folu-
tion of vitriol in water, thoucjli but a very weak one,
pve it a purple or violet colour : which, as it grows
ftronger, becomes black ; and on this property depends
the Pit of making our writing ink, as alfo the arts of
dyeing and dreilirg leather, . and other manufaflures.
See In-k, Chemistry In^ex.

The bell galls come from Aleppo : thefe are not
quite round and fmooth like the other forts, but have
feveral tubercles on the furface. Galls have a very
aultere ftyptic talk, without any fmell : they are very
llroniT aftringents, and as fuch have been iometimes
made ufe of both internally and externally, but are not
much taken notice of by the prefent practice. Som.e
recommend an ointment of powdered galls and hogs
lard as very efletlual in certain painful Hates of hxmor-
rhois ; and it is alleged, that the internal ufe of galls
has cured intermittents after the Peruvian bark has fail-
ed. A mixture of galls with a bitter and aromatic has
been propofed as a fubilitute for the bark.

Gall, 5V, a coufiderable town in -Swiflerland, and
in the Upper Thurgow, with a rich and celebrated ab-
bey, whofe abbot is a prince of the empire. This place
has for fome time been a republic, in alliance with the
cantons. It is not very large ; but is well built, neat,
populous. It contains about lo,030 inhabitants, who
are chiefly employed in the linen manufacfure ; and
make annually, it is fald, 40,000 pieces of linen, of 200
ells each ; which renders it one of the richeft towns in
Swifferland. The inhabitants are Proteilants ; for
■\\ hich reafon there are often great contefts between them
and the abbey about religious affairs. It is feated in a
narrow barren valley, between two mountains, and up-
on two fmall ftreams. E. Long. 29. 5. N. Lat. 47.

38-

GALL-F/if. See Cyxips, Entomology Int/ex.

G ALLA, an AbylTmian nation, originally dwelling,
as Mr Bruce fuppofes, under the line, and exercifmg
the profeffion of ihepherds, which they Hill continue
to do. For a number of years, our author tells us,
th.ey have been conftantly migrating northwards, though
the caufe of this migration is not kiiown. At firfl they
had no horfes ; the realon of which was, that the coun-
try they came from did not allow thefe animals to breed :
but as they jiroreeded northward and conquered fome
of the AbylVmian provinces, they foon furnilhed them-
felves with fuch numbers, that they are now almoil en-
tirely cavalry, making little account of infantry in their
armies. On advancing to the frontiers of Abyihnia,
the multitude divided, and part direded their courfe to-
wards the Indian ocean ; after which, having made a
fcttlement it> the ealtem part of the continent, they
turned fouthward into the countries of Bali and ©awaw,
which they entirely conquered, and fettled tiiere in the
year 15^7. Another divifion having taken a wefterly
..oiirfe, fpread thera.'elves in a feraicircle along the banks

25 ] GAL

of the Nile ; furroundii)g the country of Gojam, and O.M?.

palling ealtward behind the country of the Agows, ex- ■'"'

tended their poffedions as far as the territories of the
Gongas and Gafats. Since that time the Nile has been
the boundary of their polTeflions ; though they have ve-
ry frequently plundered, and fonietimes conquered, the
Abyllinian provinces on the other lide of the river, but
have never made any permanent fettlement in thefe
parts. A third divifion has fettled to the fouthward of
the low country of Shoa, which the governor of that
province has permitted, in order to form a barrier be-
twi.\t him and the territories of the emperor, on whoiu
he fcarcely acknowledges any dependence.

The Galla are of a brown complexion, and have
long black hair ; but fome of them who live in the val-
leys are entirely black. At firll their common food was
milk and butter ; but fmce their intercouri'e with the
Abyflinians, they have learned to plough and fow their
lanci, and to make bread. They feem to have predi-
le'clion for the number feven, and each of the three di-
vifions already mentioned are fubdivided into kven
tribes. In behaviour they are extremely barbarous ; and
live in continual war with the Abyflinians, whom they
murder without mercy as often as they fall into their
hands. They cut off the privities of the men, and hang
them up in their houfes by w ay of trophies ; and are fo
cruel as to rip up women with child, in hopes of thus
dellroying a male. Yet notwithllanding their excelTive
cruelty abroad, they live under the ftricleft difcipline
at home ; and every broil or quarrel is inllantly punilh-
ed according to the nature of the offence. Each of the
three divilions of the Galla above mentioned h.as a king
of its own ; and they alfo have a kind of nobility, from
among ivhoni the fovereign can only be chofen : how-
ever, the commonalty are not excluded from riflng to
the rank of nobles if they dillinguilh themfclvcs very
much in battle. None of the nobihty can be elecled
till upwards of 40 years of age, unlefs he has with his
own hand killed a number of enemies which added to
his own age makes up 40. There is a council of each
of the feven tribes, which meets feparately in its own di-
flridl, to fettle how many are to be left behind for the
governing and cultivating of the territory, and other
matters of importance. Thefe nations have all a great
veneration for a tree which grows plentifully in their
country, called ivar/zei/, and which thefe fuperflitious
people are even faid to adore as a god. Their affem-
bhes for the choice of a king are all held under one of
thefe trees ; and when the fovereign is chofen, they put
a bludgeon of this wood in his hand by way of fceptre,
and a garland of the dowers upon his head.

The Galla are reported to be very good foldiers,
efpecially in cafes of furprife ; but, like moll other bar-
barians, have no conllancy nor perfeverance after the
firll attack. They vvill, hoivever, perform extraordi-
nary marches, fwimming rivers holding by the horfc's
tail, and thus being enabled to do very great mifchief
by reafon of the rapidity of their movements. They
are excellent light horfe for a regular anny in a hoftile
country ; but are very indifferently armed on account
of the fcarcity of iron among them. Their principal
arms are lances made of wood (liarpened at the end
and hardened in tlic fire ; and their fliields are cora-
pofed only of one finglc fold of bull's hide ; fo that
they are extremely apt in warp iiy heat, or become too

fo!'.

GAL

[ 3^^ ]

GAL

■a foit in tvel weather. They are exceedingly cruel ;
'L K.\d make a flirill horrid nolle at the beginning of
. . '"" ' ■ every engagement, which greatly terrifies the horfes, and
^■ery- often the barbarous riders which oppofe them.

The Galla, according to Mr Bruce's account, are
fomewhat bcloiv the middle fize, but extremely light
and nimble. The women are fruitful ; and fuffer fo
li'.lls in childbearing, that they do not even confine
ihtrnfelves for a fingle day after delivery. They
plough, fow, and reap the corn, which is trodden out
liy tiie cattle ; but the men have all the charge of the
rattle in the fields. In their cuftoms they are filthy
to the laft degree ; plaiting their hair with the guts of
oxen, which they likewife twill round their middle, and
which by the quick putrefa<^ion occafion an aborainaSle
J.lench. They anoint their heads and whole bodies with
butter or greafe ; in wh'ch, as well as in other refpefts,
they greatly refemble the Hottentots. It has been fup-
poled that they have no religion whatever ; but Mr
Bruce is of opinion that this is a mlflake. The wanzey,
he fays, is undoubtedly worfliipped by all the nations as
a god ; and they have likewife certain ftones which are
\vorlhipped as gods : befides thefe, they worlhip the
noon, and /ome liars, when in certain pofitions, and at
fome particular fealons of the year. They all believe in
a relurrection ; and have fome faint notions of a ftate of
happinefs, but no idea of future puniOiment. Some of
them to the fouthwatd profefs the Mahometan religion,
but thofe to the call and weft are generally Pagans.
All of them intermarry with each other ; but will not
allow ftrangers to live among them, though the Monrs
Irave at laft found out a method of trading fafely with
them. The commodities they deal in are blue Surat
cloths, myrrh, and fait ; the laft being the moft valua-
ble article.

The marriages among the Galla are celebrated with
fome of the difgufting cuftoms of the Hottentots •, and
after thefe ceremonies the bridegroom promifes to give
the bride meat and drink while ihe lives, and to bury
l-.er when' dead. Polygamy is allowed among them ;
but it is lingular, that among thefe people the women
folicit their huibands to take others to their embraces.
The reafon o' this cuftom is, that the men may have
num.erous families of children, who may be capable of
defending them againft their enemies ; as the Galla, ac-
cording to our :iuthor, always fight in families, whether
againft foreign enemies or with one another.

GALLAND, Avthony, a learned antiquarian,
'member of the Academy of Infcriptions, and profeiTor
of Arabic in the Royal Col'ege of Paris, was born of
poor parents at Rollo, a village in Picardy. Having
ftudied at the Sorbonne and other univerfities, he tra-
velled into the eaft ; where he acquired great Ikill in the
Arabic tongue, and in the manners of the Mahome-
tans. He wrote feveral works •, the principal of which
are, i . .4n Account of the Death of the Sultan Ofman,
and '.he Coronation of the Sultan Muftapha. 2. A
CcUeftion of Maxims, drawn from the works of the O-
rientals. 3. A Treatife on the Origin of Coffee. 4.
'Die Arabian Nis^hts Entertaiments, &c.

GALLANT, or G.m.ant, a French term adopted
into our language, and fignifying polite, civil, and well
bred, with a difpofition to pleafe, particularly the ladies.
It alfo figniftes brave or courageous.

G-\LLE, the name of feveral engravers, of whom

the principal was Cornelius, who flourished about the
1600. He learned the art of engraving from liis la-
ther, and imitated his llifF ftyle, till he went to Rome, '
where he reiided a confiderable time, and there acquir-
ed that freedom, tafte, and correftnefs of drawing,
which are found in his beft ivorks. He fettled at
Antwerp upon his return from Italy, where he caiTied
on a coniiderable commerce in prints. His bell prints
are thofe done after Rubens.

GALLEON, in naval affairs, a fort of flups em-
ployed in the commerce of the Well Indies. The Spa-
niards fend annually two fleets ; the one for Mexico,
which they call the Jiola ; and the other for Peru,
which they call the gal/eotis. See Flota.

By a general regulation made in Spain, it has been
eftabliflied, that there Ihould be twelve men of war and
five tenders annually fitted out for the armada or gal-
leons ; eight Ihips of 600 tons burden each, and three
tenders, one of 100 tons, for the ifland Margarita,
and two of 80 each, to follow the armada; for the
New Spain fleet, two Ihips of 6oo tons each, and two
tenders of 80 each ; and for the Honduras fleet, two
ftiips of 500 tons eacll ; and in cafe no fleet happened
to fail any years, three galleons and a tender Ihould be
fent to New Spain for the plate.

They are appointed to fail from Cadiz in January,
that they may arrive at Porto Bello about the middle
of April ; where, the fair being over, they may take
aboard the plate, and be at Havannah with it about
the middle of June ; where they are joined by the flota
that they may return to Spain with the greater lafety.

GALLEOT, a fmall galley lefigned on!y for chafe,
carrying but one maft and two paitereroes j it can
both fail and row, and has 16 or 20 oars. All the
feamen on board are folJiers, and each has a mulket by
him on quitting his oar.

GALLERY, in ArchiuElure, a covered place in a
houfe, much longer than broad, and ufually in the wings
of a building, its ufe being ci.ietly to walk. in.

GALLERIES, in Gardening, are certain orna-
ments made with trees of different kii.d.s j which are
very common in all the French gardens, but are feldora
introduced into the Britifti ones, efpecially lince the
tafte for clipped trees has been exploded. For thofe,
however, who may ftill choofe to have them, Mr Mil-
ler gives the following direclions.

In order to make a gallery in a garden with porticoes
and arches, a line muft firft Ije drawn of the length you
defign the gallery to be ; which being done, it is to be
planted with hornbeam, r.s the foundation of the galle-
ry. The management of galleries is not difficult. They
require only to be digged round about ; and Iheercd 3
little when there is occaCon. The chief curiollty re-
quired is in the ordering the fore part of the gali'.iy,
and in forming the arches. Each pillar of the porticoes or
arches ought to be four feet diftant from another, arid the
gallery 1 2 feet high and i o feet wide, that there may be
room for two or three perfons to walk abreaft. When the
hornbeams are grown to the height of three feet, the
dillance of the pillars well regulated, and the ground
work of the gallery finiftitd, the next thing to be done"
is to form the frontifpiece •, to perform which, you muft
ftop the hornbeam between two pillars for that purpofe,
which forms the arch. As it grows, you mull with
your (beers cut off thofe boughs which outihoot the o-

thers.

GAL [3-

thcri. In time they ■will grow ftrong, and tr.ay be kept
in form by the facers. Portico galleries may be cover-
ed vviiVi iinie trees.

Gallery, m Fortlf.catnn, a covered walk acrofs the
ditch of a toun, made of flrong beams covered over
with planks, and loaded with earth : fometimes it is
'covered with raw hides, to defend it fiom the artificial
fires of the bciieged.

Callerx of a Mine, is a narrow pafliige or branch of
a mine carried on under ground to awork defigned to
be blo^vn up. See Mine.

Gallery, in a ihip, that beautiful frame, which is
made in the form of a balcony, at the Hern of a fhip
V. itlioul board ; into which there is a paffage out of the
admiral's or captain's cabin, and is for the ornament of
•the Ihip.

GALLEY, a kind of low flat built veffel, fumilhed
with one deck, and nas-igstcd with fails and oars, par-
ticularly in the Mediterranean. By the Greek authors
under the eailcrn empire, this kind ot veffel was called
yccXxiac and y«>.si« ; and by the Latin authors of the fame
time, gaUa ; whence, according to fome, the modern
denomination. Some fay it was called galea, on ac-
count of a cafqiie or helmet which is carried on its prow,
as Ovid attefts, de Trijlibiis. The French call it ga/ere;
by reafon, they fay, that the top of the mall is uii:ally
cut in the form of a hat, -which the Italians call gc/ero.
Others derive both galea, and ga/ere, from a filli by
the Greeks called yxXiurf,';. or %i<piitt, and by us the
fvordfilh, which this veffel refembles. Laftly, Others
derive the galley, galea, galere, galeajfe, &c. from the
Syriac and Chaldee^fl?//, clwI galin, a man expofed on
the water in a veffel of -ivood.

The largell; fort of th.efe veffels is employed only by
the Venetians. They are commonly 162 feet long
above, and 133 feet by the keel ;. 32 feet w^ide, with
23 feet length of ftern pott. They are fumiftied with
three marts, and 32 banks of oars; every bank con-
taining two oars, and every oar being managed by fix
or feven ilaves, who are ufually chained thereto. In
the fore part they have three little batteries of cannon,
of which the lowed is of two 7,6 pounders, the fecond
of two 24 pounders, and the upperraoft of two 2 poun-
ders : three 18 pounders are alfo planted on each quar-
ter. The complement of men for one of thefe galleys
is icco or 1200. They are efteemed extremely con-
venient for bombarding or making a defcent upon
an enemy's coaft, as drawing but little water ; and
having by their oars frequently the advantage of a fliip
of w-ar, in light winds or calms, by cannonading the lat-
ter near the furface of the water ; by fcouring her
whole length with their flsot, and at the fame time
keeping on her quarter or bow, fo as to be -^ut of the
direction of her cannon.

The galleys next in fize to thefe, whicli are alfo
called half^alltijf, are from 120 to 130 feet long, 18,
feet broad, and nine or ten feet deep. They have two
malls which may be ftruck at pleafure ; and are fur-
nilhed with two large lateen fails, and five pieces of
cannon. They have commonly 25 banks of oars, as
defcribed above. A fize ftill lefs than thefe are called
quarter galleijs, carrying fi-om 1 2 to 16 banks of oars.
There are very few galleys now befides thofe in the
Mediterranean, which are found by experience to be of
little utility except in fine weather ; a circtimllincc

7 ] GAL

^wh'.ch rendcik their fervice extremely precarious. They
generally keep clcfe under the ihore, but fometimes
venture out to fea to perform a fammer cruife.

G/iLLsr-lVorm, in Zoology. Sec Iulus, Extomo-
LCGY Index.

GALLI, in antiquity, a name given to the priells
of Cybele, from the river Gallus in Phrygia ; but of
the etymology of the name we have no certain account.
All th.it we Icam with cert.iinty about them is, that
they were eunuchs and Phrygians, and that in their
folemn proceffions they danced, bawled, drummed,
cut and ilafiied themfelves, playing upon timbrels,
pipes, cymbals, Sic. and driving about an afs loaded
with the facred rites and trumpery of their goddcfs.
When a young man was. to be initiated, he was to
throw off his clothes, run crying aloud into the midft
of their troop, and there draw a fivord and caftrate
himfelf ; after this he was to run into the ffreet with
the parts cut off, in his hand, throw them into fome
houfe, and in the fame houfe put on a woman's
drefs.

Thefe prieils had the names alfo of Curetes, Cory-
lantes, and Dafiyli. The chief prieft was called Archi-
Gallu!. This order of priefthood is found both amongft
the Greeks and Romans. See an account of them in
Liicret. lib. ii. and "juv. Sat. vi,

Galli, the Gauls. See Gallta and Gauls.

Galli, five fmall defolate iilands on the coalt of the
Principato Citra of Naples. They are fuppofed to be
the Syrenufie, or iilands once inhaliited by the Sirens,
which Ulyffes paffed with fo much caution and hazard.
Great revolutions, however, have been occafioned in
their ftiape, fize, and number, by the effects of
fubterranean fiie ; and fome learned perfons go fo
far as to affert, that thefe rocks have rifen from the
bottom of the fea fince Homer fang his rhapfodies ;
conlequently, that thofe raonllers dwelt on fome oth.er
fpot, probably Sicily or Capri. The tradition of Si-
rens refiding hereabouts is very ancient and univerfally
admitted ; but what they really were, diverted of their^
fabulous and poetical difguiie, it is not eafy to difco-
ver. See Siren.

The Sirenufic were only three in number j and there-
fore if thele and the Galli be the fame, two more muff
have fince rifen, or the three have been fpllt into five by
a fubterraneous convulfion. On the largert is a watch-
tower, and the next has a deferted hermitage. The
principal ifland is only a narrow femicircular ridge
covered with a fliallow coat of foil ; two other little
iilands and fome jagged rocks juft peeping , above the
waves, correfpond with this one fo as to trace the out-
line of a volcariical crater. The compofition of them
all is at top a calcareous rock extremely (haken, tum-
bled, and confufed, mixed with maffcs of breccia, dif-
pofed in a molt irregular manner ; below thefe is lava,
and the deeper the eye follows it the ftronger are the
marks of tire : below the furface of the water, and in
fome places above it, the layers are complete blocks of
bafaltes. Hence it is prefumed by fome, that central fires
have lieaved up to light the torrefied fubltances that
originally lay near their focus, with all the intermediate
(trata that covered them from the fea. The layers in-
cline downwards from eart to well ; the air feems to
have forced its way into part of the mafs while in fu-
lion, and by chcckang its^workings caufed many large

GAL

cEveins to be left in it. Thefe iflar.ds are uncultivated
and uninhabited fmce the old heniiit of St Antonjo
died. Myrtle covers mofl of the furface.

GALLIA, a large country of Europe, called Gala-
tia by the Greeks. The inhabitants were called Gatii,
Ce/ue, Cclliheri, and Cellofci/lli.e. Ancient Gaul was di-
vided into four different parts by the Romans, call-
ed Gallia Belgica, Narbonenfts, j^quitatiia, and Celticii.
Gallia Belgica was the largeft province, bounded by
Germany, Gallia Narbonenfis, and the German ocean ;
and contained the modern county of Alface, Lorraine,
Picardy, with part of the Low Countries, land of Cham-
pagne, and of the Ille of France. Gallia Narbonenfis,
which contained the provinces now called Languedoc,
J'rovsnce, Daupliinc, Savoy, \vas bounded by the Alps
and Pyrenean mountains, by Aquitania, Belgium, and
the Mediterranean. Aquitania Gallia, now called the
froxinces o/ Poltou, Santonge, Guienne, Berry, Limofin,
Ga/cogmj, ^wnergne, &c. ^vas fituated between the Ga-
rumna, the Pyrenean mountains, and the ocean. Gal-
lia Celtica, or Lugdunenfis, was bounded by Belgium,
Gallia Narbonenfis, the Alps, and the ocean. It con-
tained the country at prefent known by the name of
Lyoniwis, Tourainc, Tranche Compte, Senenois, Switz-er-
Jand, and pert of Normandy. Befides thefe grand di-
vifions, there is often mention made of Gallia CiHilpi-
na or Citerior, Tranialpina or Ulterior, which refers
to that part of Italy which was conquered by feme of
the Gauls who crofled the Alps. By Gallia Cifalpina,
the Romans underftood that part of Gaul which lies in
Italy, and by Tranfalpina, that which lies beyond the
Alps, in regard only to the inhabitants of Rome. Gal-
lia Cifpadana, and Tranfpadana, is applied to a part of
Italy conquered by fotne of the Gauls ; and then it
means the country on this fide of the Po, or beyond
the Po, with refped to Rome. By Gallia Togata, the
Romans underftood Cifalpine Gaul, where the Roman
gowns, logiT, were ufually worn. Gallia Narbonenfis
was called Braccata, on account of the peculiar covering
of the inhabitants for their thighs. The epithet of
Comala is applied to Gallia Celtica, becaufe the people
fuffered their hair to grow to an uncommon length.
The inhabitants were great warriors, and their valour
overcame the Roman armies, took the city of Rome
•and invaded Greece in different ages. They fpread
themfelves over the greateft part of the world. They
were very fupcrftitious in their religious ceremo-
nies, and revered the facerdotal order as if they had
been gods. They long maintained a bloody war
againfl the Romans, and Ciefar rcCded ten years in
their country before he could totally fubdue them. See
Gaul.

GALLIARD, or Gagliarda, a fort of dance
anciently in great requeft ; confiding of very differ-
ent motions and aftions, fometimes proceeding terra
a terra or fmoothly along ; fometimes capering ; fome-
times along the room, and fometimes acrois. The
word is French, gailliarde, or rather Italian ; and li-
terally fignifies " gay, merry, fprightly." This dance
was alfo called Romancfque, becaufe brought from
Rome,

Thoinot Arbeau, in his Orchefography, defcribes it
as confifting of five fteps, and five pofitions of the feet,
which the dancers performed before each other, and

[ 3^8 ]

GAL

^'.hereof lie gives us the icore or tablature, which is cf Ga!IurJ«
fix minims, and two triple times. II

G ALLIARDA, in the Italian mufic, the name pf , G«"il'°i^-^
a tune that belongs to a dance called a Galliard. The
air of it is lively in triple time.

GALLIC ACID. See Chemistry /W<r.

GALLICAN, anything belonging to France; thus
the term GaUtcan church denotes the church of Fiance,
or the afferably of the clergy of that kingdom.

GALLICISM, a mode of fpcech peculiar to the
French language, and contrary to the rules of gram-
mar in other languages. With us it is ufed to denote
fuch phrales or modes of fpeech in Englifti as are
formed after the French idiom.

GALLINACEUSlafis, a gloffy mineral fubftance
\vhich is fuppofed by fome to be produced by the opera-
tion of volcanic fires ; and is thought to be the fame
;vith the lapis ohfidianus of the ancients.

GALLINit, an order of birds. See ORNITHOLO-
GY Index.

GALLINACIOUS, an appellation given to the
birds of the order of the gallinse.

GALLING, or Excoriation, in Medicine. See
Excoriation.

Galling of a Horfe's Back, a diforder occafioned by
heat, and tlie chafing or pinching of the faddle.

In order to prevent it, fome take a hind's Ikin well
garnilhed with hair, and fit it neatly under the pannel
of the faddle, fo that the hairy fide may be next the
horfe.

When a horfe's back is galled upon a jouniey, take
out a little of the fluffing of the pannel over the fwell-
ing, and few a piece of foft white leather on the infide
of the pannel ; anoint the part with fait butter, and
every evening wipe it clean, rubbing it till it grow foft,
anomting it again with butter, or, for want of that,
with greafe ; -walli the fwelling, or hurt, every even-
ing with cold ^vater and foap ; and ftrew it with fait,
which Ibould be left on till the horfe be faddled in the
morning.

GALLINULE. See Fulica, Ornithology
Index.

GALLIPOLI, a fea-port town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the Terra-di-Otranto, with
a bifliop's fee. It ftands on a rocky illand, joined to
the continent by a bridge. From the remoteil anti-
quity this was a ftation fo favourable to commerce,
that every maritime poiver wilhed to fecure it ; and it
is a reproach to government, that nothing has been
done to improve its natural advantages : at prefent,
Mr Swinburne informs us, it has neither harbour nor
llielter for fliipping. Charles II. demolillied Galli-
poli for its adherence to Frederick of Arragon. The
Venetians treated it with great cruelty in the Ijth
century: and in 1481 it was pillaged by the Turks.
To preferve it from future calamities, Charles V. re-
paired and ftrengthened its fortifications ; and, fince
that period, it has enjoyed the benefits of peace and
trade, which have rendered it the moft opulent and
gayeft town upon the coaft, though its inhabitants do
not exceed 6000 in number. Confumptions and fpit-
ting of blood are rather frequent here, occafioned by
the great fubtility of the air, which is ventilated from '
every quarter. The buildings are tolerable, and fome

of

GAL [3

of the chiirclics liave good paintings. The cotton
trade biings in about 30,000 ducats a-year. Good
muflins, cotton llocV.ings, and other parts of apparel,
' are manutaftured here, and purchafed by the Proven-
cals ; for Gallipoli has no direct trade with the metro-
polis. Silk and faffron were formerly objeiis of
'rathe ; but heavy duties and oppreilion have caufed
• hem to be abandoned. The wine of this territory is
t',ood ; but from drynefs of climate, and fliallownefs of
i'jil, the vintage tiequently fails in quantity ; and
then the Gallipolitans have recourfe to Sicily for a
fipply. Oil is the great fupport of the placa : two
thirds of the produce of its olive plantations are ex-
ported to France, and the north of It ily ; the rc-
!;.ainder is fent to Ntpiis, and other ports of the king-
(i im. Neapolitan merchants, by means of agents fet-
f'L-d at Gallipoli, buy up the oils, from year to year,
l.jng before an olive appears upon the tree ■, and the
ptice is afterwards fettled by publfc authority. The
Neapolitans fell their oil to the merchants of I-^'ghorn ;
■t:i;i, if faithfully ferved by their fatlors in Terra di
Otranto, ought to double their capital in two years.
But, to balance this advantage, they run great rilks,
pay exorbitant intereft, and have frequent bankrupt-
cies to guard againft. E. Long. 18. 10. N. Lat. 40.
20.

Gallipoli, a fea-port town of Turkey in Europe,
i ! the province of Romania, feated at the mouth of
t.iz fea of Mannora, with a good harbour, and a bilhop's
i-.'e. It contains about 10,000 Turks, 3500 Greeks,
beudeS a great number of Jews. The bazar or be-
zellein, the place where merchandil'es are fold, is a
handfome ftruclare, witli domes covered with lead. It
is an open place, and has no other defence than a paltry
lijuare callle. The houfes of the Greeks and Jews have
doors not above three feet and a half high, to prevent
the Turks riding into their houfes. E. Long. 26. 59.
N. Lat. 40. 30.

GALLIUM. See Galium, Botany Index.

GALLO, an iiland of the South fea, near the fea-
coart of Peru, in South America, which was the firil;
place poffelTed by the Spaniards when they attempted
the conqueft of Peru ; it is alfo the place where the
bucaniers ufed to come for wood and water, and to refit
the!t veflels when they were in ihefe parts. W. Long.
88. o. N. Lat. 2. 30.

GALLO-Gracia, a country of Afia Minor, near Bi-
thynia and Cappadocia. It was inhabited by a colony
of Gauls, who alTumed tlie name of Ga/lo^ra:ci becaufe
a number of Greeks had accompanied them in their
cmi.^ration. See G.vlatia.

GALLOIS, Jo.Hv, born at Paris in 1632, was
an univerfal fcholar, but cliiedy rioted for having been,
in conjunflion with M. de Sallo who forn^ed the plan,
the firft publiflier of the "journal iles Sfav/ini. The
iirll journal was publilhed January 5. 1665; but thcfe
^:entlemen criticifed new works fo rigoroully, that the
whole tribe of authors united and cried it down. De
Sallo declined entirely after the publication of the
third number : but Gallois ventured to fend out a
fourth, on January 4. 1 666; though not witliout a
moil humble advertilement at the beginning, wherein
it was declared, that the author " would not prefiime
to criticife, but finiply give an account of the books."
This, with the protedion of M. Colbert, who was

Vol. IX. Part I.

■9 ]

GAL

greatly tai.en with the work, gradually ieco;icilecl the
public to it : and thus began literary journals, which
have been continued from that time to this, under,
various titles, .and by various writers. Gallois con-
tinued his journal to the year 1674, when more im-
portant occupations obliged him to turn it over to o-
ther hands. M. Colbert had taken him into his hoiife
to teach him Latin ; and when he loll his patron in
1683, he was firll made librarian to the king, and
tlien Greek profeflbr in the .royal college. He died in
1707.

GALLON, a meafurc of capacity both for dry and
liquid things, containing four quarts, Bu' thefe quarts,
and coiifequently the gallon itfelf, are dillerent, ac-
cording to the quality of the things mcafured : For in-
ftance, the wine gallon contains 23 I cubic inches, and
holds eight pounds avoirdupois of pure w^ater ; the
b«er and ale gallon contains 282 folid inches, and
holds ten pounds three ounces and a quarter avoirdu-
pois of water ; and the gallon for corn, meal, &c. 2723-
cubic inches, and holds nine pounds thirteen ounces t^
pure water.

GALLOP, in the manege, is the fwifteft natural
pace of a horfe, performed by reaches or leaps ; the
two fore feet being railed almoll at the fame time ;
and when thefe are in the air, and jull ready to touch
the ground again, the two hind feet are lifted almoft
at once. The word is borrowed from the barbarous
Latin caiupare, or ca/pare, " to run." Some derive it
from caballicars ; others from the Greek KaXTxs^:}, or
K»XTKt, to Jjiur a horfe.

GALLOPER, in artillery, is the name of a car-
riage which ferves for a pound and a half gun. This car-
riage has Ihafts fo as to be drawn without a limber, and
is thought by fome to be more convenient and prefer-
able to other field carriages ; and it may likewife fervc
for our light three and fix pounders.

GALLOWAY, a county of Scotland, which gives
the title of Earl to a branch of the noble family of
Stuait. It is divided into two diftri£ls ; the wellern,
called Upper Gal/owatj, being the fame with VVigton-
(liire ; and the eallern, or ilewartry of Kirkcudbright,
called Lower Galloixay. See Kirkcudbright and

WiGTOKSHlRE.

MvLL of Gai/owaij, the moll foutherly cape or pro-
montory of all Scotland, in the county of Galloway,
and on the Irilh fea.

Galloways is the name of a peculiar fort of hor-
les, lo called from the county of Gallov/ay in Scot-
land, where they are bred. Tradition reports that
this kind of hories fprang from fome Spanilh flallions,
which I'.vam on (hore from Ibme of the fliips of tlie fa-
mous Spanilh armada, wrecked on the coall ; and
coupling with the mares of the country, furnifhed the
kingdom with their pofterity. They were omch clleem-
ed, and oi a middling (ize, Ilrong, aflivfc, nervous, and
hardy.

GALLOWS, an inftrument of punilhment, where-
on perlbns convifted capitally of felony, &c. are exe-
cuted by hanging.

AmtJng our anceffors it was called furca, " fork ;"
a name by which it is (lill denominated abroad, parti-
cularly in France and Italy. In this latter country,
the rcafon of the name dill fubfills ; the gallows being
a real fork driven into the ground, acrofs the legs
T t whereoi

G A

L

vhicli

tied.

See

TCliereof is laid a bean, to vvhicU lac rope

FURCA.

, GALLUS, Cornelius, an ancient Roman poet,
born at Forum Julium, now called Frejus, in France.
He was a particiJar favourite with Auguftus Cjefar,
who made him govcTTior of Egypt : but his mal-
adrainillratiou there occuloned his baniftiment, and
the lofs of his eftatc ; for grief of which he put an
end to his own life. He wrote four books of love
elegies ; and Virgil has complimented him in many
places.

Gallus, or Cod. See Phasiaxus, Ornithology
Mex.

GALLY, in printing, a frame into which the
corapofitor emptie": the lines out of his corapofing-
Itick, and in which he ties up the page when it is com-
jileled.

The gaily is formed of an oblong fcjuare board, with
a ledge on three fides, and a groove to admit a falle
bottom called a gallty Jlice.

GAL VAN I, Lewis, \vas born at Bclogna in Italy,
in the year 1737. There many of his relations had
arrived at dillinguiflied eminence in jurifprudence and
di\in!ty, and he himfelf had the honour of giving his
name to a fuppofed ne%v princi])le in nature, which of
confequence is called Galvanifm, although this great
man gave it the name of animal cleBrichy. From a
boy he became enamoured of the greateft aufterities of
the Catholic religion, and joined himfelf to a convent,
the monks of which were celebrated for their attach-
ment to the folemn duty of viliting the dying. He
-(vifticd much to become a member of this order, but
v.as prevailed on to relinquiili the idea by one of the
broth.erhood, after v^hich he turned his whole attention
to the ftudy of medicine in its various branches. He
rtudied under Beccari, Tacconi, Galli, and in a parti-
cular manner Galleazzi, who took him into his own
heufe ; and he afterwards became his fon-in-law. He
acquired great reputation by his inaugural thefi?, De
Offibus, in 1762, and v.as foon after chofcn public lec-
turer in the univerfity of Bologna, and reader in ana-
toipy to the inllitute of that city. So much admired
was his talent for lecturing, that vail numbers conftantly
attended him j and he employed his few leifure hours in
making experiments, and in the ufeful fludy of compa-
rative anatomy. We find in the Memoirs of the InlH-
tute of Bologna, a number of curious obfcrvations on
the urinary organs, and on the organs of hearing in
birds.

Soon after his anatomical and phyfiological know-
ledge wasJully eftabliihed throughout the Italian fchools,
a mere accident led hi)n to th.it interefting difcovery
which will tranfmit his name with honour to the latell
pofterity. His amiable wife, for whom he cherillied
the mod ardent love, and with whom he had been
v.nited for a number of years, was in a declining ftate
of health, and was ufing a foup of frogs by way of re-
lioraiive. Someof thefe animals being flcinned for this
purpofe, were lying on a table in Galvani's laboratory,
where alfo (lood an cleiEirical machine. One of thofe
who a.Tilted him in condatting his experiments, unin-
tentionally brought the point of a fcalpel near the crural
nerves of a frog which lay near the condudor, when
the raufclcs of the limb were very ftrongly convulfed.
Madame- Galvani, who was a woman of a penetrating

o ] GAL

underflanding, and a lever of fcience, happened to Galv
w'itnefs the phenomenon, of which fhe inftantly informed "~^
her hiifband. On his arrival he repeated tlie experi-
ment, and difcovered that the convulfions only hap-
pened when the fcalpel was in contaft with tlie nerve,
and a fpark was drawn from the conduftor at the fame
time. After an almoft endlefs variety of experiments,
condufted with great ingenuity, which it would be
foreign to the defign of this article to enumerate here,
he concluded that all animals have within them an
eleclricity of a peculiar nature ; that this Huid is con-
tained in moft parts, but is moil: apparent in the nerves
and mufcles 5 that it is fecreted by the brain, and
difTufed by the nerves through various parts of the
body.

He compared each mufcular fibre to a fmall Leyden
phial, ar.d attempted to explain the phenomena of muf-
cular motion by analogies taken from that inflruraent.
Ke firft thought if its pathological intluence in regard to
rheun-.itic, convulfive, paralytic, and other nervous affec-
tions. His firrt publication on this grand difcovery was
entitled jllcysii Galvani de viribus Ele&ricilatis in Motii
Mufculart Com?iien!ar!us, which made its appearance in
410, in the year 1791, and was printed for the Inftitute
of Bologna. By this work the attention of philofophers
both in Italy and other countries was inftantly roufed,
and it was foon followed by numerous publications, in
fome of which the fentiir.ents of Galvani were defended,
and in others they were oppofed. The celebrated Volta
turned his attention to the fubjecl, and adduced a
number of arguments to prove that Galvani's 0[ itiion
refpefling animal electricity was erroneous, deriving the
phenomena from the electric matter of the atmofphere,
and allowing the nerves and mufcles no higher a place
than that of the moll fenfible tefts hitherto difcovered.
The doftrine of Volta received many admirers and ad-
vocates ; yet there are fiill numbers to be met with in
the learned world who fupport the lentiments of Galva-
ni, who flill adhere to h.is original theory, in the defence
of which he difplayed much candour and modefty, as
well as ingenuity, by which he may be juftly confidered
as deferving that diftinguilhed place among experi-
mental philofophers, which the union of his name with
the moft interefting natural phenomena will probably
fecure to him for ever. See Galvanism.

Thefe impoitsnt inquiries, joined to the duties of his
odice as a profeffor, and his extenfive practice in the
capacity of furgeon and man-midwife {accoucheur^, in
both ivhich he eminently excelled, afforded abundant
fcope for his indefatigable induftry. He compofed a
variety of memoirs on topics conncfted with his pro-
feftion J but thefe, as far as we know, have never been
publiilied. He delighted to converfe ^vith men of
fcience, in whofe company new publications were read,
and their merits inveftigated, which was certainly a va-
luable fource of iatclleiilual improvement.

The charafler of Galvani in private life is allowed to
have been moft amiable ; and his fenfibility, which was
naturally ftrong', received a violent Ihock in tlie death
of his amiable wife, in the year 1790. This event
brought upon him the moft alarming melancholy, which
he even delighted to encourage, by viliting her tomb
in the nunnery of St Catharine, and pouring forth his
unavailing lamentations over her grave. He was ever
puniJlual in the difcharge of the duties of his religion,.

eyco

GAL [ :,s

Calvani even to llie rainuteft rite, a^ he never loft the pious ini-
-~~'v—~' prelTions which Keie made upon his mind at an early
period of life. To this caufe we may probably trace
hack his determination never to take what was called
the civic oath of allegiance to the Cifalpine republic,
for which lie was barbaroufly deprived of all his othces
and dignities. Devoured by melancholy, and nearly
reduced to a (late of indigence, he took up his refidence
in the hnufe of his brother Jame?;, a man of refpeclabi-
Uty, uhere he fell into a llate of extenuation and debi-

I ] GAL

lity. At this time even rejiuhlican governors appear
to have been alhnmed of their brutal condud towards '
fuch an extraordinary man ; in confetiuencc of which ?.
decree was pidl'ed for. relloring him to his chair in the
univerfity, together with its emoluments ; but this fit of
generofity was too long in feizing them. He departed
this life on the 5th of November, 1798, in the 6ift
year of his age, amidft the tears of his friends, and the
regret of the public, in whofe death the learned world
has been deprived of one of its brightell ornaments.

G A L V A N I S M.

T F TWO pieces of metal, the one of zinc, and the
-*■ other of filver, or the one of zinc and the other of cop-
per, or, what anfwers the purpofe equally well, a penny
piece and a half crown piece, be fo placed that the one
Ihall touch the upper furface of the tongue, and the
other fhall touch its under furface, ^vhile the edges
projeft over the point ; as often as the edges of the
metals in this iituation are brought into contact, a pe-
culiar fenfation is produced in the tongue ; there is
fomething like a flight fiiock of eleflricity, and there is
perceived at the fame time an auftere, aftringent, or
metallic tafte.

If a bit of tin-foil be placed on one of the eyes, and
a bit of copper held between the teeth or touching
the tongue, and a communication be formed by means of
a wire between the piece of metal on the eye and that
on the tongue, a flalh of light is feen, and this is
produced as often as the communication is completed.
But, in the above experiments, if metals of the fame
kind be employed, no perceptible effeft whatever is
produced.

If a pile compofed of 50 or 60 pairs of plates of zinc
and filver, or zinc and copper, be arranged in a regular
feries, with pieces of cloth moiftened in a folution of
common fait placed between each pair; and if one hand
previoufly moiftened with water touch the lower pair,
and the other hand, alfo moiftened, touch the upper pair
of plates, the moment the communication between the
bottom and top of the pile is completed, a fmart ftiock
is felt ; and if 50 or 6d pairs of plates of copper
and zinc be arranged in a trough as w^iU be afterwards
defcribed, and the fpaces between the pairs be filled
',vith water, to which about ^-^ of pretty ftrong nitric

acid has been added, a fimilar lliock is perceived, when
the hands welted with water touch the plates at the ex-
tremities of the trough. If a communication by means
of wires and two pieces of well-prepared charcoal be
made between the extremities of the trough, a very
brilliant combuftion is excited every time the two pieces
of charcoal are brought Into contact. By placing tin-
foil, gold leaf, white or yello\v Dutch foetal or brafs
leaf, on a wire conneded with one end of the trough,
and touching the metallic leaves with a plate of copper
or zinc connected with a wire from the other end of
the trough, a rapid and brilliant deflagration is exhibited
every time that the communication is effedled. j

The phenomena which are thus produced have re- what is un.
ceived the name of Cakanifm, from the name of Gal- '''^''•''oa^ ''X
vani, who firft obferved and publilhed an account of S*'"*"^"-
fome of them, and the power by which thefe effcfts are
produced has been denominated the galvanic pciver or
Jluid. From its efleols on animals being fimilar to
thofe of the elcdrical fluid, it was at firft called animal
eleEiricity ; but then the knowledge of galvanlfm was
limited to its effects on animals, and It ivas fuppofed to
depend on fomething peculiar to animal life.

In the following treatife we propofe to give a view
of the progrefs and prefent ftate of galvanlfm j and for
this purpofe we ihall arrange the whole under two great
divifions. Under the firft, we fliill confider the phe-
nomena of galvanifm, or detail the faiSts which have
been alcertained with regard to this power. The fecond
part will be occupied in the hiftory, progrefs, and
theories, which have been held ^vith regard to the na-
ture of galvanifm.

PART I. OF THE PHENOMENA OF GALVANISM.

IN treating of the phenomena of galvanifm, its pro-
greflive hiftory fuggefts an arrangement fufticiently con-
venient for taking a view of the effects of the galvanic
fluid. Thofe efFefls which are to be regarded as ftriflly
chemical, were altogether unknown, till after its appli-
cation to animals, and a great mafs of fa6ts relative to
its effects on animal life had been accumulated. We
may therefore firft confider the effefts produced on
animals by the operation of the galvanic fluid, and in
the next place thofe effefts which are llriclly chemical.

But before we proceed to this, it is neceffary that the
nature and conftruftion of the apparatus, by which thefe
effefls were produced, fliould be underftood. Thefe
topics, therefore, ftiall be the fubjcfts of the three fol-
loiving chapters. In the firft we (hall treat of the con-
ftru6lion of the apparatus by which the phenomena of
galvanlfm are produced ■■, the fecond will be employed
in confidering tlie effefls of the galvanic fluid on ani-
rrals •, and the third will comprehend a view of its che-
mical eflfecis.

T t 2 Chap.

G A L V A

Chap. I. Of the Conjlntcfion of the Apparatus for
exkibiting the Phenomena of Galvanifm.

Apparatus Os the firfl difcovery of galvanifm, the appaiatus for
w firft exhibiting its efiefts was extremely iiniple. It con-
fimple ^^^^j merely of two pieces of different metals, fuch as

has been defcribed above, by which a peculiar fenfAtion
i~ produced on the tongue. This, it has been ftated, is
efft^.rd by means of a piece of zinc and a piece of cop-
per, the one placed on the upper furface, and the other
on the under furface of the tongue, while the prcjefling
edges are brought into contad. In the fame way, and
with fuch an apparatus, a great variety of experiments,
cfpecially in cold blooded animals, %vere exhibited, when
the knowledge of this remarkable power was firft an-
nounced and invel'igated.

For the purpofe of exhibiting fome of the fimpler
effefls of galvanifm, we fliall defcribe the following
FLite apparatus, which is of very eafy conftruflioUj AB,
CCXXIX. fig. I . is an iron wire, fliarp at the point A, and fixed
in the w^onden ftand C. If a frog prepared in the way
which we (hall immediately defcribe, be fixed on the
point of the wire at A, and a gold or a filver wire (a
filver tea fpoon will anfwcr the purpofe) be brought
into contact with the fide of the wire, as at the point
D ; and while in contaft with the wire at D, it is
brought into contacl with the feet of the frog at E or
r, the effeft cf the galvanic power will be immediate-
ly perceived. The limbs of the animal will be flrong-
ly convulfed, and will exhibit as much motion by the
contraftion of the mufcles as if it were alive, and in
full vigour. But if an iron wire, fimilar to AB, were
fubftituted for the gold or filver wire, no fuch effeft'
would be produced.
Methods of Frogs, as they are moft eafily found, and as they
preparing are, perhaps, more convenient in other refpefts, have
Iroos for l^een oftener the fubieft of galvanic experiments than
**P"'" any other animal. To prepare them for thefe experi-
ments, various methods have been followed. Some
phyfiologifts propofe to remove only the integuments,
and lay bare the mufcles, while others open the cavi-
ties of the thorax and abdomen, remove the vifcera
which are contained in thefe cavities, and bring into
view the nerves and mufcles which are there diftribut-
cd. Some again, after the above previous preparation,
fcparate all the parts between the origin of the nerve
and its infertion in the mufcle, fo that the latter may •
be attached by means of the nerves only, to the trunk
of the body ; while others, after a fimilar preparation,
cut off the animal's head, that the effefts produced by
galvanifm may not be confounded with the voluntary
movements of the living animal. By another mode
of preparation, each of the parts is feparated from the
body by diffei^Hon, after laying bare the mufcles and
nerves.

But in general a frog is underftood to be prepared
when it is divided with a pair of fciffars into two por-
tions, through the middle of the body nnd fpine. The
vifcera arc then removed, as well as the integuments of
the inferior extremities. As the fciatic nerves of this
animal rife very high upon the fpine, they are diftinftly
fcen after this treatment. When it is intended, as in
fome experiments, to arm the nerves, as it is called, a
pair of ftiarp-poiwied fciJIars is intsoduced beneatk

N I S M. Parti.

them, and the fpii.e is cut through, but without divid- CoRftruc-
ing the nerves. A portion of the inferior part of the ''™ "'
fpine is afterwards to be feparated, that room may be . ^- ' .'
left for covering the nerves with a bit of tin-foil, 'i'his
is what is ufually underftood by arming or coaling the
nerves. In foine experiments it will be found more
convenient to feparate the lower extremities frem the
trunk, and to employ the crural nerve.

Phenomena fimilar to the above nay be produced by
placing a frog A prepared in the way defcribed above,
on a plate of zir^c B, fig. 2. and on a plate of fdvcr or
copper C. If the communication between the plates A
and B be completed by means of the conductor D, the
mufcles of the frog are immediately tisrown into ftrong
convulfions, and thefe motions are renewed as often as
the contaft is made by the condufting wire a;id the
two metals. g

The apparatus we have now- defcribed affords an single gal-
example of the fimpleft galvanic combination, or what vanic com-
is ufually denominated a fingle galvaiiic combination.'' n^t'o"'
Here it may be obferved, that this combination muft cou-
fift of three different conductors. The conduftors of elec-
tricity have been arranged into two principal claffcs : to
the hxh belong the metallic fubftances and charcoal,
which have been otherwife called dry and pcrfeft con-
ductors ; the fccond clafs confifts of the iraperfeft con-
ductors, which are water and other oxidating lluids,
and the fubftances which contain theie fluids. But al-
though the conduftors of electricity, for the hike of
conveniency, are thus arr.inged, they differ from each
other in their condufting pow-er, and this difference is
greateft among the fubftances comprehended under the
iecond clafs. Now, if the three conduftors of the gal-
vanic fluid be all of the firft clafs, or all of the fccond,
the efftft is fcarcely perceptible. An aftive, fimple
galvanic combination, then, muft confift of three dif-
ferent bodies, one conduftor muft belong to one clafs,
and two different conduftors muft be taken from the
other clafs. In fig. 3. and 4. are exhibited examples
of aftive fimple galvanic combinations. In fig. 2. th?.
letters AB mark the bodies belonging to the firft clafs
or perfeft conduftors ; and a marks the bodies belong-
ing to the fecond clafs, or imperfeft conduftors ; and
in fig. 3. A marks one body belonging to the fit ft
clafs, and a b two bodies belonging to the fecond
clafs, or the imperfeft conduftors. Of the three
bodies forming a galvanic combination, if two of them
belong to the firft clafs, and one to the fecond, this
combination is faid to be of the firft order ; but if one
of the three bodies only belong to the firft clafs, and
two to the fecond, the combination is faid to be of the
fecond order. Fig. 3. is a galvanic combination of the
firft order, and fig. 4. is one of the fecond. This may
be further illuftrated by examining fig. 5, 6, 7, which
confift of two bodies only, and therefore are not aftive
coinbirrations ; and alfo by examining fig. 8 and 9,
which confift of three bodies, but two of them are of
the fame kind, and therefore aft as a fingle body. In
the laft five figures, the capital letters denote the bodies
belonging to the firft clafs, aird the fmall letters thofe
belonging to the fecond.

In the fingle aftive galvanic combination, or the fim-
ple galvanic circle, the two bodies of one clafs muft be
in contaft with each other in one or more points, while,
at the fame time, they are co-mcfted together at other

points

FaitL GAL

Ccnftru'-. p.Mnis with t'le body hclongliip; to the o"her clafs. Thus,

tic 11 ot jf g prepared nog is cojivu'lecl bv the contaft of the iame

^J.,,'" "* "' piece of metal in two different places, the fluids of thofe

parts which muft be fomev.-hat difFe.-ent from each other,

are the two cor.duclors of the fecond clafs, and the

A N I S M.

, of lilver and mercury ; or th.

Silver, ivith gold, and the nitr
The foUowiii g is a lift of gaU
cond order, confiftiiig of one conduilor of tli

3S->

or the acetoas Cotifiruc
tion of

acid.

lie circles of the fe

tal conlHtiites the third body for the condu<51or of and two of the fecond.

liift clals, Ofthcle-

c'iiid ordtr.

Aaion nf

galvanifm

accompa-

nied by

chemical

aclion.

Galvanic
circles of
tbe firft
order.

the nvft clafo. But if two metals be employed, the
fluids of the prepared ar.inial differing little from each
other, are to- be confidered as one body of the fecond
clafs.

Here it may be ncceiTary to anticipate a little, by ob-
ferving, that in a finiple galvanic circle, the conduclor
or condudors of one clafs mull have fome cliemical ac-
tion upon the other condudlor or condu£lors, other-
wife no galvanic aflion would be produced, or at lealt
a very feeble one, from the combination of three bodies.
■J'his galvanic aftion, too, feems to be in proportion to
the degree of chemical ailion, from which fome have
fuppofed, that this c:liemical agency is the primary caufe
of the phenomena.

It is found that the mofl a flive galvanic combinations,
cr galvanic circles belonging to the firft order, are
th.ofe in which two folids polTefting different degrees of
oxidability, are combined with a fluid which is capable
of oxidating at leaft one of the folids. Gold, filver,
and water, do not form an aiSive galvanic combination,
becaufe water is incapable of oxidating cither of thefe
r.-.etals ; but if a fmall quantity of nitric acid, or any
other fluid which may be decompofed by the filver, be
raived with water, an aiSlive galvanic circle may thus
be formed.

If zinc, filver, and water, or zinc, copper, and w a-
ter, be combined together, an a5live galvanic circle is
formed, and the water vvill be found to oxidate the
vine, if it hold any pr»tion of atmofpherical air in folu-
tion, and flil! mr>re fo, if it contain oxygen. But the
combination of the fame fubftances forms a much more
powerful galvanic circle, if a little nitric acid be add-
ed to the water, becaufe then the fluid has a ftrong ac-
tion on the zinc, and oxidates it.

Galvanic combinations belonging to the fecond or-
der are found to be moft powerful, wlien two conduc-
tors of the fecond clafs have different chemical actions
on the conduflors of the firft clafs, while at the fame
time they have an a^Jiion upon each other. As an ex-
irnple of this, copper, filver, or lead, combined with a
folution of an alkaline fulphuret, and diluted nitric acid,
conftitute a very aftive galvanic circle.

The following is a lift of galvanic circles of the firft
order, corapofed of two conductors of tiie firft clafs, and
one of the fecond.

Zinc with gold, or charcoal, or filver, or copper, or
tin, or iron, or mercury ; and water containing a fmall
qu.antity of any of the mineral acids.

Iron, with gold, or charcoal, or filver, or copper,
or tin, and a weak folution of any of the mineral acids,
as above.

Tin, vith gold, or filver, or charcoal, and a weak fo-
lution of any of the mineral acids, as above.

Lead, with gold, or filver, and a weak acid folution.

Any of the above metallic combinations, and com-
mon water, viz. water containing atmofpherical air, or
efpecially water contaii.ing oxygen air.

Conntr, wi'.h geld, or fjver, and a folutloa of nitrate

Charcoal, or v.ith water, or witii and a folution of
Copper, or . a folution of any hy- nitrous acid, or
Silver, or drogcnatcd allialhie oxygenated ma-
Lead, or fulnhiu-ets, capable rialic acid, &c.
Tin, or of a£ling on the capable of a^linjj
Iron, or firft three metals on- uj'ou all the n^e-
Zinc, ly ; tali.

Rat tfie e.TeRs of the galvanic fluid are extremely
feeble, when they are limited to the operation of eve;;
the moft powerful fimple combinations. In the pro
grcfs of the knowledge of galvanifm it was foon found,
that thefe effefts might be combined and increafed to
almoft any degree. This is done by connefling toge-
ther a number of aftive fimple combinations, which,
it is to be obferved, muft be fo difpofed that they may ,j,
not counteraft each other. A number of fimple com- Battent'.
binations thus connected togetlier have received the
name of batteries ; and thefe batteries are faid to be-
long to the firft or fecond order, according as the fim-
ple combinations of which they arc formed, are com-
pofed of fubftances of the firft or fecond order of con-
dufling powers. Thus, for example, if a plate of zinc
be laid upon a plate of copper, and a piece of moifleii-
ed card or leather be laid upon the zinc, and a fimilar
arrangement of three other pieces be laid upon the firft,
and any number of combinations of the fame kind be
continued, taking care that they are always arranged
in the fame order, the whole will form a battery of the
firft order. But If a plate of copper be connecled with
a piece of cloth moiftentd with water, and the latter
with another piece of cloth, moiftened with a folution
of fulphuret of potafli, and this be cop.neSed with ano-
ther piece of copper, repeating the fame feries to any
convenient number, a battery of the fecond order will
be iormed of the whole.

Batteries of the fecond order have been arranged by
Mr Davy into the three following claffes. I . Tlie moil
feeble battery is compofed, when fingle metallic plates
are fo arranged that t\vo of their furfaces or oppofite
extremities are in contaft with different fluids, the one
of which is capable, and the other is I icapablc, of oxi-
dating the metal, a regular feries of fuch combinations
arc formed. 2. When fingle combinations or elements
of the feries are each compofed of a fingle plate of a
metallic fubftance, capable of adfing upon fulplmratcd
hydrogen, or upon fulphurets diffolved in walBr, ac-
companied with portions of a folution of fulphuret ot
potafli on one fide, and water on the other. 3. The
third clafs is the moft. powerful, being formed when
metallic fubftances oxidable in acids, and capable of
aclin^ on fjlutions of fulphurets, are connefled as plates
with oxidating fluids, and folutions of fulphuret of '
potafli, and fo arranged that the oppofite fides of every
plate may undergo different chemical changes, the mode
of alternation being regular.

')"he firll attempt to increafc the cffefts of the gal-
vanic fluid, by combining a feries of fimple circles, "'aSfj^jm^uj
tazi: bv Volta j to this he gave the name couronne tie de laflis.

"iff..

Conftriic-

tion of

Appar.tiis.

G A L V A

t.-i//hs. Tine following is tlie conlhuftion and mode of
applying this apparatus.

Take any number of cups or glafs tumblers A, B, C,
D, E, fig. ro. Fill them about three fourths full with
any of the faline folutions, which will be afterwards dc-
icvibed, as that of common fait or fal ammoniac in wa-
ter. To one extremity of a bent brafs v.ire folder a
plate of zinc of about two inches in diameter, and to
the other extremity of the fame wire, folder in the fame
manner a plate of copper of the fame diameter. Thefe
connefting wires are reprefented in the figure by the
letters a, a, a, a ; and the plates of the different metals
are marked with the letters Z and C, viz. zinc and cop-
per. In arranging the plates in the vcffel?, it ought to
be obferved, that a plate of zinc and a plate of copper
belonging to different wires, mull be in the fame veflel,
and never two plates of the fame kind. Thus in the
firft veffel A, there is a plate of copper ; in the fecond
B, conneiled by the fame wre, there is a plate of zinc ;
in the fame vellel B, there is alfo a plate of copper,
which is conncfted by means of another wire to a plate
of zinc in the third veffel C. The fame order and nr-
rangement are to be obferved to v.hatever number of
plates and veffcls the feries may extend.

Suppofe now that the apparatus has been arranged in
the way defcribed above, and the veffels ha\'e been fill-
ed ivith a folution of common fait in water ; if the num-
ber of veffels be not lefs than ten or twelve, a flight
iliock will be felt by immerfing one hand in the veffel,
at one extremity of the feries, and the other hand in
ihe veffel at the other extremity ; as for inftance, by
putting the fingers of one hand in the veffel A, fig. 10.
and I'uddenly plunging the fingers of the other hand in
the veffel E. The (hock will perhaps be more fenfibly
felt by previoufly wetting the palms of both hands, and
taking a filver or pewter fpoon in each hand, immerfe
file handle of the one into the veffel A, and the handle
of the other into the veffel E.

The flrength of this apparatus depends on the num-
ber of feries of plates and veffels employed. But it is
obvious that this feries from the nature of the apparatus
could not be greatly extended fo as to afford any great
Increafe of power. This occurred very early to the in-
genious difcoverer, as an infurmountable objeftion to
the ufe of this apparatus. The views of this philofopher
in inveiligating the nature of galvanifm, feem at this
time to have been chiefly direftcd to the difcovery of
inftruments or apparatus, by means of which he might
be enabled to augment its power. In the profecution
of his inquiries, therefore, he contrived another appa-
ratus, which was afterwards knotvn by the name of the
galvanic pile, and fometimes, but more rarely by that
of the voltaic pile or pile of Volta, from the name of
the difcoverer. This apparatus is conftruifled in the
following manner.

A pile of moderate ftrength may be conftruflcd of
60 pairs of plates of zinc and copper, each plate being
about two inches diameter j it may be conftrufted.aHo
with fimilar plates of zinc and filver, or of almoft any
two other diffimilar metals. Such piles have been very
conveniently conllrufted, with half crown pieces and
plates of zinc of the fame fize, or more conveniently
with penny pieces and plates of zinc of the fame dia-
meter. But of whatever different metals this kind of
apparatus is to be conftrufled, the fame order of ar-

N I S M.

FaPt I.

rangeraent is to be oblVived throughout the whole Conllruc-
feries. t'°" °* ,

Suppofe the metals to be employed in the conftruc- ''''"^ "'
tion of the pile are zinc and copper, (and thefe from
views of economy have been moil frequently employed),
an equal number of pieces of cloth, pafteboard, or
leather, of the fame diameter ^vith the metallic plates,
is to be prepared. 'I'he ufe of thefe pieces of cloth u
to retain the moifture, by means of which the com-
munication between the plates is formed, and the gal-
vanic combinations are completed ; and in proportion
to the length of time during which the pieces of cloth
or other fubftances retain the fluid which they have ab-
forbcd, the operation of the pile continues. The pile
is formed by placing a pair of plates, one of zinc, and
one of copper, upon a Hand, the one immediately above
the other. Upon this pair of plates is then placed a
piece of cloth which has been foaked in fome faline fo-
lution, as that of common fait, or fal ammoniac. Up-
on this piece of cloth is placed another pair of plates,
arranged in the fame order as the firft pair. It makes
no difference which of the metals is placed firft in the
feries, only it is neceffary to take care that the fame
order be preferved throughout the whole pile. If
the feries, for inflance, begins with copper, it runs in
the following order : copper, zinc, cloth ; copper, zhic,
cloth, &c. to whatever number of pairs of plates and
pieces of cloth the feries may extend.

But if the number of feries amount to 60 pairs, it
will be neceffary to have rods to confine the pairs of
plates, and to retain them in a perpendicular column ;
for without this the iveight at top would be fo confi-
derable, that the leaft inclination to one fide (and this
could not well be avoided ) would derange the whole
apparatus. The rods which have been employed for this
purpofe have been fometimes made of glafs, and fome-
times of wood. When wood is ufed, it thould be pret-
ty dry, or baked, by which means its condufling
pou'er Is either greatly diminifhed or entirely de-
ll royed.

The pile being conflrufted in this manner, its effefts
may be obferved, by applying the fingers of one hand
moillened with water to the lo^veft pair of plates, and
then touching with the fingers of the other hand moif-
tened in the fame manner, the upper pair of plates,
thus completing the communication between the extre-
mities of the pile. Every time that this communica-
tion is. made, a fenfation is experienced, fimilar to a
flight Ihock of eleftricity. The intenfity of this fliock
is in proportion to the number of the pairs of plates,
the nature of the fluid employed, and the care with
which the pile has been crefted, or the time that it has
continued in aiflion. With a pile of 60 pairs of plates,
the ihock will be perceptible through the fingers,
or the whole of the hand, and in fome perfons, when
it is in full aftivity, it will extend as high as the
elbows.

In making experiments with this kind of apparatus,
it will be found that 30 or 60 pairs of plates will be a
futlicient number to be erefted in one pile ; but to in-
creafe the po\ver of the galvanic fluid, a number of
piles may be connedled together. This may be done
in two ways ; either by combining the feparate aflion
of the different piles employed ; as, for inftance, if three
piles are conftrufled, let the pairs of plates be arranged

Part I. G A L V

in eacli exaiftly in tlie fame way, and let the conducl-
jng fubllances, as uires, pafs from the top and bottom
^'of each to on'.- common conduftor. In this cafe we
have the action of three different currents of the gal-
vanic fluid ; but whatever number of piles may be em-
ployed, their mutual adion may be fo combined, that
the whole effefl may be produced by o,ie fmgle cur-
rent. Suppofo the metallic plates of one pile are ar-
ranged in the follomng^ order ; copper, zinc, cloth ;
copper, zinc, cloth, &c. then the plates of the fecond
mull be arranged in a different order, namely, zinc,
copper, cloth ; zinc, copper, cloth, &c. and the plates
of the third in the fame way as the firft, «z. copper,
zinc, cloth ; copper, zinc, cloth, &c. The three piles
being thus arranged, let a metal'-ic conduflor, as a (lip
of copper or zinc, be placed between the tops of the
tirft and fecond pile, and a lirailar conductor be placed
between the bottom of the fecond and third piles ; and
when they are thus conneited together, let the fingers
of one hand moiftened, be placed at the lovvell pair of
plates of the firll pile, and the fingers of the other hand,
alfo moiilened, be brought in contadl with the upper
pair of plates of ti>e third, a violent (hock will be felt.
The fhock will be the fame as if the whole number of
pairs of plates of which the three piles are compofed
were formed into a fingle pile ; for the fame order of
arrangement being obferved from the bottom of the firtl
pile to the top, and from the top of the fecond pile to
the bottom, and again from the bottom of the third
pile to the top, the current palTes uninterruptedly
through the whole feries, as if it were uniformly ar-
ranged in one pile.

The effeils of this apparatus may be farther obferv-
ed in its chemical aclion. If the circle is completed,
or the communication between the extremities of the
apparatus by means of charcoal be formed, a fpark is
produced. This is done by attaching a piece of well pre-
pared charcoal to a wire which communicates with one
extremity of the apparatus, and another fimilar piece
of charcoal to another wire communicating with the
other extremity ; if the two pieces of charcoal be
brought into contact, thus completing the circle, a
fpark will be obferved, and this may be repeated as
long as the activity of the pile continues. The chemi-
cal effefts of fuch an apparatus are al.'b exhibited in the
decompofition of water. The apparatus for effeftmg
this decompofition, and the method of uiing it, will be
afterwards defcribed.

But it was foon found that the effcds of this pile,
although when it is firil erected it polfeffes conlidera-
ble energy, in a very (hort time it becomes extremely
feeble, and at lad altogether imperceptible. This is
owing to the pieces of cloth or other fubitance which
is intcrpofed between the pairs of plates being deprived
of their moillure, either by evaporation, or by being
fqucezed out, from the wclcht of the plates. The lat-
ter effefl, it is obvious, mult be in proportion to the
height, and confequently the incumbent preffurc of the
upper on the lower part of the pile •, and befides this,
the liquid as it oozes out, trickles down the fulcs of the
pile, fo that the different pairs of plates are Icfs perfefl-
Iv infulateJ than they otherwife ought to be, to produce
the full effect.

Various contrivances were thought of to obviate
thefe inconve.-ucnccs, and the firft which was piopofed

A N I S M. ,,~

was announcedby the mgcnxus inventor of the pile Conftru. -
himfelf. Volta inclofed his piles, after they were crefted, ''"" »'"
with wa.\ or pitch. By this contrivance, which he put Apparatus.
in praftice on two columns or piles, each confining of ^ " '
20 plates, he fucceeded fo far in preventing the incon-
veniences alluded to above, that their effefl s continued
nearly undiminiflied for feveral weeks. By other con-
trivances the plates and pieces of cloth or pafteboard
were arranged horizontally, by which means forae of
the inconveniences of the upright column were avoid-
ed ; among thcfe ihe unequal preffure was removed, but
ftill it was found that the evaporation continued, lb
thiit it was not long before its operation began to dimi-
niiii, and at lail to be entirely interrupted.

As it was found that the chemical effects of the pile
were greatly incrcafed by employing plates of a larger
furl'ace, even when the number was greatly diminilh-
ed, piles were erefted both on the continent and in
Britain, with plates from lo to 14 inches fquare.
I'welye or fourteen pairs of plates of the above iize,
arranged in the fame way as thofe which have been
already defcribed, produced very confidcrable chemical
effefts, fuch as, burning phofphorus, fettitig fire to
gunpowder, and deflagrating gold and filver leaf. The
pieces of thick cloth or palleboard moiftened with wa-
ter, to which a certain proportion of nitric acid was
added, were ufually employed in the conftrudtion of
this pile ; but it is lumeceffary to mention that it was
attended with fimilar inconveniences to thofe which
accompanied the fmaller pile. Thefe inconveniences
probably led to another and more effedlual contrivance
for exhibiting the effects of galvanifra. But before wo
give an account of thefe, we fhall fanher illullrate the
nature and conflruflion of the pile with an explana-
tion of fig. 1 1, and 12.

Fig. II. is a reprefentation of a pile compofed of
copper, zinc, and pieces of pafteboard, focked in fome
faline folution. The pile is ereited on the ftand A,
and the different parts of whicli it is compofed are
retained in their perpendicular pofition by means of the
three rods made of glafs or baked wood, />, b, b. The
pieces of metal are marked c, it., and the palteboard
/>, in the order in which they are placed. The pile
being ere.5ted from bottom to top in the fame order,
kt a piece of wire e be inferted under the lower pair
of plates, and let another wire f, be kept in contaft
with the upper furface of the upper pair of plates ;
the different parts being thus difpoied, if the fingers of
one hand moiilened be brought in contact with the
wire c, and the fingers of the other hand alfo moiften-
ed, be brought in contact with the wire f, a fhock
will be felt, and thus it will be found that the energy
of the pile will continue till the moifture of the pieces
of pafteboard has evaporated, or the peculiar change
which talces place on one of the metals during its ac-
tion, and which will be taken notice of afterwards, has
been effefled.

Fig. 1 2. exhibits a viev/ of a combination of three
piles. A, B, C. In the column A the arrangctient is
copper, zinc, pafteboard ; copper, zinc, pafteboard, &c.
in the column A, this arrangement is reverfed, from
the bottom of the column, whicli is zinc, copper, pafte-
board ; zinc, copper, pafteboard, &c. ; becaufe it mult
be the fame as if the column B were placed upon the
top of the column A, the points A and B being brought "

trough.

v^o G A L V

C''iiCruc- ii;to coiitafV, only Iiavlr.g a piece of palleboard iiiter-
t:on ot porej_ -j-j^g tj,;rd column C is arranged in ihe fame
I ^''•"^ *•'• manner as ihe column A, viz. copper, zinc, palkboard;
copper, zinc, palleboard, &c. Tims, then, the three
columns are fo arranged, that the different feries fuc-
^'-ft.l each other from the bottom of column. A to
•no" top, from the top of column B to the bottom, and
from the bottom of column C to the top, as if the
v.hole had been difpofed in one column A. A com-
munication is then formed between the top of the column
A and the top of column B, by a metallic conductor D,
and between the bottom of column B, and the bottom of
column C, by means of the metallic conduflor E. If
then tlie fingers of one hand moillened are brought
into contact with the wire ¥, which communicates
v.ith the bottom of column A, and the fingers of the
other hand alfo moiflened are brought into Contact
with the wire G, a fmart Ihock will be felt, from the
combined aflion of the three columns or piles.

The inconveniences of the pile, as we have already
hinted, were foon felt by thufe who were eager in the
inveftigation of galvanifm, and who wiflicd their ex-
periments to continue wirli undiminilhed energy, that
thf-y might be enabled to afcertain witli precifion the
>^cw and curious faifls which preftnted themfelvcs.
Thefe inconveniences, it is very probable, fuggelled the
improvements in galvanic apparatus which we are now
to defcribc.

By the invention of the trough, for which we are
indebted to the ingenuity of Mr Cruikfliank of Wool-
wich, tlie progrefs of galvanifm became rapid and bril-
liant ; for by this means philofophers were enabled not
only to give a longer duration to their experiments,
but to command a degree of energy in the galvanic
fluid, which, before the difcovery of this apparatus,
Was not even fufpefled. This apparatus, we believe,
is now almoft univerfally etnployed for galvanic ex-
periments. We (hall therefore give a more detailed ac-
count of the method of conftniciing and ufing it.

Troughs with plates of various fizcs have been con-
ftrufted, from 2 to 6, 8, and even 14 inches ffjuare ;
but as an example, we Ihall fi.ppofe the following
trough to be conftrufted with plates of about four
inchts fquare. A wooden trough AB, fig. 13. is to be
made of baked mahogany ; the length may be about
^o- inches, and, as we fliall fuppofe the number of
paifs of plates to be 50, an equal number o^ grooves
is to be cut on the fides and bottom in the infide of
t'lc trough. Thefe grooves are to be cut at equal dif-
tances fiom each other, and the width of each groove
is to be fuch,as to correfpond nearly to thethicknefs of
each pair of plates, fo that the latter may Hip cafily into
the grooves.

The plates are like thofe which have been already
delcribed in tTie conftruftion of the pile made of zinc
and copper. No difficulty has ever occurred in pro-
curing plates of Copper for this purpofe ; bccaufe all
that is necelTaiy is to cut them out of Iheets of cop-
per of the requifite thicknefs to any fize that is want-
ed. But the cafe has been very different with regard
to plates of zinc, efpecialiy where large plates were re-
quired. Attempts have been made to caft them in
moidds of fand, fuch as are ufed for calling different
utenfils of other metals ; but thefe attempts, it would
.ippear, have been generally unfuccefsful. The method
2

A N I S M. Part I

which it ib faid has fucctedcd beil in forniiilg plates of Cuu^.r-.c.
any confiderable fize is the following. Tiie zinc of *'°" '"
which the plates are to be compoled is to be melted '^''.f'"^
in a narrow-mouthed veffel, fo thit a fmall larface of
fufcd metal may be expofed. The reafon of this is, that
the .metal when it reaches a certain temperature is very
rapidly oxidated in confequencc 0:' t!.e .l-''^'^ ;iffinity
between this metal and oxygen. .....:: .i. is itatj

is converted into a fine Iluccui.- , ^-.vn by

the name of flowers of zinc. . ; . . - -lefare,

as it is attended with a lofs of th- ;;:^'.al, a to be as
much as poffible avoided. A mould ofllone of the di-
menfions of the propofed plates (in this cafe four in-
ches), and about one-eighth of an inch in thicknefs, is
to be prepared ; but one formed of brafs is found to
anAver the purpofe ftiU better. When the metal is in
perfeft fulion, the pl?-tes itiould be cafl as quickly as
poflibie, bec.iule, as the metal cools rapidly, cavities and
imperftilious would appear on the furiace from its flow-
ing unequally.

The plates of zinc being prepared, plate? of copper
which need not exceed one-tenth of tl'.e thicknefs of the
zinc plates are to be cut out of a fl-.eet of copper to the
requi/ite dimcnfions, viz. correfponding to the fize of the
zinc plates. The copper plates muil be reduced by-
hammering to a fmooth and plane furface that tht-y may
apply exactly to the furface of the zinc plates', and be
in coiitaft in as many points as poflibie. , ^

The pl.ites being thus prepared are to be foldered tO-So!Jfr!ng
gether 5 but it muft be obfervcd that it is not to be'^'^P'^-e^'
through the whole extent of the plate. It is found
quite futlitient to folder them about one-fourth' of an
inch from the edges. The folder traidoyed for this
purpofe is foft folder ; and great precaution mull b?
obferved that the union at the edges be lb clo'e as to
prevent any of the liquid with which the cells in the
trough are to be filled from entering between the plates;
for otherwile the power of its aflion would be greatly
interrupted or perhaps entirely deifioyed.

The operation of foldering was performed with con-
fiderable dilliculty by many workmen ; at lealt, it-wss
found that in many cafes the plates were either not in
contafl; when the dimcnfions were large, or the joints
were not perfeftly fecure. We are not certain in what
way this operation is generally performed, but we know
that this difficulty has been obviated by the following
contrivance. The infide angles on the edges of the
plates, that is, on the fides of the plates which are to
be united together, are filed away, fo that, when the
plates are brought into clofe contaCl, a triangidar groove
all round the edge of the pair of plates remains. This
groove is filled with folder, and the operation is con-
duced in the ufual, way. Plates foldeied according to
this contrivance have been found to anfwer the purpofe
extremely well. But this inconvenience is now rendered
lefs embarrafling (nice the difcovery of rendering zinc
malleable and tiexible was made, for plates of zinc of
this defcription are of a much more equal thicknefs,
are thinner and fmoother, lb that the copper can be
brought into a clofer contaifl. The plates which have
been prepared of malleable zinc have the copper folded
over the edge of the zinc plates, and in this way they
are fecurcd without difficulty, by foldering.

In whatever way the pairs of plates are to be fecured,
fo tljat they may remain in clofe contact, they are after-
wards

Pan I.

G A L V A N I S M.

Conftruc- ^vaiilsjto be fixed In ilie giooves of the box prepared
lion cit^ f-Qj. jjjj:;. reception ; and litre it is to be obferved that
■ ''''''" "'" each individual pair of plates is to be completely infu-
latcd. This is done by means of a particular kind of
ctracnt, the ufe of xvhich is not only to retain the pairs
of plates in their places, and to render their infulation
complete, but alfo to defend tl:e wood of the box againlb
the adion of the fluid which is employed to fdl the cells
J J of the trough.
Ceincnt for 1 he cement which is employed for this purpofe is
fccuiing thccompofed of rofin, bees-wax, and fine brick durt, or
plate?. powdered red ochre. Different proportions of thefe
fubftances, it would appear, have been recommended in
the conftruifiion of galvanic troughs. According to ,
ibme, five parts of roiin, four of bees-w-ax, and two of
powdered red ochre, are found to anfwer this purpofe
extremely well. The rolin and bees-ivax are melted
together, that they may be completely incorporated,
and the red ochre is afterwards added. According
to others, four ounces of bees-wax, eight ounces of rofin,
and about an ounce of fine brick duft, melted together
in the fame way, are alfo found to anfwer the fame
purpofe equally well. With this cement the pairs of
plates are fccured in the grooves, and the intervening
fpaces on the infide of the bottom and fides of the
trough are alio covered with it, to defend the wood
from the adion of the fluid. It is fcarcely neceffiiry
to obferve, that the plates are to be arranged in the
fame way throughout the trough as the firfl: pair ; that
is, if the copper fide of the firrt pair of plates be
towards the end of the trough at B, all the other
pairs are to be fo arranged as to have their copper
fides towards the fame point B, and the zinc fides
touards the other end of the trough A. The plates
being arranged in this wav, the end of the trough B
is called the copper end of the trough or battery, and
the end A is called the zinc end.

Superior advantages are derived from arranging the
plates in this way, to that of conftrufting them in the
method defciibed for the pile ; for in this way the
fluid can be applied more equally and with greater
facility ; the apparatus is more convenient for per-
forming experiments ; its aftion continues for a con-
fiderably longer time, and there is little or no -trouble
in cleaning the plates after the operation. It is other-
wife with the pile, for, after it has beeh once ufed,
the furface of the ziirc plates is fo much oxidated,
that before they can be employed again, they mult
be fcoured or filed, which, it is obvious, mult be a
troublefome and tedious procefs ; but in the trough
the oxidated furface of the plates is cleaned in every
iuccelTive operation, the fluid which is "employed dif-
folving the oxide which has collected on the furface
of the zinc plates.
Liquid to ^" treating of the conftruttion and aftion of the pile,
SU the we have already obferved that diftercnt faline folutions
trough. wereemployed, to moiften the piecf s of cloth cr pafte-
board interpofed between the pairs of plates. Thcfe folu-
tioris were muriate of foda or common fait, muriate of
ammonia or fai ammoniac, and fometimes fulphate of
potalh. Similar folutions will anfwer the purpofe of
filling the cells of the trough, but'thefe are found to be
weaker than folutions of the acids ; and, befides, as they
are apt to cryftallize on the plates, it becomes extreme-
ly trajblefome to clean the trough. Acid folutions.
Vol. IX. Part I.

therefore, which are more poweiful. Lave beer, properly
preferred ; and the acid which feems to anfwer belt, on
different accounts, is the nitric •, the proportion to be \
employed, it is obvious, mull vary according to the
llrength of the acid. Of the common acid of the Ihops,
one part with 1 6 of \vater w ill form a pretty aftive
mixture ; but when the acid is ftronger, it may be nc-
ceffary to add 20 parts of water. But this mixture is
attended with tlie inconvenience of the evolution of ni-
trons gas, which, it is well known, is extremely difa-
greeable, and is injurious to refpiration ; and, on ac-
count of the high price of nitric acid, when a large
qiumtity of this mixture is required, it becomes very
•fipenfive. Sulphuric acid mixed with water has alfo
•been employed for the fame purpofe, and it is found to
anfwer very well. The ule of this acid, however, is
liable to many ferious objeftions. Its action is too
rapid; and, by its operation on the zinc, hydrogen gas is
dilengaged in fuch quantity as to be incon%enient to
the operator. So much heat is evolved during its
r.ftion, that the cement which is ufed for fecuring the
plates in the trough, is apt to be rendered foft and
loofened. Muriatic acid alfo has been employed, and
this is recommended by fome as in different refpects the
molt convenient. One part of muriatic acid and 16 of
\vater form a mixture which anfwers the purpofe ex-
tremely ivell. The action of this mi.Kture is flow and
uniform, and the quantity of hydrogen gas which is
evolved is fo fmall as to produce little inconvenience.
The ufe of this acid is attended with another advantage,
that the plates are kept uniformly clean.

Whatever mixture has been employed, unlefs the
operation has been continued for a verv long time,
when it is emptied from the trough, it may be bottletl
up, and referved for future ufe ; and if the moft power-
ful aflion oi the trough is not required, the fame mix-
ture may be employed feveral times. Here it miy be
worth while to notice, that the precaution of emptying
the trough ihould be invariably obferved, as foon as the
experiments for which it was filled and prepared are
Cniihed ; by this management there will be a conlider-
able laving, both of the fluid and of the furface of th«
plates, which undergo oxidation. In filling the trough
with the fluid, it fliould be obferved that it does not
rife higher than about i of an inch from the upper edge
of the plates; and after the filling of the trough is
completed, the upper edges of the plates, as well as the
edges of-the trough, fliould be carefully wiped dry, that
there may be no communicatiyn between the fluid in the
cells, but through the metallic fubflances.

A trough compofcd of 50 plates of three inches fquare,
will be found fuit:;ble for a great variety of ufeful and
entertaining e.\perimcnts; but when it is found neceffary
to produce a more powerful aftion of the galvanic fluid,
a greater number of pairs of plates, or the fame number
with a larger furface, according to the nature of the
a6tion required, mud be employed. We have already
obferved, that feveral columns or piles may be fo con-
flructed as to have the full effeift of their combined
action, in the fame way as if they formed a fingle pile.
By fimilar management, different troughs or batteries
may be fo arranged as to combine together the effects
of each, as if they conftituted a fingle trough or battery.
And all that is necelTary to obferve is, that to whatever
extent the feries may be carrie-J, the furface of each of
U u tlvc

33S

G A L V A N I S M.

Part I.

Conftruc- the plates muR be oppofed to the futface of a different
tion of pi^^g J a^^ fji- inllance, the zinc iurface of one of the
\^'''-l^ '"' plates r.iull be conrtantly oppofite to the copper furface of
the next plate in the feries. The different troughs thus
umformly arranged, are to be connefted together by
nieans of metallic conduflors. A flip of copper, for
inftance, about half the width of the trough, is inferted
by its oppofite extremities in the cells of the ends of
two of the troughs.

\Mien the plates are of very large fize, their weight,
with that of the quantity of fluid required to fill the
cells, renders the trough very unmanageable. It is then

neceffary to fix it

fiipport its weight by means of
fised to the outfide of the box.

Apparatus
for decom-
pofing
water.

f fufficient llrength,
les of brafs or iron,
By this contrivance
the fluid can be eafily poured out into a proper veffel,
placed under the trough.

We fliall afterwi'.rds fpeak more particularly of the
effefti of plates of different extent of Iurface ; here,
lowever, it may be neceffary to obferve, that in com-
bining together two or more troughs or batteries, to
have the full effect of iuch a number of plates as may
be employed, in proportion to the extent of their fur-
faces, the furface of the plates in each trough ftiould be
the fame, otherwife, if troughs of different extent of
iurfaces be employed, the aftion of that trough which
has the largcll furface is diminilhed, and reduced to that
of the aftion of the trough whofe plates have the fmallcd
extent of furface. This circumltance is neceffary to be
;-.ttended to, for, if it is overlooked in the conflruflicn
or combination of different batteries, the effefts will be
ib feeble as to produce difappointment without the caufe
being known.

In making experiments with the trough, the com-
munication is to be formed between the two extremities,
or the circle is to be completed in the famfe way as has
been already diredled in the management of the pile.
For this purpole there is a projcfting piece of wood
fixed to the upper edge of each of the ends of the trough ;
this is perforated fo as to admit a piece of wire which
paffes through to the fluid in the two lafl cells at the
extremity of the trough. If then the wires are placed
in this lituation, and the moillened fingers of one hand
touch the wire at one extremity, while the moillened
fingers of the other hand are brought into contaiS with
the wire at the other extremity of the trough, a fliock
will be felt ; and in this way the circle is completed.

The other parts of the apparatus which are neceffary
to conduct experiments with a trough of this del'cription,
are fo finiple as fcarcely to require any particular de-
fcription. All that is wanted for deflagrating metals is
to have a bent wire fixed at one extremity of the
trough, and to have a poliflied plate of copper or zinc
communicating with the other extremity of the trough
by means of a flexible wire. The metal to be defla-
grated is placed upon the bent wire, and the metallic
plate is brought into contaiS with it.

The apparatus for the decompofition of water is the
following. A glafs tube, G, H, fig. 1 1 . about three
inches long, and j inch in diameter, is furnilhcd with a
tight cork at the upper end G, through which cork the
wire / communicating with the upper part of the pile,
paffcs. It may be alfo furniflied with a cork at the
other extremity H, but this mud have grooves cut on

its fides, to allow the walcr to efcape from the tube. Coniiruc-
The wire K communicating v,'ith the bottom of the ''°"°/^
pile, paffes through this cork ; or without the cork atJ^l^lllHl
this extremity, if- the tube is retained in its perpendi-
cular polition by any other contrivance, the wire K rasy
be palled within the tube. When this operation, is to
commence, the tube is to be filled ^vith water, the cork
at the upper extremity G being made air-tight, and
then it is t.o be inverted, and the extremity H to be
placed in a fmall cup or bafon of water; after which the
wire K being introduced, the circle is completed be-
tween the wires through the medium of the water in
the tube, the decompofition of which will go on as long
as the communication and the adtioii of the pile are
continued. This procefs will be obfcrved by bubbles
of air efcaping from one of the wires, and rifing to the
t'lp of the tube ; or if the wires are of gold or of platina,
bubbles of air will be feen pafllng from the extremity
of both wires, and this air colledting at the top of the
tube, forces out a quantity of water equal to the fpace
which it occupies. The fame experiment may be made
by means of a flill fimpler apparatus. If the wires com-
municating with the extremities of the pile are intro-
duced into a Imall glafs phial filled with water, and in-
verted in a bafon of water, the fame procefs of decom-
pofition will go on.

But an apparatus which is rather more complicated,
but at the fame time fufticiently convenient, is ufuallv
employed for this purpofe. A fmall brals cup E, fiu.
13. is fupported by the wire F, which is fixed in tlie
hole of the projedting piece of wood D, at one end of
the trough ; from the centre of the cup there afifes a
pair of brafs pincers, which hold a piece of wire of gold
or platina G. Over the pincers is placed a glafs tube
HI, which has at the upper extremity, I, a brafs cap,
to the infide of ^vhich is fixed another piece of wire of
gold or platina. The two wires Ihould be at a little
diftance from each other, as they appear in the figure.
The tube is then filled with water, and is inverted over
the pincers in the brafs cup, which is alfo filled with
water ; and thus, by means of the water in the tube, a
communication is formed between the two wires. A
wire proceeding from tlie other extremity of the trcugli
C, is conneded with the top of the tube 1, and, as loon
as this communication is formed, the procefs of the de-
compofition of the water in the tube commences ; for
the galvanic circle, or the communication between the
extremities of the trough or battery is completed. The
gafes, as they are dilengaged from the wires in the
tube, rife to the top, and the water v.hich occupied the
fpace now filled with air, is forced out into the cup.
This procefs goes on as long as the communication con-
tinues, or till the furface of the water is lower than the
extremity of the upper wire, when the communication
is interrupted, and then the opet^tion ceales.

With thefe oblervations we conclude what was intend-
ed to be faid concerning the conftruction of galvanic ap-
paratus. We fliall notice what may be farther necef-
fary to be explained, in the courfe of the detail which
is to be given of the experiments in galvanifm, or of
the influence of the galvanic fluid on animals, as well
as its clicraical effeifs. We, therefore, now proceed,
in the following chapter, to the confjderation of fome of
thefe phenomena.

Chap.

Part I.

Effifts of

G A L V A N I S IM.

j39

on Animal

f™ Chap. II. Of the EffeBs of the Galvanic Fluid on

jinimals.

■ ^', It has been already obferved, that the firft effecls of

eiedicity. galvaiiifm were exhibited on animals; and indeed it was
fuppoied that thefe effefts could only be exhibited by
means of animals, and' hence, from the coincidence
which vins obferved with the properties ofc eleftricity
already known, it was denominated animal eleBricity.

The firit experiments which were made in invelli-
gating the nature and properties of the galvanic fluid,
were chietly performed on cold-blooded animals. It
was indeed from obferving its effefts on them, as we
ihall find afterwards in tracing its hiilory, that the
difcovery was firft made. This difcovery was made on
the frog, and iince that time the frog has been oftener
the fubjeft of galvanic experiments than any other
pniraal. From being found in great numbers, from
being conveniently got, as well as from the irritability
of the mufcular fibre, as it is denominated by phyfiolo-
gifts, continuing for a long time, it has perhaps be-
come the devoted viftira of thefe inveftigatlons.

We have already mentioned a fimple experiment
\s-ith a prepared frog, in which it forms the communi-
cation between two diffirailar metals. Wlien the frog,
as in fig. 1. is prepared, that is, Ikinned, and the lower
extremities feparated from the fpine, and fufpended on
the iron wire AB, if the extremities of the frog be
touched vmh a different metallic fubllance, fuch as gold
or filver, while this metallic fubllance is in contact
with the iron wire at the point D, the limbs of the frog
are thrown into convulfions, and this takes place as often
as the communication is formed.

Soon after the difcoverv of Galvani, and after the

' refult of his experiments and opinions on the fubjecl of

this difcovery was announced to the world, the attention

of pliilofophers became much occupied in repeating and

extending thefe experiments. Among others, Valli, an

Experi- Italian phyfician, inlHtuted a feries of experiments, an

mcnts of account of which was communicated to the French

Valli and pliilofophers, v.ho foon after repeated them. As thefe

'hllJfo ""^ experiments afford us not only a pretty full view of

phers. *^* effefls of the galvanic fluid on animals, but alfo

the Hate of galvanilhi at the time, we Ihall here detail

them.

Experiment I. — When two metallic coatings or flips
of metal, the one^of lead, and the other of filver,
%vere placed on a frog, fallened to a table, the conting
of lead being placed on the belly of the animal, and that
of filver on the pelvis, and a communication being formed
by means of a flip or wire of copper, flrong convulflve
motions were produced in the animal.

Expcr. 2. — The coating or flip of lead which was
employed in the preceding experiment, was removed,
r.nd the abdomen was left bare. The copper wire was
then applied to the abdomen the fame way as before •,
while its other extremity was in contacf with the
coating of filver on the pelvis, convulfive motions were
liill produced, but they were lefs fenfible than in the
former experiment, and fometimes did not fucceed at
ail.

Exper.^. — ^Wlien two coatings of the fame metal
were employed, as, for inftance, filver or gold, the
effefls produced by means of copper forming the com-

munication, were found to be much falier j and when Effeflsot
the coatings were of fimilar metals, fuch as copper, lead, Gjlvaniiiii
or tin, and the metal forming the communication was"" """^
the fame, no effecl whatever was produced. '

Exper. 4. — By placing the coating on the abdomen
in a horizontal direftion, fo that the points of contafl
became lefs numerous, the effecls were fou^d to be pro-
portionally diminiihcd ; but when the coating was
Isrought into full contact with the furface of the ab-
domen, it was obferved that they became equally
powerful as before.

Exper. 5. — A frog was Ikinned and cut tranfverfely
through the middle j the nerves of the thighs were laid
bare, joined together, and placed on a flip of gold,
while the thighs themfelves were in contact with a
piece of filver. When the metallic condudlor of copper
was applied, flight contraclions were produced. It xvas
found alfo that contraftions took place when both the
coatings were of iih'er ; but when coatings of tin,
copper, or lead, were fubllituted for the filver -coating
^vhich furroundcd the nerves, powerful contraclions
took place. The gradation obferved in the a8ion of
the metals, is the follouing. Lead produced the
ftrongeil contraftions, next the tin, and laftly the
copper ; but in proportion as the vitality of the animal
diminiflied, the metals were found alfo to lofe their
power of producing motion. The metals which re-
tained this property longell were lead, tin, and zinc.

Exper, 6. — When plumbers lead was employed on
each fide as a coating, and when the metal forming the
communication was the fame,, no effect was produced ;
but when lead of different qualities, as, for inflance, lead
of the affayer and plumbers lead, was u(ed, and the
metal forming the communication being either the one
or the other, very fingular effeits took place.

While it wai found that thefe two kinds of lead, by
changing the different metals, were no longer fufccp-
tible of producing any effect in one of the coating?,
filver, gold, bifmuth, antimony, or zinc, fubflituted for
the lead, produced very powerful contraftions ; and,
what feemcd ftill more fingular, when the pieces of lead
in the firll part of this e.xperiment were re-applied,
flight convulfions took place.

Exper. 7. — After a^lhort interruption of the experi-
ments on the fame animal, it appeared that it became
fufceptible of pretty flrong convulfive motions, when
the fame experiments were repeated.

Exper. 8. When the galvanic power feemed to be
nearly exhaufled in the frog, it was found that the
different metals, when they produced, by their contact,
new convulfions, did not, when this e.tf61 could be no
longer produced, leave to the animal the poiver of ex-
hibiting anew any contractions with coatings of the dif-
ferent kinds of lead, as in experiment 6.

Exprr. g. — The following is the gradation of the
diminution of effect, till it entirely ceafed, when the
plumbers lead aljvays formed one of the coatings.
With the aftayers lead forming the other coating,
the action became feeble, and it at lafl ceafed. The
next in order was tin, the next antimony, and fo on
in the order in which they are named as follows :
zinc, copper, gold, filver. Iron, it was obferved, had
loft its power of producing any effeift before the anti-
mony ; but whether it was deprived of this prof4;rty
before lead and tin, was not afccrtained.

U u 2 Exper, ic.

340

?f Exper. 10.

'™ convulfions in a frog

GAL

Zinc, on loiing the property of (

V A N I S M.

whicJi experiments had been
made for an hour, ivas not found fufceptible of any
farther acUoii, when the communication was formed
by means of lead 5 but it was obferved as a very
lingular circumftance, that contraiSions were Itill pro-
duced by this metal the moment that the perfon en-
gaged in the experiment removed the conductor, and
interrupted the circle. This experiment was frequently
repeated.

Exper. I T . — The upper part of' a frog which was
fkinned, and divided tranfverlely, had the crural nerves,
■j!S in the former experiments, armed with a piece
of lead, and placed in a glafs filled with water, while
•he lower part was placed in another glafs, alfo filled
with water. Strong contraftions were produced when
the communication was formed by means of different
pcrfons holding each other by the hand, while two of
them touched the water in the glafles. One of them
held in his hand a piece of metal, which was brought
into contact with the coating of lead.

Exper. I 2. — When any one individual of the perfons
who thus formed the chain of communication between
the two glafles ivithdrew himfelf, fo that the com-
munication was interrupted, no effe£t v;as perceptible.
Exper. 13. — When the frog was arranged in the
fame way as in experiment 11. having its parts placed
in two glafles, no motion was excited when a communi-
cation was eftablilhed with two fmgers ; nor was any
motion produced, when a perfon with one hand armed
with a piece of metal, touched the body of the frog,
while lie brought a finger of the other hand in con-
tact with the metallic coating of the crural nerves. But
by placing one finger on the inferior part of the frog,
he touched with a piece of metal the coatings of the
nerves, powerful contraftions were produced.

Exper. 14. — When the animal was touched with a
metallic fubrtance in an infulated ftate, no perceptible
effect was obferved ; but when the metjls ceafed to be
infulated, very conlidcrable motions were in^•ariably pro-
duced.

Exper. 15. — The fore leg of a rabbit v.as feparated
from the body 5 the brachial nerves were laid bare,
and armed with a bit of (heet lead. The communi-
cation between the lead on the* nerve and one of the
contiguous mufcles was made with a piece of filver, and
flrong convulfive contraftions took place in the limb ;
bat when this experiment was varied, by fublfituting
for the metallic coi.duftors, plumbers and affayers
lead, no farther motion was produced. When one of
the coatings employed was lead, and the other iron,
no perceptible motion was oblerved. But when lead as
one of the coatings, was employed with filver, gold,
copper, zinc, or antimony, as the other coating, the
motions and contraftions of the limb were renewed.
I'he motions were very flight, which were produced
by means of a coating of bifmuth, along with a coat-
ing of lead.

Exper. 1 6. — This experiment was imlituted to afcer-
tain the ftate of the eleflricity in the animal which was
the fubjeft of it. With this view, the animal was pla-
ced in a velTel containing one or two of Coulomb's elec-
trometers, and it was then fucceffively electrified, both
poClively and negatively ; and in both of thefe cafes
the balls of the eleftromeler were fo much influenced

Part I.

by the animal, as to fhew, not only that its eleciricitv Effects of
was in a Hate of perfeft reft, both before and during Galvanilm
the time of the experiment, but alfo to exhibit in the°" ■•^"'"'^^^-
fyftem of the body on which the experiment was made,
in a very diftincl and ftriking manner, phenomena quite
analogous to thofe of the Leyden phi^l.

E.xper. 17. — The left crural nerve of a living frog
being tied with a ligature fo fhongly, that the animal
was depri\»d of the power of motion in that part of the
limb below the point where the ligature was fixed ; but
when the nerve was armed with a metallic coating, in
the way delcribed in the former experiments, and a
communication was formed between the part of the
nerve above the ligature and the mufcle, the motion and
contraction of the limb were excited.

Exper. 18. — 'J'he ligature ivas afterwards placed on
the left crural nerve, and brought in contact with the
mufcle. It was alfoTlxed in fuch a way on the right
crural nerve, fo that part of it projected : the left part
of the animal was then quite paralytic, and without mo-
tion, and the convulilve contractions which were pro-
duced ivhen the communication was formed, were en-
tirely limited to the right fide ; but when the fame
left crural nerve was more completely laid bare, and fe-
parated from the mufcular fubftance which furrounded
it, its conducting power was reltored, and the communi-
cation being ellabliftied, the convulfive motions became
pretty flrong. When, however, the ligature \vas again
brought into contaft with the mufcle, the limb was again
deprived of its power of motion.

Exper. 19. — One of the crural nerves of a frog be-
ing laid bare, was armed with a piece of flieet lead ; and
a communication having been formed between this
nerve and the other crural nerve, which was unarmed,
very ilrong convulfive motions were produced.

Exper 20. — When one of the crural nerves ivas arm-
ed with two pieces of lead at different places in its
courfe, and a communication formed bet\veen the two
parts by a metallic conduiftor, violent agitations follow-
ed. It was obferved, too, that the fame effcfts took
place, when the ^vhole of the nerve was laid bare, and
completely feparated from the furrounding mufcle.

Exper. 21. — A fimilar experiment was made on a
hot-blooded living .animal. The animal felefted for
this purpofe was a guinea pig ; but when the communi-
cation was eitabliflied in the ul'ual way, no effect follow-
ed, from which any thing precife or fatisfactory could
be deduced. "'

With a view to difcover duiing what length of ^'^''g''' °^
time frogs, which were made the fubjedts of thefe ex- „""t'-o„ £j,„
periments, could refill their effects, and retain the be pro-
power of having motion excited in them, Valli made'luced on
a number of experiments. At 10 o'clock at night he*^'°S'-
prepared two frogs, which on the follovnng morning
at feven o'clock he found had become extremely feeble,
but not entirely deprived of the power of motion.
Slight convulfions were excited in both by means of the
galvanic apparatus ; but an hour having elapfed, they
ceafed to afford any farther fymptoms of vitality. No
effort that could be made, fucceeded in producing mo-
tion. In other cafes he prepared frogs, which by the
following morning were found to be quite dry, and
then no fymptoms of motion could be exhibited. He
feparated feveral of the mufcles from the body of a
frog, and after having torn them> he foujid it impoffiblc

GALVANISM.

GaWr.nilcn
on Animjl'.

Difference
of effca in
applying

to excite the LrritabiHty hy any mechanical ftimuUis
whatever ; but, after previous preparation, and by
means of a metallic conduftor, motion was produced.

The fame naturalift made a variety of experiments,
to p.fcertain the e.V^ds of galvanifra on animals which
were deftroyed with opium, and other narcotic fubflan-
ces ; but the refults of his experiments on animals to
which opium had been exhibited internally, as well as
applied externally, were found to be. very different from
each other. Four frogs were dfflroyed by means of
powdered tobacco, wtre rendered completely infenfible
to any mechanical ftimulus, and ieemcd to be in a ftate
of total ftupefaflion ; but by the application of the gal-
vanic apparatus, fymptoms of vitality appeared, and
flight motions were produced. A number of lizards
being poiibned with tobacco, exhibited, at the time of
their death, convuliive motions ; but they ftill conti-
nued to afford fymptoms of vitality and motion on the
application of galvar.ilm.

Animals %vere deftroyed in a varifety of ^vays, with a
view of afcertaining what were the effects of galvaniim,
after the principle of life feemed to be extinguilhed. A
fmall bird, ivhich was for fome time immerfed in liy-
drogen gas, or inflammable air, (hewed no fymptoms of
vitality or motion •, but, on the application of galva-
nifm, convulfive ccntradions of its limbs were produ-
ced. Two kittens were killed in azotic gas, and the
fore legs were feparated and prepared in the ulual way.
The fame effedls were produced as in the experiment
with the bird.

Some animals were deftroyed with the extract of
hemlock ; but it did not appear that the effefts on the
application of the galvanic apparatus were at all dimi-
nifhed by means of this poifon. In frogs wliich were
expofed to the exhalation of corrupted animal matters,
perceptible motions were obferved by means of galva-
nifm ; but thefe were very feeble.

Mofcati deprived feveral frogs of life, by placing
them in the vacuum of an air piraip ; and when thefe
were fubjedled to experiment with the galvanic appara-
tus, flight motions were produced ; but it was obferved
that thefe, although they followed each other in rapid
fuccefTion, were excited with fome difficulty. Here it
was found that tlie blood w.is extravafated in the cellu-
lar membrane of the mufcles, by which the flelh was
tinged with a deep red colour. To this circumllance
was afcribed the feeble effeifls produced in the above
experiment, as it was fuppofed that the blood carried
oflF part of the galvanic fluid, and thus prevented its
aftion on the mufcular fibres, tlirough the medium of
the nerves. This opinion was fupported by another ex-
peiiment, which was made on prepared frogs, in which
there was no extravafation of blood ; and in this cafe
the galvanic efl'ecls did not feera to be in any degree di-
minifhed.

Before proceeding farther with an account of the ex-
periments of the particular efFefls of galvanifm on ani-
mals, we fhall here relate two of a more general nature,
the one with regard to the effects produced by the pe-
culiar application of the metallic conduiflor, and the
other with refpeft to the velocity of the galvanic fluid
being increafed, without increafing its intenfity.

A difference, which appeared to be a very fingular
faft, was obferved in the mode of applying the metallic
conduftor, to excite motion in animals by means of

34-r

galvanifm. It was found, that the motions produced Effetls of
in the animal by this means were generally more pojver- Gaivanilm
ful,_ when the conductor v.a^ applied, firfi to tlie°" •'^"""^'^;
mufcles, and then to the coaling, than if the reverfe
had taken place ; that is, by applying firft to the coat-
ing, and afterwards to the mufcles ; and indeed when
the galvanic power began to be nearly exhaulied. no
motion whatever could be excited when the application
was made, firlt to tlie coating and then to the mufcles,
while at the tame time, by the contrary mode of appli-
cation, motion cotild be eafily produced. jj

The other fad alluded to is, that th.e velocity of the Velocity of
galvanic fluid may be^ncreafed without increafing the**"* K*.''*"
degree of its intenfity; This was pri.-ived by M. Valli"j,'^^^^f^j
in the following experiment. By means of a chain, «iiliojit in-
whicK was in contaft with the nerves of a prepared frog,creafc of
he completed the galvanic circle. The animal at firll"^^"'''/-
exhibited convuliive contraftions, but afterwards re-
mained for fome time without motion. WTien the con-
ductor was removed to a very fmall diltance, motion
was again excited in the animal ; foon after, however,
this ceafed. But when an infulated conductor was
brought to the mufcles of the frog, the motions were
immediately renewed ; and wlien they again ceafed, a
communication being formed between the operator him-
felf and the conductor, the ctintradions were again ex-
cited. Tlie conclufion which he deduced from the
above experiment was, that the galvanic influence is
conitantly the fame, however various the modes of its
application. The fame rcfult, ho>vever, lie obferves,
would not be obtained, if the experiment were made
on an animal in which the principle of life was in full
\-igour.

From a number of experiments which were made by
the fame phyfiologift, it appeared that certain intervals
were neceffary, in order to obtain the fame intenfity of
aftion in animals fubjefted to the influence of the gal-
vanic fluid. Frogs, mice, rats, and tortoifes, were the
fubjefts of thefe experiments ; they were deftroyed by
means of different poifons, or by refpiring fome of the
noxious gafes. In applying the galvanic apparatus to
thefe animals, an interval of feveral minutes was requir-
ed, when the motions excited became feeble, or had
nearly ceafed ; and then, after this interval had elapfed,
the fame effects, and almolt equally powerful as before,
were produced. ^S

With regard to the conducting power of the blood- f-'onduclitig-
vefTels, two queftions were propofed to Valli, by Vicq P°'^'" of
P'Azyr. I. Whether the blood-vefTels are to be con-i.^'^'^',',^^^:^
fidered as condu6tors of the galvanic fluid. And, 2. ,3.5,1.
Whether, by coating the blood-veiVels inltead of the
nerves, any motion through their medium could be ex-
cited > In the folution of thefe queftions Valli obferved,
that the blood-veffels are undoubtedly to be confidered
as conductors of the galvanic fluid ; but in whatever
way this is eifedted, it feems to be through the
nerves alone, in confcquence of the way in which they
are difpofed, that mufcular motion can be excited.
The arteries and veins, he farther obferves, are to bo
confidered as lefs powerful conductors than the nerves ;
for no motion is obtained, if the velTcls, without hav-
ing any communication with the nerves, be diftributed
dircftly to the mufcles. The tendons alfo, when the
fame communication is eflablilhed, are alio condudtors
as well as the bones, if they have not beep deprived o£

th-

■34^

G A L V

Effecls of the pcriofteum. The membranes alfo poffefs this co:i-
Galvanilm jy^Jug power ; but exhibit no motions \vhea the com-
^.' ,'manicatinn with the ner\'es is interrupted.

It had been obferved, that the nerves, when dry,
exhibited, by means of friclion, feme fymptoms of elec-
tricity. With a view to afcertain whether, in this dry
Hate, the nerves were conductors of the galvanic fluid,
and whether motions could be excited through this me-
dium, Valli made feveral experiments ; but in all thefe
he was imfuccefsful, for no motion was produced. In
a feries of experiments which were made on fouls, he
found that ligatures applied to the nerves, did not pre-
vent the contraftions of the mufcles, provided thefe li-
gatures ivcre not applied to the nerves in immediate
contaft with the mufcles.
Effecflson ^" order to afcertain what would be the effeiEls <Jf the
ilronned galvanic fluid on animals which were drowned or foiFo-
anima/s, cated, Valli made a number of experiments. Several
^'^- pullets were drowned, and kept fo long under water,

that no fymptoms of life appeared. By the application
of the galvanic apparatus, mufcular contractions were
produced in fome, while others, by the fame applica-
tion, exhibited no motion whatever. The fame experi-
ment ^vas repeated on fix pullets, which were alfo
drowned ; and on the application of the apparatus,
Urong convulfive motions were produced. Thefe con-
tinued for nearly the fpace of an hour. In others which
were alfo drowned, the brain and wings were laid bare ■,
and after this previous preparation, when the galvanic
apparatus was applied, fl:rong mufcular contraftions
ivere excited : none of the animals, however, as was
expected, were reflored to life. Similar experiments,
followed by the fame refult, were made on rabbits.

Several pullets were expofed to the aflion of different
gafcs, as hydrogen, nitrous, and azotic gafes, and did
not after^vards, by any mechanical itimulus whatever
that could be applied, exhibit fymptoms of life. The
galvanic apparatus being applied, very feeble contrac-
'tions were produced ; and thefe fucceeded each other
after long intervals.. Similar experiments were made
with the fame view, on frogs, and it appeared that thefe
animals could refill the effefts of thofe gafes better than
the others. Nitrous gas, he found, was more injurious
than hydrogen gas. In fome of the frogs on which the
experiments were made, the application of the galvanic
apparatus prod^uccd violent agitations ; but having re-
peated three or four (hocks, no farther motion could be
excited, not even after fome interval had elapfed.

To afcertain what were the effefts of different kinds
of air on animals fubjefted to the galvanic apparatus,
he fcparated the hinder extremities of a frog, expofed
the one to the action of nitrous gas, and the otlier to
that of atmofpherical air. After being fubjccled for a
fliort time to the afllon of thefe airs, the galvanic appa-
ratus was applied. Contractions were p.oduced in
both ; but thofe which were induced in the limb ex-
pofed to the nitrous air, were feebler than the other ;
and when the action of the nitrous air was continued be-
yond a very limited time, no motion whatever could be
e.xcited. The fame experiment was made on limbs ex-
pofed to the action of hydrogen gas ; and it appeared
that its effecls in deftroying the irritability of the muf-
cular fibre, or in diminilhing its fufceptibility of being
afted upon by galvanifm, were lefs po^verful than the
rjitrous gas. Azotic gas was alfo found to produce ef-

A N I S M. Parti.

fects on frogs fomewhat fimilar. The heart ^vas indeed Etiet'^s of
^bferved to palpitate after the death of the animal ; Gaivanifm
but, in general, the contra6lions which were induced °" •^""''"'";
by galvanifm were extremely feeble.

It would lead us too much into dettil to mention all
the experiments \vl»i*li were made by this naturalift.
We Ihall therefore only add a fliort account of the ge-
neral refults. ,8

1. In frogs newly killed, he found, that a fingle me- Refults of
tallic conductor was fufficient to excite convulfive con- ^'""''s ex-
tractions ; and that in producing thefe motions, it was P^'""'"'^'
not found effentially neceffary to apply a coating either

to the mufcle or nerve. Sciffars, in which the fteel ap-
peared to be of a bad quality, might be fuccefsfully
employed as a conduftor ; but gold, filver, copper,
lead, and tin, in general, produced no effect.

2. The galvanic fluid was found to pafs through glafs
and fealing v,ax ; but it was neceffary that thefe fub-
llances fliould have their temperature confiderably in-
creafed.

3. Water, in which the temperature ^vas pretty high,
or when raited to the boiling point, feemed to prevent
the effecls of galvaniim from taking place, or at lead
diminiihed them greatly.

4. Water, the temperature of \vhich xvas very much
reduced, feemed alfo to be deprived of t*ie property of
eonducling the galvanic fluid.

5. It was found, that when an individual formed
part of the chain in cafes where the galvanic apparatus
was applied to the prepared feet of rabbits, cats, and
dogs, the latter were unfufceptible of motion.

6. The diaphragm of a dog was immerfed in a veffel
of water, and fo placed in the veffel, that the phrenic
nerve, previoufly armed, projefted from it ; and on
touching the coating vs-ith a piece of gold or filver coin,
while one of the fingers of the other hand was put into
the water, feeble contraftions were excited in the
mufcle. In fome other experiments on the fame mufcle
of horfes, it was found that no motion could be induced
by means of galvanifm, while the fame power, v\ith the
fame intenfity, conftantly e.xcited contraftions in that of

7. A metallic wire, which was entirely covered
with fealing wax, produced no motion in frogs,
which began to be exhaufted when it was employed as
a conductor. This was Hated by Valli, as a proof that
the galvanic fluid paffes along the furface of con-
duftors.

8. A ligature on the nerve, when placed near to the
mufcle, or in contact with it, interrupted or diminiihed
the effefls of galvanifm : it was found alio, that a liga-
ture, applied in the fame way, prevented the effeds of
artificial eleftricity.

9. A ligature was applied, at a fmall dillance from
the mufcle, to the crural nerve of a frog, and another
was prepared in the fame way, hut without any liga-
ture j thefe being fubiedled to experiment, it appeared
that galvanifm produced a more perceptible action in the
latter than in the former.

10. Weak ftiocks of artificial elei^ricity produce mo-
tion in the mufcles of that leg only where no ligature
has been applied to the nerve ; but in the other, mufcu-
lar contradlions can be excited by means of the galva-
nic apparatus. From this experiment, it was attempted
to deduce a method of fubjeiling the intenfity of galva-
nifm

PartT. GAL V .

ElTtc't- oi nifm to calculation. If, for example, it is found that
Galvai iim t!je efFecls of avtiucial eleflricity are coiifideied as
?" ' "amounting to five, fix, or feven degree?, and this power

is infuflicient t6 excite contractions, \vhilc they are pro-
duced by means of galvanifm, it may be faid that the
latter is five, fix, or feven degrees lironger than the
fcnner.

1 1 . ValU did not fucceed in efTefting tlie mufcutar
contraftion of the heart by means of galvanifm ; nor
did he fucceed in fimilar experiments made on the fto-
mach, Intefiines, or bladder, although he armed or ap-
plied metallic coatings to the nerves of all thefe or-
gans.

12. To produce contraiElions in the wing of a fowl,
the nerves of which were coated and previoufly fleeped
in oil, very powerful (hocks of artificial eleclricity were
found requifite ; but the cffecls of the galvanic fluid did
not, by this procefs, feera to be at all diminished : it

J retained its whole -energy.

Expert- Fontana, in his experiments and invefligations on

mem* by this fubjecl, found, that he could accelerate the mo-
Fontana, tions of the heart, when thefe motions were going on ;
and when the motions had ceafed, could bring it to
produce cor.trafiions. By placing the heart between
two pieces of metal, zinc and antimony, fo that it fhall
be in cor.tadl with both, and then forming a communi-
cation by means of a metallic conductor between the
two mttals, its motions are excited, even after it is fe-
parated firom the body and cut in pieces. According
to the experiments of Marfigli, part of the heart of a
fowl, placed on a piece of charcoal, and another por-
tion put on a piece of pafteboard, covered with tinfoil,
gave repeated contractions, and was flrongly con-
vulfed.
by Delame- ^" Delametherie made a variety of experiments, at a
therie, very early period, on this fubjecl. "The following are
feme of the general refults of thefe experiments.

1 . He found that the eiFedls of galvanifm in a pre-
pared frog were feeble.

2. That it poffeffes the greateft intenfity at the time
when the animal has been jull deprived of life ; from
this he infers, that the intenfity of the efFecl muft be
greater in the living animal ; from which he thinks it
follows, that it is only by means of good conduflors
that the galvanic fluid can be conveyed from the nerves
to the mufcles of a firog ; and it is by means of the me-
tals, which may vary in the degree of their conducing
power, that this communication is ellablilhed.

3. Plumbago and charcoal were found to be inferior
in their conducing power to metallic fubftances ; but
by their means the galvanic fluid cculd be conveyed
from the nerves to the mufcles of a frog.

4. He did not find from his experiments that this ef-
left could be produced by forming the communications
by means of animal fubftances ; for when a perfon
touched at the fame time the nerves and mufcles of a
frog which had been laid bare, the fame eft'eft did not
follow.

iJj'Vclta. Volta, vvboie name has been already mentioned as
the inventor and improver of the apparatus by means of
which the galvanic power could be greatly incrcafed,
was', at the fame time, one of the moft zealous and the
mofl indefatigable inquirers into its nature and proper-
ties. The views which this philofopher entertained
with regard to the nature of this fluid, were different

N- I S M.

343

from thofe of Galvaiii. They are dillinguifhcd for their EflTefls of
originality, exhibit a train of careful inveftigation, and Galvanilm
have ferved as an excellent foundation on which the Hi.."" •^'""'^'^;
perftrudure of galvanifm was quickly railed. We fiiall * '
therefore give a pretty full detail of the experiments
and realonings of this philofopher •, and from the im-
portance of his views, which we have ftated above, it
toII not be Icfs acceptable to the reader, if this detail
be given, as we propofe to do, in his own words. In
tliis, indeed, fomething of what belongs to the fecond
part of this treatife, will be unavoidably anticipated ;
but the facrifice of Uriel method to perfpicuity, will,
we are perfuaded, be readily admitted as a fufficient
apology for this deviation.

To underfland clearly the peculiar views which Volta
has embraced in the obfervations which we have now
referred to, it will be neceflary to anticipate a little
f;'.ither, by Hating, that, according to Galvani, the
fluid which bears his name is a peculiar kind of electri-
city, which rcfides in the organs of the animal, and is
eilentiaily and infeparably connected with them. But,
according to the theory of Volta, the whole phenomena
of the galvanic fluid depend entirely on avtificial elec-
tricity, which is excited into adtion, or put in motion,
when conduiflors of a difFerent nature arc brought into
contaft ; and thefe, he thinks, are to be confidered as
the primary exciters. The motion of this fltiid is indu-
ced in three different ways, that is, bv meaits of three
conduclors at leaft, which are of a different nature, be-
ing fo arranged as to form the communication or circle.
In the firll way, two metals or conductors of the firft
clafs, of a dillimilar nature, are employed. Thefe are
brought directly into contact by one of their extremi-
ties; but the communication between the other extrc--
mities is eftabiilhed by means of moift conductors, or
conductors belonging to the fecond clafs. This fluid is
put in motion in another way, by a fingle metallic con-
ductor of the firft clafs, placed between two moift con-
ductors of a diffimilar nature, between the latter of
which a communication is eftablifliod. In thp third
way of exciting the aftion of t'-is fluid, or. putting it in
motion, a communication is formed among three con-
ductors, each of which is of a difFerent nature. To il-
luflrate the variety of attion obferved in thefe conduct-
ing fubftances, the following account of the experinients
of this naturalift, with his vicu's and reafonings, was
communicated by him in letters to Gren.

" If a tin bafon, fays he, be filled with foap-fuds,
lime water, or a ftfong ley, which is ftill better, and
if you then lay hold of the bafon with both your hands,
having firft moiftcned them with pure water, and apply
the tip of your tongue to the fluid in the bafon, you
will immediately be fenlible of an acid tafte upon your
tongue, which is in contafl with the alkaline liquor.
This tafte is very perceptible, and, for the moment,
pretty ftrong ; but it'is changed afterwards into a dif-
ferent one, lefs acid, but more faline and pungent, until
it at lafl becomes alkaline and fliarp in proportion as
the fluid acls more upon the tongue, and as the aflivity
of its peculiar tafte and its chemical power, more called
forth, produce a greater cfTeft in regard to the fenfation .
of acidity occafioned by the ttrcam of the eleftric fluid,
which, by a continued circulation, paQes from the tin
to the alkaline liquor, thence to the tongue, then
through the perfon to the water, and thence to the

344-

Efr-clsof tin again. I explain die plienomenon in this manner,
Gaivanifm according to my principles : and indeed it cannot be
on Animals. i-j- i ,• , ^

• explained in any other, as every thing tends to confirm

my aiTerlion,- and to prove it in various ways. The
contact of different conductors, particularly the metallic,
including pyrites and other minerals as well as charcoal,
v.hich I call dry cotiduciorj, or of the fir.l clafs, with
inoift conductors, or condutlors of the fecond cl.ifs,
agitates or difturbs the eledric fluid, or gives it a cer-
tain impulfe. Do not alk in what manner; it B enough
that it is a principle, :ind a general principle. This
impulfe, whether produced by attraction or any otiier
force, is-Jifferent or unlike, both in regard to the dif-
ferent metals and to the eitierent moiit conductors, fo
that the direction, or at kail ti'.e power with which the
eleclric fluid is impelled or excited, is different when
the conductor A is applied to the conduftor B, and to
another, C. In a perfeft circle of conductors, ^vhere
either one of the fecond clafs is placed between tivo
different from each other of the firit clafs, or, contrari-
wifc, one of the fj-ft clafs is placed between two of the
fecond clafs different from each other, an electric Itream
IS occafioned by the predominating force either to the
right or to the left ; a circulation of this fluid, which
ccafes only when the circle is broken, and which is re-
newed when the circle is again rendered complete.
This method of connecting the different conductors
will be more readily comprehended by turning to the
figure', where the capital letters denote the different
conduftors or exciters {moteurs') of the firft clafs, and
the fmallletters thofe of the fecond clafs. Fig. 3. and
4. exprefs the two cafes abovementioned.

" I conlider it as almoft fuperfluous to obferve, that
when the circle confills merely of two kinds of con-
ductors, however different or however numerous the
pieces may be of .which each confifts, two equal powers
are oppofed to each other ; that is, the eleClric fluid
IS impelled with equal force in two different directions,
and confequently no flream can be formed from right
to left, or, contrariwife, capable of exciting convuliive
^tnovements.

" There are other cafes,- however, and other modes
of combination, where the powers are equally in equi-
librium, and where no current of the eleClric fluid can
take place ; or, at leait, none of fuch a force as to make
an impreffion on the tendereit nerves, or to excite any
con%'ulllve movement in the belt prepared frog that
may be placed in the circle, notirithftanding the iiiter-
yention of two or more di.Terent kinds of metals. This
is the cafe when each of thefe metals is placed between
two moilt conductors, or of the fecond clafs, and which
are very nearly of the fame kind ; or when, in a circle
of three pieces, two of them of the fame metal, and one
of a different metal, are fo conneCted, that the latter is
.immediately between the other f.vo.

" When one of the ends of a piece of metal, which
is a conductor of the firft clafs, is immediately applied
to another of the fame clafs, but, inftead 01 immediately
touching with the other end, the other piece touches an
ihterniediate conduCtcr of the fecond clafs, either great
or fmall, either a drop of water, 3 piece of raw or boiled
rlefti, or of fpongc not mcifl, paltcofmeal, jcllv, foap,
cheefe, or the white of an egg boiled to harditefs ; in
this new combination, where a conduCtor of the fecond
4!afs is between two cf the firlt clafs, the powers are no
2

G A L V x\ N I S M.

Fart I.

longer oppofed to each other ; and this is fufficient to ERdts of -
determine an eleCtric itream. When, therefore, a pre- Galyanlfm
pared frog is placed as the conductor of the fecond"" •'^""""'^
clafs, it u'ill always be violently agitated as often as this *"
circle is made complete.

" It may be readily perceived that the two laft ex-
periments coincide with thofe aiincuKced by M. Hum-
boldt, where a drop of water, a fmall bit of frelh meat,
or a very thin flratum of any fluid, performs the whole
wonder. When another drop of water, or any other
aqueous conduCtor, is applied between the other end of
the firft conductor and the other correfponding piece,
each piece of metal is infulated, as 1 fliall exprefs it,
between two aqueous conduClors ; but then the po-Aers
from right to left, and from left to right, are again
completely oppofed to each other ; confequently the
eleClric ftream is impeded, and the frog remains without
any movement. It is, therefore, abfoliitely neceffary
that two different metals or conduClors of the firit clai's,
(hould be in immediate contaCt with each other, on the
one fide, while with th.clr oppofite ends they touch con-
duClors of the fecond clafs.

" We might confider this mutual contaCl of two
different metals as the immediate caufe which puts the
eleClric fluid in motion, Inftead of afcribing that power
to the contaCl of the two metals with the moilt con-
ductors. Thus, for example, in fig. 5. inftead of ad-
mitting two different aClions, at lealt, in regard to the
magnitude of the power, one where B comes in contaCt
with a, and another where A comes in contaCt with a
alfo, by which an eleClric current arifes in the direClion
from A to B, we might fuppole only one aCtion at the
point where B comes in contaCt with A, which impels
the fluid in that direCtion. In both iuppofitions the
reililt, as may eafily be feen, is the fame. But though
I have reafons for -adopting the firft as true rather than
the fecond, yet the latter reprefents the propofition with
more fimplicity, and it may be convenient to adhere to
it in the explanation, as It affords a readier view of It.
We may then fay, that in the cafes above ftated, no
effeCl will be produced, becaufe here there is no mutual
contaCl of dllierent metals ; the effect alfo will be null,
when a conductor of the firit clafs, on two oppofite
fides, is in contaCt with two others of the lame clafs ;
for the actions therefore are in equilibrium ; and, laftly,
that an electric current will be occafioned by the aClion
which arifes from the contact of conductors of the firit
clafs, and which is counteracted by no other contact of
the like kind.

" Having feen the refult of employing three pieces
of metal, or conduClors of the firft clafs, viz. two of
one kind and one of a different, when combined
fomctimes in one way and fometimes in another, with
Conductors of the fecond clafs, we (hall now try what
will be the refult, according to my principles, with
four pieces of metal, two of which are of one kind,
for example, zinc, when conneCted with molil con-
duClors of different kinds.

" I fliall firft obferve, that when they are conneCted
in a circle, the powers which endeavour to put the
eleClnc fluid in a ftreaming movement, will be op-
pofed to each other, and In perfeCl equilibrium, and
that confequently no movement can take place in the
frog, here fuppofed to be the molft conduCtor a, or a
part of it. however irritable and well prepa^red it may

be ;

Parti. G A L V

Eilecls of be; and it ll.e ex|Kiiiucrr. be made with accuracy aiid the
Galva-iinj neceflary precnution, i'o that tlie metals, in particular, be
en Armnais ^^^.y j-j^ajj mjj jj,-y gj tljg points of contad, it will per-
' fedly confirm what I have above faid ; the frog will ex-
perience no agitation, no convuliive TEOvement.

" Thefe movements, on the other hand, took place,
as might be foreieen- from my principles, as often as
I omitted one of the middle pieces, or changed the
order.

" The conduftors of the fecond clafs, which, in all
the figures, are denoted by fmall letters, may be cups
witli water, in which the ends of the pieces of metal
denoted by the large letters are immerled j or Iponges
or other bodies vvhich have imbibed aqueous moiilure.
They may be either large or fmail, and may conlill of
one or more pieces, provided they be in proper cohtacl ;
they may alfo be perlous, if their Ikin be moiliened at
the places of contait, 6ic. By the lafi method the ex-
periments will be very beautiful and inceflant, when the
circle conlifts of three or more perfoas { I have formed
it frequently of ten, and even more), of two or more
flogs properly prepared, and of fotir pieces of metal, two
of lilver and two of iron, tin, and particulaily zinc.
The change of effect, when you change the connection,
is Uriking.

" Let the pofition be as reprefented in fig. 14, where
g is the prepared frog, which the two perfons p./>, hold
in tlieir hands, one on the one fide by the feet, and the
other on the oppofite by the rump. Z, Z, are two plates
of zinc, which are held alfo by thefe perfons, and A, A
two pieces of filver, which are held by a third perfon, de-
noted alfo by />. It mull not be forgotten that the hands
lliould be very moift, as the dry ikin is not a condudlor
fufficiently ftrong. As in this chain the actions of the
eleclric exciters are oppofed to each other, and in exaft
equilibrium, as may be readily perceived, no convulfion
or agitation in the frog ■i\ill take place.

" Now, let one of the metallic pieces A, Z, which
(land between the tuo perfons /",/>, or between any
other moili conduiSors, be left in combination as it is ;
and let the pofition of the two other metallic pieces
A, Z, be reverfed, by converting fig. 14. into fig. 15.
(lb that the aftions, infiead of being contrary, will ad
together to impel the eleclric fluid to one fide or to
produce the fame current) ; or introduce between A
and Z another perfon, or any other conduftor of the
fecond clafs, fo that the chain be formed as in fig. 16. ;
or take away one of the pieces A, Z, in fig. 1 4. and
make the chain like thofe of fig. 17. and 19. j or, in
the lall place, remove the whole two pieces A, Z, either
in the one or the other fide, as reprefented fig. 19. (by
which means it will corrtfpond with fig. 17. as the
whole chain p,g,fi,p, may be confidercd as a fingle
moirt conduiElor of the fecond clafs.) In all thefe
combinations, wliich are reprefented by fig. 15. 16. 17.
18. and 19. the aftions arifing from the metallic con-
racfli are no longer contrary to each other, or in equi-
bbrium, as they were in fig. 1 4. ; conlequently an
electric llream is produced, and the frog g, which I
fuppofe to be properly prepared, and which forms a part
of the chain, will be violently agitated as often as the
circle, when broken at any one place, particularly be-
tween metal and metal, is again rellored.

" In regard to the experiment where a moift con-
ductor, or one of the fecond clafs is to be introduced
, Vol. IX. Part I.

A. S I S M.
between the two pieces A, Z (fig. 16.} that i.-, between
two different metals,* a drop of watcr^ or a fmall bit of '
moiltened fponge, or a thin Itratuin of any fluid, foap, i,
or any other vilcous matter, will be quite fufficient, as
has been already obferved. This furprifing experi-
ment I generally make in fuch a manner, that, inltead
of the piece of the metal, I employ a cup or fpoon
filled with ^vater, and then caufe the perfon who liolda
the perfectly dry and pure Hick of tin, to touch witli
that (lick fometimcs the perfectly dry fides of the fpoon
or cup, and fometimes the water contained in therft.
It is wonderful to fee, that, as by the latter method,
the violent agitation of the frog never ceafes, the firft
method, which correfponds with fig. 14. does not pro-
duce the lealt irritation ; unlefs by accident there be a
fmall drop of water, or a thin flratum of moilture, at
'he place of contaft, by which the cafe reprefented fig.
1 6. would be rellored. This may ferve to lliew with
\v.,.ii care and attention the experiment rauft be made,
in order to guard againft error cr deception, which
might fo eafily arife, and every where exhibit ai!0-
malies.

" When I. introduce water or any other moift body,
great or fmall, not merely between one pair of metallic
pieces. A, Z, as fig. 16. but between two pairs, as re-
prefented fig. 20. each piece of metal is between like
moiil conductors, and by thefe means all the actions
are again rendered contrary, or brought into equili-
brium ; or, according to the other mode of viewing
the matter, there is no longer any action, for want of
the mutual contaft of two different metals, which,, as
we have feen, is certainly neceffary to excite an eledlric
current ; and it is always fociid that the frog experi-
ences no agitation.

" I (hall not enlarge farther on thefe combinations,
\vhich may be varied tir/ infinitum with a greater number
of metallic pieces, and by which one may be enabled
to foretel the phenomena which, according to my prin-
ciples, will always be found to take place. It wU be
fufficient, for the prefent, to draw this concluuon, that
in a circle confiding merely of two conductors, how-
ever different they may be, their mutual contact can
produce no electric llream fufficient to excite fenfibility,
or mufculat' movement •, and that, on the contrary,
this effeft infallibly follows as often as the chain is
formed of three conductors, one of one clafs, and two
different from each other of another clafs, which come
into mutual contafl with each other, and that this effect
will be (Ironger, the greater the difference is between
the latter ; that in other cafes, where there are more
than three different conductors, the effed cither is not
produced, or will be produced in different degrees, ac-
cording as the forces called forth by the different com-
binations, which will be expanded at each heterogeneous
contaft, and which are often in oppofition, and endea-
vour to impel the rfedtric fluid in oppofite directions,
are perfedly in cquifibrium \vith each other (wliich
mull be a very rare cafe), or when the fum of thofe
which exert themfelves in one diredlion is more or lefs
exceeded by the fum of thofe which ad in another di-
reftion.

" I fliall here, however, leave the two complex

combinations, and return to the fimple cafes, thofe witli

three different conductors, reprefented by fig. 3. which

are more demonftrative j or, in other words, thofe ^vith

X X tivo

;45

346

G A L V A N 1 S M.

two different metals or conductors of the fiift clafs,
which are in coiitaft with each otl;er, and are applied
'on the other fitle to moift conductors, or conduftors of
the fecond clafs. This method has been commonly
employed fince Galvanl's difcovery, and is in exart
proportion with the diverfity of metals, on which I con-
iider the whole phenomena to depend.

" Tlie other method of combination, which is ex-
prcffed by fig. 4. or that of a metal placed between two
different moilt conduftors, for example, between water
on the one fide, and ■^n aqueous, fapoiiaceous, or fallne
fluid on the other, I dlfcovered in the autumn of 1794 •,
and though fince that period I have repeated the much

varied experiments of different perfons, both foreigners fecond clafs mull be d

4 ..*! .- ...K:„1, .l-_.. _r XT U-lJ^ _..J _•.__ T 1 __!.! ..

id others, among which was that of Humboldt,
though I wrote to feveral correfpondents refpefting it,
that light has not yet been thrown on this new pheno-
menon which it fecms to deferve.

'^ The fingular circumftance before mentioned. In
regard to the, acid tafte ^vhen the tongue is brought
into contaft with an alkaline liquid, belongs, as you
n-ay perceive, to this fecond method of exciting the
(leflric fluid, and putting it in circulation (if the tin
vcffel be touched en the outfide by the hand moiilened
with water, and on the infide by the alkaline liquor),
and Ihews that this current is no lefs ftrong and aftive
tlian that excited by the firft method, viz. by em-
ploying two fufficiently well-chofen metals, fuch as
lead and copper, iron and filver, zinc and tin. I
muff here obferve, that though with tin alone, placed
between water and an alkaline liquor, you obtain
nearly the effecl which is produced by two of the
moft different metals, as filver and zinc, combined
with anyconduftor whatever of the fecond clafs ; you
can obtain the fame, and even in a higher degree,
with iron alone or filver alone, when the iron is in-
troduced between water on the one fide and nitrous
acid on the other, or when the filver is applied be-
tween water and a folution of fulphur of pot-a(h.

" If you take a frog, the head of which has been

or a thin ffratuni of a mucous, faline, &c. fiuid,
which, the bow' has been rubbed over, and which on
this fide is between the metal and the water. *

" The very cor.fiderable difference in regard to the
quantity of effeft In the before-mentioned experiments
alreaiy fliews, that if the eleclric llream e.xcited by
contaft is ftrongeft towards a certain metal, when that
metal is placed between a certain fluid on the one fide,
and another fluid on the other, there are other fluids
which produce a i;v'. aicr i-unl I'.ith another kind of
me.al; fo that if 1 ly to difccver by expe-

riment the pan;. ; a of conduftors fuited

to each metal, in • Ms or conductors of the

rding to their afti-

Part L

ith KiTcasof

vity. I have paid great attention to this circumftance,
and have formed feveral tables, which I fhall publilh as
foon as I have brought them to perfeftion.

" I fiiall here, however, only obferve, that in order
to clafs, in fome manner, the innumerable different
moift conduflors of this kind, I diftinguifh them into
aqueous, fpirituous, mucous, and gelatinous, faccharine,
faponaceous, faline, acid, alkaline, and fulphurous (livers
of fulphur) liquids; that I make lubdivifions in tlie acids
down to the belt known fimple mineriil r.cids, (as 1 find
in this refpe(fl great difference between the nitrous and
the muriatic acids,) comprehending the principal vege-
table acids and the acid of galls ; and do the fame in
regard to the faline fluids, accordii\g as they are folu-
tlons of neutral falts, earthy falts, and partlcuLnrly me-
tallic (alts.

" WTien it can be determined in what order all thefe
kinds of fluids follow each other, in regard to the
power in queftion, for the metal A, and another for
the metal B, &c. we fhall then be in a condition to
determine what place muff be alFigned to a great num-
ber of other heterogeneous fluids, whether mineral, ve-
getable, or ani.m.al, which belong to feveral of the
above claffes. In general, the order for the greater
part of the metals hitherto obferved is as follows : ill,
pure water; 2d, water mixed with clay or chalk (which

cut off, and which has been deprived of all 4ife by ihews a pretty different effeft when the before-mtntion-
thrulling a needle into the fpinal marrow, and immerfe ed experiment is made with two glaffes, a bow of tin
it, without Ikinniug it, taking out the bowels, or any or zinc, and a properly prepared frog, which has a
other preparation, into two glaffes of water, the rump fufficient degree o'f vitality) ; 3d, a folution of fugar ;

4th, alcohol; 5th, milk; 6tli, mucilaginous fluids;

into one, and the leg into the other as ufual, it
be ftrongly agitated and violently convulfed when you
conneft the water in both glaifes by a bow formed
of two very different metals, fuch as filver and tin or
lead, or, what is better, filver and zinc ; but this will
by no means be the cafe when the two metals are lefs
different in regard to their powers, dich as gold and
filver, filver and copper, copper and iron, tin and lead.
But what is more, the effedt will be fully produced
on this fo little prepared frog when you immerfe in
one of the two glaffes the end of a how merely of tin
or zinc, and into the other glafs tlie other end of this
bow, which has been rubbed over with a little alkali.
You may perform the experiment flill better with an
iron bow, one end of which has beeen covered with
a drop or thin coating of nitrous acid ; and bevond all
expeaation, when you take a filver bow having a little
fulphur of potafh adhering to the end of it.

" rig. 21. reprefents the form of this experiment,
where ^ is the frog, a, a, the two glaffes with water,

7th, animal gelatinous fluids; 8th, winfe; 9th, vinegar
and other vegetable juices and acids; loth, faliva ;
1 Ith, mucus of the nofe ; 1 ;th, blood ; 13th, brains ;
14th, folution of fait ; 15th, foap-fuds ; i6tb, chalk-
w-ater ; 1 7th, concentrated mineral acids ; 1 8th, flrong
alkaline leys; 19th, alkaline fluids; 20th, livers of ful-
phur. With forae metals there is, however, a confi-
derable deviation from this order, in regard to livers
of fulphur, alkaline fluids, and the nitrous and faline
acid?.

" As to the metals, which in their pofitjon between
thefe different fluids are more or lefs proper for the
eleflric effeft in queftion, I have found in general,
that tin exceeds all others, and that filver is the worft ;
except when one of the fluids betwixt which the filver
is placed is w-ater, or any other aqueous cor.duftor,
and the other liver of fulphur : in this cafe filver far
exceeds zinc, and even tin. Iron alfo produces a mticli
greater effedt than any other metal, when it is in con-

A. the bo'.v formed of one finglc metal, and m the drop taft, on the one fide, with mere water or an aqueous

coiiduftor,

Part T.

Effects of
Galvanifni
on Animals

G A L V

conduftor, and on the otlicr nith the nitrous acid,
were it even only a drop. The excitement occafioned
in both cafes is wonderful ; fince it exceeds, as I have
alreadj remarked, that produced, according to the
ufual method, by means of a double metallic bow, even
of different metals, as zinc and filver, applied to. con-
duclors of the fecond clafs of the fame kind. It is fuf-
ficiently flrong and . powerful to produce con^'ul.'ive
movements in a half-prepared frog, the bowels of which
have not been taken out, ^vhen one of the two moilV-
conduClors is a concentrated alkaline folution, and the
metal placed between them is zinc, or rather tin.
With other metals and other fluids you can feldom pro-
duce coiivulfions in a frog, if it be not perfectly prepa-
red, or at leall embowelled.

" The reader ivill readily perceive, that when a bow
of one and the fame metal touches with both its ends
the fame kind of faline water, the fame acid, the fame
alkalivie Huid, &c. an cleftric llreara will not take
place, as liappens alfo when it touches on each fide
merely water : in that cafe two oppofite aftions are op-
pofed to each other, and keep each other in equili-
brium. That thefe contrary powers, however, may be
in perfeft equilibrium, it is neceflary that the fluids ap-
plied to both ends of the homogeneous metalline bow
be cxaflly of the fame kind and of tlie fame ftrength.
For this reafon the moll careful attention and a certain
dexterity are required, in order to enlure fuccefs to the
experiment, which I have often performed to the great
aftonilhment of the fpeftators, and which any one may
repeat as was done by my friend Humboldt. That
philofopher has already publilhed lorac of the moft
finking and decifive of thefe experiments in his fecond
letter ; and I fliall here give a more particular account
of them.

" Having placed a completely or only half-prepared
frog as ufual in two glaffes of water, take a very clean
bow of filver (it will be beft when it has been waflied
with water from the glaflfes), and immerfe both ends of
it at once, or the one after the other, in the glalTes ; no
agitation of the frog will be occafioned. Repeat the
experiment, after you have daubed over one end of the
bow with the white of an egg, liquid glue, fallva, mu-
cus, blood, a folution of tartar, or any other fluid or
conducling fubflance fufficiently different from pure
water. Firft, immerfe the pure end, or that moiflened
merely with water, in the water of one of the glaffes ;
and afterwards the other end, daubed over with the
above fubflances, in the water of the other glafs ; you
will then infaUibly produce a convulfive movement in
the frog, and feveval times in fucceirion, if you draw
out the boiv and again immerfe it until nothing more
of the above fubflances is left adhering to the metal,
or until the metal, with its ends in l)oth the glalTes,
touches only pure, or nearly pure, water. Daub both
the above fubrtances uniformly over both ends of the
bow, and immerfe them at the fame time in both the
glalTes of water, and no convulfions will arife. They
will often be produced in newly prepared and highly
Irritable frogs, when the faline fluid, or in general, the
fubflance with which the two ends of the bo\v are
ilaubed over, is not perfectly the fame, or when the
fubflance at the one end is more diluted than at the
other, &c. Walh and clean carefully the one end of
the bo-.r, daub over the other more or lefs, aild convul-

A N I S M,

flons will be again produced as foon as the circle is made
complete by the double immeriion of the bow. Clean
both ends completely,. and no agitation will arife, as in ,
the (irtl experiment.

" For comparative experiments of this kind, I would
recommend vifcous fluids or fubflances rather than faline,
becaufe the latter are too foon dlfTolved in the water.
It oft-times happens that the convulfions of the frog,
when it is completely prepared and hrghly irritable,
take place, though both ends of the metallic bow are
daubed over with the fame kind of faline fluid. The
caule of this is, that when one end is immerfed in the
v>-ater after the other (and it may be eafily feen that it
is impoflible to do fo in a moment with fuflicient ac-
curacy), the one end of the bow lofes a portion of its
faline lubftance fooner than the other, or at lealt the
adhering part is more diluted by the water, fo that the
fluid with ^vhich both ends have been daubed over is
no longer the fame.

" For thefe experiments I would alfo recommend fil-
ver, as a metal that is lefs liable than others to be at-
tacked and changed by faline and other liquids. Tin,
lead, copper, and in particular iron, are more fufcepti-
ble of faffing variations ; fo that bows of thefe metals,
and of iron above all, retain for a long time the power
of producing convulfions in a newly prepared and high-
ly irritable frog, even when, both the ends of the bow
are immerfed in two glaffes of water, altliougli the
places of the metal, attacked by any of the faline fluids,
have been carefiflly wathed and cleaned. A fuperfi-
cial alteration in the metal is fufhcient to produce this
change, as may be eafily feen. Thefe variations often
fhew themfelves to the eye by a yellow blackifh fpot,
&c. which it is difficult to remove. I do not here
fpeak of lading variations, that proceed to a greater
depth, wliich can be produced in the end of the metal-
lic bow, and particularly in iron, when its hardnefs is
changed ; a procefs by which fuch a bow can be ren-
dered capable of producing not only convulfions in
frogs, but alfo a particular fenfation on the tongue, and
light before the eyes, if both its ends, made perfeflly
clean, are only brought into contaft with pure water.
Thefe, and many other experiments of the like kind,
form the chief fubjecl of my firfl letter to the abbe
Vaffalli, profeffor of natural philofophy at Turin, writ-
ten in the beginning of the year 1 794, and afterwards
publiflied with the other in BrugnatclU's Journal.

" If filver be lefs expofed to be attacked by faline
and other fluids (except by liver of fulphur, which in-
flantaneoufly renders it black) ; if it be lefs fufceptible
of confiderable and lafling variations, and has therefore
this advantage over other metals, that it is liable to
fewer irregularities ; tin, on account of its greater ac-
tivity, that is, the ftrength of the etfeils wliich it pro-
duces by being brought into contacl with almoli all
moifl conduftors, as I have already obferved, is to be
preferred to filver, and in a certain degree to all other
metals. The experiment I have already defcribed with
a tin bafon filled with an alkaline fluid, artd held in the
hands moiflened with water, by which an acid fenfa-
tion is excited on the tongue when brought into con-
tact with the above fluid, is a proof of it 5 for it would
be vain to expe<51 a like efltit from a bafon of lead,
iron, or copper, and much more fo from one of filver.
With the latter it would be obtained only when it con-
X X 2 taiued

348

KfTeclsof taincd liquid liver of lulphur; and in that cafe the acid
on A^ "'^^' taile would be pretty ftrong.

■ " Tile eleflric fluid is excited alfo with the greateft

llrength and activity, when the metal is tin, between
water and a faline fluid : but it will be excited with
ilill greater energy to produce an acid fenfation on the
tongue when the tin is between water and an infipid
mucilaginous fluid ; or when the experiment is made with
a tin bafon filled with a folution of gum, liquid glue,
white of an egg, &c. The other metals, in like cir-
curaftance^, produce fome effeft, but much weaker :
.'liver produces the weakeft, except with liver of ful-
phur, as I have already obfcrved.

" A like experiment, which I made three years ago,
and exhibited to various perfons, not with two different
fluids and one metal, as in that above defcribed, but
contrari'.vife, with two metals of a different kind and a
fluid, is already known. I took a bafon of tin (one of
zinc is better), placed it on a filver fl;and, and filled it
with water. When any of the perfons in company ap-
plied the tip of his tongue to the water, he found it
perfeftly taflelcfs as long as he did not touch the fdver
fland ; but as foon as he laid hold of the ftand, and
grafped it in his hands Well inoillened, he experienced
on the tongue a very perceptible and pretty flrong acid
tafie. This experiment will fucceed, though the effeift
is proportionably weaker, with a chain of feveral per-
fons who hold each other's hands, after they have been
moiftcncd with water, while the firft applies the tip of
his tongue to the v.ater in the bafon, and the laft lays
hold with his liands of the filver ftand.

" If thefe experiments, in regard to the tafte excited
on the tongue by the action of two different metals, are
Itriking, the others, in regard to the tafte excited, mo-
dified and changed by one metal between two different
fluids, are no lefs fo, and they are alfo newer. They
are ftill interefting on this account, that they difcover
to us the caufe of that tafte often perceived in water
and other liquids, which is more or lefs confiderable or
various when drunk from veffels of metal, and particu-
larly of tin. When the outer extremity of the veffel
is applied to the under lip, rendered moift by the fali-
va, and the tongue is extended fo as to be in contaft
with the %vater, beer, wine, &c. in the veffel, or when
the tongue is bent as is done in drinking, is there not
then a complete circle, and is not the metal between
two more or lefs different liquids, that is, between the
faliva of the under lip and the liquor in the cup or vef-
fel ? A ftronger or weaker eleftric ilream muft thereby
be occafioned, according as the fluids are different — a
ftream which will not fail in its way to affeift the fenfi-
ble organs of the toi.gue in the faid circle.

*' Befides the two methods already confidered, of
producing an eledkric current, that is, by means of one
or more moift condu5*ors, or conduftors of the fecond
clafs, placed between two different metals or conduflors
of the firft clafs ; or contrariwife by means of a con-
duftor of the firft clafs placed between two of the fe-
cond clafs, alfo different ; there is ftill a third method
of exciting the ele£>ric fluid, thou^^:h in a degree fo
much weaker, that it is fcarcely capable of caufing con-
vulfions in a perfeftly prepared frog, in which there is
IHll a ftrong degree of vitality. This new method
Confifts in forming the circle of three different conduc-
tors, all of the fecond clafs, without the intervention

G A L V A N T S I\T.

Part I.

of one of the firft or a melal one; Some think they Ef»a^ of
find in this method a ftrong obieftion aeainft my prin- Galvamfm
ciple. _ ^ oj^Ajnn^.

Fig. 22. reprefents this third method compared with
the other two. In the experiments of Profcffor Valli,
refpefting which fo much noife has been made without
"any reafon, / reprefents the leg of the frog, and parti-
cularly the hard tendinous part of the mufculus gajlroc-
nemius ; t)i the rump, or the mufcles of the back, or the
ifchiatic nerves, to which the faid tendinous parts are
applied ; and a the blood, or the vifcous faponaceous
or faline fluid, applied to the point of contafl.

" I have fully defcribed this new method, where no .
metal is ufed, in my third and fourth letter to Profeffor
Vaffali, written in the autumn and winter of the year
1795. I have there fliewn, that thefe new fafts, far
from altering my ideas and principles, ferve rather to
eftablifli them ; and that they render more general the
principle that the condu<51ors, by heterogeneous contaft,
that is, of two different from each other, become ex-
citers of eleftiicity, and confirm the beautiful law ari-
fing from it, that to produce an cleftric flream, the
circle muft neceffarily be foi-meJ of three different con-
du61ors. You now fee in what the ivhole fecret, the
whole magic confifts ; and that it depends not merely
on metals, as might have been believed, but on all tlie
difl'erent condudors. As long as we adhere to thefe
principles, it will be eafy to explain all the before-men-
tioned experiments without being reduced to the necef-
fity of having recourfe to any imaginary principle, or
any peculiar and aclive eleflricity of the organs. By
their affiftance you will be enabled to invent new ex-
periments, and to foretell the refult of them, as I have
feveral times done, and ftill do daily. If you, however,
abandon thefe principles, you will find nothing but un-
certainty and contradiclion, and the whole will be an
inexplicable problem.

" Some new facts, he obferves in a farther communica-
tion, lately difcovered, feem to ftiew that the immediate
caufe which excites the electric fluid, and puts it in motion,
whether it be an attractive or a repulfive power, is to be
afcribed much rather to the mutual contaft of two dif-
ferent metals, then to their contact with moift conduc-
tors. But, though it cannot be denied, that in the lat-
ter cafe there exifts an aftion, it is proved that it exerts
itfelf in a far more confiderable degree when the two
metals mutually touch each other. There arifes by the
mutual contafl, for example, of filver and tin, an action
or power by which the former communicates the elec-
tric fluid, and the latter receives it ; or the filver fuf-
fers it to efcape, and the tin attrafts it. This produ-
ces, when the circle is rendered complete by moift con-
duftors, a ftream, or continual circulation of the fluid.
When the circle is complete, there is an accumulation
in the tin at the expence of the filver ; which indeed is
very fmall, and far under the point neceffary to enable
it to announce itfelf by the moft delicate eleftrometer.
I have however been able, by the affiftance of my con-
denfer, conftrufted on a new plan, and ftill better by
Nicholson's doubler, to render it very perceptible : I
fliall here communicate the refult obtained by my
experiments, which I made fome time ago with great
fatisfaftion.

" Experiment I. The three plates of the doubler are
of brafs. I took two ftrong wires, one of filver and

the

Parti.

G-! v.nifm

G A L V A

tlie other of tin, and brought the former into contact
\vith the moveable plates, and the other with one of
tht fixed phtcs ; while they bctti refted on tire tr.Wc,
or, vilmt is better, on tnoill palleboard, or any oihcr
moift conduclor, fo as to be in coramimication by the
intert'ention of one or more conduflors of t!ie fecond
chfs. I fuftered the apparatus to remain fome hours in
this ftate, then removed the two wires, and put the ma-
chine in motion. After 20, 30, or 40 revolutions (or
more when the atmoiphere was not dry, or the iniula-

N T S M.

plete, and make the cor.taft of the metals imnieJi-
ate, without the leall moillure, which would be high-
ly piejudiciiil, it will he proper to place the appara-'
_tus in the fun. Half an hour, and often lefs, will
then be fiifficient to obtain the required eledrici-
ty, &c.; whereas, in other cafes, feveral hours are
necelTary before the defired refult can be obtained.
This experiment is reprefented in fig. 23. 24. 25. and
26. LLL (fig. 22. and 23.) are the three brafs plates
of the doubler; A the piece of filver which is in

349

tion imperfect), I brought one of my llraw eletlrome- contacl with one of thefe plates j E the piece of tin

ters into contaft with the movc.ibla plate, and obfer%'ed

indications of pofitive electricity .(-j-E), which arofe to

4, 6, 10 degrees, and more. If 1 fuffered it to touch

the fixed plateSj I Lad the correfponding indications of

the oppofite kind of ele<Stricity ( — E).

'' The fdver, therefore, poured the elaflic fluid into
tilt brafs plate, when it had been fome time in contact
with it ; and the tin attrafted it from the other plate,
which was alfo of brafs, while in contaft with it. This
^. as confirmed by the following experiment, which is a
real experimer.tvm crucis.

" II. I reverfed the experiment, fo that the filver was
in contact with one of the fixed plates, and the tin with
the moveable one. The eledlricity which I obtained
from the latter, after the apparatus had remained a fuf-
ficient time in that pofition, was negative ( — K)j while
that of the fixed plate was pofitive (-f E).

" III. I applied only the tin wire to the moveable
plate, and infulated the two fixed ones, or brought
them into communication with tlie table or any other
moill conductors with which the tin wire was in contact.
This fimple contact of the tin with the brafs of which
the moveable plate confifls, is fufficient to excite in it a
very fmall degree of negative electricity ; only a longer
time is required.

" Thoi'e acquainted with the a6txon of electiic at-
mofpheres, and the conftruffion of the doubler, wiU
need no farther explanation, to enable them to com-
prehend the mode of action of this verj' ingenious in-
itrument •, how the electricity, once obtained from the
moveable plate, muft occafion an oppollte kind in the fix-
ed plate, and vice verfa; how the oppofite kinds of
electricity are increafed by each revolution of the ma-
chine. Sic. In tlie prefent experimentj therefore, when
the moveable plate is — E, the fixed plate muft be

" IV. This is the reverfe of the former. The piece
of tin was applied to one of the fixed plates, and the
metallic one wis infulated from ail metallic contacl.
The refult was now reverfed ; that is, the fixed plates
->vere electrified negatively, and the moveable one had
pofitive eleftricity.

" All thefe experiment? fucceed much better, and
in a fhorter time, if, during the mutual contact of the
different metak, the moveable plate be oppofite to ei-
ther of the other two that are fixed 5 but ilill better
when a piece of thick paper, fuch as a card, not moilt,
and of a thicknefs equal to the intermediate fpace, is
placed between the two plates that ftand oppofite to
each other. It is of advantage to leave the card fome
time in its place, and not to remove it till the moment
when the metals in contacl are removed and the ma-
'ii'.s put in motion. To render the infulation corn-

applied to,the other plate, which is oppofite to the for-
mer ; a a, the moilt conduftor, or chain of molit con-
duijtors which form a communication with the pieces
of metal. When the filver, as in fig. 23. is in contacl
wi'.h the anterior moveable piate, it gives up to it a
little of the eledtric fluid, and the latter accumulates
as much of it as polTibie ; coTifequently the electricity
of the plate becomes pofitive, as the fign -f- of the
plate fliews : whereas the tin attracts the eledlric lluid
from the correfponding fixed plate, which by thefe
means has negative eledricity, as the fign ( — ) of the
plate indicates •, and it even communicates this elec-
tricity to the other fixed plate, which therefore has
the fign (— ) alfo.

" In fig. 24. every thing is reverfed : the moveable
plate is negatively eleftrified ( — E), ivhile the two fixed
plates become pofitive (-j-E).

" Laltly, in the 25th and 26th figure, it is feen that
the tin abllra£ts the eleftric tiuid from the brafs plate
with which it is in contact. This plate is therefore ne-
gatively ele£trified, or has — E ; and by the action of
its atmofphere occafions pofitive electricity (-f-E) in
the other plate Handing oppofite, which is in communi-
cation, either with the third plate, as fig. 25, or, what
is flill better, with other conductors, as fig. 26. Thefe
oppofite electricities increale afterwards with each re-
volution of the machine ; the aClion of which, accord-
ing to the theory of electric atmofpheres, produces this
effeCl to the degree mentioned, and juftifies the appella-
tion of doubler of eleftricity, which has been given to
this inftrument.

" I now come to the experiments, which (hew that
we are to feek for the caufe which calls forth the action
of the eleftric fluid ; which excites it, of whatever kind
it be ; determines its tranfition, &c. much rather in the
mutual contaft of the metals, than in the contacl of the
moift conductors with thele metals. Though, according
to every circumltance, we muft admit fome aftion of
this kind in the latter contafl, it cannot be denied that
the former is certainly the moft effcCtuaL At prefent
I fhall only mention the two following experiments, which
I contrived in fuch a manner that they may ferve to
ex"plain a quettion of this kind.

" V. I left the two fixed plates of brafs t\ithout
making any alteration j tcok off the third moveable
plate, and fupplied its place by one of tin ; and arran.
ged the machine in fuch a manner, that the latter flood
oppofite to one of the other two plates. I then ap-
plied to this tin plate a bit of brafs, and to the oppofite
fixed plate of brafs a piece of tin. After a convenient
time, (for example an hour, when the weather was per-
feClly dry), I took away the two pieces of metal, or
only that of brafs, and m?.de the moveable plate of tin,

which .

-350 G A L V A

Effe(?.s of which nas hi contact with the piece of brafe, to revolve
Gilvanifm about ^o times. It then gave me very perceptible
■^"/■°'"'^'- marks ofpofitive ekarlcity.

' " VI. I reverfed the former experiment, and made

the piece of brafs touch the brafs plate, and the piece
(if tin the plate of the fame metal. I, however, obtain-
ed nothing, or almoft nothing y even when the appara-
tus was left a much longer time in that fituation, and
when the machine had made twice or three times as jna-
ny revolutions. ■•

" Thefe two experiments are reprefented by fig. 27.
and 28. ; where L is the piece of brafs, E that of tin,
and a a the moiil conduftors which conneft the two dif-
ferent pieces of metal.

" In the arrangement of fig. 28. the fame contadt of
different metals, viz. brafs on the one fide, and tin on
the other, with the fame kind of moift conduftor, takes
place, as well as in the preceding experiment of fig. 27.
The addition of the eleflric tluid in the one, and the
abllraflion of it in the other, ought therefore equally to
take place, though in an inverted order, when the
a£lion on the fluid calls forth the moving power, by tMs
contact of the two metals L, E, with the moift con-
ductor between tliem ; and yet this is not the cafe, as
no ligns cf electricity are obtained even after a long
time, and when the machine has been caufed to make
twice or three times as many revolutions. The condi-
tion eflentially neccflary to obtain elcftricity is, that the
different metals muft be in contaft whh each other, which
is the cafe in fig. 27. but not in fig. 28. '

" When the machine has been repeatedly turned,
fomething may be obtained. This arifes either from
fmall remains of old eleftricity, which could not be
deftroyed or diffipated in the time during which the ar-
rangement of fig. 26. was continued ; or even from frefli
eleftricity, which the moveable plate may have obtain-
ed from the atmofphere or vapours during the pretty
coniiderable time of the machine being in a flate of re-
volution ; or fome accidental difference, either between
the two tin or the two brafs pieces, may be the caufe of
I'ome adtion on the eleftric fluid, or of fome derange-
ment in regard to the equilibrium. In the laft place,
uhe contact of the moift conductor with the tin on the
one fide, or ivith the brafs on the other, may have a
different aftion, which, in my opinion, muft be very
fmall, but yet is not entirely without effefl.

" As it is now proved that, according to the arrange-
ment of the fixth experiment, nothing, or almoft no-
thing, is obtained by 40, 60, and even 80 revolutions
of the doubler, while a great deal is obtained by that
of the fifth with 20 or 30, we muft therefore conclude
that the contad of two metals of a different kind with
moift conduftors, without the mutual contaft of thefe
metals themfclves (which is wanting in the fixth experi-
ment, where brafs is in contaft ■ivith brafs, and tin with
tin), produces nothing, or almoft nothing ; and that,
on the contrary, the mutual contaft of the two metals
of a different kind, which takes place in the fifth ex-
Si), pcriment, produces the whole, or almoft the whole,
effca."*

Dr Fowler inftitutcd an elaborate feries of experiments
on this fubjeif, in which he confirmed and extended
many of the rtfults which had been already obtained in
the experiments and inveftieations of other naturAlifts.
He found that metallic fubftanccs were the beft agents
I

, on Animals.

• PHI.
Mag.\
163, 306.

^xpcri-
nentJ of
■Fowler.

NTS M. Parti.

or condui?fors, and he concluded that the contaft of EilVas of
two diliimilar metals is an efl'ential condition in the pro- ^'•^'•'
dudlion of the phenomefia of galvanifm. It did not^
indeed efcape his obfervation, that in fome cafes a
fmgle metal produced mufcular contraftion, but this he
afcribed to iiiechanical ftimulus, which excited a painful
fenfation in the animal, not quite dead, or to the Im-
purity of the metal, containing fomg portion of alloy,
or lolder. Future- obfervation, however, proved, that
thefe motions could be produced without any metal
whatever. He found that the moft powerful efiedls
were produced by employing zinc, in combination with
gold or filver. By means of thefe metals he produced
contractions twenty-four hours after they had ceafed.
In the experiment by which this was eflabllflied, tlie
nerve was coated with tin, and a different metal was
employed to complete the circle between the coating
and the mufcle. The fame philofopher alfo found that
the cffcdts were increafed in proportion to the bulk of
the metals employed, and the extent of furface brought
into contaft 5 that a communication might be formed
between the metals in contact, and the nerves of the
animal which were expofed, by means of water ; and
that the temperature of the feafon and the nature of the
animal's death feeraed to have confiderable influence on
the duration of the phenomena. In many cafes he was
able to produce contraftions in a frog, after three days
had elapfed fiorri the time that the head had been fe-
parated from the body. He feems to have direfted his
attention particularly to the conducting power of the
fubitances employed in galvanic apparatus, and in
tracing the analogy between, this property and elec-
tricity. Although metals \vere found to be good con-
ductors, this was • not the cafe with the metallic
oxides, or with the falts which have thefe oxides for
their bafis.

An earth worm placed on a circular piece of zinc,
exhibited contractions fimilar to thofe produced in living
frogs, Avhen a piece of filver was brought in conta£l to
complete the circle. Worms of the fame kind, fufpended
acrofs a filver rod, and the head and tail being at the fame
time brought in contaft with a piece of zinc, fullained a
fhock ivhich feemed to pafs through the ■whole body.
A fimilar experiment, followed by the fame refult, was
made on leeches. If an earth-worm or leech be placed
on a piece of filver, refting on a plate of zinc, the ani-
mal experiences a painful fenfation, when any part of
its body comes in contaft with the zinc. It leeras to
have the fame difagreeable fenfation when it is placed
on the zinc, and any part of the body is brought into
contact with the filver.

The inquiries of the fame philofopher were alfo di-
refted to afcertain whether the nerves In general are all
equally fubjeCl to the galvanic influence, or whether
its effects are limited to thofe which are fubjeCt to the
power of the will. With this view the heart of a cow
was feparated from thfe body, foon after the animal was
killed, and prepared in the way which has been already
delcribed, in the preparation of frogs ; and while the
contractions of the auricles ftill continued, the intcrcoftal
nerve being coated, and the apparatus arranged, the
metals were bcought into contaCt, but feemed to have
no cffeCl whatever on the contractions while they con-
tinued, and after they had ccaied, had not the power of
renewing them. He failed in many fimilar attempts on

hot-

G A L V A N ISM

hot-blooded oJiimais, but fucceeded in producing rauf-
cular contraftions in part of a frog, after an licur had

34
Eiperi.
raent! by
Robiibn.

' elapfed from the time th.Tt the natural motions had
ceafed. He made a firailar cxpcriment-on the heart of
a cat which had been drowned in wnrm water, and he
found that in this cafe the motion of the heart could
be exfited by raeans of galvanifra ; but when the
animal was drowned in cold water, no eife<El . could be
produced.

It WHS another objec> of his invefligations, to afcertain
the effects of galvanilm on the organs of the fenfes. The
dlfagreeable tarte which remains on the tongue, when
two diffimilar metals, the one placed on the upper fur-
face, and the other touching the under furface, are
brought into contacl, has Been already taken not:ce of,
and the method of applying the metals particularly de-
fcribed.' The flrongell imprciTion, it was obferved, was
produced, when gold and zinc were employed. He
introduced a metallic fubltance of u different kind into
each ear, and having formed a communication between
them, he experienced a Ih.ock in the head when thefe
two metals were brought into contaiSl. A bit of tin-
foil ^vas placed on the point of the tongue; the rounded
end of a filver pencil cafe was spplied to the internal
angle of the eye ; and when the other extremity of the
pencil cafe and the tin-foil on the tongue were brouglit
in'o coutacl, he perceived a flaih of pale light, ?.s well
as the metallic tiifte in the tongue which is prodactd in
a preceding experiment. The flalh feemed raofl; vivid
when gold and zinc were employed. A fimilar effect
is produced by introducing one of the metals between
the upper lip and the gum, and the other betv.ccn
the under lip and the gum, and retaining them in this
pofition to bring the edges in contad ; or, by in-
ferting one of the metals into the nofe, and placing
the other on the tongue, to form the communication
between them.

Similar experiments were made by the late Pro-
felTor Robifon of Edinburgh. He particularly ob-
ferved, that the effects of the galvanic fluid ivere
more fenfibly felt when one of the conducting metals
was placed on a wound, or on the nerve of a carious
tooth. From the peculiar imprelTion on the tongue
on the application of gold or filver trinkets, he could
afcertain wiiether any folder was employed about
them.

In another experiment the fame philofopher feemed
to think that he had proved that the effedl was pro-
duced even before the metallic conduftors w ere brought
into direft contact. A piece of zinc was introduced
between the gums and cheek on one fide of the head,
and a piece of filver was placed in the fame way on the
other fide of the head. A rod of zinc was then applied
to the zinc piece, and a rod of fdver to the filver piece
on the different fides of the head ; the extremities of
thefe rods which projected from the mouth were then
cautioufly brought into contaft ; and, as foon as this
^vas comi*Icted, a flroag fenfation was produced in the
gums. Eut before the direft 'conta£l was made be-
tiveen the extremities of the rods, he perceived a flaih
of light which was repeated when the rods were again
feparatcd to a finall dillance from each other. It is
fcarcely neceffary to add, that when the arrangement
of tlic rods was reverfed, the effects ceafed ; that is.

laiSor.

35^

wl'.cn the zmc rod was Aibiiitu'.ed for the filver rod, Eflfcascf
and the filver one for that of zinc. Galvamii

_ To the account of the experiments on animals now "°^""""
given, which were chiefiy made on cold-blooded ani-
mals, we (liali now add thofe of Aldini, the nephew of
Galvani, which were made on the body of a man exe- Aldim'^s
cuted in London for murder. This man who was exc-exper.mcnis
cuted on the 17th January 1803, was 26 years of age, °" the body
and feemed to have been of a flrong, vigorous conftitu-?*^" ™^''^'
tion. The body was expofed for an hour to a tempe-'
rature two degrees below the freezing point Fahrenheit,
at the end of which it was conveyed to a houfe not f:ir
diftant, where the apparatus for the experim.ents had
been arranged. The following is the account of thefe
experiments in the author's own word?.

" Ex/ienmc/il i. — One arc being applied to the
raoutli, and another to the ear, ^vetted with a folution.
of muriate of foda (common fait), galvanifm was com-
municated by means of three troughs combined together,
each of which contained 40 plates of zinc, and as many
of copper. On the firlt application of the arcs the jaw
began to quiver, the adjoining mufcks w«re horribly
contorted, and the left eye aftually opened.

" Exper. 2. — On applying the arc to both ears, a
motion of the head was manifelted, and a convuliivc
adtion of all the raufcles of the face ; the lips and
eyelids were alfo evidently affedled, but the aftion
feemed much increafed by making one extremity of
the arc to communicate with the nollrils, the other
continuing in one ear.

" Ex/>er. 3. — The conduftors being applied to the
ear, and to the reftum, excited in die mufcles con-
traftions much Ilronger than in the preceding experi-
ments. The action even of thofe mufcles furthcft
diitant from the points of contaft with the arc was lb
much increafed as almoil to give an appearance of
re-animation.

" Exper. 4 — In this Itate, wifliing to try the power
of ordinary Itimulants, I applied volatile alkali to the
nolttils and to the mouth, but without the leaft fenfible
action ; on applying galvanifm great aftion was con-
ftantly produced. I then adminiltered the galvanic Hi-
mulus and volatile alkali together ; the convulfions ap-
peared to be much increafed by this combination, and
extended from the mufcles of the head, face, and neck,
as far as the ckltoid. 'Iha effeft in this cafe furpaffcd
our mofl fanguine expe\5tatiohs, and vitality might, per-
haps, ha%'e been reflored, if many circumllances had not
rendered it impoffible.

" Exper. J. — I next extended the arc from one eaif
to the biceps flexor cubiti, the fibres of which had been
laid bare by diffe£tion. This produced violent con\-ul-
fidns of all the mufcles of the arm, and efpecialiy in .the
biceps and the ctraco-brachialis, even without the' in -
intervention of falt-water. ~

" Exper. 6. — -A.n incifion having been made in the "
wrift, among the fmall filaments of the nerves and cel-
lular membrane, on bringing the arc into contact with
this part, a very flrong aftion of the mufcles of the
fiore-arm and hand was immediately perceived. In
this, as in the laft experiment, the animal moiflure was
fulKcient to conduct the galvanic ftimulus wilh«ut the
intervention of fait water.

" Exper. 7. — The fliort mufcles of the thumb were
dilTeacd,

352

Eff<cVof
Gnlvanifm
on Animals

G A L V

dilTcded, and fubmhted to the aaion of die galvanic
apparatus, which induced a forcible effort to clench the
■ hand.

" Exper. 8. — The effefts of galvanifm in this expe-
riment were compared with thofe of other flimulants.
For this purpofe, the point of the fcalpel was applied to elude :
the fibres, and '

A N I S M,

daft the fluid pre-exirtent in the animal fyftcm ; where-
as, with the galvanic batteries of Volta, the icufcles are
excited to aition by the influence of the apparatus it- '
felf.

" From the above experiments there is reafon to con-

Part I.

Efficb of

reduced into the fuLftance of the
biceps jletcor cubili %vithout producing the flighteft mo-
tion. The fame refult was obtained from the ufe of
cauflic volatile alkali and concentrated fulphuric acid.
'I'he latter even corroded the mufcle, without inducing
it to action.

" Exper. 9 — Having opened the thorax and the pe-
ricardium, expofing the heart injilu, I endeavoured to
to excite aftion in the ventricles, but without fuccefs.
The arc was firll applied upon the furface, then in the
fubftance of the fibres, to the carne<e columme, to the
feptvm ventricktorum, and laftly, in the courfe of the Galvani
nerves bv the coronary arteries, even with fait water in- " 5. That when the furfaces of the nerves and mufcles

. That galvanifm, confidered by itfelf, exerts a con- ;^cnciufions
fiderable power over the nervous and niufcularfyflems, and' °™ tlitm.J
operates univerfally on the whole of the animal economy.

" 2. That the power of galvanilm, as a llimulant, is
ftronger than any mechanical aftion whatever.

" 3. That the effefts of galvanilin on the human frame
differ from thofe produced by eledricity communicated
with common eleclrical machines.

" 4. That galvanifm, whether admiriiftered by means
of troughs, or piles, differs in its effetls from thofe
produced by the limple metallic coatings employed by

iater m-
terpofed, but without the flighteft vifible aftion being
induced.

" Exper. 10. — In this experiment the arc was con-
veyed to the right auricle, and produced a confiderable
contraction, without the int';rvention of fait water, but
efpecially in that part called x\\e appendix auricularis ;
in the left auricle fcarcely any aftion was exhibited.

" Exper. 1 1 . — Conduftors being applied from the
fpmal marrow to the fibres of the biceps Jlexor cubiti,
the g/uteus maximus, and the gqflrocr.emius, feparately,
no confiderable aSion in the mufcles of the arm and leg
was produced.

" Exper. I 2. — The fciatic nerve beingexpofed between
the great trochanter of the femur and the tuberofity of
the ifchium, and the arc being eftablitlied from the fpi-
nai marrow to the nerve diverted of its theca, we ob-
ferved, to our aflonilhroent, that no contraction what-
ever enfued in the mufcles, although fait water was ufed
at both extremities of the arc. But the conduftor be-
ing made to communicate with the fibres of the mufcles
and the cellular membrane, as ftrong an aftion as be-
fore was manifefted.

" E>per. 13. — By making the arc to communicate
with the fciatic nerve and the gaftrocnemius mufcle, a
very feeble aftion was produced in the latter.

" Exper. 14. — Conductors being applied from the
fciatic to the peronseal nerve, fcarcely atiy motion was
e.xcited in the mufcles.

" Exper. 15. — The fciatic nerve being divided about
the middle of the thigh, on applying the conduftors
from the biceps flexor cruris to the gaftrocnemius, there
enfued a powerful contraflion of both. I mu!t here
obferve that the mufcles continued excitable for feven
hours and a half after the execution. The troughs were
frequently renewed, yet towards the clofe they were
very much cxhaufted. No doubt, with a Hronger appa-
ratus we might have obferved mufcular aftion much
longer ; for, after the experiments had been continued
for three or four hours, the power of a fingle trough
was not fufficient to excite the sition of the mufcles :
the afliftance of a more powerful apparatus was requit-
ed. This (hows that fuch a long feries of experiments
could not have been performed by the fimple applica-
tion of metallic coatings. I am of opinion that, in
general, thefe coatings, invented in the firft inltance
by Galvani, are paffive. They ferve merely to con-

are armed with metallic coatings, the influence of the
galvanic batteries ia conveyed to a greater number of
points, and a6ts with conliderably more force in pro-
ducing contractions of the mufcular fibre.

" 6. That the adion of galvanifm on the heart is dif-
ferent from that on other mufcles. For, when the
heart is no longer fufceptible of the galvanic influence,
the other mufcles remain tlill excitable for a certain
time. It is alfo remarkable that the aCtion produced
by galvanifm on the auricles is different from that pro-
duced on the ventricles of the heart, as^ is demonftrated
in experiment the tenth.

" 7. That galvanifm affords very powerful means ofre-
fufcitation in cafes of fufpended animation under com-
mon circumftances. The remedies already adopted in
afphyxia, drowning, &c. when combined with the in-
fluence of galvanifm, will produce much greater effefl
than either of them feparately."* * p.

Excepting the experiments of Aldini which we have
juft detailed, the greater number of thofe of which an
account has been given, it has been already obferved,
were made on cold-blooded animals, and befides, the
apparatus uiually employed, was a iingle galvanic com-
bination. After the conitruftion of the pile was known,
and ftill more fo after batteries in the form of troughs
were invented and employed, very different effedts were
exhibited on the animal body, both in the dead and
living ftate.

With batteries corapofed of 2C0, 300, or 400 pairs
of plates arranged in troughs, very powerful ihocks
will be felt when the ,circlE is completed between the
extremities of the battery by means of the two hands
of any perfon, fo that the fluid fliall pafs through the
body. This experiment may be perfomied by touch-
ing ^vith one hand ^vetted, a wire connefted with one
extremity of the batter)', "and with the other hand alio
moiitened a wire proceeding from the other end of the
battery. Every time that the contaft is made a ihock
is felt. The effetl will be moire powerful if round
balls of brafs having brafs rods attached to them after
being well wetted, be placed in the palms of the hands
alfc well wetted, and a communication be eilablilhed
between the ends of the battery. The fame effect is
produced when the circle is completed by means of a
number of perfons joining hands together ; but it muft
be obferved, that each perfon muft take care to have

the

Parti. G A L V

EffVfts of tVie hands v.eli moifleneJ, othenvil'e the intcnfity of the
Gilvinifm fliock will be .greatly diniiiiinicd, or its efftft entirely
o°'^"''"*'*obftruacd. No experiments have been made, fo far as
' we recollect, to alcertain with any degree of precifion,

how far the intenfity of the (hock is diminiihed by in-
creafing the number of perfons compoling the circle of
communication, or whether indeed, when the experi-
ment is made with the requilite degree of caution and
.^ attention, it fuffers any diminution.
Cilvasic It has been oblerved by fome, (and fo far as we can

ftio;kcom- judge from our own feelings in nuraeroiB experiments
pareJ. made with a pile compofed of 6o pairs of plates, or with a

trough of 50 pairs, and fometimes with two and four
troughs of 50 pairs each combined, the obfervation
which we have made coincides with that of others), that
tlie ihock from the galvanic battery poflcfled fome pe-
culiaiitv, by which the fcnfation it excited was much
more difagreeable than a ihock of artificial electricity
which feemed to be of no greater intenfity. But it
mult be allowed, that in the comparifon of experi-
ments of fuch delicacy, the reiult of which depends
on the feelings, great ambiguity mull prevail ; and
therefore, when the comparifon is unavoidably fo inac-
38 cur." :, it can afford no precife conclufion.
Effea on 2 ;ie fenfation is extremely unpleafant when the (hock

wounds. j,f ^alvanifm, even when it is very flight, paffes through

,- the fingers, if they have been fcratched or wounded.
Direrted A lllght iTiock directed through the head between

through the the temoies, produces the fenfation of a fiaili of light
fcead. before the eyes, and an irrefiltible contradion of the

mufcles of the upper eyelids, fo that the perfon who is
the fubjecl of the experiment involuntarily winks every
time that the circle is completed. This experiment,
which Ihould be repeated with caution, is performed in
thefollowing manner : Place a bit of tin foil uliich will
adhere by wetting with water to the part to -ivhich it is
applied, on each temple. Then having formed the
<;ommunication between one end of the trough and one
temple by means of a metallic conduftor, flat like a
fmall button, in that part \vhich touches the tin-foil ;
tliis is retained in contact \\ith the tin-foil by an afliit-
ant j and by means of another affiltant, another fmii-
lar conductor is applied to the tin-foil on the other
temple. Things being thus arranged, the wire connec-
ted with the latter, is by the operator brought in con-
tact with the other extremity of the battery, or with
that part of it to which the extent or intenfity of the
fliock is to be limited. Every time that this contaft is
repeated, the fenfation of the flalh of light, and the
other effects, are produced. It has been hinted above,
^o that this experiment fhould be performed with caution.
Cautions. Not more than from 1 2 to 20 pairs of plates (liould be
employed, at leait on thofe on whom the effe(!:ts of a
fmall number have not been previoufly tried ; and per-
haps with that number, at leait in the experiments of
this kind which we have fcen made, there are not many
jierfons who would chufe to have them repeated on
ihemfelves. But thefe effefts, it may be added, will be
more or lefs powerful in proportion to the period that
ilie battery has continued in action with the fame
41 fluid.
fffedb, on ^ battery compofed of 200 pairs of plates will pro-
ttiJs *'"' ^"'^'^ Itrong contraflions in the limbs of a fowl or rab-
bit, which has been recently killed. Thefe effefts may-
be conveniently exhibited by introducing one of the con-
Vol.. IX. Part I.

A N I S M.

dufting wires, by means of a hook, into the mouth, or
fi.xing it about the back part of the head of the animal,
and fixing a fimilar hook from another wire connected
with the other end of the battery near the rump, fo
that the current of galvanic fluid ihall pafs through the
body. When the communication between the extre-
mities of the battery is formed, the convulnve motions
of the limbs of the animal take place, and are repeated
as often as the circle is completed. Similar effefts arc
produced on a dog or Iheep ; but to induce ftrong con-
vulfions in the larger animuls, a more powerhll ap-
paratus muft be employed. It will be neceflfary to put
in action a battery confiding of at leait 300 or 400
pairs of plates arranged in troughs.

With a battery of fuch extent and power, the con-
^Tjlfive motions produced on the limbs of horfes that
were fubjecled to its aftion, were fo ftrong that they
could fcarcely be refifted by the flrength of two per-
fons.

The head of an ox, foon after it was feparated from
the body, and while it was yet warm, ;vas acted on by
fix batteries, amounting to about 300 pairs of plates.
Strong convulfive motions were produced ; the eyes
opened, and the pupils were greatly dilated ; the ears
were alfo put in motion ; and the tongue drawn out
and fixed to the table with an iron fkewer %vhich entered
the wood above half an inch, was retraced with fuch
force as to detach itfelf from the fkewer which was
thrown to fome height into the air.

It has been faid that the'motions thus induced on the
limbs of animals by means of galvanifm, refemble the
convulfive motions of epilepfy. Perhaps the motions
of animals during the itruggles of death may be ccn-
fidered as Marly iimilar. Whether this be fo or liot,
^ve have obferved that the convulfive contractions of
animals fubjected to galvanilm, greatly refemble the
peculiar motions of each animal in the ftruggles of
death. This obfervation however only extends to what
has happened to fowls, rabbif:, and flieep ; but fo far
as it goes, it has been alloucd by thofe to whom we
have remarked the circurallance to be pretty cor-
reft.

With thefe obfervations we conclude this long detail
of the effects of galvanifm on animal?. This feem-
ed to be neceffary in order to give the reader a diltintt
view of what may be confidered as the dawn of this
department of fcience ; for as we have already hinted,
the experiments and inveftigations of naturalifls were at
firlt limited to its effefts on animals-, and from their la-
bours an immente body of fatts %vas accumulated before
its chemical effects were much known or diltinctly af-
certained. We now therefore proceed to the confidera-
tion of the chemical eftedts of galvanifm. Thefe fhall
be the fubjeft of the next chapter.

Chap. III. 0/the Chemical £fa7s ofGahamfm.

In the account we propofe to lay before our readers,
of thofe eflefts of the galvanic fluid w hich are to be
confidered as more ftriftly chemical, we fliall firft ftale
more generally fome of the experiments by means of
which thefe effefts arc illuftrated, and defcribe the me-
thod of performing them, and then enter into a -mctfc
particular detail of the experiments of different philofo-
Y y phers

G A L V A

d enlarge the kno^v

N I S M.

Part r.

4-
Combuftii
of charc'j.;

pliers Wiiitli tended to improve
ledge of galvanifm.

"We (hall Lmit the account of the experiments firft
alluded to above to the combullion of charcoal, the de-
flagration and combullion of metallic fubllances, the
decompoCtion of water and I'ome other tluids, and the
precipitation of metals from their folution in acids.
^ Exper. I . — With a battery compofed of 50 pairs of
* plates, of three or four inches fquare, ivith proper ms-
agement, a brillia'.it light may be produced from the

be done with a very fimple apparatus. A bent wire,
fuch as we have already dslcrlbed, is inferted into the
perforated, projeiHng piece of wood, at the extremity '
ot the battery. The wire is to be bent at aright angle
to that part of it which is fixed perpendicularly into
the extremity of the trough, and on the horizontal part
of it is placed the metallic fubllance to be deflagrated.
A plate of copper, vsliich mull be perfei5lly clean and
free from oxide, is to be conneded -ivith the other end
of the battery by means of a conducing wire. When

corabuftion of chsrcobl. The charcoal for this expcri- the apparatus is thus arranged, if the copper plate be

ment ihould be well prepared, from fome of the harder
woods, fuch ES beech or boxwood. It has been faid
that it could only be properly prepared by expoSng it
to a degree of heat equal to that of a glafs-houfe fur-
nace ; but we know fro.m experience that fo high a
temperature is by no means abfoluteiy neceffary. We
have prepared charcoal which was found to anfwer the
purpofe of the prefent experiment, with fuch a heat as can
be eafily commanded in a fraall chemical fiirriace. The
wood which is to be converted into charcosl is divided
into flips of about one -fourth of an inch fquare ; it is
then put into a cnicible, which is filled up with fand, and
may be covered with another crucible inverted, lb as
ftill more effeclually to prevent the accefs of air. The
crucible is then placed in the middle of the furnace,
which is to be filled up with charcoal, and a llrong
heat maintained for eight cr ten hours. After this
the charcoal will be found fuSiciently prepared, and
this is of feme ccnfequerce to be attended to, becaufe
on the complete converfion of the wood into this ftate
much of the fuccefs of the experiment depends.

Slips of charcoal reduced to a fine point are attached
to wires, which communicate witli the extremities of the

Drought into contaft with gold or filver leaf, for inltancc,
the combuftion of thefe fublfances will take place, and
this combuftion. It is fcarcely neceffary to add, will be
in proportion to the power of the battery and its energv.
In the fame way tin-foil, Tvhite and yellow- Dutch
metal, as it is called, may be fubjefted to experiment,
and ^vith a battery of moderate power, a brilliant com-
buftion may be produced.

When a battery of greater power is employed, a very
brilliant and rapid combuftion of fteel wire can be ef-
fecled. This experiment is made by ftretching a piece
of wire, fuch as that which is ufed for the fmaller ftrings
of mufical inftruments, between the two metallic con-
dudors connected with the oppoCte extremities of the
battery ; and thus completing the circle, the combuftion
takes place. When the experiment fucceeds, feveral
inches of the wire are alraoft inftantaneoufly reduced to
the ftate of oxide. In this way the energy of the bat-
tery may be in fome meafure afcertained, as it muft be
in proportion to the length of -the ivire which is burnt.
When a very powerful battery is in action, 10 or 12
inches of fuch wire may be completely burnt ; that is,
not merely made red hot, but having^ undergone the

battery. The charcoal may be fixed to the conducing procefs of combuftion, and having paffed from the me

■wires by means of a bit of thread, or fine iron or brafs
■wire, or they may be fixed in pincers, or an inftrument
fimilar to that ^\■hich is ufed for holding crayons or
blacklead pencils ; but in whatever way tliis part of the
apparatus is contrived, when the two pieces of charcoal
tonnefted by means of metallic condudors with the ex-
tremities of the battery are brought into contact, com-
buftion immediately takes place. The rapidity or bril-
liancy of this combuftion is proportioned to the ftrength
and a61ivity of the battery. The light produced by
luch a battery as that we have defcribed above, will be
at times pretty vivid ; but with two fuch batteries,
whofe aflion is combined, it is ftill more brilliant.

tallic ftate to that of oxide.

Exper. 3. — We have already defcribed the apparatus Decompcli-
for the decompofition of water. To exhibit this ex- *'<>" "-'f *'*-
periment, it is only neceffary to fill fome of the tubes '^"^'
which have been mentioned for this purpofe with water,
and to complete the circle of communication between
the extremities of the battery, the water in the tube to
be decompofed forming part of this circle. If the con-
dufting wires terminating in the tube confift of metals
which do not readily undergo oxidation, fuch as gold
or platina, the gafes which are the conftituent parts of
water are feparated from the wires, the oxygen gas from
the one, and the hydrogen gas from the other, and are

When four batteries, confifting each of 50 pairs of plates feen rifing in bubbles to the top of the tube, difplacing

of eight inches fquare, are employed for this experi
ment, nothing perhaps can exceed the brilliancy of the
light which is given out during the combuftion of the
charcoal. With the fmaller battery, the proce.s is oc-
caGonally interrupted ; but with the larger apparatus
the combuftion goes on for a ftiort time, giving out a
continued and uniform brilliant light. When this

quantity of water equal to the fpace occupied by
the gafes evolved. This procefs goes on till the furface
of the water falls below the condacling wire painng
through the top of the tube ; and the circle being then
interrupted, the procefs ftops. When this is the cafe,
if the two conducing wires within the tube can by
any contriv.nnce be brought into contaif , a fpatk is prc-

the cafe, the rays feem to proceed from the point where duced, by which the gafes are let fire to, and are again

the combuftion is going on, and exhibit all the variety
of the prifmalic colours. Wlien the pieces of charcoal
arc imraerfed in water, and brought into contaft under
its fjrface, the combuftion alfo goes on with confider-
able rapidity.

Exper. 2 — The deflagration and combuftion of many
metallic fubftances may be alfo effefied with a battery
twnfoftd of 59 pairs of three inch plates, and this iray

converted into the ftate of water. This combuftio
attended with an explofion. Or if the tube be careful-
ly taken from the apparatus under water, while the fin-
ger is placed upon the open end, and then inverted,
the gas collefled will rife through the water ; it may
then be fet fire to by means of a burning body, a fuiij-
lar combuftion will take place, attended with an cx-
plofjor.,

But

Part L

G A L V A K I S M.

Other li-
quids de-
corapofed.

4«
Precipita-
tion of me
tals.

£xpe

Br.t if the w'ms termin^itiiig in the tube be of brafs
or iron, or any metal which is cafily oxidated, only one
of the gafes is coUefted in the' tube ; the other (the
oxygen) combines with the metal, forming an oxide,
which coUedis on the point of the ^vire.

By a very fimple contrivance the gafes may be col-
Icfted feparately. With this \ievv two tubes in which
the conducing wires terminate, are employed. Thefe
tubes being filled with water, muft be inverted in the
fame bafon of water, the latter of which forms the com-
munication between the extremities of the battery.

Other fluids, as oil, alcohol, ether, and ammonia in fo-
lution, may be alfo decompofed by a fimilar procefs.
For the decompofition of oil, alcohol, and ether, the
pieces of charcoal may be immerfed in veffels contain-
ing thefe liquids ; rmd, when tliey are brought into con-
taci. the decompolion is effefted, with the formation
and evolution of carbonic acid gas, which is feen rifing
in bubbles to the furface.

Exfier. 4. — By means of galvanifm, and with a bat-
tery of moderate power, metals may be precipitated
from their folutions in acids. The apparatus to be em-
ployed for this purpofe is fimilar to that for the decom-
pofition of water, and the tube is filled with a folution
of the metallic fait. The communication being then efta-
bliihed, the metal is precipitated, and appears in an ar-
borelcent form on the point of the »vire. In th.is way
the acetate of lead, or fogar of lead, the nitrate of fil-
ver, and many other metallic falts, may be renved.

Many other curious and amufing experiments might
have been related, but what \ve hare now given will
enable the reader to have a diftinft notion of the che-
mical effefts of galvanifm. Many other of the chemi-
cal effefts of the galvanic fluid are fo clofely connefted
with the peculiar vie^vs and theories of thofe who have
Jilcovered and obfer/ed them, that we fhall not en-
ter into any detail of them till we come to confider
that part of the fubjecl. In the mean time we fliall oc-
cupy the remaining part of the prefent chapter with an
account of forae of the experiments on the chemical ef-
fefts of galvaniCn ^vhich ivere obferved by philofophers
in the earlier part of its progrefs.

Mr Cruicklhank, the inventor of the galvanic trough,
very early direfted his attention to this inquiry, and pro-
fecuted it with great ardour and fuccefs. In one of his
early communications on this fubjeft we have a compre-
heniive view of fome of the chemical phenomena of gal-
vanifm. We ihall, therefore, give it in his ovra words.

" I fhall not, fays he, give any particular account of
the apparatus employed, being a pile, and not differing
materially from that in ufe. I iliall only juft obferve,
that it confifled of plates of zinc and filver, of about
1.6 inches fquare, and that the number of each employ-
ed in the following experiments varied from 40 to 100,
according to the power required.

" I found that a folution of the muriate of ammonia
anfvvered better for moiilening the interpol(:d j'apers than
common water.

"When the machine was in fujl aflion, fparks which
were perfeftly vilible in the day time, could be taken
ut pleafure, by making a communication in the ufual
way between the extremities of the pile, and a fmall Te-
port or fnap could be heard ; the fhock given at that
time was very llrong, and a gold-leaf clcLMrometer, pla-
■"cd its the circle of communicatioE, v.si very fc-.-'ibly

J)."*;

alTei^ed : thefe circumftances, fomc of which, I believe, CJiemica!
have been already afcertained by Meffrs. Nicholfon and ^^'^^^- ^
Carlille, fhew the ftrong referablance of tliis influence to
elcftricity. Thefe gentlemen havt likewife difcovered
that galvanifm decorapofes water with much greater
facility than cleftricity, but with phenomena fomc-
what difiercnt.

"Exper. I. — Aquantity of common water was introdu-
ced into a glafs tube, being confined at eachend by corks,
but perfeftly at one by a cement of rofin and bees-wax :
pieces of iilver wire were palled through the corks, and
brought within an inch of each other in the fluid, their
other extremities being at the fame time connei^ed wilh
thofe of the machine or pile, one A\-ith the lower zinc
plate, and the other witli the upper filver plate. In
future, to aioid circumloctition, I fliall call the wire
attached to the filver plate, the filver wire, and the
other the zinc wire. The tube was then placed upright
in a cup containing water, with the uncemented end
do\vnwards. As foon as the communication was made
between the extremities of the pile by the wires, a quan-
tity of fmall air bubbles began/ to afcend from the end
of the wire connefted with the filver, as obferved by
MelTrs. Nicholfon and Carlifle ; but a white cloud at
the fame time made its appearance at the one, proceed-
ing from the zinc, or the zinc wire. This cloud gradu-
ally increafed, and aiTumed a darker colour, and atlaftit
became purple, or even black. A very few air bubblt<
were likewife collected upon and afcended from thi^-
wire, but when the machine ^vas in full force, a co.'i-
fider.ible ftream could be obferved.

" The gas was coUefted, and found to be a mixture
of hydrogen and oxygen, in the proportion of three
parts of the former to one of the latter. No great de-
pendence, however, was placed upon this in point of
accuracy. The zinc wire was found to be much cor-
roded, and looked as if a confiderable portion of it had.
been diflblved. As the cloud which was formed around
this v\ire became purple on expofure to the light, i
fufpecled it might be luna cornea, or muriate of filver
proceeding from the fil\-er, which had been fomeho-.v
diflblved, and afterwards precipitated in this ftate, by
the muriatic falts in the common water. This led to
the following experiments :

" Extier. 2 The glafs tube was now filled with dif-

tilled water, to which a little tincture of litmus was ad-
ded ; when the communication was made by the wires
as in the former experiment, a quantity of gas arofe
from both wires, but in tiie greatell quantity from that
ronneftcd with the filver. In a few minutes a fine red
line, extending fome %vay upwards, was perceived at
the extremity of the zinc wire ; this increafed, and in
a fliort time the whole fluid below the point of this wire
became red ; the fluid however, above the filver ^nre,
looked of a deeper blue than befcie, the flight tinge of
purple being dcrtroycd.

" Exper. 3. — I next filled the tube with diflilled wa-
ter, tinged H-ith the tindlure of Brazil wood ; it was no
fooner placed in the circle of coramunication,than the fluid
furrounding the filver uire, particularly towards its ex-
tremity, became purple, and this tinge increafed fo fad,
that the whole fluid furrounding this wire, and occupv.
ing the upper part of the tube, foon aflmaed aS deep 3
colour, as could be produced by ammonia.

•• The ptctioTi of the fluid in coBtafl with the zinc
Y y 3 wirr

356

Chem;c:il

G A L V

wire became very pale, and almoil colourlefs, nor coulJ
the purple tinge extend below its upper extremity.
From thefe experiments it would appear, that an acid,
probably the nitrous, is produced at the wire proceed-
ing from the zinc, and an alkali, probably ammonia,
at that in contact \. ith the filvcr. Thefe fafls fuffi-
ciently explain the aftion upon the filver wire, and the
nature of the whitilli cloud proceeding from it, and af-
terwards becoming purple. When lime water was em-
ployed inllead of common or diftilled water, the wire
was likewlfe ailed upon, but in a lefs degree, and the
cloud had at finl an olive colour, exa£lly refembling
the precipitate of filver by lime--.vater.

" The quantity of filver diffolved or corroded, if I
may ufe the exprefllon, in thefe experiments, was very
confiderable, and where common or diftilled water had
been employed, a fmall portion of it remained in folu-
tion, which was difcovered by the addition of the mu-
riatic acid. Indeed a much larger quantity would pro-
bably have been fufpended, had it not been for the al-
kali generated at the fame time, and which manifellly
produced a precipitate at, or near, the upper extremi-
ty of the zinc wire, wh^re, after a certain time, a dark
zone or ftratum was always formed.

" Exfirr. 4. — It is a well known h&, that hydro-
gen gas when heated, or in its nafcent (late, reduces
the cakes oi the metals ; I expecled, therefore, that
by filling the glafs tube rath a metallic folution, I
might be enabled to feparate the hydrogen from the
pxygen gas, and thus procure the latter in its Cmple or
pure (late. With this view the tube was filled with a
fjlution of the acetite of lead, to which an excefs of
acid was added, to counteraft the effefts of the alkali.
When the commimication was made in the ufual vvay,
110 gas could be perceived, but after a minute or two,
forae fine metallic needles were perceived at the extre-
mity of the wire conneiEled with the lilver. Thefe
foon increafed, and alfumed the form of a feather, or
rather that of the cryftals of the muriate of ammonia.
The lead thus precipitated was perfeftly in its metallic
ilate, and very brilliant ; a little gas efcaped from the
wire conneifled with the zinc, and it was confiderably
corroded as ufual.

" A folution of the fulphate of copper was next em-
ployed, and with the fame refult, the copper being pre-
cipitated in its metallic form by the wire connected
with the filver. In this indance the metal did not cry-
flalllze, but formed a kind of button at the end of the
wire, which adhered I'o completely to the filver, that it
•.vas found impolTible to feparate it.

" The moft beautiful precipitate, however, was
that of filver from its folution in the nitrous acid. In
this cafe, the metal (hot into fine needle-like cryftals,
articulated, or joined to each other, as in the Arbor
Dian:p.

" What became of the oxygen gas ufually produced
In thefe experiments ?

" Ex/ier. 5. — A quantity of pure water mixed with
diftilled vinegar was introduced into the tube, and
placed in the circle of communication ; fome gas was
difengaged from the filver wire, but no cloud appeared
at the extremity of the zinc. After fome time, hov,--
cver, a qu ir.tity of metallic filver was precipitated by
the filver wire, and this precipitate at laft became very
■••Of io'JS J a perfeilly fimilar effeft was produced, when

A N I S M. PartL

the tube was fdled with very dilute fuipLuiic acid ; in Che.iiical
thefe cafes the precipitated filver had the appearance of Effects,
fliining fcalcs, like that thrown down by copper in the ''"""^
ufual way. It may be proper to obferve, that in all
thefe precipitations and redudions, nothing but wires of
pure lilver were employed. The refults in this laft ex-
periment were exailly what was expefted ; the vinegar
prevented the alkali from precipitating the filver, dif-
folved by the generated aciil ; in confequence of which,
when a fuSRcient quantity of the metal ivas taken up, it
was again thrown down by the filver wire in its metallic
form.

" Exper. 6. — A folution of the muriate of ammo-
nia being introduced into the tube, and expofcd to
this intluence, a little gas was difengaged from the fil-
ver wire, while the zinc one was incrufted with a fub-
ftance which foon became black, and was found to be
luna coniea. The liquor which remained in the tube
after the operation had been finllhed, was highly alka-
line, and fmelled flrongly of ammonia ; common fait
was decompofed in a fimilar manner. This experiment
accounts for the decompolition of the muriate of foda
an4 ammonia, which always takes place when the pa-
pers in the pile are moiftened with a folution of thefe
Iklts.

" A folution of the nitrate of magnefia appeared to
be likewife decompofed by this procefs ; for after fome
time, a white powder refembling magnefia, was preci-
pitated on the furface of the filver wire, very little gas
was difengaged.

" Exper. 7. — In order to afcertain how far this in-
fluence might be carried, provided the circle of com-
munication was complete, two tubes were employed,
and conne<5led by a filver wire palling through corks j
the tubes were filled with water and fecured by corks ;
two other wires being then palled through thefe corks,
the arc was connecSled with the filver, and the other
with the zinc, at the extremity of the pile. A quan-
tity of gas as ufual was difengaged at the extremity of
the filver wire, and the portion of the connetling wire
in the fame tube was partly diffolved, and as mention-
ed in exreriment ift j but the other portion of the fame
wire in the other tube gave out gas, while the commu-
nicating zinc wire was corroded. And I make no
doubt that a fimilar effeifl would be produced, if any
number of tubes were conneifled in a fimilar manner,
by which means a large quantity of gas might be pro-
cured in a (hort time.

" Befides filver wires, I likewife employed thofe os
copper or iron, and it did not appear that thefe were
more corroded or afted upon than the filver; indeed, in
fome of the above experiments, not lefs than half, or
three-quarters of an inch of the wire was entirely con-
lliraed. The copper wire conneSed with the zinc
gives out a greenilh blue fubllance refembling the ni-
trate of copper with escefs of the metal, or when part
of the acid has been expelled by heat, &c. In exa-
mining the gas which was procured at different times,
I always found it mixed with a little oxygen gas, but
fometimes this did not exceed one-eighth of the whole
in bulk ; however, I paid but little attention to this
part of the procefs, for as my wires were always cor-
roded, no concluiion with regard to the compofiticn of
water could be dra^wn from it." * * XUhtif.

We might have hers detailed a greater variety of ex: J't. 410.
oeriments.^'o'- '"'• -S7

Part' II.

Hi;Tory. penmcnt5, which h

G A L V A N I

been m;
chemical effects of galvaiiifm, and to elucidate the na
ture and properties of the tluid which is fuppol'ed to be
concerned in thefc changes. In particular we might
give an account of the later experiments and refearches
of philofophers, in inveftigatinj;; the formation of mu-
riatic acid, and an alkali which is fuppofed to be foda,
by means of this power. This forms one of the liioll
curious fubjefts of inquiry which has yet occurred with

afccrtain the regard to galvanifm ; but as lomc part of the Jnveftig?.- I'iftory.

-:j... .1, (iy^5 gf jjjQfg ,^.j^Q j^^yg occupicd their attention with * "*

this inquiry, is 'connefled with theoretical views, we
fhall referve the connderation of the whole to the fe-
cond part of this treatife, the objcfl of which i;, to give
a hiftorical detail of the progrefs of galvanifm, with
the opinions of philofophers concerning the nature of
the galvanic fluid. To this therefore we now proceed.

PART II. OF THE HISTORY AND PROGRESS OF GALVANISM.

Fitfthir)

IN the finl part of this treatife we have given a
pretty full view of the method of conftrufting appara-
tus for the purpofe of exhibiting the phenomena of gal-
vanifm, and we have entered at confiderable length in-
to a detail of the experiments which have been made,
to afcertain the effects of the galvanic fluid on animah,
as well as thofe experiments by wWch its chemical ef-
fefts are illuifrated, wit'i fome of the theoretical views
and opinions of thofe who have been engaged in re-
fearches concerning the properties of this tluid. It is
now propofed, in the fecond part, iirft, to confider the
progrelTive hiflory of galvanifm, with the theories by
which philofophers have attempted to account for its
effefls ; fecondly, we ihall endeavour to trace the ana-
logy between artificial eleftricity and galvanifm j and
laiUy, give an account of the experiments and inquiries
which have been made concerning the formation of
muriatic acid and foda by means of this power. Thefc
will form the fubjeiSs of the three following chapters.

Chap. I. Hi/lory of the Difcovcry and Progrefs of
Galvaiufm.

The firft hint which is ufually quoted as connected
wth the phenomena of galvanifm, is extracted from a
book entitled the General Theory of Pleafures, by Suh-
zer, which was publi(hed in the year 1767. In this
work the author particularly defcribes the experiment
with two diiTimilar pieces of metal which we have re-
lated at the beginning of this treatife, and by which
we have endeavoured to illuftrate what is underftood by
galvanifm, in its eflfeifls on the living body. The ex-
periment alluded to is that in which a piece of zinc and
a piece of filver being placed, the one in contaft with
the upper, and the other with the under furface of the
tongue, and their projecting edges being brought Into
ccntaft, a talle is produced, which the author obferves,
refembles vitriol of iron. This fenfation is afcribcd to
a vibration of the particles of the metals affecting the
nerves of the tongue.

Other hints and expe.iments have been quoted,
which feem to be connefled with the phenomena of
galvanifm j but as they were not proiccuted, and as no
conclufion, with the view of eftabliihing any particular
point, was deduced from them, it would be unnecef-
fary to give an account of them, excepting thofe of
Vaflalli, member of the royal academy of Turin, who
publiflied in 1789, a theory on this fubjcct, fupported
by a ferics of experiments which he had inilituted.
Here he throws out a conjecture, that a provifion has
been made by nature in the fyftem of a living ariiraal,

by which the ele6tricity accumulated in any particuhr
part of the body is preferved and retained for fome ne-
ceflary purpofe of its exiltence. It had indeed been
fuppofed by fome, that the animation of the blood de-
pended on the eleftric fluid, but according to others,
this fluid and the nervous fluid were to be confidered
as one and the fame. ^f

This fubject was particularly inveftigated and illuflra-Galvam'-
ted, when in the year 1791 a remarkable difcovery ^'^'^°'''^''''"
which was made by Dr Galvani, profeflbr of anatomy
in the univeriity of Bologna in Italy, Was announced to
the world. This difcovery, like moll others, was ac-
cidental. Some frogs deprived of the Ikin were placed
upon a table near which the profeflbr happened to be
engaged in experiments with an electrifying machine.
The crural nerve of one of the frogs was touched by a
perfon prefent, \vith the point of a fcalpel during the
time that the machine was working. The ^vhole ani-
mal was thrown into convuliions. The fame experi-
ments were afterwards repeated with thje fame fuccefs.
Every time that the fcalpel vras applied to the nerve,
while the machine was in motion, violent con\-ullions
were produced. But when the machine ceafed to
move, on the application of the fcalpel to the nerve no
cffeft followed. To this accidental difcovery this
branch of fcience owed its origin, and from the name
of the difcoverer was called Galvamfm.

Since the period of th's difcovery, a great many ex-
periments have been made, and many curious pheno-
mena have been obferved, which have excited much in-
terelt and attention among philofophers. \Vc fliall now
prefent our readers ^vith a hilloriSal Iketch of the pro-
grefs of thefe difcoveries.

The experiment which has been raenlioned was re-
peated by Galvani in every poflible way he could think
of. He varied it both by means of artificial and at-
mofpherical eleclricity, and the refult of all thefe ex-
periments he found to be uniform aad confiitent.
When Galvani firft began his refearches, ha fuppofed
that the phenomena depended on common elsftricity,
pafllng through the animals on which the experiments
were made. He had obferved that the fame efFetls
were produced, but in a fmaller degree. In living firogs
and in other animals, as in thofe which had been newly
deprived of life. In the courfe of fome experiments
which he made on atmofpherical eleflriclty, he fufpend-
ed fome frogs, by means of metallic hooks fixed in the
fpine, from iron palifades j and he obferved that thn
mufcles of thefc animals were frequently and involun-
tarily ccntrafted, as if they had received a fliock of
eleftrlcitv. ' At firlt he afciibed thefe convulfions to

th.;

G A L V

tTic changes in tlie flate oF the eleflricity in the atmo-
fphere ; but after a repetition of the experiments he
found that he was miftaken. He difcovered, hoivever,
at laft, after many ingenious experiments, that he cculd
nt pleafure produce the convulfions, by touching two
different parts of the animal, each nith a piece of me-
tal, and then bringing thefe pieces of metal into contaft.
The experiment may be made in the follow-ing manner.
Let the crural nerve of a frog be laid bare to about an
inch in extent ; let a piece of zinc be placed in contact
with the nerve, and let a piece of filver be placed on
the mufcles with which the nerve communicates. Then
bring the zinc and filver into conta61, and the whole
limb will be inftantly thrown into convulfions.

After Galvani had publKhed his experiments, the
convulfions thus excited were alcribed to the aftion of
fome unkno\TO Huid to which the name Gakatiifm was
given, or y/nima! EleBricinj. According to Galvani,
a fluid js fecreted in the brain, the fame with the ner-
vous fluid ; but being analogous to common cledlrici-
ty, might with more propriety be termed animal elee-
tricity. The conduflors of this fluid are the nerves.
It is carried off by them as it is fecreted, and depofited
on the interior furface of the mufcular fibres, which be-
ing non-conductors of the fluid, do not permit it to pafs
through them. The flate of the mufcular fibres exaft-
ly refembled that of a charged Leyden jar. Their in-
ner furface is eleflrified pofitively, and the outer fur-
face is eleftrificd negatively. The communication be-
tween the exterior and interior furfaces of the mufcular
fibres is formed by the nerves. They convey the re-
dundant ele61ricity from the internal to the external
llirface, and, like the effect of the eleflrical ftimulus,
every diicharg;; is attended with a mufcular contrac-
tion.

On the other hand Volta, another philofopher who
carried his refearches far into this fubjeft, and of whofe
experiments and views we have given a long detail,
adopted a different opinion. He thought that the con-
vulfions occafioned by the galvanic apparatus were en-
tirely independent of the aftion of the nervous fluid, and
weie to be afciibcd to comiBon eleclricity excited by
the metallic conductors which are employed. Thefe
different opinions were fupported with much ingenuity
in a controverfy which commenced betiveen Galvani
and Volta. The writers on galvcnifm divided them-
felves into two parties. While one party maintained
with Volta, that the phenomena were owing to the
iclion of common eleflricity on the mufcular fibres,
another party thought that they were entirely depend-
ent upon fomething peculiar to animal matter. By
in:'ny this fccmcd to have been confidered as the nervous
fluid, which was fuppofcd to be the fame with, or ana-
logous to, common eleftricity.

It had been long afferted, that porter, and fome other
lir(Uors, drank out of a pewter pot, had a different tafte
from what it has when drank out of gla& or earthen
ware. Pure meirury, it has been obfervcd, retains its
metallic l]jlendour for a long time ; but when amalga-
■nattd with' any other metal, ft is foon tarnilhed or oxi-
dated. 'I'lie Ktvufcan infcripticns en pure lead are in
gocd prefervation to this day ; whereas fome medals of
lead and tin, of no 'great anticjuity, are much corroded ;
and works of metal, whofe parts are foldertd together
by the ii,ltrr(,l;uon of other n.etals, foon tamifh about
4

A N I S M.

Part If,

the places where the different metals are joined. When Hiftcry.
the copper fhetting of fliips is f aftened on by means of '■^—y-—
iron nails, the nails, but particularly the copper, are
readily corroded about the place of contaft. A piece
of zinc placed in water for a confiderable time fcarcely
undergoes any change ; but if a piece of filver happen
to tpuch the zinc whilll it is in the water, it is foon
corroded or oxidated.

In the courfe of a very few years after the publica-
tion of Galvani's difcovery, a great number ol writers
appeared, and prefented to the world a great body of
facts which they had afcertained by experiments and
oblervations. The following are among the moft im-
portant : I. When a piece of metal is placed on the Rfcg-p'jt,^,
mufcle of an animal juft dead, and ftill moift, and ano- lat.on of
ther piece of a different metal is placed on the nerve faifl.-.
which leads to the mufcle, or on another part of the
mufcle, and if the two pieces of metal be brought into
contact, a contraftion or convulfion of the mufcle takes
place. 2. A fingle piece of metal, or two pieces of
the fame metal, have no effeft in exciting contraftion
of the mtifcle. It is neceffary to have two perfeft con-
duflors of eleflricity in contaft, before any convulfion
can be produced. 3. The mufcle muff be moift. The
effeil is not prevented by a ligature on a nerve ; but
the fufceptibility of a mufcle to be thro^vn into convul-
fions is diminilhed, and at laft deftroyed by the application
of opium, which deflroys its irritability. The fame
change takes place if the mufcle be allowed to remain
for fome time after death. 4. The different mufcles of
the body are differently affefted by the galvanic in-
fluence. They are not equally fufceptibie of the fame
degree of convulfive effeft. 5. If a plate of zinc be
placed on the upper furface of the tongue, and a plate
of filver or copper be applied to its under furface ; and
if the two pieces of metal thus placed be brought into
contact, a Itrong metallic taltc is immediately per-
ceived. An acid tafte is perceived, when the tongue
is dipt into an alkaline folution contained in a tin or
zinc cup held in the moift hand. 6. If a piece of me-
tal, as a filver fpoon, be placed on the ball of the eye,
and another piece of a different m.etal, as a piece of
zinc, be placed on the tongue, and if the two pieces
of m.etal be brought into contact, a flafli of fire is in-
flantly perceived ; and it is perceived, both when the
metals are brought into contact, and when they are fe-
parated. 7. Another fact, which was afcertained by
Aldini, who performed a great many experiments in
galvanifm during his \'ifit to this country, is, that con-
vulfions may be excited merely by forming a proper
chain of mufcles and nerves. This is proved by the
following experiment. He took a prepared frog, and
held it fufpended in one hand by the foot. The fciatic
nerves were brought into contaCt with the tcngue of an
ox, the head of which had been recently feparated from
the body. He then introduced the other hand moift-
ened with a folution of common fait in water into the
car of the animal, thi>s completing the circle. Every
time that the communication was formed, the mufcles of
the frog were thrown into convulfions.

Moft of the fafts which we have now related, were af-
certained by the different philofophers, whofe refearches
were direfled to the fubjeft of galvanifm, between the
years 1791 and 1794. Hitherto the conneftion be-
twff" f r.lvnr.ifn^ ?.nd iriir.-.al 'i'.idif<; v. as confidercd by

raoft

GALVANISM.

moll writers, fo cloi'e aiiJ intimate, that they I'uppofetl
the one could not exill independent of the other. Some
fa£ts, however, -.vhich v.ere ella'jliftied by Fabroni and
others, ftemed to favour ths opinion of thofe who con-
fidered galvanifm as the aftion of a peculiar fluid

Hate. The zinc end of the pile, then, .KCOraii»g to the Hi
commoiily received theory of ele^'lricity, gives out the
eledric Huid, which enters at the filver or copper end.
And if the circle be completed by means of metallic
wires or charcoal, when the pile is fulliciently powerful,

350

the animal iibre. Tiiis fluid is developed by the mutual fparks fimilar to what take place hy the difcharce of

aftion of tho metals employed as exciting caufes, and it commcm eledlricity may be perceived. Eleftric batte-

exills in other bodies as well as in thofe which are en- ries have been charged by means of the pile -, metallic

dowed with life. We have already mentioned that two wires, tin-foil, gold leaf are burnt ; and mixtures of hy-

pieces of different metals put into water produce changes drogen and o.\ygen gas are exploded in the fame way

^ 5'

Fhenoinen:

of galva-
nifm afcri-
bed to che-
mical ac-
tion.

the water which neither of them feparately could
efteft. This was obferved by Fabroni, from wiiich he
concluded that a chemical change was effedled by the
metals on each other. To this change he fuppofcd part
at leall of the phenomena of galvanilni was owing.
Thus he explained the neceliity of two different metals
and of moifture in the produtlion of thele phenomena.
Thofe metals, he alfo obferved, which occanoned the
moil rapid changes on each other in water, were moll
powerful in exciting galvanic convullions.

54
Arialogou!
to thofe 01
elc(ftiicity

as happens wh.Mi electric difcliarges are made to pafs
through them. From the whole of the phenomena,
there feems now to be little doubt of the identity of the
two fluids.

Chemillry, however, has a very confiderable (hare in
the phenomena of galvanifm. The aflion of the pile is
mort ■ powerful in o.xygen gas : it ccafcs entirely in the
vacuum of an air-pump, or in azotic gas. Tlie electrical
machine alfo, it has been afceitained, cannot be excited

any gas unlets it contain oxygen ; and it feems pro-

IVIstuls and charcoal, it wr.s afcertained by Volta, bable, that the effeft of the amalgam, which is em-
being good conductors of eleflricity, attraCl and repel ployed in exciting the electrical machine, bears a propor-
that tluid with different forces. When two diiferent tion to the facility or rapidity of its oxidation. But
mnals in their natural Itate of cleflricity are brought we ihall difcufs this point more fully in the fecond
into contaft, electric matter paiTes from the one to the chapter.

ether ; the one becomes electrified pofitively, and the When the aftion of the pile has continued for fome

other negatively. From this he concluded, that the time, it gradually becomes weaker, till at lail its energy

electricity which occafioned the galvanic phenomena is entirely loil. This power can only be renewed by

did not refide in the animal fibres, but in the metals cleaning the plates, the furfaces of which have been very

employed as exciters, and that the convulfions were much changed. It was obferved that the time in which

produced by the ek'flric matter palling through thefe the aclion of the pile ceafed, ^vas in proportion to tiic

fibres. energy wiiich it originally poflelVed. When it was

The feeming inconfiftency which appeared in the ftrongeft, the duration of Its action was Ihcrtelt. It.

opinions of Volta and Fabroni was removed by fuc- was obferved alfo, that one of each pair of plates was

ceeding dilcoveries, which deraonltrated that both eiec- covered %vith a coat of oxide •, and •when this proccfs of

tricity and chemiltry were concerned in the galvanic oxidation was finilhed, and the furface of the plate wai

phenomena. Galvanifm was now no longer con lidered entirely covered, the action ceafed. Of the two rastals

as fomething connected with living inatter, which was employed in the conltruclion of the pile, that which is

totally inexplicable, but as fomething developed by the molt eafily oxidated, always undergoes this procefs.

mutual aiftion of inorganized fubltances on each other, When zinc and filver, or zinc and copper, are ufed.

the effedt or energy of which might be eltimated and
meafured by its action on the mufcular fibres. The
difcovery of the galvanic pile by Volta put it in the
power of philofophers to increafe the pewer or energy
of the galvanic influence at pleafure. This pile, and
the method of conftructing it, have been already de-
fcribed.

A defcription has alfo been given of a different ap-
paratus, the invention of Mr Cruicklli;.nk of Woolwich,
wiiich has been employed in place of Volta's pile.
Tiiis is called the galvanic trough, and it confilts of a
number of fquare plates of different metals as in the
other, which are foldered together in pairs, and fixed
by means of cement in a box of baked wood, at a fmall
diftance from each other.

A itriking analogy was at once obferved between
this apparatus and charged e!e£trics. A great deal of
difcufiion took place on the fubject ; much inveftigation
followed ; and philofophers held different opinions con-
cerning the phenomena of galvanifm, whether it was to
be confidered as the fame with common eleflricity, or
as fomething fpecifically different.

It was at laft afcertained by Nicholfon fcnd Carlifle
that the zinc end of the pile was in the ftate of pofitivc
electricity, and the filver or copper end in the negative

tiie zinc is always oxidated ; and unlcfs this oxidation
take place, there is no action of the pile; Its action
or energy is proportional to the oxidation of the metal j
and thus it appears that this oxidation is effentially ne-
ceffary to the action of the pile. For, uniefs the liquid
whicli is employed to moillen the pieces of card or cloth
between the pairs of plates, or that which fills the cells
in the trough, be capable of oxidating the zinc, no
adion follows. There is no aftion at all wnth filver
and zinc, and perfectly pure water. In vacuo the action
of the pile foon ceafes, even with common water ; for
the o.vygen which is held in folution by the water foon
combines with the zinc, and then the procefs Itops.
The adion is increafed by oxygen gas, bccanfe the
o.xidation of the zinc is facilitated. Its action is alio
increafed, and goes on even in vacuo, whcnnitric acid,
which fupplies oxygen for the- procefs of oxidation, is
fubititiited for the water. Thus, by cllimayng the pro-
portion between the oxidation of the metals and the
adion of the pile, it may be determined what metals
are proper- for forming piles, and with what liquids they
may be employed. In the choice of the diilerenfmetals,
it mull be oblerved, that one of them mult always be
more eafily oxidated than the other. Two perfcft
conductors which are unequally oxiJable, with an im ■

36c

ch-mical

G A L V

. perfect cor.(luc\or which is capable of oxidating the
— molt oxidable of the perfeft conduftor?, conftitute the
elements of tlie galvanic batteiy.

But forae of the mod important phenomena of galva-
nifm are exhibited in its chemical effefls. Mod of
thefe were firft obferved by the chemical philofophers of
this Country. We have already detailed many of the
experiir.ents by ivhich thefe efl'ctis are illuftrated ; and
we (hall here only, for the fake of giving a connefled
view of the fubjecl, merely recapitulate fome of
them.

When water forms part of the circle between the
'''extremities of the battery, and the conducing wires are
brought v.-ithin a fmall dillance of each other, being
immerfed in a glafs of water, the wa^er is decompofed,
and it will be recoUefled that the plienomena are dif-
ferent according to the nature of the wires employed.
When the ^vires are of gold or platina, they undergo
no change •, oxygen gas is evolved in fmall babbles
from the pofitive w'ne, and hydrogen gas from the ne-
gative wire ; and if the gafes be collected feparately by
ihe apparatus formerly defcribed, they are found to be
in the proportions of the compionent parts of water. If
one of the %vires be immerfed into one glafs, and ano-
ther into a feparate glafs, by completing the circle wilh
a finger plunged into each glafs, the procefs goes on,
and the hydrogen gas is extricated in the one vefTel,
vvhile the oxygen is given out from the wire in the
other. This faft was firft difcovered by Mr Davy.
When fpring water is ufed, or water having azotic gas
in folution, an acid is formed at the extremity of the
pofitive wire, and an alkali at the extremity of the ne-
gative wire. The acid was found to be nitric, and the
alkali ammonia. If the wires be plunged in different
glafles, and the connexion be formed by means of an
animal body, tiie pofitive wire produces in the water
tinged with an infufion of litmu5, a red colour, while
the negative wire alfo reddens an infufion of brafil
' wood.

If other wires befide thofe of gold or platina be ufed,
it is found that the pofitive wire undergoes oxidation,
but little or no gas is feparated from it ; while the nega-
tive wire, as in the former cafe, gives out hydrogen
gas. When the wires are immerfed into metallic folu-
tions, as acetate of lead, nitrate of filver, &c. the fil-
ver or lead is revived, and depofited on the negative
wire J and if folutions which contain fulphuric, nitric,
or oxymuriatic acids, are ufed for the immerfion of the
conducing wires, the acids are decompofed, oxygen
gas is evolved from the pofitive wire, and fulphur or
hydrogen gas makes its appearance at the negative wire.
The decompofition of ammonia has already been men-
tioned. This was difcovered by Mr Henry. The hy-
I drogen is given out by the negative wire, while the azo-
tic gas is evolved by the pofitive wire. When plum-
bago or charcoal are employed as conduflors in place of
metals, it is found that carbonic acid is evolved from
the pofitive end, and hydrogen gas from the nega-
tive.

It may be ncceffary here to dcfcribe a galvanic bat-
tery, confirufted by Mr Davy, on principles fomewhat
different from that of Volta. In the Voltaic pile there
are two perfed conduflors, and one imperfect conduc-
tor ; but this confifls of two imperfeft, and one perfe6l
conduftor : the two imperfeft conduftors arc nitrous
3

A N I S M. Part IT.

acid and liquid fulphuret of potafh. A trough is di- Tlieaty.
vided into cells ^dth flips of horn and plates of zinc, '— — v— ^
arranged alternately ; nitrous acid is poured into the firll
cell, and fulpliuret of potalli into the fecond ; the two
liquids being i'epaiLacd by the flip of horn, a commu-
nication is formed bctvvfcn them by means of a moift
piece of cloth laid over the horn, and in the fame way
the rell of the cells are filled. In this cale the liquids
are the iniperfeft conduciors, and the zinc is the per-
fect one ; and the aflion of the battery continues till
the oxidation of one of the furfaces of the zinc takes
place, the other furface remaining unchanged.

Ha«ng fiiiiflied the Ihort view which we propofed to
give of the hilfory and progrefs of galvanifra, we (hould
next proceed to detail fome of the later experiments
and difcoveries which have been made on this fubjeft.
What we here chiefly allude to, is the difcovery of the
formation of muriatic acid and foda by means of the
galvanic fluid. But this is propofed to be the fubjeft
of a feparate chapter. We ftiall therefore proceed in
the next chapter to confider the hypothcfis by means of
which the phenomena of galvanifm have been ex-
plained, and to point out the analogy between eleftri-
city and galvanifm.

Chap. II. Of ihe Theory of Galvanifm, and the Ana-
logy between the Galvanic Fluid and Eleilricity.

We have already obferved, that the philofophers
who were occupied in refearches on galvanifm, early di-
vided themielves into two parties. According to one
party, with Volta at their head, the phenomena of gal-
vanifm, were alcribed to the action of common eleihlri-
city on the mufcular fibres ; wliile another party main-
tained the opinion that they depended entirely on fome-
thing peculiar to animal matter. This was the opinion
of Galvani himfelf, the original difcoverer, and it was
fuppoited by his nephew Aldini, with certain modifica-
tions. The greater number of philofophers have now
adopted the opinion of Volta, as being more confident
with the phenomena. We ftiall therefore now give a
more particular account of the hypothcfis which has
been more generally followed in explaining thefe pheno-
mena on the principles of electricity. 56

According to the received principles of electricity. Theory o."
there is a fubtile fluid which exids in all bodies; but ^'*'-'^' '''"'"
the exirtence of this fluid can only be recognifed when
the proportion which a body contains is greater or lefs
than the quantity which is natural to it. When the quan-
tity is greater than ufual, the body is faid to he electri-
ficA pofuivchj or phis; and when the quantity is lefs
than ufual, the body is faid to be eleiflrified negatively
or minus. The eleiftric fluid penetrates certain bodies,
and pafTes through them with facility, and thefe bodies
are called conduBors of eliElricity ; but there are other
bodies which it cannot pafs through without difficulty,
theft todies are cM.cA non-conduclors ot eleHrics. Of
conductors there are two kinds ; one of which is de-
nominated perft&, becaufe the eletlric fluid paffes
through them with cale ; the other is called imperfect
conduiSors, becaufe the fluid pafles through them with
didiculty. The pcrfcift conductors are folid bodies
which are fufceptible of oxidation ; and when they en-
ter into combination with oxygen, they lofe their pro-
perties as perfect conductors. The mclals and charcoal

are

57
Affinin of
the electric
fluid for
COQdu<^ois;

pat-tll. G A L V .

Theory, arc the only pcrtecl coiiJuctois which are known. 1'lie
"•-"•"v— - imperfed condudors are thofe bodies which contain
oxygen, and when they are deprived of it, they lofc the
properties of imperfect conductors. 'J'hey are all liquid
bodies, and iifually contain water as one of their com-
ponent parts. See El.rXTRICITY.

There is an affinity between the perfeft conduiSors
and the eleftric tluid, in conf'equence of which this
fluid remains in combination with the peifed condudlor,
till it is attraifted by fome body, for which it has a
ftrorkger affinity, or is expelled by lorae body combining
with the condudor, for which the conductor has a
flronger affinity than it has for the eledric fluid. Per-
fect conduftors poGefs different forces or degre.'S of affi-
nity for the electric fluid. Thus, if two perfeft con-
duilors be brought inti) contact, the proportion of elec-
tric matter in each of them changes. That condudor
wliich has the Itrongeft affinity for the fluid, is eleftrified
pofitively, or plu.^ ; and the conduftor which has the
the weaker aflinity is electrified negatively, or minus.
If a plate of zinc and one of copperj each of which pol-
felVcs its natural proportion of electric fluid, be brought
into contadt, the zinc is eleflriiied plus, and the copper
minus ; or, if iron and iilver be brought into contaft,
the iron is eledrified plus, and the Iilver minus ; and if
no other circumftances operate to change the ftate of
the eleftricity, thefe two ilates will be permanent.

But, when a perfeft conductor in the poiilive flate
of eleftricity, enters into combination with oxygen, it
parts with the excefs of eleSric fluid which it con-
tained, and the difcharge is made towards that fide of
the conductor which is combined with oxygen. The
adinity of imperfect condudlors for the cleftric fluid
is weaker than that of the perfeft conduftors, fo that,
if a perfect and imperfeft conduilor be brought into
contacEt, the perfeft conduftor becomes plus, and the
imperfect, minus •, and this ftate is not changed, if the
imperfeft condudor cannot communicate oxygen to tlie
perfect one.

Between the electric fl.uid and hydrogen there is alfo
an affinity, io that the eleflric fluid combines with hy-
drogen, provided this latter be prefent when the fluid is
feparated from a perfect conduftor. I'he eleftric fluid
is difTerently conducted through the bodies which are
railed perfeft and imperfeft conduftors. The fluid pafTes
through the perfect conductors, in its fimple and un-
combined Itate ; but un.lefs the fluid be combined with
hydrogen, it cannot pafs through the imperfect con-
ductors, and this compound of eleftricity and hydrogen
is capable of paffing invifibly through liquid conduc-
tors.

Let us now fuppofe a plate of copper and another of
7.inc, to be brought into coiitaft, the zinc is immedi-
ately eleftrified plus, and the copper minus ; but let us
fuppofe alfo, that the furface of the zinc farthefl from
the copper, is brought into contaft with a liquid which
can communicate oxygeato that furface, fo that it be-
comes oxidated, fuch, for inltance, is water impregna-
ted with common air, or with an acid. As foon, then,
as the oxysen of the imperfeft conduftor combines with
the zinc, the excefs of its eleftricity is feparated, and
palTes towards the imperfeft conduftor ; but the zinc is
oxidated by the decompofition of the water, the oxygen
of which combines with the metal, while the hydrogen
is fet free. The eleftricity of the perfcft conduftor en.

Vol. IX. Pan I,

\ N 1 S M. ^tn

ters into combination with th.e hydrogen, and in this lie iry.
flate it can pafs through the imperteft conduftor. If -— ^— ^
then the imperfeft conduftor be in contaft on the other
fide with a pcrfeft conduftor, fuch as a plate of cop-
per, which cannot, in this cafe, be oxidated, the elec-
tric tluid leaves the imperfeft conduftor, and enters the
perfect one ; but it cannot combine with a perfect con-
duftor while it is in union with hydrogen ; the hydro-
gen, therefore, is left behind, and accordingly, when '
the eleftric fluid pailes from the perfeft to tht'impcrfeft
conduftor, a portion of hydrogen gas is given out at the
furface of the perfeft conduftor ; or, if that furface has
undergone any degree of oxidation, the hydrogen com-
bines with the oxygen, and thus leaves the conduftor
in the metallic itate. But, farther, if a plate of zinc
be in contaft with a plate of copper, the fluid having a
greater aflinity for the zinc, will enter it ; and if the
zinc be again followed by another-imperfect condudtor,
its furface is oxidated, the eleftricity is difengat;ed ; it
combines with hydrogen, and paifes tlirough the imper-
feft conduftor as in the former cafe. Whatever the
number of thefe fets of bodies may be, if they are ar-
ranged in the fame order, the fame phenomena will be
exhibited.

Let us now fuppofe, that a battery is conitrufted, ei-
ther in the form of a pile or trough, of any given num.
bcr of pairs of plates •, and fuppofe, if this battery is in
the fonii of a pile, that the uppermoit plate is zinc,
the loweft is therefore of copper ; the zinc is eleftrified
plus, and the copper minus. If, then, a communica-
tion is eltablillied between the upper and lower plates of
the pile, by means of conduftors, according to the laws
of eleftricity, the excefs at the top of the pile immedi-
ately pafTes to the bottom. A current of eleftricity,
therefore, wiU pafs through the pile, and will continue
till the furfaces of the zinc next the imperfeft conduc-
tors are completely oxidated, when the aftion ceafes,
becaufe liie double decompofitions on }vhich this aftion
depends, can no longer take place. -,«

The number of repeated charges which pafs through DifTerenf
the pile, mult be in proportion to the number of plates, «''i^<^^s'r<"n
fo that the intenOty of the pile increafes with the num-^'.'^ ."""''■"
ber of plates of which it is corapofed. Hence it is, that «" ' '
the effefts of galvanifm on animals is found to be in pro-
portlcn to the number of plates employed in the batte-
ry ; but this depends upon its intenfity, or the number
of difcharges followed by inter\'als, which pafs through
the body in a given time. 60

But, on the other hand, the efFeft of the galv.mic »'}'! ^^'"'•'
fluid on metallic fubftances depends on the abfolute""'"'^"'
quantity which pafTes through the metal in a given
time. But the abfolute quantity of fluid dilcharged
Irom a fingle pair of plates, mufl be proportional to the
furface of thefe places; and hence it is, that the quan-
tity of eleftricity difcharged from a pile in a given time,
depends upon the furface of the plar..s. When a bat-
tery is dilcharged, the fmall charge contained in each
pair of plates, pafTes through the difcharger ; but there
niuft be an interval between each of thofe feparate
charges, for they cannot be fuppof'ed to pafs inltantane-
uufly, although the interval being too fmall to be per-
ceptible, the difcharge of the battery feems to be in-
ftantaneous. As then the number of fmall difcharges
which are apparently inftantaneous, when a battery is
difcharged, is in proportion to the number of plates,
Z z the

6i
Cheaiical
efiifls.

G A L V A N I S M. Partll.

the inlciifuy of each little dilcharge is proportional to be corripletcd by means of charcoal or plumbago, and Theury.

the places which the pair of plates occupies in the bat- the interval between thefe conducting fubftances be wa- v— — '

tery ; and hence it is, that the (liock is increafed by the - ter, carbonic acid gas is fcparated from the poijtive con-
number of plates more rapidly than the effed of the duclor, becaufe the oxygen in its-nafcent ftate is fufcep-
battery on .^metals is increafed-, but, on the contrary, tible of combination with caibone; and the hydrogen
the furface of the plates being increafed, the eflfeft on in the fame Hate combining with carbone, carbureted hy-
metals is alfo increafed, becaufe the quantity difcharged drogen is given out by the negative condudor.

Such is the hypothetical explanation which has been
given of the aftion of ga '

at once from the upper pair is increafed ; and it feems
to be in this way that the effeft on metallic fubftances
is produced.

In the fame way the chemical changes which are ef-
fefled by means of galvanifm may be explained. Let
it be cxpofed, that a gold wire, conne£led with the up-
per plate of the battery, terminates in a glafs of water,
and another gold \Tire from the lower plate of the
battery, terminates in the fame water; The circle is
then completed by the gold wire, which is a perfect
conductor. The current of eleftricity paffes through
the wire which is connefted with the uppermoft plate
to the bafe of the battery, and it would pafs uninter-
ruptedly, if there were no interval benveen the wires.
This interval is (upplied with water, and, when the
ekdric fluid reaches the extremity of the wire, it muft
pal's through the water, but it can only pafs through an
imperfect conduftor w-hen it is in combination with hy-
drogen. It therefore combines with the hydrogen of
the water, which is accordingly decompofed at the
point of the wire. The oxygen is difengaged, and the
hydrjgen in combination with the electricity paffes
through the water till it reach the point of the other
wire ; and the affinity between this \vire and the elec-
tric fluid being greater than the affinity of the latter for
water, the eleiSlric fluid enters the wire, and paffes on
to the other end of the batteiy; but the hydrogen is
previoufly feparated from the extremity of this fecond
wire, in the form of gas, becaide the fluid cannot enter
the wire in combination with hydrogen.

If the wires are imroerfed in ammonia, the hydrogen
i:s derived from that fubftance of which it forms one
of the component parts ; the azotic gas, the bafe of
whicli is its other conftituent. Is evolved at the extre-
mity of the firrt wire, and hydrogen gas at the extre-
mity of the fecond. But, if the wires are plunged in
the water which contains common air, and confequently
a certain portion of azote, as oxygen gas combines with
azote in its nafcent ftate, or at the moment of its evo-
lution, the compound rcfulting from this combination
is nitric acid. Hydrogen gas alfo, in its nafcent ftate,
will combine with azote, and ammonia Is the refult of
this combination. Hence it is, that in fome experiments
nitric acid is found at the point of the pofitive wire, and
ammonia at the point of the negative wire, when com-
mon water is employed.

When liquids holding in folution a metallic fait, the
bafe of which is an oxide of the metal, are employed ;
as hydrogen gas poffeffes the property of reducing or
reviving metals, if in its nafcent ftate It comes in con-
tact with their oxides, the metallic falts are in this cafe
decompofed, and the metal is revived. It is found de-
pofited on the negative wire. When copper or iron
wires are employed to complete the circle, inftead of
wires of gold or platina, as oxygen has the property of
combining jvith thefe metals, at the moment of its dif-
cngagement, it is dcpofited on the pofitive wire, and
ia this cafe none is feparated from it 5 but if tlie circle

ianifm, and the phenomena
Wiliich it exhibits. A fuller view of the analogy be-
tween galvanifm and eledtricity has been given by Dr
WollaUon.

" Notwithftanding, he obferves, the power of Mr Vol-
ta's eledtrjc pile is now known to be proportional to the
difpofition of one of the metals to be oxidated by the
fluid interpofed, a doubt has been entertained by many
perfons, whether this power arifes from the chemical
aftion of the fluid on the metal, or, on the contrary,
whether the oxidation itfelf may not be occafioned by
eleftricity, fct in motion by the contaft; of metals that
have dift'erent conducting powers.

primary Ei.aricity

That the oxidation of the metal Is the
caufe of the electric phenomena obferved, is, I think, toevolved
be inferred from the following experiments, which ex-'J"''.'"g o*'-
hibit the galvanic procefs reduced to Its moft fimple''^""""
ftate.

" Exper. I . — If a piece of zinc and a piece of filver
have each one extremity immerfed in the fame veffel,
containing fulphuric or muriatic acid diluted with a
large quantity of water, the zinc is diffolved, and yields
hydrogen gas, by decompofition of the water ; the fil-
ver, not being afted upon, has no power ofdecompofing
water •, but, whenever the zinc and filver are made to
touch, or any metallic communication is made between
them, hydrogen gas is alfo formed at the furface of the
filver.

" Any other metal befides zinc, which by afllftance
of the acid employed Is capable of decompofing water,
will fucceed equally. If the other wire confifts of a metal
on which the acid has no effeft.

" Exper. 2. — If zinc, iron or copper, is employed
with gold in diluted nitric acid, nitrous gas is formed ;
in the fame manner, and under the fame circiunftances,
as the hydrogen gas In the former experiment.

" Exper. 3. — Experiments analogous to the former,
and equally fimple, may alfo be made with many me-
tallic folutions. If, for inftance, the folution contains
copper, it will be precipitated by a piece of iron, and
appear on its furface. Uporv lilver merely immerfed
in the fame folution, no fuch effeft is produced ; but as
foon as the two metals are brought into contaft, the fil-
ver receives a coating of copper.

" In the explanation of thefe experiments. It Is nccef-
fary to advert to a point eftabliflied by means of the
eledtric pile.

" We know that when water Is placed In a circuit of
conduftors of eleftricity, betxveen the two extremities
of a pile, if the povi-er Is fufhcient to oxidate one of the
wires- of communication, the wire connefted with the
oppofite extremity affords hydrogen gas.

" Since the extrication of hydrogen, in this inftance,
Is fecn to depend on eleftricity, it is probable, that in
other inftances, eleftricity may be alfo requifite for its
conver.lon Into gas. It would appear, therefore, that
in the folution of a metal, eleftricity is evolved during

the

Part IT. G A L V

Thcor)-. the ail'ion of tlie acid upon it ; and that ihc forination
'*"■ ' ■ of hydrogen gas, even in that cafe, depends on a tiaufi-
tion of eleftricity between the fluid and the metal.

" We fee, moreover, in the firft experiment, that
the zinc, without contaft of any other metal, has the
power of decompofing water •, and we can have no reafon
to fuppofe that the contaft of the lilver produces any
new power, but that it ferves merely as a conduftor
of eleftricity, and thereby oc^^fions the formation of
hydrogen gas.

" In the third experiment alfo, the iron by itfelf has
the power of precipitating copper, by means, I prcfume,
of electricity evolved during its folution ; and here like-
wife the filver, by conducing that electricity, acquires
the power of precipitating the copper in its metallic Hate.

" The explanation here given receives additional
confirmation from comparative experiments which I have
made with common eledricity ; for it will be feen, that
the fame transfer of chemical power, and the fame ap-
parent reverfion of the ufual order of chemical affini-
ties in the precipitation of copper by filver, may be ef-
fected by a common electrical machine.

" The machine with which the following experi-
ments were conducted, confitts of a cylinder feven inches
in diameter, with a conduftor on each fide, 1 6 inches
long, and three and a half inches diameter, each fur-
niihed with a Hiding eleftrometer, to regulate the
ftrength of the fpark received from them.

" Expcr. 4. — Having a wire of fine filver t-to of ^n
inch in diameter, I coated the middle of it for two or
three inches, with fealing wax, and by cutting through
in the middle of the wax, expofed a feCtion of the wire.
The two coated extremities of the \vire, thus divided,
were immerfed in a folution of fulphate of copper, placed
in an electric circuit between the two conductors •, and
fparks, taken at -rV of 3" '"'h dlftance, were pafTed by
means of them through the folution. After ico turns
of the machine, the wire which communicated with
(what is called) the negative conduftor, had a precipi-
tate formed on its furface, which, upon being bur-
nifhed, was evidently copper ; but the oppoCte wire
had no fuch coating.

" Upon reveriing the direction of the current of
electricity, the order of the phenomena was of courfe
reverfed ; the copper being fhortly re-diffolved by aflifl-
ance of the oxidating power of pofitive eleCtricity, and
a fimilar precipitate formed on the oppofite wire.

" Exper. 5. — A fimilar experiment made with gold
wires -r^o- of ^n inch diameter, in a folution of corrofive
fublimate, had the fame fuccefs.

" The chemical agency, therefore, of common elec-
tricity, is thus proved to be the fame with the power
excited by chemical means ; but, fince a difference has
been obfervcd in the comparative facility with which
the pile of Volta decompofes water, and produces other
effects of oxidation and de-o«idation of bodies expofed
to its aCtion, I have been at fome pains to remove this
difficulty, and can at leaft produce a very clofe imita-
tion of the galvanic phenomena, by common clcCtri-

Effecfls of " It has been thought neccflary to employ powerful
galvanifm machines, and large I.eyden jars, for the decompo-
j™''»'^'^. fition of water ; but when I confidcred that the dtcom-
tftv* ^ "" pofition mud depend on duly proportioning the flrength
of the charge of eleClricity to the quantity of water,

A N I S M,

5^.?

and that the quantity expofed to Its aCtion .-it llie fur- Theory.

face of communication depends on the extent of that ' v

furface, I hoped tiiat, by reducing the furface of com-
munication, the dtcompofition of water might be ctfict-
cd by fmaller machines, and with lefs powerful e.xcita-
tion, than have hitherto been ufed for that purpofe ;
and, in this hope, I have not been difappointed.

" Exper. 6. — Having procured a fraall ivire of fine
gold, and given it as fine a point as I could, I in-
ierted it into a capillary glafs tube ; and after heat-
ing the tube, fo as to make it adhere to the point and
cover it in every part, I gradually ground it do%m,
till, with a pocket lens, I could difcern that the point
of the gold was expofed. c^

" The fuccefs of this method exceeding my ex-'''"l«oni.
peCtations, I coated feveral wires in the fame manner, P°''"S '^^'■•
and found, that when fparks from the conductors be-""^*
fore-mentioned uere made to pafs through water, by
means of a point fo guarded, a fpark palTing to the
diftance of one-eighth of an inch would decompofe
water, when the point expofed did not exceed -^-^ of
an inch in diameter. With another point, which I
eftimated at rro o, a fuccefTion of fparks -,% of an inch
in length, afforded a current of fmall bubbles of air.

" I have fince found, that the fame apparatus will
decompofe water, with a wire ^ of an inch diameter,
coated in the manner before defcribed, if the fpark
frora the prime conduCtor paffes to the diltance of Vg-
of an inch of air.

" Exper. 7. — In order to try hou- far the ftrength of
the electric fpark might be reduced by proportional
diminution of the extremity of the wire, 1 paffed a fo-
lution of gold in aqua regia through a capillary tube,
and, by heating the tube, expelled the acid. There
remained a thin film of gold, lining tile inner furface of
tlie tube, which, by melting the tube, was converted
into a very fine thread of gold, through the fubflance
of the glafs.

" When the extremity of this thread was made the
medium of communication through water, I found that
the mere current of eleClricity -.vould occafion a itream
of very fmall bubbles to rife from the extremity of the
gold, although the wire, by which it communicated
with the pofitive or negative conduCtor, was placed in
abfolute contaCl with them. Hence it appears, that
dccompofition of water may take place by common
electricity, as well as by the eleftric pile, although no
difcernible fparks are produced.

" The appearance of two currents of air may alfo
be imitated, I)y occafioning the electricity to pafs by fine
points of communication on both lides of the water :
but, in faCt, the rcfemblance is not complete ; for, in
every way in which I have tried it, I obferved that
each wire gave both oxygen and hydrogen gas, in-
ftead of their being formed feparately, as by the elec-
tric pile.

" I am inclined to attribute the difference in this
refpeCt to the greater intenfity with which it is neceffary
to employ common eleCtricity ; for, that pofitive and
negative electricity, fo excited, have each the fame
chemical jiower as they are obferved to have in the
eleCtric pile, may be afcertaincd by other means.

" In the precipitation of copper by filver, an inftance
of de-oxidation (or phlogi(lication) by negative elec-
tricity has been mentioned ; the oxidating power of po-
Z z 2 fitive

Theor

and in
changing
the blue
colour of
vsgetabies.

* Phil.
7rar/.:Sci

p. 427.

G A L V A

Ctn-e ele£)ricity may be alfo proved, by its effefls on
vegetable blue colours.

■ " Exper. 8. — Having coloured a card with a ftrong
infufion of litmus, I palTcd a currait of eleftric fparks
along it, by means of two fine gold points, touching it
at the diftancc of an inch from each other. The effcft ,
as in other cafes, depending on the fmallnefs of the
quantity of water, was moft difcerniblc when the card
was ne.irly dry. In this Hate a very few turns of the
machine were fuflicient to occafion a rednefs at the po-
!:;ive wire, very manifcft to the naked eye. The nega-
tive wire, being afterwards placed on the fame fpot,
loon rcilored it to its original blue colour.

" By Mr Volta's apparatus the fame effeSs are pro-
duced in a much lefs time.

*' Bcfides the fimilarity which has thus been traced
betv,-een the effefts of eleftricity e.scited. by the com-
mon machine, and thofe obfcrved from the eleSric pile,
I think it appears alfo probable, that they originate from
the fame fource.

" With regard to the latter, its power is known to
depend on oxidation j fo alio does the excitement in
the former appear very much to depend on the fame
piticefs ; for,

" ExpL-r. 9. — 1 have found that, by ufing an amalgam
of filver or of platina, which are not liable to be oxi-
dated, I could obtain no eleftricity. An amalgam of
tin, on the contrary, affords a good degree of excitement.
Zir.c ails flill better ; but the befl amalgam is made
with both tin and zinc, a mixture which is more eaiily
oxidated than either metal feparately.

" Exper. 10. — But, as a farther trial whether oxida-
tion aflills in the produflion of eleflricity, I mounted
a fmall cylinder, with its cufliion and conduftor, in a
vefltl fo contrived, that I could at plealure change the
contained air.

" After trying the degree of excitement in common
air, I fubflituted carbonic acid gas, and found that the ex-
citement was immediately deftroyed, but that it returned
upon re-admilTion of atmofpheric air.

" In conformity to this hypothelis, we find that* the
metal oxidated is, in each cafe, in a limilarftate of elec-
tricity ; for the cuftiion of the machine, by oxidation
of the amalgam adhering to it, becomes negative ; and
in the fame manner, zinc, oxidated by the accutnulated
power of an cleftric pile, or Amply by aftion of an
acid, is alfo negative.

" This fimilarity in the means by which both elec-
tricity and galvanifm appear to be excited, in addition
to the refcmblance that has been traced between their
effcfts, ihevTS that they are both eflentially the fame, and
confirms an opinion that has already been advanced by
others, that all the diiferences difcoverable in the effedls
of the latter, may be owing to its being lefs intenfe, but
produced in much larger quantity *."

This analogy was flill farther eftablifhed by the ex-
periments of Van IMarum, in which he fucceeded in
charging an elecfrical battery, confifting of 137! fquare
feet, by means of the galvanic pile. On examining
the power of the fhocks which were given by the bat-
tery oharged with the pile, it was found that the
ftiock from lOO pairs of plates was about equal to a
Ihock from the battery, when it was charged by means
of 200. A pile of 200 pairs of plates feemed to have

Part 11.

hine, having a Theory.

lebyMrCuthhertfbn^,,,^;.,^,
nordicgpro-

NTS M.

fix times the power of an eleiRrical
plate of 31 inches diameter.

The following experiments
with galvanic batteries, are iuppoled by

a dillinguilhing property between thegalva\ilc and elec-perty be
trie fluids. I. Charcoal was detlagr-jtcd and l;^nited'"'''.^° g"''
for above an inch in length. 2. lion wire ^V^ of an^!"''
inch diameter was melted into a ball of Vo 'nch diame-
ter. 3. Platina wire ^^^ inch diameter, was melted in-
to a ball T% inch diameWr. 4. Brais wire ^'^ inch di-
ameter, three-fourths of an inch in length was ignited.

5. Biafs wire -r'^ inch diameter was red hot at the end.

6. Iron wire —-^ inch diameter was red hot for 16 in-
ches in length. 7. Iron wire, 1 2 inches deflagrated, and
melted into a ball. 8. Iron wire fix inches in length
was deflagrated, 9. Iron wire eight inches in length
was ignited.

The firlt feven experiments above were made with
two troughs, each containing 30 pairs of plates, fix in-
ches fquare, but in the laif tv. o experiments, one of
thei'e troughs only was ufed. The conclufion draivn from
the four laft experiments is, that double quantities of
galvanic fluid only burn double lengths of wire, and
not the fquare, as eledlrical diicharges do*. • pti

To difcover what quantity of coated glafs would he Mag.\i\».
required to tike a charge fuflicient to ignite the fameiiS.
lengths of wire, the two lafl experiments were compared
with common eleclrical difcharges. Two jars, each
containing about i 70 fquare inches of coating, were ftt
to the conductor of a 24-inch fingle-plate eledrical ma-
chine, with the author's univerfa! eledlrometer, loaded
with 3 I grains. Eight inches of the fame kind of wire
were laid in the circuit, and with 57 revolutions of
the plate the eltftrometer difcharged the jars, and the
^vire was ignited as perfeftly as in e.xperiment 9th.
Afterwards fix inches of the wire being laid in the cir-
cuit, a difcharge was produced with the fame number of
revolutionsof the machine, and the wire was deflagrated,
and fufed into balls, in the fame manner as in the 8th
experiment. Hence he concluded, that 340 fquare in-
ches of coated glafs, properly conllruded, are fulTicicnt
to bear a charge equal to a galvanic battery of 1080
fquare inches of furface. On comparing the above ex-
periments with fome others made fome time before, the
author finds it neceiTary to modify the conclufion which
he had deduced from them. With a pile of 16 pairs
of plates, of 10 inches diameter, eight of which were
laid upon each other in the ufual manner, and cloths
moiftened with diluted muriatic acid interpofed, he
burnt half an inch of wire of t^t '"^h diameter ; nnd
when the other eight pairs wxre added, he burnt four
inches of the fame wire. This was repeated with the
eight in pairs with the fame refult, with relpeft to the
burning of metals, but it gave ftrong and loud fparks
from metal to metal, which might be heard at the di-
ftance of 300 yards. 'J his refult, he obferves, had not
been attained from troughs, to be heard at any diftance.
In the lafl experiment the cloths were moiftened with
a (trong folution of muriate of ammonia. Comparing
this eifcft of the pile and the trough, Mr Cuthbertfon
thinks, there is fome defeft in the arrangement or con-
ftruflion of the latter.

In many experiments which Volta made on piles
compoftd of a fingle metal, and a fingle wet ftratum,

which

Part II. G A L V

Formation which of tlit'inrelvES areinaiHive, it was found that they
of Muriatic Kjcame more or leti adive, after affording a paflage for
.'^'•' ' '^' a longer or Ihorter time to an eleilric current, which
was fet in motion by an aclivc pile. A;cording to
Ritter, the aflive pile or common cleftrometer ttanlmits
a rcjl charge to the pile, which is itfclf inadtive, and
this he calls the chargeii pile. Voka, however, is of
opinion, that i!0 charge is traisfinitted but by means of
the ordinary chemical aftion j for the electrical current
bting continued, changes the fmgle wet ilratum inter-
poied between two pieces of gold, for example, into
two difierent fluids ; one acid, by which the eleftric
current ifllies out of the metal, and the other alkaline,
by ^vhich it enters, thus conftituting a pile of the fe-
cond order, compofe i of one metal, and two fluids of dif-
ferent natures. The action cf- this pile, however, foon
• lii:h,l. ceafes, becaufe the fluids foon mix together *.

'J,urn. xi.

''t^' Chap. III. Of the Formation of Muriatic Acid and

Soda, by means of Gatvanifm.

Some of the moil curious phenomena which have yet
been exhibited in galvanifm, relate to the fornaation of
muriatic acid by means of this power. In the account
which has been given of Mr Cruicklhank's experi-
ments, it will be recollefted that he made the difcovery
of the formation of an acid and alkali, daring the action
nf the galvanic battery. This acid, he concluded, was
the nitric, and the alkali, ammonia. The theory of the
produclion of theie fuWilances in the galvanic pile has
been akeady mentioned, and it correfponds witli the
explanation of the principles which have been adopted
for explaining the phenomena of galvanifm ; later re-
fearches, however, have been conducted with more ac-
curate obfervation, or have opened a wider field of
difcovery. The truth of this remark will be fully con-
firmed, it it be at lalt finally afcertained, that common
fait, the component parts of which are murintic acid
and foda, is produced by the action of galvanifm.

Tlie firft hint of this difcovery was given by Mr
Peel of Cambridge, in a letter dated April 1805, ad-
+ Vol. xxi drelTed to the editor of the Philofophical Magazine f , of
P ^"■'' which the following accoiuit is given in his own ^vords.
Mr Petri's " I took, (fays he), about a pint of diflilled water, and
difcrvprj' of decompofed one half of it by means of galvanifm ; the
the forma- other half I evaporated, and I found to remain at the
tioDof mu- bottom of the glafs a fmall quantity of fah, v.hich upon
^j_ exammation I found to be muriate ot loda, or common

fait. — What induced me to try the experiment was this ;
I knew that when water was decompofed by means of
galvanifm, the water near one of the wires had "alkaline,
while that near the other had acid properties. This
being the cafe, I inferred, that if an alkali and an acid
were really produced, I ihould, by decompofing a large
quantity of water, obtain a fmall quantity of fome kind
of neutral fait : as was a£lually the cafe on trying the
experiment. The fait could not have been contained
in the water before I made the experiment, becaufe I
ufed every precaution to have it free from impurities.
I even took the trouble to repeat the experiment,
though a tedious ci^e, and I again obtained the fame
refult." He adds, that a fimilar experiment being re-
peated by a friend of his, afforded a fimilar- refult.

It having been fuggelfed to Mr Peel, that it might
be worth while to vary the experiment, by employing

A N I S M. ^6s

water formed of its elements, he gives the follo^ng r.c- Formation
count of the refult of this prceefs, in another letter, "' '^^""*"''
dated June 1805. . '.■\c.,l,&c.

" Having proceeded, he obfcrves, to the fovmalion
of water from its elements, ivith which to repeat my
former experiment, I found wlien the oxygen and !iy-
drogen gales were quite pure, and exactly in due pro-
portion, that no refiduum of air was left, and that the
uater formed was not in the flightefl degree acidulous.
When the procefs was not conducted with great accu-
racy, or any precaution to have it accurate was omitted,
I then found the water acidulous, and the acid that
caufed this acidity to be the nitric acid.

'= The acidulous water thus obtained I neutralized
with lime, from which I diltilled the water, and this
water I decompofed by tlie galvanic procefs, as in the
experiment detailed in my former letter.

" I did not imagine the unng water fo obtained could
make the leaft cifference on the refult of the experi-
ment ; but as a wilh was exprefled to have the trial
made, I again undertook that interefting but very tedi-
ous labour.

" When I came to examine the refiduum, to my
great allonilhment I found that not muriate of foda, but
muri?:- of potafli, was produced. I mull: own I feel
mylelt entirely at a lofs how to account for this, nor
Ihall I attempt it j all I can fay is, that this, as well as
my former experiment, was conducted with the greateft
care and accuracy that I could bellow*." * Phil.

About the fame time a difcovery of a ilmilar nature ■''^''•^- '="'•
was made by Profeffor Pacchiani of Pi fa. This dif-'-'gg
covery, which relates to the compofition of muriatic Pacchiari's.
acid, was firll announced in this country in the number of muriatic
of the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, pub- *'^'<'-
lilhcd the ift July 1805. The following is an account
of h:s experiments, and the cop.clufions which he dedu-
ces from them in his own words. " The fimplicity of
the apparatus, (he fays), and of the means adopted to
attain my views, the care with which I endeavoured to
avoid every fource of error, have, I hope, fulhciently
fccured me againft thofe illufions which frequently de-
ceive young men ardent in the purfuit of fcicnce, and
even thofe praftifed in the art of extorring from n.iture
her fccrels. Want of time prevents me from relating
the feries of experiments by which I arrived at the dif-
covery I have mentioned ; but you may fee it by per-
ufing the manufcript of my memoir, which will be im-
mediately publiflied, to fubmit my refearches and their
refults to the judgment of the learned. For the pre-
fent, I (hall feleot from the experiments and fafls there-
in defcribed thofe whofe which are decifive, and which
eftabliih, in an evident manner, the following truths :

" I. Muriatic acid is an oxide of hydrogen, and con-
fcquently corapofed of hydrogen and oxygen.

" II. In the oxygenated muriatic acid, and therefore,.
a fortiori, in muriatic acid, there is a much lefs propor-
tion of oxygen than in water.

" III. Hydrogen is fufceptiblc of very many and
different degrees of o.xidation, contrary to what is uni-
vcrlally believed by pneumatic chcmifls, who affert
that hydrogen is fufceptible only of one invariable de-
gree of oxidation, that in which it forms water.

" Having at firft examined the phenomenon of the
decompofition of water by the galvanic pile, and ha,
ving, by accurate experiments, afcertained the true

theory,

^66

G A L V

Formation theory, I readily difcovered a very finiple and exaft ap
of Muriatic pgygjyj^ in ivhich I could diiliniflly perceive tht

paratus,

changes which happen to «ater, uhich, from the con-
tinued aiSlion of the galvanic pile, is continually lofing
its oxj-gen at the furface of a wire of very pure gold
immerled in it.

" I therefore proceeded to examine thefe gradual
changes of water thus lofing its oxygen ; and I -at laft
obferved a very fingular faiS, which unequivocally in-
dicated the formation of an acid. In other antecedent
experiments I had examined the nature of the air ob-
tained before arriving at this remarkable point, and I
always found, by means of the eudiometer of Giobert,
that it was very pure oxygen, as the refiduum fcarcely
amounted to one-fi\tieth.

" Having thus examined the nature of the air form-
ed in various experiments, from the firft moment of de-
compofition, until there were evident indications of the
formation of an acid, I began to endeavour to deter-
mine, in a more poCtive manner, the exiftence and na-
ture of this acid.

" When the water, or, to fpeak more accurately, the
refidual fluid, occupied about half the capacity of the
receiver, which at firft contained the water, this refi-
dual fluid prefented the following characters :

" Its colour was an orange yellow, more or lefs deep,
according as the bulk of the refidual liquor was greater
or lefs, and it refembled in appearance a true folution
of gold.

" From the inferior orifice of the veffel, which was
clofed with a piece of taffety, and then ^vith double
bladder, there efcaped a fmell which was eanly recog-
nized to be that of oxygenated muriatic acid.

" The gold wire had in part loft its metallic luftre,
and its furface appeared as if corroded by a folvent,

" The bit of taifety which had been in contaft with
the coloured fluid, in confequence of its aftion, was
eaCly torn, as is ufual with fimilar bodies when half
burnt {femi-cotnlujld).

" Around the edges of the veffel, on the bladder,
there was formed a deep purple ring, which furrounded
a circular fpace rendered entirely colourlefs, or white.

" A drop of this fluid tinged the fliin of the hand,
after fome hours, with a beautiful rofe colour.

" Having obtained, in various fucceflive experiments,
the fame liquid, poflefling conftantly the fame proper-
ties, I chofe that obtained in the laft experiment to fub-
jeft it to chemical examination. The very able chemift
of this' univerfity, Signior Giufeppe Branchi, had the
goodnefs to enter zealouily into my views ; and in his
laboratory we eafily proved,

" I . The exiftence d a volatile acid, by the white va-
pours which were formed by ammonia placed near it.

" 2. That this acid was certainly oxygenated muria-
tic acid, fince it formed in nitrate of filvtr a curdy preci-
pitate, the luna cornea of the antients, or the muriate
of iilver of the moderns. From thefe facts we may draw
the following pofitive and undeniable rcfults :

" I. Muriatic acid is an oxide ofhydrogtn, and is
therefore compofed of hydrogen and oxygen.

" 2. Oxygenated muriatic acid, and of courfe muri-
atic acid, contains lefs oxygen than water does.

" 3. Hydrogen has not one degree of oxygenation,
but manv. One of thefe confiituics water, another be-

A N I S M. Part II.

low it oxygenated muriatic acid, and, bclo'v tLis, the
is another which conftitutes muriatic acid."

Mr Henry of Mancheiter, in an account of his i
veftigations on this fubjeil, obferves that there is a gp
confiderable point of difference between the Englifli Henry's re-
and tlie ItaliaiA chemift. The refult of I\Ir Peel's ex-^^rks.
periment was found to be muriate of foda ; but in
Profeffor Pacchiani's, ip which an interrupted gold
v.ire was employed, it appeared to be muriate of gold.
This ingenious chemift, with the fame view, made the
following experiment. He took a glafs tube 4^ inches
long, .35 inches diameter, in which were fecured with
corks, two flips of platina, having their extremities at
a proper dillance to effeft the decorapofition of the
water. The quantity of water, at the beginning of
the experiment, amounted to two drams. After being
expofed to the galvanic action for fix days, it was fo
far dimiiiiflied, that 4- inch of the tube v.as unfilled.
The water Avhich was employed was carefully puri-
fied, by being firft diftilled, and then, after adding
nitn-ite of filver, by a fecond diftillation. After the
experiment was finiftied, with the addition of nitrate
of fiiver, it became opalefcent in a few feconds, and
being expofed to the light, exhibited thofe changes
which indicate the prefence of muriatic acid. It did
not appear that muriate of platina had been produced,
for muriate of ammonia being added to one portion,
and carbonate of foda to another, produced no preci-
pitation.

In making this experiment, Mr Henry fuggefts a
very ufeful precaution. The water employed, he ob-
ferves, ihould never, on any account, come into contaft
with the fingers, becaufe there is a conftant excretion
of muriate of foda from the fldn, and in this way the
pureft water is very foon contaminated. He recom-
mends alfo, that glafs ftoppers ftiould be employed
in place of corks, for tranfmitting the conducting

"'^'■«*- . . *n;d.i%^

In another communication by Mr Peel on the fame
fubjeft, he rektes the following experiments, which
were undertaken, he fays,

" ift. To determine whether the difference inthefjewei-
refult of the before-mentioned experiments was owing periments
in any degree to my having employed lime to neutralize ^1 M' ^^ tl
the water employed in my fecond experiment, before it
was diiiilled.

" 2d, To afcertain whether the falts found in
the refidual water, or any component part of them,
came from the galvanic battery by means of the
wires.

" To determine the firft point, I varied my experi-
ment by employing for decompofition water diftilled
under different circumftances.

" Exper. I. — The water employed in this experi-
ment was diftilled from water containing lime. A
portion of it was decompofed in the manner that has
before been ftated. The remaining water yielded
miniate of potafti.

" Exficr. 2. — Water diftilled from water containing
iTiagnefia was decompofed in the fame manner. The
refult was muriate of foda.

" Expcr. 3. — In this experiment double diftilled
fnow water was cmploved. The refult was muriate of
foda.

« Erper.

Part II. G A L V

T .rai,.t en " Exptr. 4. — Water dilUUed from barvtes was iio.v

< • ". : ,i-;c ufed. '['he reUilt was fUll muriate of foda.

'" '^', " The water which I ufed in the experiment detailed

in my Grll letter was diftilled from pump water (the
pump is on the premifes where I live), v'hich I have
not myfelf analyzed, but a friend has been fo good as
lo take upon him that trouble. He has not been able
to deteft in it the rainuteft portion of magnefia. In one
of the above experiments, having ufcd water diflilled
from magnefia, I obtained muriate of foda ; but, having
obtained the fame refult from diftilled fnow ^vater, and
from water diftlEed from barytes, I conclude that the
produiSlion of the foda has nothing to do with the pre-
fence of magnefia.

" But, in the produflion of potafh. the prefence of
lime feems to be eflential, and, as you hinted, a portion
of lime muft have been carried over with the dillilled
water ; a facl which few would fufpeci, and which pro-
bably may often be the caufe of differiuces in the refults
of chemical inveftigations, condufted, to all appearance,
in a fimilar manner.

" To determine the fecond point which I liad in
view, namtly, whether the falts found in the refidual
water, or any cotr^-^jonent part of them, came from the
galvanic battery by means of the conducting wires, I
made fimilar experiments to thofe before dated, em-
ploying for the decompofition of the diftilled water a
... powerful eleftrical machine inftead of a galvanic bat-
, •''"""tery, but without obtaining refults different from what
^ '^i have been already ftated *."

«nd others. It is ftated in the fame number of the Philofophical
Magazine, that the following refult was obtained in an
experiment on the fame fubjecl. By continuing to pafs
the galvanic fluid from a trough compofed of 40 pairs
of fquare inch plates, through diftilled water, contained
in a glafs tube, the tube being furniflied at one end
with a wire of gold, and at the other with a wire of
platina, it was found that a coating of o.xide of gold
■i\as depofited on the gold wire, from which it is con-

tp- 185. eluded, that osymuriatic acid was found in the procefs f .
A more particular account was afterwards given by the
author of this experiment, and of the precautions he ob-
ferved in repeating it. He took a clean glafs tube,
which was beat as in the former experiment ; but, in-
ftead of the gold wire, he employed one of platina, fo
that both wires were of the fame metal. One of the
wires was only introduced a ftiort way into the tube
containing the difiiUed water; the other wire intro-
duced at the other extremity, paiTed nearly through its
whole length, till it reached beyond the point at which
the ihort wire terminated. After the apparatus had
ftood fcr three days, with the zinc end of the trough
conneSed with the (hort platina wire, the latter af-
fumed the colour of gold, and the long one became
black from the lower end to the height of the ftiort
wire, and continued fo for the fpace of three weeks.
The water being di'minilhed one-third, the ftiort wire
was connected with the copper end of the trough, and
in one day's time the long wire became bright, and the
ftiort ore black. After two days had clapfcd, that part
of the long wire which reached to the height of the
ftiort one, aflumcd a yellov.ilh golden tinge. Both the
wires remained fo for three days, when they were placed
in their firft fituation. The black po%vder then left the
ftiort wire, and the long one became black. A flip of

3^7

the remaining water, Formation

A N I S M.

blue teft paper being immerfcd

its colour was changed, which indicates the produAion"''*?""""^

of an acid. . ^" '

Pacchiani, the difcoverer, in another letter on this
fubjeft addreiTed to Fabroni, feems to think that thofe
who have failed in obtaining the fame refults in the de-
compofition of water, have either been influenced in
condufting their experiments by preconceived opinions,
or have deviated from the procefs which he followed.
But far an account of his views and reafonings, fee ^n.
de Chim. torn. hi. or Phil. I\Iag. xxiv. 176. We ftiall
only obferve, that he ftill ccnfiders himfelf warranted to
dra^v the fame conclufion with regard to the formation
of the acid, by the a£lion of galvanifm.

IMr Sylvefter of Sheffield made the following experi-
ment on this fubjecl. The water which he employed
was not changed by adding nitrate of filver. This
^vater was introduced into a tube which was fecured
at one end with a bit of bladder. At the other end
was a cork, through which a wire of platina was
palled, nearly to the bottom of the tube. The tube
^vas then fet in a wine glafs, containing alfo pure
water, and into this was alfo introduced another wire
of platina, the extremity of which came under the end
of the tube, and as near as pofTible to the bladder.
The wire within the tube was connected with the zinc
end of the trough, and the wire in the glafs, which
was in contacl with the bladder, proceeded from the
copper end. After the procefs had continued for an
hour, the liquid in the tube was put to the tell of
nitrate of filver, and when a fuflicient precipitate was
obtained, to afcertain the prefence of muriatic acid,
the liquid in the glafs contained an alkali, which the
author fufpecled was ammonia *. Niclol.

Brugnatelli obfer\'es, that, after having galvanifed Jj^"""
feveral times, both negatively and pofitively, a certain'
quantity of pure water witli golden wires, inferted in
feparate tubes, till he found, by the ufual tefts, that
acid was produced on the one part, and alkali on the
other, when the two liquids were mixed to perfeift
faturation, and evaporated in the air, he always ob-
tained muriate of foda cryftaUized in cubes. He has
therefore no doubt, that water negatively and pofi-
tively galvanifed, by means of gold wires, produces
or difengages muriatic acid in the one cafe, and foda
in the other f . ' j. ^^,/.

Such are the authorities for this curious phenomenon ji/^,. xxv.
which we have hitherto had an opportunity of confult-66.
ing ; but altlrough in general it would appear that the
experiments made with the view of afcertaining the
truth of the difcovery announced by Pacchiani, have
moff generally fucceeded, fome other experiments, made
with the fame view, have failed. For this purpofe a
feries of experiments was inllitutcd by the Galvanic
Society of Paris, whofe attention was direflcd to endea-
vour, as well by means of electricity as of galvanifm, to
confirm this important difcovery ; but although they
employed a very fimple apparatus, and one which
feemed leaft fufceptible of any foreign influence, they
do not think it pofTible to produce any thing by the
aflion of the galvanic pile, except the decompofition
of a greater or lefs proportion of the water fubmitted
to its aftion. The water remaining in the tube being
carefully examined, produced no effeft on the tinftures
of tumfolc or brazil wood, or the folution of nitrate of

filver.

G A L V A N I S M,

Fart II.

fiivrr. Hence it Is cohc'u.lcd that neither muriatic acid
nor foda was formed in this experiment.

S'jme other experiments made with the fame \-iew
have alio failed; but according to De Buch, certain pre-
cautions feem to be neceflary in conduiling this experi-
ment, which, if overlooked, it cannot be expefted, he
thinks, to be followed with fuccers. For the particulars
CI thefe, fee Phil. Mag. xxiv. 244. For an account of
the analogy between the peculiarity of ftruciure of the
torpedo, by which it is enabled to give electric ihorks,
and the galvanic battery, fee ToRPEDO ; and for the
medical effeds of galvanifin, fee Materia Medica.

The following facts, which feem to extend the ana-
logy of galvanifra with eleflricity on the one band, and
with magnetifm on the other, were omitted in the pre-
ceding treatife.

Ritter, one of the mod indefatigable philofophers,
in profecuting experiments and inquiries on this fubjeft,
has fucceeded in charging a piece of money with the
galvanic fluid, and with this fome of the phenomena of
galvanifm can be exhibited. To effect this, he places
a louis d'or between two pieces of pafteboard, thorough-
ly wetted, and keeps it for fix or eight minutes in the
chain of circulation connefted with the pile. In this
ivay the louis becomes charged, without being imme-
diately in contaft with the conducing wires. If this
louis be afterwards applied to the crural nerves of a
frog, recently prepared, the ufual contraftions will be
produced. It is found that the charge is retained, in
proportion to the time that the piece has remained in
the circuit of the pile. Some have retained it for five

^cid. Sec.

Ininutos. - Ritter has alfo difcovercd, that the piece of Forraati;
gold thus galvanifed, exerts at once the action of two"*^ ^?"
metals ; the half next the negative pele, while in the ^'^'
circle, became pofitive, and the half towards the poljtive
pole became negativci He alfo tried the e.Te ft of golden
needles charged with galvanifm, and balanced on a
pivot, and he perceived, to his furprife, that thefe needles
had a certain dip and variation ; — that the angle of va-
riation was uniformly the fame, differing, however, from
that of the magnetic needle, and that the pofitive pole
always dips *. _ _ *NUh„!/:

If the facts which the above experiments feem tojcurna/,
prove, (hould be fully afcertained, there is an obwous*"- ?9-
analogy, not only between eleftricity and galvani&n,
but alio between the latter and magnetifm.

A galvanic pile has been conftruiited by Dr Baronio
of Milan, entirely of vegetable matters. For this pur-
pofe he cut difcs of horfc-radilh and beet- root, of two
inches in diameter'. He then prepared equal difcs of
walnut-tree wood ; the latter dilcs were railed at thtir
edges, to contain a little fclution of acidulous tartrate of
potalh in vinegar, in which they had been prevJoufly
boiled to free the wood from rofin. Sixty pairs of difcs
were emploved -in the following order •, viz. horle-ra-
dilh, beet-root, difcs of wood, in each of which the fo-
tution was put. The fpinal marrow of a prepared frog
was connected with the pile, by means of a leaf of coc/i-
learia ; the mufcles of the frog i\ere connefted with
the top of the pile by means of a double band of gray
paper wetted with vinegar, and as often as this circuit
was completed, contraftions were excited in the animal.

GAL

GAL

GALWAY, or Galloway, a county of Ireland,
■ which is 82 miles in length, and 42 in breadth, bounded
by the counties of Clare, Tipperary, King's County,
Rofcommon, and the fea. The river Shannon walhes
the frontiers of the eaft and foutb-eaft, and forms a lake
feveral miles in length. There is another great lake
called Corbis or Carib, which is near 20 miles long,
and five broad. This county contains 15,420 houfes,
136 parities, 17 baronies, and 13 boroughs. The ca-
j)ital town is of the fame name.

Galway, a town of Ireland, in the county of the
fame name, and province of Connaught, of which it
is the capital. It is feated on the bay of Galway on the
weltcr.'i ocean, 108 miles weft of Dublin, and gives title
of Vifcount to the family of Monkton. It is furround-
ed with ftrong walls, has large itraight ftreets, and the
houfes are generally well built with ftone. It has a
good trade into foreign parts, on account of its har-
bour, which is defended by a fort. It is governed by
a mayor, ftieriffs, and recorder, and returns two mem-
bers to parliament. It has but one parifh church,
which is a large and beautiful Gothic itruifture, an
exchange, barracks for 10 companies of foot, a
charter fchool, and an hofpital. This was one of the
ftiongeft towns in the kingdom ; it held out fome time
againit General Ginkle, who inverted and took it after
the battle ot Aughrim. Its fortifications were then
repaired. The walls are flanked by baftions, but are
tooaiy gone to decay. The fahnon and herring fi(h-

eries are carried on here with great fpirit, and employ GnXvrnj.
700 boats ; the quantity of kelp manufactured and ex- — -v— ■
ported is confiderable ; and the growth of the linen
manufacture, though of late introduction, is become very
important. In i 296, Sir William de Burgh founded a
monallery here for Francifcan friars, on St Stephen's
ifland, fituated without the north gate of the town. In
1381, there being two popes at Rome, and the people
of Ireland being doubtful to which they ftiould pay
obedience. Pope Urban, to fix them entirely to his in-
terelt, empowered the guardian of this monallery to ex-
communicate every peifon in the province of Connaught
who Ihould adhere to his rival, Clement VII. who he
affured them was antipope. — Near the weft gate of the
town, without the walls, was the monallery of St Mary
of the Hill : on the nuns forfaking it, the fccular clergy
entered into and kept poffelTion of it for a confider-
able jime ; but on the petition of the inhabitants of
the town to Pope Innocent VIII, it was granted to
the Dominican friars, by a bull dated the 4th Decem-
ber 1488. There are no rtmains of this foundation
except the cemetery ; the whole building having been
demoliliied by the townfmen in the year 1652, in order
to prevent Cromwell from turning it into a fortification
againft themfelves : there was alfo an Auguitinian friary,
on a hill riear this town, founded by .Stephen Lynch,
and Margaret his wife, in the year 1508, at the earneft
folititation of Richard Nangle, a friaj of the fame order,
who aftertvards became bilhop of Tuam.

GAMA,

\r,\-.\N- 1 S M.

t f (■ < ■ X X 1 N

G A M I 36

GAM A, Vasco, or VAS(itii;s de, a cekbratcd navi-
gator, was born at bines, a feaport town iu the province
of Alcntejo, iu Portugal. When King Emanuel re-
folved to extend the dilcoveries formerly made of the
fouiheni parts of Africa, and the feas lying between
thefe and the Ealf Indies, the well-knoivn prudence and
courage of De Gama pointed liim out as a proper per-
fun to conduit i'uch an enterprife. He failed from Lif-
bon in the month of July 1497, with no more tormid-
able a fquadron than three fmall armed veilels and a
flore ihip, with which he did not reach the Cape of
Good Hope till the end of four months, owing to
violent and contrary winds. He doubled this promon-
tory, and afterwards coafted along the fouth-eall fide of
Africa, till lie reached MelinJa, having touched at dif-
ferent ports on his way. At this place he procured a
JMahometan pilot, by whom he was condufted in lafety
to the coaft of Malabar, and he reached Calicut in the
month of May. The prince at firft received him in a
holpitable manner, but a plot being at length laid for
his dcllruction by the Mahometan merchants, he made
the beft of his way to Europe as loon as he dilcovered
it. He arrived at Lilhon in September 1499, with the
lofs of the majority of his crew, arifnig from fatigue
and dileafe. Having fpent fome time in devotion at a
hermitage, he made a fplendid entrance into the city,
a'ld beiides pecuniary reivards, was honoured by the
kmg with the title of count of Videgueira. By this
voyage the praclicability of a ne'vv paflage to the Indies
ivas fully elfabliftied. De Gama undertook a fecond
voyage, with the title of admiral of the Indian, Perfian,
and Arabian Teas, having 20 fail of Ihips under his
command. This voyage began in February 1502, and
after compelling leveral princes in his route to pay
tribute to him, he arrived at Cochin, where a deputa-
tion from the Chrillians of St Thomas, to whom he
promifed proteciion, waited upon him. The Zamorin
being extremely fufpicious of thefe new vifitors, fitted
out a rieet, but De Gama anticipated the defign, and
began the attack, making a prize of two large vef-
fels of prodigious value. He left a fquadron at Cana-
nor after this victory, and failed for Lilhon, at which
place he arrived in the month of September 1503. On
the accelTion of John III. to the throne, De Gama, then
very far advanced in years, was prevailed upon to un-
dertake a third voyage, uith the exalted rank of vice-
roy of the Indies. He conijueied the people of Cali-
cut in a naval engagement, and died at Cochin in the
year 1525.

GAMBIA, a large river of Negroland in Africa,
running from eaft to well to the Atlantic ocean ; it
is luppofed to be a branch of the Niger.

GAMBOGE is a concreted vegetable juice, partly
of a gummy and partly of a relinous nature, chietly
brought in large cakes or rolls from Cambaja in the
Eall Indies. See CHEMISTRY and Materia Med 1-
tA Index.

GAME, in general, fignifies any diverfion or fport,
that is performed with regularity, and retrained to cer-
tain rules. See Gaming.

Games are ufually dillinguifhed into thofe of exer-
rife and addrefs, and thofe of hazard. To the firft
belong chefs, tennis, billiards^ &c. and to the latter
•Jiofe performed v\ith cards, or dice, as back-gam-

Voi.. IX. Part J.

9 ]

GAM

mon, ombre, piquet, whift, &c. S;e Back. Gam- Ga
mon, ^c. ' '

Games, in antiquity, were public diverfions, exhi-
bited on folcmn occafions. Such among the Greeks
were the Olympic, Pythian, Illhmian, Nemean, &c.
games; and, among the Romans, the Apoilinaiian,
Circcnlian, Capitoline, &.C. games. See Olympic,
PiTHiAN, Funeral, &c.

Game, in Law, fignifies birds, or prey, taken or kil-
led by fowling or hu^iting.

The property ot luch animals ferce natures as are
known under the denomination oi game, with the right
of purfuing, taking, and dellroying them, is vefted in
the king alone, and from him derived to fuch of his
fubjeds as have received the grants of a chafe, a park,
or a free warren.

By the law of nature, indeed, every man, from the
prince to the peafant, has an equal right of purluing,
and taking to his own ufe, all fuch creatures as are
fera- naliine, and therefore the property of nobody,
but liable to be feized by the firll occupant. But it
follows from the very end and conftitution of fociety,
that this natural right, as well as many others be-
longing to man as an individual, may be reltraincd by
pofitive laws enafled for reafons of ftate, or for the
luppofed benefit of the community. This reftriftion
may be either with refpecl to the fiface in which this
right may, or may not, be exercifed ; with refpeft to
the arimals that are the fubjedts of this right ; or with
refped to the perfons aliened or forbidden to exercife
it. And, in confequence of this authority, we find
that the municipal laws of many nations have exerted
fuch power of reftraint ; have in general forbidden
the entering on another man's grounds, for any caufe,
_ without the owner's leave ; have extended their pro-
teftion to fuch particular animals as are ufually the
objeds of purfuit ; aed have inverted the prerogative of
hunting and taking fuch animals in the fovereign of
the ftate only, and fuch as he Ihall authorife. Many
reafons have concurred for making thefe conftitutions :
as, I. For the encouragement of agriculture and im-
provement of lands, by giving every man an exclu-
five dominion over his own foil. 2. For the prefer-
vation of the feveral fpecies of thefe animals, which
would foon be extirpated by a general liberty. 3. For
prevention of idlenefs and dilTipation in hufbandmen,
artificers, and others of lower rank ; which ^vould be
the unavoidable confequence of univcrfal licenfe. 4. For
prevention of popular infurredions and refillance to
the government, l)y difarming the bulk of the people :
which laft is a reafon oftencr meant than avowed, by
the makers of foreft or game laws. Nor certainly, in
thefe prohibitions is there any natural injuftice, as fome
have weakly enough fuppoicd : fmce, as Putfendorf
obferves, the law docs not hereby take from any man
his prefent property, or what was already his o-.vn j
but barely abridges him of one means of acquiring a
future property, that of occupancy ; which indeed the
law of nattire would allow him, bul of which the laivs
of fociety have in moft inftances very juftly and reafon-
ably deprived him.

Yet, however defenfible thefe provifions in general

may be, on the footing of reafon, or jufticc, or civil

policy, we rauft, notwithftanding, acknowledge, that,

3 A ill

GAM [3

in their prefent fhnpe, they owe tlicir immediate ori-
ginal to (lavery. It is not till after the irruption of
the northern nations into the Roman empire, that we
read of any other prohibitions, than that natural one
of not fporting on any private grounds without the
owner's leave.

With regard to the rife and original of our preftnt
civil prohibitions, it ivill be found, tliat all foreft and
};ame laws were introduced into Europe at the fame
time, and by the fame policy, as gave birth to the
leodal fyftem ; when ihofe fwarms of barbarians iflued
from their northern hive, and laid the foundation of
moft of the prefent kingdoms of Europe, on the ruins
of the weftern empire. For when a conqueririg gene-
ral came to fettle the economy of a vanquiihed coun-
try, and to part it out among his foldiers or feudato-
ries, who were to render him military fervice for fuch
donations ; it behoved him, in order to fecure his new
acquilitions, to keep the ru/h'ci or natives of the coun-
try, and all who were not his military tenants, in as
low a condition as poflible, and efpecially to prohibit
them the ufe of arms. Nothing could do tliis more
efieclually than a prohibition of hunting and fporting :
and therefore it w^as the policy of the conqueror to re-
ferve this right to himlelf, and luch on whom he
fliould bellow it ; w'lich were only his capital feudato-
lies, or greater barons. And, accordingly, we find,
in the feudal confiitutions, one and the fame law pro-
hibiting the riifi:ci in general irom carrying arms, and
alfo profcribing the ufe of nets, fnares, or other en-
gines for deftroying the game. This exclulive privi-
lege well fuited the martial genius of the conquering
troops, who delighted in a (port which in its purfuit
?nd flaughter bore lome refemblance to war. Vita
omnis (fays Ca:far, fpcaking of the ancient Germans)
in venationibus atque injludiis reimililaris confiflit. And
Tacitus in like manner obferves, that quoties hella nin
zneunt, muhum venatibus, plus per otium tranfigunt. And
indeed, like fome of their modern fucceffors, they had
no other amufement to entertain their vacant hours ;
for they defpifed all arts as effeminate, and had no
other learning than what was couched in fuch rude ditties
as were fung at the foleran caroufals which fucceedcJ
thele ancient huntings. And it is remarkable, that, in
thofe nations w-here the feodal policy remains the molt
uncorrupted, the foreft or game laws continue in their
highefl rigour. Formerly in France, all game was pro-
perly the king's \ and in fome parts of Germany it is
death for a peafant to be found hunting in the woods of
the nobility.

With us, in Britain, alfo hunting has ever been
cfteemed a moft princely diverfion and exercife. The
whole illand was repleniflied with all forts of game in
ihe time of the Britons j who lived in a wild and paf-
toral manner, without enclofmg or improving their
grounds 5 and derived much of their fubfiftence from
the chafe, which they all enjoyed in conmion. But
when huftjandry took place under the Saxon govern-
ment, and lands begpn to be cultivated, improved, and
enclofed, the beafts naturally fled into the woody and
defert trafts, which were called the forejis y and, ha-
ving never been difpofed of in the firft diftribu-
lion of lands, were therefore held to belong to the
crov.Ti. Thefe were filled with great plenty of

70 ] GAM

game, wl.ich our royal fportfmen referved hx their Citiie.
own diverfion, on pain of a pecuniary forfeiture for '~~V ' "*
fuch as interfered with their lovereign. But eve-
ry freeholder had the full liberty of fporting u; on
his territories, provided he abftained from the kinsi's
forefts. "

However, upon the Norman conqueft, a new doc-
trine took place ; and the right of pur&iing and ta-
king all beafts of chafe or venari/, and fuch other ani-
mals as were accounted game, was then held to belong
to the king, or to fuch only as were authorized uv.der
him. And this, as well upon the principles of the
feodal law, that the king is the ultimate proprietor of
all the lands in the kingdom, they being all held of
him as the chief lord, or lord paramount of the fee ;
and that therefore he has the right of the univerfal foil,
to enter thereon, and to chafe and take fuch creatures
at his pleafure : as alio upon another maxim of the
common law, that thefe animals are bona -vacantia, and,
having no other owner, belong to the king by his
prerogative. As therefore the former reafon was held
to veil in the king a ng/st to pur!ue and take thera
anjTvhere, the latter was fuppofed to give the king,
and fuch as he ftiould authoriie, a fo/e and exc/u/ive
right.

This right, thus newly vefted in the crown, was ex-
erted ^vith the utmoft rigour, at and after the time of
the Norman ellablilhment ; not only in the ancient fo-
refts, but in the new ones which the Conqueror made,
by laying together vaft tracts of country, depopulated
for that purpofe, and referved folely for the king's
royal diverfion ; in which w ere exerciied the motl hor-
rid tyrannies and opprelTions, under colour of foreft
law, for the fake of preferving the beafts of chafe ;
to kill any of which, within the limits of the foreft,
was as penal as tiie death of a man. And, in pur-
fuance of the fame principle. King John laid a total in-
terdift upon the wingeJ as well as ihefour-fcoteJ crta-
tion : capturam avium per totam Jingliam interdixit *. • M. Perls,
The cruel and infupportable hardlhips which thele ia-i^ii-
reft laws created to the fubjecl, occafioned our an-
ceflors to be as zealous for their reformation, as for
the relaxation of the feodal rigours and the other ex-
a(flions introduced by the Norman family ; and ac-
cordingly we find the immunities oi charta de forejla as
warmly contended for, and extorted from the king
with as much ditHculty, as thofe of magna charta itfelf.
By this charter, confirmed in parliament f, many fo-x„H„.ijj_
refts were difafforefted, or ftripped of their opprcUive
privileges, and regulations were made in the regimen
of fuch as remained ; particularly killing the king's
deer was made no longer a capital offence, but only pu-
nilhed by a fine, imprifonmcnt, or abjuration of the
realm. And by a variety of fubfequent ftatutes, toge-
ther with the long acquiefcence of the crown without
exerting the foreft laws, this prerogative is now be-
come no longer a grievance to the fubjeft.

But as the king referved to hlmfelf iheforejl for his
own exclufive diverfion, fo he granted out from time
to time other tradls of lands to his fubjefts under the
names oi chafes or parts ; or gave them licenfe to make
fuch in their own grounds ; which indeed are fmaller
forefts in the hands of a fubjeft, but not governed by
the fcreft laws j and by the common law no perfon is

G A M

[ 37

at liberty to take or kill any hearts of chafe, but fuch
-■ as have an ancient chafe or park ; unlefs they be alfo
bealls of prey.

As to all inferior fpecies of game, called beajlr and
foiu/s of warren i the liberty of taking or killing them
is another franchife or royalty, derived likeivife from
the crown, and called free warren ; a word which fig-
nifies prefervation or cuftody : as the exclufive liberty
of taking a.id killing filh in a public ftream or river
is called a free fijhery ; of which, however, no ne-.v
franchife can at prel'ent be granted by the exprefc
pro\-ifion oi magna citarta, c. i6. The principal inten-
tion of granting a man thefe fianchifes or liberties ^vas
in order to proteft the game, by giving him a fole and
exclufive power of killing it himfelf, provided he pre-
Tented other perfons. And no man but he who has
a chafe or free warren, by grant from the crown, or
prefcnption, which fuppoles one, can jullify hunting
or fporting upon another man's foil ; nor indeed, in
thorough ftriclnefs of common law, either hunting or
fporting at all.

However novel this doftrine may fecm, it is a regu-
lar confequence from what has been before delivered,
that the fole right of taking and deftroying game be-
longs exclu'jvely to the king. This appears, as well
from the hiliorical deduftion here made, as becaufe he
may grant to his fubjecls an exclufive right of taking
them ; which he could not do, unlefs fuch a right was
firft inherent in himfelf. And hence it vviU follow,
that no perfon whatever, but he who has fuch deriva-
tive right from the crown, is by common law entitled
to take or kill any beaft of chafe, or other game what-
foever. It is true, that, by the acquiefcence of the
crown, the frequent grants of free warren in ancient
times, and the introduction of new penalties of late by
certain llatutes for preferving the game, this exclufive
prerogative of the king is little known or coniidered ;
every man that is exempted from thefe modem penal-
ties looking upon himfelf as at liberty to do ivhat he
pleafes with the game : whereas the contrary is ftriftly
true, that no man however well qualified he may vul-
garly be efteemed, has a right to encroach on the royal
prerogative by the killing of game, unlefs he can (liovv
a particular grant of free warren ; or a prefcription
which prelumes a grant ; or forae authority under an
aft of parliament. As for the latter ; there are but
two inftances wherein an exprefs permillion to kill
game was ever given by llatute : the one by i Jac. I.
c. 27. altered by Jac. I. c. 12. and virtually repeal-
ed by 22 and 23 Car. II. c. 25. which gave authori-
ty, fo long as they remained in foice, to the owners
of free warren, to lords of manors, and to all freehold-
ers having 40I. per annum in lands of inheritance, or
Sol. for life or lives, or 400L perfonal edate (and
their fervants), to take partridges and pheafants, upon
their own, or their mailer's free warren, inheritance,"
nr freehold : the other by 5 Ann. c. 14. which era«
powers lords and ladies of manors to appoint game-
keepers, to kill game for the ufe of fuch lord or lady ;
which with fome alteration ftill (ubfills, and plainly
fuppofes <iach power not to have been in them before.
The truth of the matter is, that thefe game laws do
indeed qualifynohody, except in the inftance of a game-
keeper, to kill game: but only to fave the trouble
and formal proeefs of an action by the perfon injured.

/I ] GAM

who perhaps too might remit the offence, tr.efc- ilatirtes Gam*.
intiift additional penalties, to be recovered either in a *
regular or fummary way, by any of the king's fubjefts,
from certain perfons of inferior rank who may be found
offending in this particular. But it does not follow
that perfons excufed from thefe additional penalties
are therefore authori%ed to kill game. The circum-
ftance of having i:ol. per annum, and the reft, are not
properly qualifications, but exemptions* And thefe per-
fons fo exempted from the penalties of the game lla-
tutes, are not only liable to aftions of trefpafs by the
o\mers of the land ; but alfo if they kill game within
the limits of any royal franchife, they are liable to the
actions of fucli who may have the right of chafe or
free warren therein.

Upon the whole, it appears, that the king, by his
prerogative, and fuch perfons as have, under bis au-
thority, the ROYAL FRANCHISE of CHACE, PARK, or
Free IVarken f , are the onhj perfons who may acquire f s,-e thofe
any property, however fugitive and tranfitory, in thefe articles,
animals yl'r^ nattirie, while living ; which is faid to be
\efted in them propter privilegium. And it muft alfo
be oblcrved, that fuch perfons as may thus lawfully
hunt, filh, or fowl, ratione privilegii, have only a qua-
lified property in thefe animals ; it not being abfolute
or permanent, but lafting only fo long as the creatures
remain ivithin the limits of fuch refpeclive franchife or
liberty, and ceaCng the inftant they voluntarily pafs
out of it. It is held indeed, that if a man ftarts any
game within his own grounds, and follows it into an-
other's and kills it there, the property remains in him-
felf. And this is grounded on reafon and natural juf-
tice : for the property confifts in the poflefllon ; which
polTefTion commences by the finding it in his own li-
berty, and is continued by the immediate purfuit. And
fo, if a ftranger Itarts game in one man's chafe or free
warren, and hunts it into another liberty, the proper-
ty continues in the oivner of the chafe or warren ; this
property arifing from privilege, and not being changed
by the act of a mere ftranger. Or if a man ftarts game
on another's private grounds, and kills it there, the
property belongs to him in whofe ground it ^vas killed,
becaufe it was alfo ftarted there ; this property arifing
ratione foli. Whereas if, after being ftarted there, it is
killed in the grounds of a third perfon, the property
belongs not to the owner of the firft ground, becaule
the property is local ; nor yet to the owner of the fe-
cond, becaufe it was not ftarted in his foil ; but it vefts
in the perfon who ftarted and killed it, though guilty
of a trefpafs againft both the owners. See the article
Came Laws.

It ;vill probably be confidered by fportfmen who have
not an opportunity of feeing the book, as a curious
piece of information, to have the following, which wc
extraft from Daniel's Rural Sports, concerning the
quantity of game killed in different countries.

" The lifts of the game, fays he, that has been killed
upon particular manors in England by parties, and
even by fingle gentleman, exhibit fuc!i a wanton regiftry
of liaughter, as no fportfman can read \\4thout regret j
but to prove that Briiijh are rather more merciful than
French (hooters, the account of the former game eftab-
hfliment at Chantilli is firft prc.'ented to the reader, in
the words of the very ingeniovis perfon who recorded

lAz

The

GAM

[ 37

" The game eftablifliment at Chantilli ^vas the moft
extraordinary elL^bliihment of the kind in Europe.

" The follouing lill of the quantity of different kinds
of game killed at Chantilli, in a period of 32 years,
beginning with the year 1 "48, and ending with the
year 1779, was copied from the houlehold regillers
there, and what feems unaccountable, never was print-
ed before, not even in France ! The copy was taken in
1788, and theftatement, as an objeft in natural hiliory,
is no fmall curiofity, and as iuch it is philofophically
interefting.

Hares
Rabbits

Partridges

Red, ditto

Pheafants

(Quails

Ralles

Woodfocks

Snipes

Ducks

Wood pigeons

Curlews

Buftards

Larks

Thruflies

Stags

Hinds

Fawns

Does

Young does

Roe-bucks

Young, ditto

Wild boars

Marcaffins

77.750
587,470
116,574
12,426
86,193
19,696

449
2,164
2,8j6

1.353

317

32

2

106

i,3'3
1,682
1,682

519
1,921

135
4,669

810
1,942

Connefted with this eftablilLment, there was a park
of 21 miles, and a foreft of 48 miles in extent, and
while the family were at the place, they had 500
horfes, as many fervants, and from 60 to 80 couple of
dogs.

" The Germans too, fays Mr Daniel, have a happy,
knack at a niaffacre. In 1788 a party of 10 perfons at
the chateau of Prince Adam Daverfperg, in Bohemia,
were out five hours on the 9th and loth of September,
allowed that the firft day 6168 fhots were fired, and
876 hares, 259 pheafants, 362 partridges, befide quails,
rabbits, &c. were bagged, or rather waggoned. On
the fccond day 5904 iliots were difcharged, and 1 81
hares, 634 pheafants, and 736 partiidges were killed,
befides fome that were picked up in the evening. The
number of (hots in the two d.ays were 1 1,972, the game
carried home were

1099
958

Hares,

Pheafants

Partridges

befides fmall game. It is added that the birds were all
Ihot on the wing.

" In Germany, during the month of October 1797,
Prince Lichtenllcin, and eleven other gentlemen, killed
in one day, when they were out fourteen hours, 39,000
pieces of game; it was of all forts, but chictly hares and
partridges. The king of Naples and Sir W. Hamilton
killed 800 head cf game in the neighbourhood of Ca-

2 ] GAM

farte, of which 640 ^vere partridges, in a very fliort Gamclii
fpace of time. 11

" Upon Mr Colquhoun's manor in our own country, ^'"^'"^'
at Writham in Norfolk, the late duke of Bedford,
and fix other gentlemen, in 1796, killed 80 cock
pheafants, 40 hares, befides partridges, in one day.
At Houghton, in the fame county, the duke of
Bedford, and feven others, killed hi the fame fpace,
165 hares, 42 pheafants, 5 rabbits, a couple of wood-
cocks, and a brace of partridges •, and this was done, al-
though the «-oods had been beat five times before dur-
ing the feafon." * * Vol. ii.

Gamr Coct, fighting cock, or one kept for fport ;
a barbarous pradlice, which is a difgrace to any civiliz-
ed nation. See CocK-Fig/iting.

GAM F.LI A, in Grecian antiquity, a nuptial feaft,
or rather facrifice, held in the ancient Greek famihes
on the day before a marriage ; thus called from a cu-
flom they had of fhaving themfelves on this occafion,
and prefenting their hair to fome deity to whom tliey
had particular obligations.

GAMELION, in the ancient chronology, was the
eighth month of the Athenian year, containing 29
days, and anfwering to the latter part of our January
and beginning of February. It Was thus called, as be-
ing, in the opinion of the Athenians, the molt proper
feafon of the year for marriage.

GAMING, the art of playing or pra^tifing any
game, particularly thofe of hazard ; as cards, dice,
tables, &.C.

Gaming has at all times been looked upon as a
thing of pernicious confeqiience to the commonwealth ;
and is therefore fcverely prohibited by law. It is con-
fidered as a praflice generally intended to fupply, or
retrieve, the expences occafioned by LU.XURY : it be-
ing a kind of tacit confeffion, that the company enga-
ged therein do, in general, exceed the bounds of their
refpeclive fortunes ; and therefore they cafl lots to de-
termine upon whom the ruin (liall at prefent fall, that
the relf may be faved a little longer. But taken in
any light, it is an oifence of the moll alarming nature,
tending by neceflary confequence, to promote public
idlenefs, theft, and debauchery, among thofe of a
lower clafs •, and, among perfons of a fuperior rank, it
hath frequently been attended with the fudden ruin and
defolation of ancient and opulent families, and abandon-
ed proftitution of every principle of honour and virtue,
and too often hath ended in felf-murder. To reftrain
this pernicious vice among the inferior fort of people,
the ftatute ^t, Hen. VIII. c. 9. was made ; which
prohibits to all but gentlemen, the games of tennis, ta-
bles, cards, dice, bowls, and other unlawRil diverfions
there fpecified, unlefs in the time of Chriftmas, under
pecuniary pains and imprifonment. And the fame law,
and alfo the ilatute 23 Geo. II. c. 24. inflift pecuni-
ary penalties, as well upon the mailer of any public
houfe ivherein fervants are permitted to game, as upon
the fervants themfelves, v,ho are found to be gaming
there. But this is not the principal ground of modern
complaint : it is the gaming in high life that demands
the attention of the magiltrate ; a palTion to which
every valuable confideration is made a facrifice, and
which we fcem to have inherited from our anceilors,
the ancient Germans ; whom Tacitus dcfcribes to have
been bewitched with the fpirit of play to a moft exoir-

bitant

G A M

[ 373 ]

GAM

Omlrg. b'tant de^.-ef. " Tliey addia thcmfelvcs (fays lie)
'~~~v~— to dice (which is wonderfuU v.hen foher, and as a
ferlous employment, -with fuch a mad defire of win-
ning or lofmg, that, -.vhen ftiipt of every thing elle,
they will ftake at lait thtir liberty, and their very
felves. The lofer goes into a voluntary llavery ; and,
though younger and tlronger than his antagonift, fnf-
fers himfelf to be bound and fold. And this perfc-
verance in fo bad a caufe they call the point of ho-
nour: ea eft in re prava f>ervicacia, ipjt Jidem vocanlj''
One would almoft be templed to think Tacitus was de-
fcribing a modern EnglJAman. When men are thus
intoxicated with fo frantic a fplrit, laws will be of
little avail : becaufe the fame falfe fenfe of honour that
prompts a man to facrifice himfelf, will deter him from
appealing to the magiftrate. Yet it is proper that laws
fliould be, and be known publicly, that gentlemen may
confiuer what penalties they wilfully incur, and -what
a confidence they repofe in (harpers ; who, if fuccefs-
ful in play, are certain to be paid with honour, or, if
unfuccefsful, have it in their power to be ftill greater
gainers by informing. For, by flat. 16. Car. II. c. 7.
if any perfon by playing or betting lliall lofe more than
locl. at one tim.e, he Ihall not be compellable to pay
the fame ; and the winner ihall forfeit treble the value,
one moiety to the king, the other to the informer.
The ftatute 9 Ann. c. 14. enacts, that all bonds and
other fecurities, given for money won at play, or
money lent at the time to play v\'ithal, ihall be utterly
void : that all mortgages and encumbrances of lands,
made upon the fame conSderatien, (liall be and endure
to the heir of the mortgager : that, if any perfon at
one time lofes idI. at play, he may fue the winner,
and recover it back by action of debt at law ; and, in
cafe the lofer does not, any other perfon may fue the
winner for treble the fum fo loft ; and the plaintiff in
either cafe may examine the defendant himfelf upon
oath : and that in any of thefe fuits no privilege of
parliament ihall be allowed. The ftatute farther enaifls,
that if any perfon cheats at play, and at one time wins
more than icl. or any valuable thing, he may be in-
dicled theriupon, and ftiall forfeit five times the value,
ihall be deemed infamous, and fiiffer fuch corporal
punilhment as in cafe of wilful perjury. By feveral
ftatutes of the reign of King George II. all private
lotteries by tickets, cards, or dice, (and particularly
the games of faro, bafiet, ace of hearts, hazard, paf-
fage, roily polly, and all other games with dice, ex-
cept backgammon), are prohibited under a penalty of
2col. for him that (hall creel fucli lotteries, and 50I.
ii-time for the pbyers. Public lotteries, unlefs by au-
thority of parliament, and all manner of ingenious de-
\'ices, under the denomination oi fates or otherwife,
which in the end are equivalent to lotteries, were be-
fore prohibited by a great variety of ftatutes under
heavy pecuniary penalties. But particular defcriptions
will ever be lame and deficient, unlefs all games of
mere chance are at once prohibited ; the invention of
Iharpers being fwifter than the punilhment of the law,
v.-hich only hunts them from one device to another.
'J'he flat. 13 Geo. II. c. 19 to prevent the multipli-
city of horfc races, another fund of gaming, directs,
that no plates or matches under 50I. value flial! be run,
upon penalty of 200'. to be paid by the oivncr of
each horfe running, and icol. by fuch as adsxrtifi: the

plate. By ftatute 18 Geo. I. c. 34. the ftatute
9 Ann. is farther enforced, and fomc deficiencies fup-
plied : the forfeitures of that aft may now be reco-
vered in a court of equity ; and, moreover, if any
man be convirted, upon information or indiclment, of
winning or lofing at any fitting lol. or 2ol. within 24
hours, he Ihall forfeit five times the fum. Thus care-
ful has the legillature been to prevent this deftrudive
vice : ^vhich may ftiow that our laws againft gaming
are not fo deficient as ourfelves and our magiurates in
putting thofe laws in execution.

Cliance, or Hazard, in Gaming. Hazard, or chance,
is a matter of mathematical confideration, becaufe it
admits of more and lefs. Gamefters either fet out up-
on an equality of chance, or are fuppofed to do fo.
This equality may be altered in the courfe of the gam?,
by the greater good fortune or addrefs of one of the
gamefters, whereby he comes to have a better chance, fo
that his Ihare in the ftakes is proportionably better than
at firft. This more and lefs runs through all the ratios be-
tween equality and infinite diiference, or from an infinite-
ly little difference till it come to an infinitely great one,
whereby the game is determined. The whole game,
therefore, with regard to the ilTue of it, is a chance of
the proportion the two ihares bear to each other.

The probability of an event is greater or lefs, ac-
cording to the number of chances by which it rriay hap-
pen, compared ^vith the number of all the chances by
which it may either happen or fail.

M. de Moivre, in a treatife de Menfiira Sorlis, has
computed the variety of chances in feveral cafes that
occur in gaming, the laws of ivhich may be underftood
by what follows.

Suppofe f) the number of cafes in which an e^nt
may happen, and q the number of cafes wherein it may
not happen, both fides have the degree of probability,
which is to each other as f> to y.

If two gamefters, A and B, engage on this footing,
that, if the cafes /> happen, A ftiall win ; but if q hap-
pen, B ftiall win, and the ftake be a ; the chance of

A will be — — , and that of B — — • ; confequeutlv, if

1+P . /<+?

they fell the expectancies, they ftiould have that for
them refpeclively.

If A and B play with a fingle dice, on this condition,
that, if A throw two or more aces at eight throw s,-
he (hall win ; otherwife B ftiall %vin ; What is the ra-
tio of their chances ? Since there is but one cafe where-
in an ace may turn up, and. five wherein it may not,
let rtzzii, and ^=5. And again, fince there are eight
throivs of the die, let n = 8 ; and you ^vill have
jr^l" — h" — nab" — i, to h''-\-nah'' — I : that is, the
chance of A will be to that of B as 663991 to
101565^ or nearly as 2 to 3.

A anOTl are engaged at fingle quoits ; and, after
playing fome time, A wants 4 of being up, and B 6 ;
but B is fo much the beUer gamefter, that his chance
againft A upon a fingle tnrow would be as 3 to 2 ; What
is the ratio of their chances ? Since A wants 4, and
B 6, the game will be ended at nine throws ; there-
fore, ratfe a-\-b to the ninth poivcr, and it will be
«9-)-9 fl8/,-}-36 a'Z'6-f 84 M^ + 126 a^b*.^i26 a*L^
to 84 flU<-f 36 Aab''+6abi-^L'' : call a^, and bl, and
you will have the ratio of char.ces in numbers, >-iz.
1759077 to 104048.

A

GAM [3

A and B play at fingle quoitj, and A is the bell
' gamefler, fo that he can give B 2 in 3 : Wliat is the
ratio of their chances at a fingle thro-.v > Suppofe the
chances as « to t, and raife !s-|-i to its cube, which
will be !s' + 3 =' + 3 c-j- I. Now fmce A could give B
2 out of 3, A might undertake to win three Ihrows
mnning •, and confequently the chances in this cafe %vill
be as *5 to 3z*+3!2-f i. Hence is'=3z'4-32;+l ; or

2z^=:z* -i-^z' — 32+1. And therefore ssy' 2=^+1 5

'+3=— 3=
lid, confequently, 2:=

The chances, there-

fore, are \z — i, and i, refpeflivelv.
V
Again, fuppofe I have two wagers depending, in the
lirll; of which I have 3 to 2 the beft of the lay, and in
the fecond 7 to 4 ; What is the probability I win both
wagers?

1. The probability of winning the firft is 4-, that is
the number of chances I have to win, divided by the
number of all the chances : the probability of winning
the fecond is Vr ■ therefore, multiplying thefe two frac-
tions together, the produft ^vill be ^, which is the
probability of winning both wagers. No;v, this fraclion
being fubtra£led from 1 , the remainder is ^i-, which is
the probability I do not win both wagers : therefore the
odds againft me are 34 to 21.

2. if I would know what the probability is of win-
ning the firll, and lofing the fecond, 1 argue thus ; the
probability of winning the firft is f, the probability of
lofing the fecond is VV '■ therefore multiplying 4. by -^,
the product fi will be the probability of my winning
the firft, and lofing the fecond ; which being fubtradl-
ed from I, there will remain ^, which is the probabi-
lity I do not win the firfl, and at the fame time lofe the
fecond.

3. If I would know what the probability is of win-
ning the fecond, and at the fame time lofing the firft,
I fay thus : The probability of winning the fecond is
-rV ; the probability of lofing the firft is ^ : therefore,
multiplying thefe two fraftions together, the product
i-i- is the probability I ^vin the fecond, and alfo lofe the
firft.

4. If I would know what the probability is of lofing
both wagers, I fay, the probability of lofing the firft is
i, and the probability of lofing the fecond ^ : there-
fore the probability of lofing them both is yV : which,
being fubtrafted from 1, there remains ^r.- therefore,
the odds of lofing both wagers is 47 to 8.

This way of reafoning is applicable to the happening
or failing of any events that may fall under confidera-
tion. Thus if I would know what the probability is of
miffing an ace four times together with a die, this I con-
fider as the failing of four ditlerent events. Now the
probability of miffing the firft is 4, the fecond is alfo ^,
the third g, and the fourth ^ ; therefore the probabili-
ty of miffing it four times together is | X 7 X | X 4=^
i^VsJ which being fubtrafled from I, there will re-
main -/-.V-s for the probabiUty of throwing it once or
oftcner in four times : therefore the odds of throwing an
see in four times, is 671 to 625.

But if the flinging of an ace was undertaken in three
limes, the probability of miffing it three times would
bt ifX-gX i^= ir'e; which being fubtracled from i, there
^ilj remain tVo for the probability of throwing it once

74 ] G A M

or oftener in thrte times : therefore the odds againft Gaming.

throwing it in three times are 125 to 91. Again, fup- ' v~—

pofe we would know the probability of throwing an ace
once in four times, and no more ; fince the probability
of throwing it the firft time is i, and of miffing it the
other three times, is | X f X I, it follows, that the pro-
bability of throwing it the firit time, and miffing it the
other three fucceffive times, is zX^XiX^^^'rW;
but becaufe it is poffible to hit e\ery throw as well as
the firft, it follo-.vf, that the probability of throwing it
once in four throws, and mifling it the other three, is

— — ^= - — -; ; which being fubftraiEled from i, there

will remain -fif^ for the probability' of throwing it
once, and no more, in foiu: times. Therefore, if one
undertake to throw an ace once, and no more, in four
times, he has 500 to 796 the worft of the lay, or 5 to
8 very near.

Suppofe two events are fuch, that one of them lias
twice as many chances to come up as die other ; what
is the probability that the event, which has the greater
number of chances to come up, does not happen twice
before the other happens once, which is the cafe of
flinging 7 with two dice before 4 once ? Since the
number of chances is as 2 to I, the probability of
the firft happening before the fecond is -f, but the pro-
bability of its happening twice before it is but -yX-j- or
* : therefore it is 5 to 4, feven does not come up twice
before four once.

But, if it wete demanded, what muft be the pro-
portion of the facilities of the coming up of two events,
to make that which has the moft chances come up
twice, before the other comes up once f The anfwer
is, 1 2 to 5 very nearly : whence it follows, that the
probability of throwing the firft before the fecond is i4»
and the probability of throu-ing it twice is ttXtt, or
iii j therefore the probability of not doing it is if! j
therefore the odds againft it are as 145 to 1 44, which
comes very near an equality.

Suppofe there is a heap of thirteen cards of one
colour, and another heap of thirteen cards of another
colour ; Wliat is the probability, that, taking one card
at a venture out of each heap, I fliall take out the two
aces ?

The probability of taking the ace out of the firft
heap is -,'t ^ the probability of taking the ace out of
the fecond heap is ,K ; therefore the probability of
taking out both aces is -/t X 57= 1 ij, which being
fubtracled from I, there will remain i|§ : therefore the
odds againft me are 168 to 1.

In cafes where the events depend on one another,
the manner of arguing is fomewhat altered. Thus,
fuppofe that out of one fingle heap of thirteen cards
of one colour I ffiould undertake to take out firft the
ace 5 and, fecondly, the two : though the probability
of taking out the ace be tt> ^"'^ the probability of
taking out the two be likewife t't • y^t, the ace being
fuppol'ed as taken out already, tliere will remain only
t'.velve cards in the heap, which will make the proba-
bility of taking out the two to be tt j tbttcfore the
probability of taking out tlic ace, and then the two,
will be t't X I'r-

In this laft queftion the two events have a dependence
on each other ; which confills in this, that one of the

event':

G A N [375

events being fuppofed as having happened, the proba-
bility of the other's hnppeninfr is thereby altered. But
the cafe is not fo in the two heaps of cards.

If the events in quelVion be n in number, and be
fuch as have the lame number a of chances by which
they may happen, and likewife the fame number b of
chances by which they may fail, raife a-f-6 to the
power n' And if A and B play together, on condition
that if either one or more of the events in queltion
happen, A fliall win, and B lofe, the probability of

's winning will be

and that of B';

Tiin^ will be ,, ; for when a-Ub is aftually raifed

" '' + ''1

to the power n, the only term in which a does not oc-
cur is the lart ^^ : therefore all the terms but the laft
are favourable to A.

Thus if nr=3, railing a-\-l7 to the cube a'-j-jrt* i +
gai'-f-^', all the terms but l>^ will be favourable to
A ; and tlierefore the probability of A's \vinning will

fl?+3fl=*-f-3,7i

■ — — ; and the probabui-

But if A and B

play on condition, that if either two or more of the
events in queftion happen, A Ihall win ; the probabi-
r+bl^—nab"—'—.

lity of A's winning will be — — —

^ • b['

for

the only two terms in wliich a a does not occur are
the two laft, viz. n a bn — ' and l". ,

GAMMONING, among feamen, denotes feveral
turns of a rope taken round the bowfprit, and reeved
through holes in knees of the head, for the greater
fecurity of the bowfprit.

GAMMUT, Gamut, Gam-uI, in Mu/c, a fcale
whereon we may learn to found the mufical notes, ut,
re, mi, fa, fol, la, in their feveral orders and difpo-
fitions. See Music.

The invention of this fcale is owing to Guido Are-
tin, a monk of Arezzo, in Tufcany, about the year
1039 ; though it is not fo properly an invention, as an
improvement on the diagram or fcale of the ancients.
See Aretix.

Several alterations have been made in the gammut.
M. Le Maire, particularly, has added a feventh note ;
\\z.ji; and the Englidi ufually throw out both ut and
Ji, and make the other five fer\-e for all.

GANDER, in Ornil/t'jlogij, the male of the goofe
kind. See Anas, Ornithology Index.

GANG-WAY, is the feveral paflages or wavs from
one part of the lliip to the other ; and whatfoever is
laid in any of thofe palTages is faid to lie in the gang-
way.

GANGANELLI. See Clement XIV.

GANGES, a large and celebrated river of India.
It has its fource in the mountains which border on Little
Thibet, in 96 det;recs of longitude, and 3 5° 45' of
latitude. It crofles feveral kingdoms, running from
north to fouth ; and falls into the bay of Bengal by
feveral mouths. The waters are lowcft in April and
May, and higheft before the end of September. It
©verflows yearly like the Nile ; and renders the king-

3 G A O

dom of Bengal as fruitfUl as that of the Delta in E-
gypt. The people in thefe parts hold the water of
this river in high veneration ; and it is vifited annually ,.
by a prodigious number of pilgrims from all parts of
India. The Engliih have feveral fettlements on this
river, which will be taken notice of in their proper
places. The greateft happinefs that many of the In-

dians wl;li for, is to die in this river.

GANGLION, in Anatomy, denotes a knot fre-
quently found in the courfe of the nerves, .and which
is not morbid ; for wherever any nerve fends out a
branch, or receives one from another, or where two
nerves join together, there is generally a ganglion or
plexus, as may be ften at the beginning of all the
nerves of the medulla fpinalis, and in many other pla-
ces of the body.

Ganglion, in Surgery, a hard tubercle, generally
moveable, in the external or internal part of the car-
pus, upon the tendons or ligaments in that part ; ufu-
ally without any pain to the patient.

GANGRENE, a very great and dangerous degree
of inflammation, wherein the parts affecied begin to
corrupt, and put on a ftate of putrefaflion. See Me-
dicine, and Surgery.

GANNET, or SoLAND Goofe, in Ornithology. Sec
Pelicanus, Ornithology hijex.

GANTLET, or G.\untlet, a large kind of glove
made of iron, and the fingers covered with fmall plates.
It was formerly worn by the cavaliers, when armed at
all points. The ^vord is derived of the French ganle-r
let ; and that from gand, or gant, " glove."

The cafque and gauntlets were always borne in the
ancient marches in ceremony. Gauntlets ■(vere not in-
troduced till about the 13th century.

The gauntlet was frequently thrown like the glove,
by way of challenge.

GANTLOPE. See Gauktlope.
GANYMEDE, in mythology, a beautiful youth
of Phrygia, fon of Tros and brother to Ilus ; accord-
ing to Lucian, he was the fon of Dardanus. Jupiter was
charmed with him ; and carrying him away, made him
his cupbearer in the room of Hebe. Some fay that
he caufed him to be carried away by an eagle, and
ethers affirm he was himfelf the raviflier under the form
of that bird. He deified this youth ; and to comfort
his father made a prefent to him of fome of thofe very
A\ift horfes upon which the gods rode.

GAOL {Gaola. Fr. Geole, i. e. Caveola, " a cage
for birds"), is ufed mstaphorJcally for a prifon. It is
a ftrong place or houfe for keeping of debtors, &c.
and wherein a man is rellrained of his liberty to an-
fwer an offence done againft the laws : and every coun-
ty hath tw-o goals, one for debtors, which may be any
houfe where the Iheriff plgafes ; the other for the
peace and matters of the crown, ^vhich is the county
gaol.

If a gaol be out of repair, or infufTicient, &c. ju-
fticcs of peace, in their quarter feirions, may contraft
with workmen for the rebuilding or repairing it ■, and
by their warrant order the fum agreed on for that
purpofe to be levied on the feveral hundreds, and
other divifions in the county by a juft rate, 1 1 and 1 2
Will. III. c. 19. See Prison.

Gaol Delivery. The adminiftration of juftice be-
ing originally in the crown, in former times our kings

GAR . r 3:

ill peifon rode through the realm once in feven years,
to judge of and determine crimes and offences ;_alter-
,■ wards juftices in eyre were appointed ; and fince, ju-
fiices ot aflize ^nd gaol delivery, &c. A commiffion of
.gaol delivery, is a patent in nature of a letter from the
king to certain perfons, appointing them his jullices,
or two or three of them, and authorizing them to de-
liver his gaol, at fuch a place, of the priioners in it :
for which purpofe it commands them to meet at- fuch
a place, at the time they themfelvcs fhall appoint; and
informs them, that, for the fame purpofe, the king
hath commanded his fheiiff of the fame county to bring
all the prifoners of the gaol, and their attachments,
before them at the day appointed.

The jufl ices of gaol delivery are empowered by the
-common law to proceed upon indictments of felony,
trefpafs, &c. and to order to execution or reprieve :
they may likewife difcharge fuch prifoners, as on their
trials are acquitted, and thofe againll whom, on pro-
clamation being made, no evidence has appeared :
they have authority to try offenders for treafon, and
to punifli many particular offences, by ftatute, 2 Hawk.
24. 2. Ha/e's HiJI. Placit. Cor. ■i,^.

GAOLTR, the keeper of a gaol or prifon. She-
f IfFs are to make fuch gaolers for whom they will be
anfwerable : but if there be any default in the gaoler,
an aftion lies againft him for an efcape, &c. yet the
flieriif is moil ufually charged ; 2d Inll. 592. Where
a gaoler kills a prifoner by hard ufage, it is felony ; 3
Inft. 52. No fee (hall be taken by gaolers, but what
is allowed by law, and fettled by the judges, who may
determine petitions againll their extortions, &c. 2. Geo.
II. c. 22.

GAONS, a certain order of Jewifh doctors, who
appeared in the Eaft, after the clofing of the Talmud.
The word Gaons fignifies " excellent, fubUme ;" as in
the divinity fchools we formerly had Irrefragable, Sub-
lime, Refolute, Angelic, and Subtile dodors. The
Gaons fucceeded the Seburieans or Opiners about the
beginning of the fixth century. Chanan Meifchtia
was the head and firft of the excellents. He reftored
the academy of Pandebita, which had been fhut up for
JO years.

GARFISH, Horn fjh, ox Sea needle. See Esox,
Ichthyology Index.

GARAMA, in Ancient Geographij, the capital of
the Garamantes in Libya Interior ; near the fprings of
the Cinyphus, now in ruins. Garamantes the people.
It lay to the fouth of Gatulia, extending fiom the
fprings of the Cinyphus, and the adjacency of the river
Gir, to the mountains which form at the V'allis Gara-
viatiticn (Pliny) : or from the fprings of the Bagrades
to the lake Nuba (Ptolemy).

GARAMOND, Claude, a very ingenious letter-
founder, was born at Paris ; where he began, in the
year 1 3 1 0, to found his printing types free from all
the remains of the Gothic, or (as it is generally called)
the black letter, and brought them to fuch perfection,
that he had the glory of furpaffing all who went before
him, and of being fcarcely ever excelled by his fuc-
celTcrs in that ufeful art. His types were pr'odigioufly
multiplied : both by the great number of matrices he
rtruck, and the types formed in refembiance of his
in all parts of Europe. Thus in Italy, Germany,
England, and Holland, the bookfcUevs, by way of

6 ]

GAR

recommending their books, dillinguirticd tlie type by Garaffe
his namej and in particular the fmall Roman was II

by way of excellence known among the printers of '^
thefe nations by the name of Garamond'^s fmali Roman.
By the fpecial command of King Francis I. he founded
three fizes of Greek types for the ufe of Robert Ste-
phens, who with them printed all his beautiful editions
of the New Teftament, and other Greek authors. Pie
died at Paris in 156 1.

GARASSE, Francis, a remarkable Jefuitical wri-
ter, the firft author of that irrecoucilaWe enmity that
ftill fublills between the Jefuits and J.mfenills, in the
church of Rome, was born at Angoulcfme in 1 585,
and entered the Jefuits college in 1600. As he had
a quick imagination, a llrong voice, and a peculiar
turn to wit, he became a popular preacher in the chief
cities of France ; but not content with this honour,
he dillinguilhed hirafelf ftill more by his writings,
which were bold, licentious, and produced much con-
troverly. The molt confiderable in its confequences
^vas entitled Lafomme theologique des verilez. capital es de
la religion Cretienne ; which was firft attacked by the
abbot of St Cyran, who obferving in it a prodigious
number of fallifications of the Scriptures and of the
fathers, befides many heretical and impious opinions,
conceived the honour of the church required him to
undertake a refutation. Accordingly he publilhcd a
full anfwer to it ; while Garaffe's book was alio under
examination of the doftors of the Sorbonne, by whom
it was afterwards condemned. Garafte replied to St
Cyran ; but the two parties of Jefuits and Janfenifts, of
whom thefe were refpe£lively the champions, grew to
an implacable anisnofity againft each other, that is not
even now likely to fubfide. The Jefuits were forced to
remove their brother to a diftance from Paris ; where,
probably weary of his inactive obfcurity, when the
plague raged at Poicliers in 1 63 1 , he begged leave of
his fuperior to attend the fick, in which charitable of-
fice he caught the diforder, and died.

GARBE, in Heraldn/, a (heaf of any kind of grain,
borne in feveral coats of arms, and faid to reprefent
fummcr, as a bunch of grapes does autumn.

GARBLE, a word ufed to fignify the aftion of
feparatiiig the drofs and duft from fpice, drugs, &c.
Garbling is the cleanfing and purifying the good from
the bad ; and may come from the Italian garbo, i. c.
finery or neatnefs : and hence, probably, we fay, when
we lee a man in a neat habit, that he is in handfome
garb.

GARCILASSO, de la Vega, an eminent Spanidi
poet, was born at Toledo, in 1503. He was the
younger fon of a man of rank, who had been employed
in negociating bufinefs of importance. Garcilaflb was
diftinguiflied for his wit and bravery, and in a particu-
lar manner for his poetical talents. He was chiefly in-
ftrumental in giving popularity to an innovation of his
friend Bofcan, who introduced meafures borrowed from
the Italians. His works confift chiefly of paltorals,
which have a tedious prolixity. He is chic.Hy noted
for tendcrnefs, which is remarkably confpicuous in
fome of his fonnets. He is freer of borabaft than the
generality of his countrymen, owing to his familiar ac-
quaintance with the ancients ; and it is faid that his
learning and tafte were fuperior to his genius. He fol-
loived the profeflion t>f arms, and attended Charles V.

GAR [5

in a number of liis expeditions. He loft liis life at tlic
attack of a foitreis in Provcr.ee, ivhen only 33 years of
jge. GarcilaiTo is alfo the name of an author, a native
sf Cufco in Peru, nlio conipofed a liillory of Florida
in the Spanilli language, and another of Peru and its
Incas.

GARCINIA., a genus of plants belonging to tlie
dodec;!ndria clafs ; and m the natural method rank-
ing under the i8t1i order, Bicornes. See Botany
In^cx.

GAR CON, or Garsook, a French term, literally
fignifying a boy or male child any time before his mar-
riage.— It is alfo applied to divers inferior otl'icers,
among us called^ ^/oj;//, garpiones. Thus all the fer-
vants in the French king's chambers, wardrobe, &c.
who do the leller offices thereof under the proper
olncers, are called garpons de la chambre, de la garde-
robe, &c.

GARDANT, or Guardaxt, in Hcrald?-i/, denotes
any beall fall faced, and looking right forward.

GARDEN, Fravcis, better known to the public
by the title of Lord GardenJIone, was born at Edin-
burgh June 24th, in the year 1721,. His father was-
Alexander Garden of Troup, an opulent landholder
in Aberdeenfliire ; his mother was Jane, daughter of
Sir Francis Grant of Cullen, S. C. I.

After palTing through the ulual cqurfe of liberal edu-
cation at the fchool and the univerfity, he betook him-
felf to the fludy of law for his profeillon ; and in the year
1 744 he w as admitted a member of the Faculty of Ad-
vocates, and called to the Scottilli bar.

In his pradlice as an advocate he foon began to be
diltinguifned, by a ftrong, native reclitude of under-
Jlanding ; by that vivacity of apprehenfion and imagi-
nation, which is commonly denominated genius ; by
manly candour in argument, often more perfuafive than
(ubtlety and fophiftical artifice ; by powers which, with
diligence, might eaiily attain to the higheit eminence
of the profeflion. But the fame lirength, opennefs,
and ardour of mind, which diftinguithed him lo advan-
tageoufly among the pleaders at the bar, tended to
give him a fondnefs for the gay enjoyments of convi-
vial intercourfe, which was unfavourable to his progrefs
in juridical erudition. Shining in the fecial and con-
^ ivial circle, he became lefs folicitbufly ambitious than
he might otherwife have been, of the character of an
eloquent advocate, or of a profound and learned law-
yer. 'I'he vivacity of his genius was averfe from au-
licre and plodding ftudy, while it w^as captivated by
the fafcinations of polite learning, and of the fine arts.
Nor did he ahvays efcape ihofe excefles in the purfuit
of pleafure into which the temptations of opening life
ire apt, occafionally, to ftduce the moft liberal and in-
genuous youth. But his cheerful conviviality, his wit,
iiuraour, tafte, good^nature, and benevolence of heart,
rendered him the delight of all his acquaintance. He
became his majefty's folicitor July 3d, 1764.

At length the worth of his character, and his abi-
lities as a lawyer, recommended him to the office of a
judge in the courts of feffion and juiliciary, the
liipreme judicatures, civil and criminal, for Scot-
land. His place in the court of feffion he continued
to occupy till his death ; but had, fome years before,
rtiigned the office of a commiffioner of juiliciary, and
in recompence got a penlion of 200I. per annum.
Vol. IX. Part I.

77 j GAR

Clear difccrnraent, ftrong good fenfe, confcientious ho- O.irdcr
nerty, and amiable benevolence, rcmirkably dillinguilh- *— ~v~-
ed all his opinions and conduft as a judge.

In the year 1762 he purchaftd the eftate of Johu-
fton, in the county of Kincardine. Within a few
years after he began to attempt a plan of the moft li-
beral improvement of the value of tliis ettate, by an cx-
tenfion of the village of Laurencekirk, adjoining. He
offered leafes of fmall farms, and of ground for building
upon, which were to lad for the term of one hundred
years ; and of wliich the conditions were extremely in-
viting to the labourers and tradefmen of the furround-
ing country. Thefe otfers were eagerly liftened to,
P.Iore dcfnous to make the attempt beneficial to the
country than to derive profit from it to himfclf, he
was induced, within a few years, to reduce his ground-
rents to one-half of the original rate. — Weavers, join-
ers, (lioemakers, and other artifans in a confiderable
number, reforted to fettle in the rifing village. His
lordlliip's earrieftnefs for the fuccefs of liis projeft,
and to promote the profperity of the good people
whom he had received under his protection, led hun to
engage in feveral undertakings; by the failure of .'.hie h
he incurred confiderable loiles. Projecls of a print-
field, and of ntanufaftures of linen and of (lockings,
attempted with fanguine hopes in the new village, and
chieHy at his lordibip's rifli and expence, milgave in
fuch a manner as might well have finally difgultcd a man
of lefs fteady and ardent philanthropy with every fuch
engagement. But the village ftill continued to advance.
It grew up under his lordlhip's eye, and was the fa-
vourite objeft of his care. In the year 1779, ^^ P''°-
cured it to be erected into a burgh of barony ; Laving
a magiftracy, an annual fair, and a weekly market. He
provided in it a good inn for the reception of travel-
lers ; and with an uncommon attention to the enter-
tainment of the guefls who might refort to it, furniflied
this inn with a library of books for their amufement.
He invited an artiil for drawing, from the continent,
to fettle at Laurencekirk. He had tlfe pleafure of
feeing a confiderable linen-manufaflure at length fixed
in it. A bleachfield was alfo ellabliflied as a natural
counterpart to the linen-manufailure. Before his
lordffiip's death, he faw his plan of improving the
condition of the laboujcrs, by the formation of a new
village at Laurencekirk, crowned ivith fuccefs beyond
his moft fanguine hopes. He has acknowledged, uithan
amiable franknefs, in a memoir concerning this village,
" That he had tried, in fome meafure, a variety of the plea-
fures \vhich mankind purfue ; but never reb'lhed any fo
much as the pleafure arifing from the progrefs of his
village."

In the year 1785, upon the death of liis elder bro-
ther, Alexander Garden of Troup, M. P. for Aberdeen-
Ihire, Lord Gardenftone fucceeded to the poflcflion of
the family eilates, which were very confiderable. Un-
til this time his lordfhip's income had never been
more than adequate to the liberal expence into which
his rank, and the generofity of his nature, unavoidably
kd him. But the addition of a fortune of about
three thoufand pounds a-year to his former revenue,
gave him the power of performing many adls of bene-
ficence with which he could not before gratify liis
good heart. It was happy, likcwifc, that his fuccef-
iion to this ample iocome, at a period when the vigour
3 B of

GAR

[ 37S ]

GAR

of his conftltution was rapidly yielding to tlie infir.ni-
ties of old age, enabled him 10 feek relief, by a partial
ceflation from bufiiiel'?;, by travel, and by other means,
■\vliicb could not have been eafily compatible with the
pre\-ious ftate of his fortune.

In the month of Sept. 1786, he fet out from Lon-
don for Dover, and pafTed over into France. After vifit-
ing Paris, he proceeded to Provence, and fpent the
winter ir.onths in the genial climate of Hieres. In the
fpring of 1787 he returned northwards, vifiting Ge-
neva, Switzerland, the Netherlands, and the Butch
provincES, and parting through Germany into Italy.
With a fond curiofity, attentive alike to the wonders
of nature, to tije noble monuments of the arts, and
to the aivful remains of ancient grandeur, with whicTi
Italy abounds, he vilited all Its great cities, and fur-
vcyed almoft every remarkable and famous fcene that it
e.xhibits.

His firft objed, in ihefe travels, was to obtain the
reftoration of his declining health by the influence of a
milder climate, by gentle, continued, and varied exer-
cife ; by that pleafing exhilaration of the temper and
fpiiitu, vxhichis the heft medicine to health, and is moft
fuccefsFully produced by frequent change of place, and
of the objefts of attention. But the curiofuies of na-
ture .Tnd art, in thofe countries through wliich he tra-
velled, could not fail to attraCi, in a pov,-erful manner,
the curicfity of a mind cultivated and ingenious as his.
He, whofe breall glowed with the moft ardent philan-
thropy, could not view the varied works and manners
of a diverfity of nations of his fellow men, without be-
ing deeply interefled by all thofe circumflances which
might appear to mark their fortunes as happy or
vv-retchcd. He eagerly collefted fpecimens of the fpars,
the ftiells, the llrata, of rocks, and the veins of metals,
in the feveral countries through -which he pafled. He
amaiTed alfo cameos, medals, and paintings. He en-
tjuired into fcience, literature, and local inftitutions.
He wrote down his obferwations, from time to time ; ,
not indeed with the minute care of a pedant, or the
oflentatious labour of a man travelling with a defign to
publilli an account of his travels 5 but fmiply to aid
memory and imagination in the future remembrance of
objeds ufeful or agreeable.

After an abfence of about three years, he returned
to his native county. The lall years were fpent in
the difcharge of the duties of his office as a judge ; in
focial intercourfe with his friends, among whom was
the venerable Lord Monboddo, and others of the moft
relpedable charafteis that our country has to boafl
of ; in the performance of a thoufand generous offices
of benevolence and humanity ; in cherilhing thofe fine
arts, of which he was an eminent admirer and judge ;
and above all, in promoting the comfort, and encou-
laging the indullry of his dependants, and in lending
his aid to every rational attempt at the improvement of
public economy and public virtue.

St Bernard's Well, in the neighbourhood of Edin.
burgh, had been, long fnice, dillinguiflied for the me-
dicinal virtues of its waters. But various circumflan-
ces had alfo concurred of late to throw it into neglect.
Yet its waters being flrongly mineralized by a fulphu-
rated hydrogenous gas, were, by this means, unquef-
tionably qualified to operate, with highly beneficial ef-
£efls, in the cure of various difeafes. The qualities of

nineral water filling under Lord GarJenftone's
notice, he was induced to purchafe the property of the '
well, to direft it to be cleared from furrounding ob-
ftacles, which contaminated the virtues of the water, or
made it ir.acceirible ; to ered a beautiful and commo-
dious edifice over it ; and to appoint proper perfons to
diilribute the water, for a very trivial compenfation, to
the public. . The well lies at a dillance froih Elm-
burgh, which is very convenient for a fummer morn-
ing's walk. Within the fevv years which have paiTtd
fines Lord Gardcnftone's benevolent care brought it
into notice, It has attraiSed many of the inhabitants of
that city to vifit in the mornings of fpring and fummer.
And, undoubtedly, the agreeable exerciie to uhich they
have thus been allured, and the falutary effecls of the
water, have contributed, in no mean degree, to difpel
dlfeafe, and to confirm, or re-eftabliih health. Such
monuments are worthy to prelerve the memory ot a
patriotic and a good man !

As an amufement for the laft two of three years of
his life, when his increaling infirmities precluded him
from more aclive exerc.ife, and from mingling fo fre-
quently in the lociety of his friends as was agreeable
to his focial and convivial temper, he bethought him-
felf of revifing fome of th.ej'enx d'^efprh, and light fugi-
tive pieces, in which he had indulged the gaiety of his
fancy, in his earlier days ; and a fmall vclume of poems
was publilhed, in which the beft pieces are, upon good
authority, afcribed to Lord Gardenftone. He reviled
alfo the memorandums which he had made upon his
travels, and permitted them to be fent to prel's. The
two former volumes were publilhed one after another
while his lordfliip was yet alive ; the third after his
death. They m.et vvith a very favourable reception iii
the world, and were honoured v\'ith the high approba-
tion of the moil refpedable writers of periodical criti-
cifm. They convey much agreeable information, and
hefpeak an elegant, enlightened, and amiable mind.
The laft volume is filled chiedy with memorandums of
his lordftiip's travels in Italy ; and contains many in-
terefting critlcifms upon fome of the nobleft produc-
tions of the fine arts of painting and fculpture.

His lordfliip's health had long been declining ; and
he died a bachelor on the 2 2d of July 1793, lamented
by his relations and friends, by his tenants and humble
dependants, and by all true patriots and good men to
whom his merits and virtues were known.

GARDEN, a piece of ground properly laid out,
cultivated, and ornamented with a variety of plants,
flowers, frails, &c. See GARDENING.

Gardens are ufually diflinguilhed Into flower garden,
fruit garden, and kitchen garden : the firft of which,
being defigned for pleafure and ornament, is to be pla-
ced in the moft confpicuous part, that is, next to the
back front of the houfe ; and the two latter, being de-
figned for ufe, ihould be placed lefs in fight. But
though the fruit and kitchen gardens are here mention-
ed as two diftintt gardens, yet they are now ufually in
one ; and that with good reafon, fince they both re-
quire a good foil and expofure, and equally require to
be placed out of the view of the houfe.

In the choice of a place proper for a garden, the
moft eflential points to be confidered are, the lituation,
the foil, the expofure, water, and profped.

I ft, As to the fituation, it ought to be fuch a one

GAR

[ 3

rdtn as is wViolefome, and in a place neitlier too high ncr
v"~— too low ; for if a garden be too high, it \\ill be ex-
pofed to the winds, which are very prejudicial to trees;
and if it be too low, the dampnefs, the vermine, and
the venomous creatures that breed in ponds and mar-
ihy places, add much to their infalubrity. The moft
happy lituation is on the fide of a hill, efpecially if the
(lope be eafy, and in a manner imperceptible •, if a
good deal of level ground be near the houfe ; and if it
abounds with fprings of water : for, being Iheltercd
from the fiiry of the winds and the violent heat of the
fun, a temperate air will be there enjoyed ; and the
water that defcends from the top of the hill, either from
iprings or rain, will not only fupply fountains, canals,
and cafcades for ornament, but, when it has performed
its office, will water the adjacent valleys, and, if it be
not fuffered to ftagnate, will jender them fertile and
ivholefome.

2dly, A good earth or foil is next to be confidered ;
for it is fcarce poffible to make a fine garden in a bad
foil. There are indeed ways to meliorate ground, but
they are very expenflve ; and fometimes, when the ex-
pence has been beftowed of laying good earth three
feet deep over the whole furface, a whole garden has
been ruined, when the roots of the trees have come
to reach the natural bottom. To judge of the quality
of the foil, obferve whether there be any heath, thiilles,
or fuch like weeds, growing fpontaneoully in it ; for
they are certain figns that the ground is poor. Or if
there be large trees growing thereabouts, obferve whe-
ther they grow crooked, ill fhaped, and grubby ; and
whether they are of a faded green, and full of mofs, or
infefled with vermine : if this be the cafe, the place is
to be rejected. But, on the contrary, if it be covered
with good grafs fit for parture, you may then he enco-.i.
raged to try the depth of the foil. To know this, di,£r
holes in feveral places, fix feet wide and four deep ; and
if you find three feet of good earth it will do very well,
but lefs than two will not be fu;licient. The quality of
good ground, is neither to be ftony nor too hard to
work ; neither too dry, too moifl, nor too fandy and
light ; nor too ftrong and clayey, which is the vvorfl of
all for gardens.

^dly. The next requifite is water ; the want of which
is one of the greateft inconveniences that can attend a
garden, and will bring a certain mortality upon what-
ever is planted in it, efpecially in the greater droughts
that often happen in a hot and dry fituation in fummer ;
befide? its ufefulnefs in fine gardens for making foun-
tains, canals, cafcades, &c. which are the greatelt orna-
ments cf a garden.

4thly, The laif thing to be confidered is the profpefl
of a fine country ; and though this is not fo abfolutcly
neccflary as water, yet it is one of the moft agreeable
beauties of a fine garden : befides, if a garden be plant-
ed in a low place that has no kind of profpeft, it will
not only be difigreeable but unwholefome.

In the laying out and planting of gardens, the beau-
ties of nature fliould always be ftudied ; for the nearer
a garden approaches to nature, the longer it will pleafe.
According to Mr Rliller, the area of a handfome gar-
den may take up 30 or 43 acres, but not more ; and
the following rules (hould be obferved in the difpofition
of it. There ought always to be a dtftcnt of at Icaft

79 3 GAR

three Heps froni the houfe .to the warden ; this will ren- Cjdc
der the houfe more dry and wholefome, and th.e profpeft ^■^^j™
on entering the garden more extenfive. — The firlt thing
that ought to prefent itfelf to vieu- lliould be an open
lawn of grafs, which ought to be coniiderably broader '
than the front of the building ; and if the depth be
one half more than the width, it will have a better ef-
fecl : if on the fides of the lawn there are trees planted
irregularly, by way of open groves, the regularity of
the lawn will be broken, and the whole rendered more
like nature. For the convenience of walking in damp
weather, this la^vn (liould be furroundtd with a gravel
walk, on the oulfide of which fhould be borders three
or four feet wide for flowers : and from the back of
thefe the profpecl will be agresably terminated by a
flope of evergreen llirubs ; which, hov.ever, (hould ne-
ver be fuffered to exclude agreeable profpecls, or the
view of handfome buildings. Thefe walks may lead
through the different plantations, gently winding about
in an eafy natiural manner ; which will be more agree-
able than either thofe long ftraight walks, too frequent-
ly feen in gardens, or thofe fcrpentine windings that
are twifted about into fo many ihort turns as to render
it difficult to walk in them ; and as no garden can be
pleafing where there is a want of fhade and flielter, thefr
walks Ihould lead as fcon as pollible into plantations,
where perfons may walk in private, and be flickered
from the wind.

Narrow rivulets, if they have a conftant fiream, and
are judiciou'.ly led about a garden, have a better effect
than many of the large Ilagnating ponds or canals fo
frequently made in large gardens. Wlien wilderneiTes
are intended, they Ihould not be cut into ftars and
other ridiculous figures, nor formed into mazes of laby-
rinth<^, which in a great defign appear triding.

In ihort, the feveral parts of a garden fhould be di-
verfified ; but in places where the eye takes in the
whole at once, the two fides fhould be always the fame.
In the bufinefs of defigns, the aim fhould be always at
what is natural, great, and noble. The general difpo-
fition of a garden and of its parts ought to be accom-
modated to the different fituations of the ground, to hu-
mour its inequalities, to proportion the number and forts
of trees and ihrubs to each part, and to (hut out from
the view of the garden no objefts that may become or-
namental. But for a more extended view of this fub-
jecl, fee the article Gardemxg.

A pracVical attention to a garden. Is by forac efteem-
ed a degrading employment. It is true, indeed, that
paftoral and agricultural manners, if we may form a
judgment from the dignified defcriptions of Virgil, are
greatly degenerated. The employments of ihepherds
and hufbandrnen are now become mean and fordid. The
work of the ^aiden is ufually left to a peafant. Nor is
it unrcafonable to aflign the labour, which wearies v\ith-
out amufcment, to thofe who are fufficiently amufed by
the profpefl of their wages. But the operations of
grafting, of inoculating, of pruning, of tranfplanting,
are curioas exjierlmcnts in natural philofophy ; and that
they are pleafing as well as curious, thofe can teftify
who remember what they felt on feeing their attempts
In the amufcment of praftlcal gardening attended with
fuccefs. Among the employments fultable to old age,
Cicero has enumerated the liiperintcndcnce of a garden.
3 B2 it

GAR [3

It requires no great exertion of mind or body ; and its
"* falisfa£)ions are of that kind wliich pleafe without vio-
lent agitation. Its beneficial inrtuence on health is an
additional reafon for an attention to it at an age ^vhen
infirmities abovmd.

In almoft eveiy defcription of the feats of the
blelfed, ideas of a garden feem to have predominated.
TI:e word Paradife itfelf is fynonymous with garden.
The Gelds of Elyfium, that fweet region of poefy, are
adorned with all that imagination can conceive to be
delightful. Some of the moft pleafing paiTages of Mil-
ton, are thofe in which he reprefents the happy pair
engaged in cultivating their blifsful abode. Poets have
always been delighted with the beauties of a garden.
Lucan is reprefentea by Juvenal as repofing in his
garden. Virgil's Georgies prove him to have been
captivated with rural fcenes ; though, to the farprife of
his readers, he has not aiTigned a book to the fubjedl of
a garden. Our Shenilone made it his ftudy ; but, ivith
Sill his tade and fondnefs for it. he was not happy in
it. The captivating fcenes which he created at the
Leafowes, afforded him, it is faid, little pleafure in
the abfcnce of fpeciators. The truth is, he made the
embelliihment of his grounds, which fliould have been
the amufement of his life, the bufinefs of it ; and
involved himfelf in fuch troubles, Jiy the expences
it occafioned, as neceiTarily excluded tranquil enjoy-
ment.

It is the lot of few, in comparifon, to poffefs territo-
ries like his, extenfive, and fudiciently w-ell adapted to
conftitute an ornamented farm. Still fewer are ca-
pable of fupporting the expence of preferving it in
gOod condition. But let not the rich fuppofe they
have appropriated the pleafures of a garden. The
pofleiTor of an acre, or a fmaller portion, may receive
a real pleafure, from obfer\'ing the progrefs of vegeta-
tion, even in a plantation of culinary plants. A very
limited traft, properly attended to, will furnifh ample
employment for an individual. Nor let it be thought
a mean care ; for the fame hand that raifed'the cedar,
formed the hylTop on the w'all. Even the oichard,
cultivated folely for advantage, exhibits beauties une-
qualled in the fhrubbery ; nor can the greenhoufe pro-
duce an appearance to exceed the blolTom of the apple
and the almond.

Hanging O^rdfus, in antiquity, gardens raifed on
arches by Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, in or-
der to gratify his wife Arayflis, daughter of i\ftyages
king of Media. Quintus Curtius makes them equal in
height to the walls of the city, viz. 50 feet. They
contained a fquare of 400 feet on every fide, and, were
carried up into the air in feveral terraces laid above
one another, and the afcent from terrace to terrace was
by ftairs 10 feet wide. The arches fuftaining the
whole pile were raifed above one another, and it was
ftrengthened by a wall, furrounding it on every fide,
of 22 feet in thickncfs. The floors of each of the ter-
races were laid in the following manner ; on the top
of the arches were firft laid large flat ftones 16 feet
'ong and 4 broad, and over thtm was a layer of reeds

5o ] GAR

mixed with a great quantity of bitumen, over which Garde
were two rows of bricks clofely cemented together by ^""V
plafter, and over all ^vere laid thick iheets of lead ;
and laftly, upon the lead was laid the mould of the gar-
den. The mould or earth was of fuch a depth as to ad-
mit the largell: trees to take root and grow ; and it was
covered with various kinds of trees, plants, and flowers.
In the upper terrace there was an aqueduft or engine,
whereby water was drawn up out of the river for water-
ing the whole garden.

F/oalirig Gardens. We are informed by the abbe
Clavigcro in his Hiftory of Mexico, that when the
Mexicans ^vere brought under fubjeftion to the Col-
huan and Tepanecan nations, and confined to the
miferable little illands in the lake of Mexico, they
ceafed for fome years to cultivate the land, becaufe
they had none, until necelllty and induftry together
taught them to form moveable fields and gardens, which
floated on the waters of the lake. The method which
they puri'ued to make thefe, and which they ftill prac-
tife, is extremely funple. They plait and twift willous
and roots of marih plants or other materials together,
which are light, but capable of fupporting the earth
of the garden firmly united. Upon this foundation they
lay the light bu!hes which float on the lake ; and over
all, the mud and dirt which they draw up from the bot-
tom of the fame lake. Their regular figure is quadran-
gular ; their length and breadth various : but generally
they are about eight perches long, and not more than
three in breadth, and have lefs than a foot of elevation
above the furface of the water. Thefe were the firft fields
%yhich the Mexicans owned after the fc-andation of
Mexico ; there they firft cultivated the maize, great pep-
per, and other plants necelTary for their fupport. In
progrefs of time, as thofe fields grew numerous from
the induftry of the people, there %vere among them
gardens of flowers and odoriferous plants, which were
employed in the worftiip of their gods, and ierved for
the recreation of the nobles. At prcfent they culti-
vate flowers and every fort of garden herbs upon them.
Every day of the year, at funrife, innumerable veffels
loaded with various kinds of flo^vers and herbs, which
are cultivated in thofe gardens, are fccn arriving by
the cana's, at the great market place of that capital.
All plaots thrive there furprifingly ; the mud of the
lake is an extremely fertile foil, and requires no water
from the clouds. In the largeft gardens there is com-
monly a little tree, and even a little hut to flielter the
cultivator and defend him from rain or the fun. When
the owner of ?. garden, or the Chinnmpa as he is ufual-
ly called, wiftics to change his iituation, to nmove
from a difagreeable neighbour, or to come nearer to
his own family, he gets into his little vcffel, and by his
own ftreiigth alone, if the garden is fmall, or with the
aftiftance of others if it is large, he tows it after
him, and conducts it ^vhcrever he pleafes with the
little tree and hut upon it. That part of the lake
where thofe floating gardens are, is a place of infinite
recreation, where the fenfes receive the highefl poftible
gratification.

GARDENING j

[ 38r ]

GARDENING;

'T'^HE art of planning and cultivating gardens. In
-*- its utmoll extent, whatever contributes t6 render
the fcenes of nature delightful, is among the fubjeils
of gardening ; and animate as well as inanimate objeds
are circumllances of beauty or charailer. The whole
range of nature is open to the gardener, from the par-
terre to the forell ; and whatever is agreeable to the
fenles or the imagination, he may appropriate to the
fpot he is to improve : it is a part of his bulinefs to col-
lect into one place the delights which are generally dil-
perfed through different fpecies of countrj-.

Hijlarij of Gardening.
\ Hifi.if Gardenikg, Mr Walpole f obferves, was probably
Mod. Gar- one of the firft arts that fucceeded to that of building
ientng, tub- Jjoufes, and naturally attended property and individual
th'"'^'th'vol poffsfl'on- Culinary, and afterwards medicinal herbs,
of iiil Ar.cc- ""ere the objects of every head of a family : it became
dates of convenient to have them ^vithin reach, without feeking
J'ainting. them at random in ^voods, in meadows, and on moun-
tains, as often as they were wanted. When tiie earth
ceafed to funiilh fpontaneoufly all thofe primitive luxu-
ries, and culture became requifite, feparate enclofures
for rearing herbs grew expedient. Fruits were in the
fame predicament ; and thofe moft in ufe or that de-
mand attention mull: have entered into and extended
the domeftic enclofure. The good man Noah, we are
told, planted a vineyard, drank of the v\nne, and was
drunken ; and every body knowS the confequences.
Thus we acquired kitchen gardens, orchards, and vine-
yards. No doubt the prototype of all thefe forts was
the garden of Eden ; but as that Paradife was a good
deal larger than any we read of afterwards, being en-
clofed by the rivers Pifon, Gihon, Hiddekel, and Eu-
phrates ; as every tree that was pleafant to the fight
and good for' food grew in it ; and as two other trees
were likeu-ife found there, of which not a flip or fuck-
er remains ; it does not belong to the prefcnt difculTion.
After the fall, no man living was fuffcred to enter into
the garden ; and the poverty and necelTities of our firll
ancellors hardly allowed them time to make improve-
ments in their eftates in imitation of it, fuppofing any
plan had been preferved. A cottage and a Hip of
ground for a cabbage and a goofeberry bufli, fuch as
we fee by the fide of a common, were in all probability
the earliell feats and gardens : a well and bucket fuc-
ceeded to the Pifon and Euphrates. As fettlemcnts
increafed, the orchard and the vineyard followed ; and
the earliefi princes of tribes poffefled jull the neceflaries
of a modern farmer.

Matters, we may well believe, remained long in this
fituation ; and we have reafon to think that for many
centuries the term garden implied no more than a
kitchen garden or orchard.

The garden of Alcinous, in the Odyfley, is the raoft
renowned in the heroic times. Is there an admirer of
Homer who can read his defcription without rapture ?
or who does not form to his imagination a fccne of de-
lights more piclurefquc than the laudfca'pcs of Tinlan

or Juan Fernandez I" " Yet (continues our author)
what was that boafted Paradife uith which

the gods ordain'd
To grace Alcinous and bis happy land ?

Why, divefted of harmonious Greek and bewitchirrg
poetry, it was a fmall orchard and vineyard, with fjme
beds of herbs and two fountains that watered them,
enclofed within a quickfet hedge. Tlie whole compafs
of this pompous garden enclofed — four acres :

Four acres was th' alloted fpace of ground,
Fenc'd'with a green enclofure all around.

The trees were apples, figs, pomegranates, pears, olives,
and vines.

Tall thriving trees confcfs'd the fiuitful mold ;
The red'ning apple ripens into gold.
Here the blue fig with lufcious juice o'erflows,
With deeper red the fiill pomegranate glows ; •
The branch here bends beneath the weighty pear,
And verdant olives riourifh round the year.
* * % ^_ * » *

Beds of all various herbs, for ever green,
In beauteous order terminate the fcene.

Alcinous's garden was planted by the poet, enriched
by him with the fairy gift of eternal fmnmer, and no
doubt an effort of imagination furpafling any tiling he
had ever leen. As he has bellowed on the fame happy
prince a palace with brazen walls and columns of fil-
ver, he certainly intended that the gardens Ihould be
proportionably magnificent. We are lure, therefore,
that, as late as Homer's age, an enclofure of four acres,
comprehending orchard, vineyard, and kitchen garden,
was a llretch of luxury the world at that time had ne-
ver-beheld.''

Previous to this, however, ive have In the facred
writings hints of a garden Itlll more luxurioully fur-
nilhed. We allude to the Song of Solomon, part of
the fcene of which is undoubtedly laid in a garden f. f chap. ii.
Flowers and fruits are particularly fpokcn of as the or-i.
naments and the produce of it ; and bcfides thefe, aro-
matic vegetables formed a tonliderable part of the gra-
tifications it afforded. The camphor and the cinna-
mon tree, with all trees of frankincenfe, and all the
chief fpices, tlourifhed there %. Solomon tells us in an-
other place II, That he made him great works ; — gar- f Cant, iv,
dens and orchards, and planted in tliem trees of every i J-
kind. Indeed we mull fuppofc his gardens to have been I ^'^'^'- "•
both amply and curioully furnilhed, feeing the kinds,"*' ^'
nature, and properties of the vegetable tribes, feem to
have been a favourite lludy ^vith the royal philofopher,
and to have been deemed a fulijed worthy of his pen :
for we arc told, that he wrote of plants, from the great
cedar of Lebanon down to the liyflbp of the wall J. < Kjnp, j^.
Fountains and ftreams of water apnear alfo to have 33.
had a (hare in the compofition, and probably for orna-
ment as well as ufe.

Tlie hanging gardens of Babslon, mentioned in a
prccc.lini£ _

3S2

ARDENT

Afien, lib.

5 IP-

f ^ Curt.

( Efthe
II Lib. J

lib. ii.

pi-eccJinCT article, were a llill greater prodigy. But as
ihey are fuppofed to have been formed on terraces and
the walls of the palace, whither foil was conveyed cii
purpofe, Mr Walpole concludes, ' they were what
fumptuous gardens have been in all ages till the prefenf,
unnatural, enriched by art, poflibly with fountains, ila-
tues, baluftrades, and fummer houfes, and ^vere any
thing but verdant and rural."

Others, however, have allowed them greater praife.
They feem in many refpetls, to have been laid out
with good talle. Their elevation not only produced
a variety and extent of view, but was alfo ufeful in mo-
derating the heat. Sucli a fituation would likewife
fijit a greater variety of trees and plants than a plain
furface, and would contain a larger as well as a more
diverfified extent.

The fuiting of the fituation to the nature of the
trees feems, from the account given by Jofephus, to
have been one view \ in the ereiling the building in
. fuch a manner. And the fuccefs feems to have been
anfwerable, as the trees are faid to have flourilhed ex-
tremely well f , and to have gvomi as tall as in their
native fituations. On the whole, then, however differ-
ent thefe may appear from modern gardens, they feem
to have been formed with judgment and tafte, and viell
adapted to the fituation and circumftances.

It feems probable, from fei-eral circumftances, that
the eailern gardens were arj- hiing to the houfe or pa-
lace to which they belongca. Thus, King Ahafuerus
goes immediately from the banquet of wine to walk
in the garden of the palace ^. The gaiden of Cyrus,
■ at Sardis, mentioned by Xenophon *, was probably con-
tiguous to the palace : as was that of Attains, men-
tioned by Juftin ||. The hanging gardens at Babylon,
' were not fo much adjacent to the palace, as a part of
the palace itftlf, fince feveral of the royal apartments
were beneath them ^.

It is not clear what the tafte for gardening was among
the Greeks. The Academus, we know, was a wooded
ftiady place ; and the trees appear to have been of the
olive (pecies. It was fituated beyond the limits of the
walls, and adjacent to the tombs of the heroes ; and
though we are nowhere informed of the particular man-
ner in which this grove was difpoled or laid out, it
may be gathered from Paulanias, in his Attica, that it
was an elegant ornamented place. At the entrance
was an altar dedicated to Love, which was faid to be
the firlt erected to that deity. Within the Acad-mus,
were the altars of Prometheus, of the Mufes, of Mer-
cury, of Minerva, and Hercules ; and at a fmall di-
ftance was the tomb of Plato. So that in all proba-
bility, it was highly adapted by art, as well as nature,
to philofophic refleftion and contemplation.

We are told by Plutarch, that before the time of
Cimon, the Academus was a rude and uncultivated
fpot ': but that it was planted by that general, and had
%vater conveyed to it ; \vhether this ivater was brought
merely for ufe to refrefti the trees, or for ornament, does
not appear. It was divided into gymn'afia, or places
of exercife, and philofophic walks, (haded with trees.
Thefe an- faid to have flouriflicd very well, until de-
flroyed by Sylla (when he beficged Athens), as well
as thofe in the Lyceum.

Near the academy were the gardens of the philofo-
yhers, of Plato and of the JEpicurus ; which, however,

N G. HI{lor)^

were probably but fmall. Ihe fcene of Plato's Dia-
logue concerning Beauty is elegantly defcribed as be-
ing on the banks of the river Iliffus, and under the
ihade of the plantain ; but no artificial arrangement of
oSjcfts is mentioned, nor any thing which will lead us to
imagine the prolpect to be any other than merely natural.

Among the Romans, a tafte of gardening, any
otherwife than as a matter of utility, feems not to have
prevailed till a very late period; at leall the writers on
huftjandiy, Cato, Varro, Coiumeila, and Palladius,
make not the leaft mention of a garden as an objeci of
pleafure, but folely with refpecl to its produftions ot
herbs and fruits. The Lucullan gardens are the
firft we find mentioned of remarkable magnificence ;
though probably from the extravat^ance to which thefe
were arrived, they were not the firll. Plutarch fpeaks
of them as incredibly expenfive, and equal to the mag-
nificence of kings. They contained artificial elevations
of ground to a lurprifing height, of buildings project-
ed into the lea, and vaft pieces of water made upon
land. In fliort, his extravagance and expence were fo
great, that he acquired thence the appellation of the
Roman Xerxes. It is not improbable, from the above
account, and from the confideration of Lucullus hav-
ing fpent much time in Afia, in a fituation wh.erein he
had an opportunity of obferving the moft fplendid
conftruftions of this kind, that thefe gardens might be
laid out in the Afiatic ftyle. The vail mafles of build-
ing faid to have been erefted, might have borne fome re-
femblance, in the arrangement and ftyle, to the Baby-
lonian gardens ; and the epithet of the Roman Xerxes
might be anphcable to the tafte, as well as to the fize
and expence of his works.

The Tufculan villa of Cicero, ~ though often men-
tioned, is not anywhere defcribed in his works, fo as to
give an adequate idea of the ftyle in wh\ch his gardens
or grounds were difpoled.

There is but little to be traced in Virgil relative to
this fubjeft. Pines f, it feems probable, were a ia-\ Echg.vn.
vourite ornament in gardens; and flowers J, rofesfis, &c.
elpecially, ivere much efteemed, perfumes indeed hav- 5 ''"''■ '''•
ing been always highly valued in warm climates. Vir-"^"
gil places Anchifes in Elyfium, in a grove of bays :
and is careful to remark, that they were of the fweet
fcentcd kind. The Pa;ftan rofes were chictly valued
for their excellent odour ; and the fame quality ap-
pears to be the caufe why they were placed by Tibul-
lus as ornaments to the Elyfian fields. There appears
alfo to have prevailed among the Romans a piece of
luxury relative to gardens, which' is equally prevalent
at prefent among us, namely the forcing of flowers at
feafons of the year not fuited to their natural blowing ;
and rofes were then, as at prefent, the principal flowers
upon which thefe experiments were tried, as appears
from Martial | and others. ' t Vi<Ie

When Roman authors (Mr Walpole remarks), •^Z''.?'--''''-
whofe climate inftilled a wifli for cool retreats, fpeak|-V "^""[^ °'
of their enjoyments in that kind, ihey figh for grottoes, ,jj. and,
caves, and the refrefliing hollows of mountains, near '\T' Lamfridiut
riguous and fliady founts ; or bo^ill of their porticoes,'" ■"''• £'«•
walks of planes, canals, baths, and breezes from the^"*-
fea. Their gardens are never mentioned -^s affording
(hade and flielter from the rage of the dog ftar. Pliny
has left us defcriptions of two of his villas. As he
u!ed his Laurentine villa for his winter retreat, it is not
furprifing

FMoij. G A R D

furpriling that the garden niakes no confidciable part
of the account. AH lie fays of it is, th^it the gcftalio
oi place of e.\eiciiV, which furroundtd the garden (the
iiittcr coiifequ'.iitly not being very large), nas b<,undcd
by a hedge of box, and, where that w^s perillied, with
ro.'eroary ; that there was a, walk of vines ; and that
moll of the tiees were fig and mulberry, the foil not
bting proper for any other forts. On his lufcan villa
he is mere di.Tufe ; the garden makes a conlidcrabie
part of the defcription : — and what was the princii.al
beauty of that pleafure ground ? Exadly what was the
admiruf.on of this country about threefcore years ago j
box trees cut into monflers, animals, letters, and the
names of the maiter and the artificer. In an age when
architedlure difplayed all its grandeur, all its purity,
and all its taile ; when arofc Vcfpafian's amphitheatre,
the ttmple of Peace, Trujan's. forum, Domitian's baths,
and ildrian's villa, the ruir.s and veftigcs of which ftill
excite our altoniiliment and curiofity ; a Roman con-
ful, a polilhed emperor's friend, and a man of elegant
literature and taile, delighted in what the mob new
I'carce ad:nire in a college garden. All tlie ingredients
of Pliny's correfponded exadlly with thcfe laid out by
London and Wile on Dutch principles. He talks of
flopes, terraces, a wilderntrs, ihrubs methodically trim-
med, a marble bafon, pipes fpouting water, a cafcade
falling into the baton, bay trees alternately planted
with planes, and a ihaight walk fiom whence ifi'ued
others parted olT by hedges of box and apple trees, with
cbeliflis placed between eveiy two. There wants no-
thing but the embroidery of a parterre, to make a gar-
den in the reign of Trajan ferve for a defcription of
cne in that of King William. In one palTage above,
Pliny feems to have conceived that natural irregularity
might be a beauty •, in opere urbaniJfimo,{:x^% ]ie,fubila
ve/ut il'.ati runs iinilatio. Something like a rural vie^v
was contrived amidft fo much polilhed compolition.
But the idea foon vanilhed, lineal walks immediately en-
veloped the flight fcene, and names and inlcriptions in
box again fucceeded to compenfate for the daring in-
trodudion or nature.

In the paintings found at Herculaneum are a few
traces of gardens, as may be feen in the fecond volume
of the prints. They are fmaU fquare enclofures, formed
by trellis-work and efpaliers, and regularly ornamented
with vaxs, fountains, and careatides, elegantly fymrae-
trical, and proper for the narrow fpaces allotted to the
garden of a houfe in a capital city.

From what has been faid, it appears how naturally
and infenfibly the idea of a kitchen garden Aid into
that which has for fo many ages been peculiarly teim-
ed a garden, and by our anccftors in this country de-
flinguilhcd by the name oi z fitcaforc garden. A Iquare
piece of ground was originally parted off in early ages
for the ufe of the family ; — to exclude cattle, and af-
Ceitain the property, it was fcparated from the fields by
a hedge. As pride and defire of privacy incrcaied,
the enclofure was dignified by walls ; and in climes
where fruits were n(;t lavilhed by the ripening glow of
nature and foil, fruit trees were alfifled and Iheltered
from furrounding winds by the like expedient : for the
iniindation of luxuries, which have fwelled into gencial
necelFities, have aimolt all taken their fource from the
fimple fountain of reafon.

When the cultom of making fquare gardens cnclof-

E N I N G.

cd with avails was thus cftabliihed to the cxclufion of
nature and profpett, pomp and folitude combined to
call for fomelhing that might enrich and enliven the
infipid and unanimated partition. Foimtains, firft in-
vented for ulc, which grandeur loves to difguifc and
throw out of the qucftion, received cmbellilhments fiora
coftly marbles, and at lail, to contradid utility, toffcd
their « aiie of waters into the air in iiaouting columns.
Art, in the hands of rude man, had at firll been made
a fuccedaneum to nature ; in the hands of ollentatious
wealth, it became the means of oppofmg nature ; and
tlie more it traverfed the march of the latter, the
more nobility thought its power \vas demonftrated.
Canals mealured by the line were introduced in lieu of
meandering ttreams, and terraces were hoilled aloft in
oppolition to the facile Hopes that imperceptibly unite
the ^ alley to the hill. Balulkades defended thcie pre-
cipitate and dangerous elevations, and riights of Iteps
rejoined them to the fubjacent fiat from which the ter-
race had been dug. Vales and fculptuie were added
to thefe unneceflary balconies, and ftatues firmifhed
the iifelels fpot with inimic reprefentations of the ex-
cluded fons of men. Thus dithculty and expence were
the conftituent parts of thofe fumptuous and felfilh fo-
litudes j and every improvement that was made, was
but a Hep farther from nature. The tricks of water-
works to wet the unwary, not to refreflj the panting
fpeclator ; and parterres embroidered in patterns like a
petticoat, were but the childilh endeavours of falhion
and novelty to reconcile greatnefs to what it had fur-
feited on. To crown thei'e impotent difplays of falle
tafte, the llieers were applied to the lovely wiidnefs of
form with which nature has diiliiiguilhed each various
fpecics of tree and Ihrub. The venerable oak, the ro-
mantic beech, the ufeful elm, even the afpiring cir-
cuit of the lime, the regular round of the chefnut,
and the almort moulded orange tree, were corre£led
by fuch fantallic admirers of fymmetry. The com-
pafs and fquare were of more ul'e in plantations than
the nurferyman. The meafured walk, the quincimx,
and the etoile, impofed their unfatistying famenefs on
every royal and noble garden. Trees were headed,
and their iides pared away ; many French groves feem
green chefis fet upon poles. Seats of marble, arbours,
and fummer houfes, terminated every villa ; and fym-
metry, even where the fpace was too large to permit
its being remarked at one view, was fo eUelitial, that,
as Pope obferved,

each alley has a brother.

And half the garden juft rcHefis the other.

Knots of flowers were more defenfibly fubjeded to the
fame regularity. Leilure, as Milton exprclTed it,

■ in trim gardens took his pleafure.

In the garden of Marflral de Biron at Paris, confifting
of 1 4 acres, every walk is buttoned on each fide by
lines of tlowcr pots, which fucceed in their fcafons.

It does not precifely appear what our ancellors meant
by a bower : it was probably an arbour ; fometimes it
meant the whole frittered enclofure, and in one inllance
it certainly included a labyrinth. Roliimond's bower
was indifputably of that kind ; though whether ccm-
pofed of \valls or licdges, «c cannot determine, A
Iquate and a lound labyrinth wcic fo capital ingred;ent<:

Z'^3

3^4

CARD

of a garden formerly, that in Du Cerceau's architec-
ture, who lived in the time of Charles IX. and Heu-
r)' III. there is fcarce a ground plot without one of
each.

In Kip's Views of the Seats of our Nobility and
Gentry, we fee the fame tirefome and returning uni-
formity. Every houfe is approached by two or three
gardens, confifling perhaps of a gravel walk a^d two
grafs plats or borders of dowers. Each rifes above
the other by two or three Heps, and as many walls and
terraces, and fo many iron gates, that wc recollecl
thofe ancient romances in which every entrance was
guarded by nymphs or dragojis. Yet though thefe
and fuch prepofterous inconveniences prevailed from
age to age, good fenfe in this country had perceived
the want of (bmething at once more grand and more
natural. Thefe retleftions, and the bounds fet to the
^vafte made by royal fpoilers, gave origin to Parks.
They were contracled forefts, and extended gardens.
Hentzner fays, that, according to Rous of Warwick,
the firll park was that at Woodftock. If fo, it might
be the foundation of a legend that Henry II. fecured
his miftrefs in a labyrinth : it was no doubt more diffi-
cult to find her in a park than in a palace, where the
intricacy of the woods and various lodges buried in co-
vert might conceal her aftual habitation.

It is more extraordinary that, having fo long ago
ftumbled on the principle of modern gardening, we
lliould have pcrfifted in retaining its reverfe, fyrame-
trical and unnatural gardens. 'Ihat parks were rare
in other countrfes, Hentzner, who travelled over great
part of Europe, leads us to fuppofe, by obferving that
they were common in England. In France they retain
the name, but nothing is more different both in com-
pafs and difpofition. Their parks are ufually fquare or
oblong enclofures,' regularly planted with walks of
chefnuts or limes, and generally every large town has
one for its public recreation.

" One man, one great man we had (continues Mr
Walpole), on whom nor education nor cuflom could
impole their prejudices ; who, ' on evil days though
fallen, and with darknefs and folitude compaffed round,'
judged that the miftaken and fantaflic ornaments he had
leen in gardens, were unworthy of the Alm.ighty hand
that planted the delights of Paradife. He feenis with
the prophetic eye of tafte to have conceived, to have
forefeen modern gardening ; as Lord Bacon announced
the difcoveries fince made by experimental philofophy.
The defcription of Eden is a warmer and more jult pic-
ture of the prefent ftylethan Claud Lorraine could have
painted from Hagley or Stourhead. The firll lines wc
(hall quote exhibit Stourhead on a more magnificent
Icale :

Thro' Eden went a ri"cr large,
Nor chang'd his courfe, but thro' the fliaggy hill,
Pafs'd underneath ingulph'd : for God had thrown
That mountain as his garden mound, high rais'd
Upon the rapid current

f lagley fecms pidlured in what follows ;

Which thro' veins
Of porous earth with kindly thirft updrawn,
Rofe a frerti fountain, and with many a rill
iVater'd the garden .

E N I N G. Hlftoiy,

What colouring, what freedom of pencil, \vhal la:id-
fcap.e in thefe lines \

from that fapphire fount the crlfped brooks,

Rolling on orient pearl and fands of golj.
With mazy error under pendant lliades.
Ran neftar, viiiting each plant, and fed
Flow'rs worthy of Paradile, which not Nice art
In beds and curious knots, but nature boon,
Pour'd forth profule on hill, and dale, and plain,
Bothivhere the morning fun firll warmly fmote
The ojyen field, and where the unpierc'd liiade
Imbroivn'd the noontide bow'rs — Tlius '.vas this place
^ haf>py rural feat of various view.

Read this tranfporting defcription, paint to your mind
the fcenes that follow, contrail them \vith the lavage
but refpeflable terror with which the poet guards the
bounds of his paradife, fenced

n-ith the champaign he^d

Of a fteep wildernefs, whofe hairy fides

With thicket overgro^vn, grotefque and wild,

Accefs denied •, and over head up grew

Infuperable height of loftieft fliade,

Cedar and pine, and fir, and branching palm,

A fylvan fcene, and, as the ranks afcend,

Shade above fliade, a woody theatre,

Of llatelieft view

and then recoUeft, that the author of this fublime vifion
had never feen a glimpfe of any thing like what he has
imagined ; that his favourite ancients had dropped not
a hint of fuch divine icenery j and that the conceits in
Italian gardens, and Theobalds and Nonfuch, were the
brighteil originals that his memory could furnilh. His
intelleclual eye faw a nobler plan, fo little did he fuffer
by the lofs of fight. It futhced him to have feen the
materials with which he could work. The vigour of a
boundlefs imagination told him how a plan might be
difpofed, that would embellifli nature, and rellore art
to its proper office, the juft improvement or imitatiou
of it.

" Now let us return to an admired writer, pofterior to
Milton, and fee how cold, how infipid, how tallelefs,
is his account of what he pronounced a perfeft garden.
We fpeak not of his ftyle, which it was not neceflary
for him to animate with the colouring and glow of
poetry. It is his want of ideas, of imagination, of
tafle, that deferve cenfure, when he diftated on a fub-
jeft w-hich is capable of all the graces that a knowledge
of beautiful nature can bellow. Sir William Temple
was an excellent man ; Milton, a genius of the firft
order.

" We cannot wonder tliat Sir William declares in fa-
vour of parterres, fountains, and ftatues, as nccelVary to
break the famenefs of large grals plots, which he thinks
have an ill effeft upon the eye, when he acknowledges
that he difcovers fancy in the gardens of Alcinous.
IVIilton (ludied the ancients with equal enthufiafm, but
no bigotry ; and had judgment to dillinguifli between
the \vant of invention and the beauties of poetry. Com-
pare his paradife with Homer's garden, both afcribed
to a celeftial defign. For Sir William, it is jull to ob-
ferve, that his ideas centered in a fruit garden. He
had the honour of giving to his country many delicate

fruits,

Hlrtory. CARD]

fruits, and lie tliouglit of little elfe tlian difpofing
them to the befl advantage.

" The beft figure of a garden (fays he) is either a
fquare or an oblong, and either upon a llat or a de-
fceut : they have all their beauties, but the beft I
eileem an oblong upon a defcent. The beauty, the
air, the vieiv make amends for the expcnce, which is
very great in finilhing and fupporting the terrace walks,
in levelling the parterres, and in the ftone ilairs that
are neceffary from one to the other. The perfecleft
figure of a garden I ever faw, either at home or abroad,
was that of Moor Park in Hertfordlhire, when 1 knew
it about 30 years ago. It was fcade by the Countefs
of Bedford, elleemed among the greatell wits of her
time, and celebrated by Dr Donne •, and with very
great care, excellent contrivance, and much coft ; but
greater funis may be thrown away without effeft or ho-
nour, if there want fenfe in proportion to money, or
' if nature be not followed ;' which I take to be the
great rule in this, and perhaps in every thing elfe, as
iar as the conduct not only of our lives but our govern-
ments.' [We Ihall fee how natural that admired gar-
den was.] ' Becaufe I take the garden I have named
to have been in all kinds the moft beautiful and per-
feft, at leaft in the figure and difpofition, that I ever
have feen, I will defcribe it for a model to thofe that
meet with fuch a fituation, and are above the regards
of common expence. It lies on the fide of a hill, upon
which the houfe ftands, but not very lleep. The
length of the houfe, where the bell rooms and of moft
ufe or pleafure are, hes upon the breadth of the gar-
den ; the great parlour opens into the middle of a ter-
race gravel ^valk that lies even with it, and which may
be, as I remember, about 300 paces long, and broad
in proportion ; the border fet with ftandard laurels and
at large diilances, which have the beauty of orange
trees out of dower and fruit. From this walk are three
defcents by many ftone fteps, in the middle and at each
end, into a very large parterre. This is divided into
quarters by gravel walks, and adorned with two foun-
tains and eight ftatues in the feveral quarters. At the
end of the terrace walk are two fummer houfes, and the
fides of the parterre are ranged with two large cloifters
open to the garden, upon arches of ftone, and ending
with t^vo other fummer houfes even with the cloifters,
which are paved with ftone, and defigned for walks of
fhade, there being none other in the whole parterre.
Over thefe two cloifters are two terraces covered with
lead and fenced with balufters ; and the palTage into
thefe airy walks is out of the two fummer houfes at the
end of the firft terrace walk. The cloifter facing the
fouth is covered with vines, and would have been proper
for an orange houfe, and the other for myrtles or other
more common greens, and had, I doubt not, been caft
for that purpofe, if this piece of gardening had been
then in as much vogue as it is now. From the middle
of this parterre is a defcent by many fteps dying on
each fide of a grotto, that lies betiveen them, covered
with lead and flat, into the lower garden, which is all
fruit trees ranged about the feveral quarters of a wil-
dernefs, which is very ftiady ; the walks here are all
green, the grotto embelljftied with figures of Ihell rock-
work, fountains, and water works. If the hill had not
pnded with the lower garden, and the wall were not
bounded by a common way that goes through the
Vol. IX. Part I.

^ N I N G,

park, they might have added a third qiwrtcr bt all
greens ; but this want is fupplied by a garden on tlie
other fide the houfe, which is all of that fort, very \vild,
Ihady, and adorned with rough rock \vork and foun-
tains. Tdis was Moor Park when I was acquainted
with it, and the fweeteft place, L think, thai. I have
feen In my life, either before or fince, at home or
abroad.'

" It is unneceffary to add any remarks on this de-
fcviption. Any man might defign and build as fw.-t a
garden, who had been born in and never ftirred out of
Holborn. it was not, however, peculiar to Sir Wil-
liam Temple to think in that maimer. How many
Frenchmen are there who have feen our gardens, and
ftill prefer natural flights of fteps and ftiady cloifters co-
vered with lead 1 Le Nautre, the architcft of the
groves and grottoes at VerHiIlles, came hither on a mil-
fion to improve our tafte. He planted St James's and
Greenwich Parks — no great monuments of his inven-
tion.

" To do farther juftice to Sir William Temple, we
muft not omit what he adds. ' What I have faid of
the beft forms of gardens is meant only of fuch as are
in fome fort regular ; for there may be other forms
wholly irregular, that may, for ought I know, have
more beauty than any of the others: but they muft owe
it to fome extraordinary difpofitions of nature in the
feat, or fome great race of fancy or judgm.ent in the
contrivance, which may reduce many difagrecing parts
into fome figure, which ftiall yet, upon the whole, be
very agreeable. Something of this I have feen in fome
places, but heard more of it from others who have li-
ved much among the Chinefes, a people whofe way of
thinking feems to lie as wide of ours in Europe as their
country does. Their greateft reach of imagination is
employed in contriving figures, where the beauty ftiall
be great and ftrike the eye, but without any order or
difpofition of parts, that ftiall be commonly or eafily ob-
ferved. And though we have hardly any notion of this
fort of beauty, yet they have a particular word to ex-
prefs it : and when they find it hit their eye at firft
fight, they fay the Sharawadgi is fine or is admirable,
or any fuch expreflion of efteem : but I ftiould hardly
advife any of thefe attempts in the figure of gardens
among us ■, they are adventures of too hard achieve-
ment for any common hands •, and though there may
be more honour if they fucceed well, yet there Is more
dilhonour if they fail, and it Is twenty to one they will j
whereas in regular figures it is hard to make any great
and remarkable faults.'

" Fortunately Kent and a few others were not quite
fo timid, or we might ftill be going up and down Itairs
In the open air. It is true, wc liave heard much lately,
as Sir William Temple di«i, of irregularity and imita-
tions of nature in the gardens or grounds of the Chi-
nefe. The former is certainly true : they are as whlm-
fically irregular, as European gardens are formally
uniform and unvaried : — but with regard to nature,
it ffeems as much avoided, as in the fquarcs and oblongs
and ftralght lines of our anceftors. An artificial perpen-
dicular rock ftarting out of a flat plain, and connefted
with nothing, often pierced through in various places
with oval hollows, has no more pretenfion to be dtem-
ed natural than a lineal terrace or a parterre. The
late Mr Jofeph Spcnce, who had both tafte and zeal
3 C for

385

GARDENING.

for tiic prefcnt liyle, -.vas fo perfuaded of the Chinefe
emperor's plealure ground being laid out on principles
refembling ours, that he tranfl'^ted and publilhed, un-
der the name of Sir Harry Beaumont, a particular
account of that enclofure from the colleiUon of the
letters of the Jefuits. But except a determined irre-
gularity, one can find nothing' in it that gives any
idea of attention being paid to nature. It is of valt
rircuraference, and contains 200 palaces, befides as ma-
ny contiguous for the eunuchs, all gilt, painted, and
varnilhed. There are raifed hills from 20 to 60 feet
liigh, ftrearas and lakes, and one of the latter five
miles round. Thefe v.-aters are pafled by bridges : —
but even their bridges muft not be ftraight — they fer-
pentize as much as the rivulets, and are fometimes fo
long as to be furnilhed with refting places, and begin
and end with triumphal arches. The colonnades un-
dulate in the fame manner. In ftiort, this pretty gau-
dy fcene is the work of caprice and v.him, and, when
we redeft on their buildings, prefents no image but
that of unfubflantial tawdrinefs. Nor is this all.
Within this fantaftic paradife is a fquare town, each
fide a mile long. Here the eunuchs of the court, to
entertain his imperial majefty with the buftle and bu-
finefs of the capital in which he refides, but which it
is not of his dignity ever to fee, aft merchants and all
forts of trades, and even defignedly exercife for his
royal amufement every art of knavery that is praftif-
ed under his aufpicious government. Methinks this is
the childifh folace and repofe of grandeur, not a retire-
ment from affairs to the delights of rural life. Here
too his majefty plays at agriculture : there is a quarter
fet a part for that purpofe ; the eunuchs fow, reap, and
carry in their harveft, in the imperial prefence ; and
his majefty returns to Pekin, perfuaded that he has
been in the country.

" Having thus cleared our way by afcertaining what
have been the ideas on gardening in all ages as far
as we have materials to judge by, it remains to (how
to what degree Mr Kent invented the new ftyle, and
what hints he had received to fuggeft and conduit his
undertaking.

" We have feen what Moor Park was, nhen pro-
nounced a ftandard. But as no fucceeding generation
in an opulent and lilxurious country contents itfelf nith
the perfeftion eftablifhed by its anceftors, more perfeft
perfei51ion was ftill fought •, and improvements had
gone on, till London and Wife had flocked all our
gardens with giants, animals, monfters, coats of arms,
and mottoes, in yew, box, and holly. Abfurdity could
go no farther, and the tide turned. Bridgman, the next
lafhionable defigner of gardens, was far more chafte ;
and whether from good fenfc, or that the nation had
been ftruck and reformed by the admirable paper in
the Guardian, N° 173, he baiiifhed verdant fculpture,
and did not even revert to the fquare precifion of the
foregoing age. He enlarged his plans, difdained to
make every divifion tally to its oppofite ; and though
he ftill adhered much to ftraight walks with high clip-
ped hedges, they were only his great lines ; the reft he
divcrfifitd by wildernefs, and with loofe groves of oak,
though liill withir> furrounding hedges. As his refor-
mation gained footing, he ventured, in the royal gar-
den at Richmond, to introduce cultivated fields, and
wen morfcls of a forcft appearance, by the fides of

thofe endlcfs and tireforae walks tliat flretched out of
one into another \vithout intermifTion. But tills was
not till other innovators had broke loofe too from ri-
gid fymraetry.

" But the capital ftroke, the leading ftep to all that
has followed, was the deftruclion of walls for bounda-
ries, and the invention of fofles — an attempt then
deemed fo aftonifliing, that the common peoiile called
them Ha ! Ha's I to exprefs their lurprife at finding
a fudden and unperceived check to their walk.

" A funk fence may be called the Icaitrngjlefi^ for thefe
reafons. Nft fooner was this (imple enchantment made,
than levelling, movvirig, and rolling, followed. The
contiguous ground of the park without the funk fence
was to be harmonized with the lawn within ; and the
garden in its turn was to be fet free from its prime re-
gularity, that it might afibrt with the wilder country
without. The funk fence afcertained the fpecific gar-
den ; but that it might not draiv too obvious a line of
diftinflion between the neat and the rude, the conti-
guous out-lying parts came to be included in a kind of
general defign ; and when nature was taken into the
plan, under improvements, every ftep that was made
pointed out new beauties, and infpired new ideas. At
that moment appeared Kent, painter enough to tafte
the charms of landfcape, bold, and opinionalive enough
to dare and to diftate, and bom with a genius to ftrike
out a great fyftem from the twilight of imperfeft ef-
fays. He leaped the fence, and faw that all nature
was a garden. He felt the delicious contraft of hill
and valley changing imperceptibly into each other,
tafted the beauty of the gentle fwcU or concave fcoop,
and remarked how loofe groves crowned an eafy emi-
nence with happy ornament ; and while they called
in the diftant view between their graceful ftems, re-
moved and extended the perfpeftive by delufive com-
parifon.

" Thus the pencil of his imagination beftowed all the
arts of landfcape on the fcenes he handled. The great,
principles on which he worked were perfpedlive, and
light and (hade. Groupes of trees broke too uniform
or too extenfive a lawn ; evergreens and ^voods were
oppofed to the glare of the champaign ; and where
the view was lefs fortunate, or fo much expofed as to
be beheld at once, he blotted out fome parts by thick
ftiades, to divide it into variety, or to make the richcft
fcene more enchanting by referving it to a farther ad-
vance of the fpedator's ftep. Thus, itlefting favourite
objeCls, and veiling deformities by fcreens of plantation j
fometimes alloiving the rudeft wafte to add its foil to
the richeft theatre ; he realized the compofitions of
the greatert mafters in painting. Where objefls were
wanting to animate his horizon, his tafte as an ar-
chiteft could beftow immediate termination. His
buildings, his feats, his temples, were more the works
of his pencil than of his compafles. We owe the re-
ftoration of Greece and the diffufion of architefture to
his (kill in landfcape.

" But of all the beauties he added to the face of this
beautiful country, none furpalTed his management of
water. Adieu to canals, circular bafons, and cafcadft
tumbling down marble ftcps, that laft abfurd magnifi-
cence of Italian and French villas. The forced eleva-
tion of catarafts was no more. The gentle ftream was
taught to ferpentJze feemingly at its pleafure ; and

where

Hlftory,

Parti. G A R D

\vhere difcoutinucd by difi'crent levels, its courfe ap-
peared to be concealed by thickets properly interfpcrf-
ed, and glittered again at a dillancc, where it might
be fuppofed naturally to arrive. Its borders were
fmoothtd, but preferved their waving irregularity. A
few trees fcattered here and there on its edges fprink-
Icd the tame bank that accompanied its meanders ;
and when it difappeared among the hills, (liades de-
fcending from the heights leaned towards its progrefs,
ahd framed tlie diflant point of light under which it
was loll, as it tamed afide to either hand of the blue
horizon.

" Thus, dealing in none but the colours of nature,
and catching its moft favourable features, men faw a
new creation opening before their eyes. The linng
landfcape was chaftened or poliihed, not transformed.
Freedom was given to the forms of trees : they ex-
tended their branches unreftrifted •, and where any
eminent oak, or mailer beech, had cfcaped maiming
and furvived the forefl, bulh and bramble was removed,
and all its honours were reltored to diilinguilh and
fliade the plain. Where the united plumage of an
ancient wood extended wide its undulating canopy, and
flood venerable in its darknefs, Kent thinned the fore-
moft ranks, and left but fo many detached and fcattered
trees, as foftened the approach of gloom, and blended
a chequered light with the thus lengthened Ihadows of
the remaining columns.

" Succeeding artifts have added new mafler ftrokes
to tliefe touches ; perhaps Improved or brought to per-
fedion fome that have been named. The introduc-
tion of ioreign trees and plants, which we owe prin-
cipally to Archibald duke of Argyle, contributed ef-
fentially to the richnefs of colouring fo peculiar to our
modern landfcape. The mixture of various greens,
the contraft of forms between our foreft trees aivd the
northern and Weft Indian firs and pines, are improve-
ments more recent than Kent, or but little known to
hira. The weeping willow, and every florid (lirub,
each tree of delicate or bold leaf, are new tints in the
compofition of our gardens.

" But juft as the encomiums are that have been be-
ftowed on Kent's difcoveries, he was neither without
alTiftance or faults. Mr Pope undoubtedly contributed
to form his tafte. The defign of the prince of Wales's
garden at Carlton houfe was evidently borrowed from
the poet's at Twickenham. There was a little of af-
fefled modefty in the latter, when he faid, of all his
works ke was moll proud of his garden. And yet

E N I N G. 387

it was a fingular effort of art and tafte to im-
prefs fo much, variety and fccnery on a fpot of five
acres. The palling through the gloom from the
grotto to the opening day, the retiring and again
aflembling fliades, the duflcy groves, the larger lawn,
and the lolemnity of the termination at the cyprelTes
that lead up to liis mother's tomb, arc managed with
exquifite judgment ; aiid though Lord Peterborough
aflirted him

To form his quincunx and to rank his vines,

thofe ^vere not the moft pleafing ingredients of his little
perfpeclive.

" Having routed profefled art (for the modern gar-
dener exerts his talents to conceal his art), Kent, Ukc
other reformers, knew not how to ftop at the juft
limits. He had followed Nature, and imitated her fo
happily, that he began to think all her works were
equally proper for imitation. In Kenfington garden he
planted dead trees to give a greater air of truth to the
fcene — but he was foon laughed out of this excefs.
His ruling principle was, that nature abhors a ftraight
line. His mimics (for every genius has his apes,) feem-
ed to think that ftie could love nothing but what was
crooked. Yet fo many men of tafte of all ranks de-
voted themfelves to the new improvements, that it is
furprifmg how much beauty has been ftruck out, with
how few abfurdities. Still in fome lights the reforma-
tion feems to have been pullied too far. Though an
avenue crofting a park or feparating a lawn, and inter-
cepting views from the feat to which it leads, are capital
faults ; yet a great avenue cut through woods, perhaps
before entering a park, has a noble air, and,

Like footmen running before coaches
To tell the inn what lord approaches,

announces the habitation of fome man of diftin(Elion.
In other places the total banilhment of all particular
neatnefs Immediately about a houfe, which Is frequent-
ly left gazing by itfelf in the middle of a park, is a
defect. Sheltered and even clofe walks, in fo very un-
certain a climate as ours, are comforts ill exchanged
for the few pitlurefque days that we enjoy ; and when-
ever a family can purloin a warm and even lomething
of an old-falhioned garden firom the landlcape deiigned
for them by the undertaker in faftiion, without Inter-
fering with the pidure, they will find fatisfadions in
thofe days that do not Invite ftrangers to come and fee
their improvements."

PART I. PRINCIPLES OF GARDENING.

GARDENING, in the perfedion to which It
has been lately brought in Britain, is entitled to a
place of confiderable rank among the liberal arts. It
is (lays Mr Wheatley) as fuperior to landfcape paint-
ing as a reality to a reprefentation ; it is an exertion of
fancy ; a fubjed for tafte ; and being releafcd now from
the reftraints of regularity, and enlarged beyond the
purpofes of domeftic convenience, the moft beautiful,
the mo.fl firaple, the mcft noble Icenes of nature, are all

within its province. For it is no longer confined to the
fpots from which it takes its name ; but, as already ob-
ferved, regulates alio the difpofition and embellifliment
of a park, a farm, a foreft, &.c. ; and the builnefs of a
gardener is to feled and apply whatever is great, ele-
gant, or charaderiftic in any of them ; to difcover, and
to fliow all the advantages of the place upon which he
is employed ; to fupply its defeds, to corred its faults,
and to improve its beau;ics.

q C 2 Sect.

3S8

GARDENING.

Part

\?igtt>.

I Sect. I. Materials of Gardening.

Thkse may be divided into two general claffcs ;
Natural and Faclitioiis.

J I. Of ilie XAtvsJL Materials.

Thefe, according to Mr Wheatley's enumeration,
are — Ground, Wood, Water, and Roclts.

I. GROUND. By tliis is meant that portion of
r:aked furface which is included within the place to
be improved ; whether that furface be fwamp, lawn,
roughet, or broken ground ; and ^vhether it be a
lieight, a valley, a plain, or a compofition of fvvells,
dips, and levels.

The following paflage has been quoted from Mr
Gilpin's obfervations on the Wye f , as affording a
fublime idea of what ground ought to be. — " No-
thing (fays he) gives fo juft an idea of the beautiful
fwellings of ground as thofe of water, where it has
fufficient room to undulate and expand. In ground
which is compofed of very refraftory materials, you
are prefented often with harlh lines, angular infertions,
and difagreeable abruptneffes. In water, whether in
gentle or in agitated motion, all is eafy, all is foftened
into itfelf; and the hills and valleys play into each
other in a variety of the moll beautifiil forms. In
agitated water, abruptneffes indeed there are, but yet
they are fuch abruptneffes as in fome part or other
unite properly with the furface around them ; and are
on the whole peculiarly harmonious. Now, if the
ocean in any of thefe fwellings and agitations could be
arrefted and fixed, it would produce that pleafing va-
riety which we admire in ground. Hence it is common
to fetch our images from water, and apply them to
land : we talk of an undulating line, a playing lawn,
and a billowy furface ; and give a much llronger and
more adequate idea by fuch imagery, than plain lan-
guage could poffibly prefent."

The exertions of art, however, are here inadequate ;
and the artill ought not to attempt tocreiUc a mountain,
a valley or a plain : he fliould but rarely meddle even
with the fmaller inequalities of grounds. Roughets and
broken ground may generally be reduced to lawn, or
hid \rith wood; and a fwamp may be drained or covered
with water ; whilft lawn may be variegated at pleafure
by wood, and fometimes by water.

II. WOOD, as a general term, comprehends all trees
and (hrubs in whatever difpofition ; but it is fpecifically
applied in a more limited fenfe, and in that fenfe we
ihall now ufe it.

Every plantation mull be either a wood, a grove, or
clump. A wood is compofed both of trees and under-
ivood, covering a confiderable fpace. A grove confills
of trees without underwood. A clump differs from
either only in extent : it tJiay be either clofe or open j
when clofe, it is fometimes called a thicket ; when open,
a group of trees ; but both are equally clumps, what-
ever may be the Ihape or fituation.

I. One of the nobleft objecls in nature (Mr Wheat-
ley obferves) is ihe furface of a large thick wood, com-
manded from an eminence, or feen from below hanging

on the fide of a hill. The latter is generally the more ^v.
interelting objeft. Its afpiring fituation gives it an air """"
of greatnefs ; its termination is commonly the horizon ;
and, indeed, if it is deprived of that fplendid boundary,
if the brow appears above it (imlefs fome very peculiar
effeft charaflerifes that brow), it lofes much of its
magnificence : it is inferior to a wood which covers
a lefs hill from the top to the bottom ; for a whole
fpace filled is feldom little. But a wood commanded
from an eminence is generally no more than a part
of the fcene below ; and its boundar)" is often ina-
dequate to its greatnefs. To continue it, therefore,
till it winds out of fight, or lofes itfelf in the horizon,
is generally defirable ; but then the varieties of its fur-
face groiv ccnfufed as it retires ; while thofe of a hang-
ing wood are all dilVmfl, the furtheft parts are held up
to the eye, and none are at a diftance though the whole
be extenfive.

The varieties of a furface are effential to the beauty
of it : a continued fmooth (haven level of foliage is
neither agreeable nor natural ; the different growths
of trees commonly break it in reality, and their Iha-
dows Hill more in appearance. Thefe Ihades are fo
many tints, ^vhich, undulating about the furface, are
its greateft embellilhment ; and fuch tints may be pro-
duced with more effeft, and more certainty, by a ju-
dicious mixture of greens ; at the fame time an addi-
tional variety may be introduced, by grouping and
contrafting trees very different in (liape from each
other ; and whether \ ariety in the greens or in the
forms be the defign, the execution is often eafy, and
feldom to a certain degree impollible. In raifing a
young wood, it may be perfeft. In old woods, there
are many fpots which may be either thinned or thick-
ened : and there the charafteriftic diftinftions Ihould
determine what to plant, or which to leave ; at the leafl
will often point out thofe which, as blemilhes, ought
to be taken away ; and the removal of two or three
trees will fometimes accomplilh the defign. The
number of beautiful forms and agreeable maffes, which
may decorate the furface, is fo great, that where the
place will not admit of one, another is always ready ;
and as no delicacy of finiihing is required, no minute
exaftnefs is worth regarding ; great effefls will not be
difconcerted by fmall obftruftions and little difap-
pointments.

The contrails, however, of maffes and of groups muft
not be too ftrong, where greatnefs is the charafter of
the wood ; for unity is effential to greatnefs : and if di-
rect oppofites be placed clofe together, the wood is no
longer one objeft ; it is only a confufed colletlion of
feveral feparate plantations. But if the progrefs be gra-
dual from the one to the other, (liapes and tints widely
different may affemble on the fame furface •, and each
fliould occupy a confiderable fpace : a fmgle tree, or a
fmall duller of trees, in the midft of an extenfive wood,
is in fize but a fpeck, and in colour but a fpot ; the
groups and the maffes muft be large to produce any fen-
lible variety.

When, in a romantic fituation, very broken ground
is overfpread with wood, it may be proper on the fur-
face of the wood to mark the inequalities of the ground.
Rudenefs, not greatnefs, is the prevailing idea ; and a
choice direSly the reverfe of that which is produftive
of unity wll produce it. Strong contrafls, even oppo-

fitions.

Of the ou
l.ne o; a
wood.

G A R .D

fitions, may be eligible ; trie aim is rather to disjoint
' than to connect : a dt.;'p hollow may fink into dark
greens ; an abrupt barvk may be thown by a riling ftage
of afpiring trees, a flr.irp ridge by a narrow line of co-
nical fliapes : firs are of great ufe upon fuch occafions ;
their tint, their form, their fingularity, recommend
them.

A hanging W5o// of thin ftirejl trees, and fecn from
below, is feldom pleaiing : thefe few trees are by the
perfpeftive brought nearer together ; it lofes the beauty
of a thin wood, and is defective as a thick one : the
molt obvious improvement, therefore, is to thicken it.
But, wiien feen from an eminence, a thin wood is often
a lively and elegant circumftance in a view ; it is full
of objects ; and every feparate tree (hows its beauty.
To increafe that vivacity which is the peculiar excel-
lence of a thin wood, the trees Ihould be characterilli-
cally dillinguiflied both in their tints and their ihapes ;
and fuch as for their airinefs have been profcribed in a
thick wood, are frequently the moft eligible here.
Differences alio in their growths are a further iource
of variety ; each ftiould be confidered as a dii^incl ob-
je6l, unlefs where a fraall number are grouped toge-
ther ; and then all that compofe the little cluiter mud
agree : but the groups themlelves, for the fame reafon
as the feparate trees, (hould be flrongly contrafled ;
the continued underwood is their only connexion, and
that is not affefted by their variety.

Though the furface of a wood, when commanded,
deferves all thefe attentions, yet the outline more fre-
quently calls for our regard : it Is alio more in our
power ; it may fomelimes be great, and may always
be beautiful. The firft requifite is irregularity. That
a mixture of trees and underwood fiiould form a long
ftraight line, can never be natural •■, and a luccelTIon of
eafy fweeps and gentle rounds, each a portion of a
greater or lefs circle, compofmg all together a line lite-
rally Terpentine, is, if poflible, worfe. It is but a num-
ber of regularities put together in a diforderly manner,
and equally dillant from the beautiful both of art and
of nature. The true beauty of an outline confills more
in breaks than in fweeps ; rather in angles than in
rounds ; in variety, not in fuccefllon.

Every variety in the outline of a wood rauft be a
prominence or a recefs. Breadth in either is not fo im-
portant as length to the one and depth to the other.
If the former ends in an angle, the latter diminilhes to
a point ; they have more force than a (hallow dent, or
a dwarf excrefcence, how wide foever. They are great-
er deviations from the continued line which they are in-
tended to break ; and their effeft is to enlarge the wood
itfelf, which feems to ftretch from the moft advanced
point, back beyond the moft diftant to which it retires.
The extent of a large wood on a flat, not commanded,
can by no circumftance be fo manifeftly Ihown as by a
deep recefs •, efpecially if that recefs wind fo as to con-
ceal the extremity, and leave the imagination to purfue
It. On the other hand, the poverty of a ftiallow wood
might fometimes be relieved by here and there a promi-
nence, or clumps which by their apparent junction
ihould feem to be prominences from it. A deeper wood
with a continued outline, except when commanded,
would not appear fo confiderable.

An inlet into a wood feems to have been cut, if the
oppolite points, of the entrance tally ; and that fliow of

E N I N G. 389

art depreciates its merit : but a di.Terence only in t'le ^\■ol>J.
iituation of thofc points, by bringing one more forward ■ ^ ,'

than the other, prevents the appearance, though t-'ieir J^ -"'^^-^ '
forms be fimilar. Other points, which diftinguilh the J'jii^irn
great parts, fliould in general be ftrongly marked : a Gdrdin'mg.
ihort turn has more fpirit in it than a tedioas circuity j
and a line broken by angles has a precifion and finn-
nefs, which in an undulated line are wanting ; the
angles fliould indeed commonly be a little foftened ;
the rotundity of the plant which forms them is fome-
times fufficient for the purpofe j but it they are mellow-
ed down too much, they lofe all meaning. 'I'hree or
four large parts thus boldly diftingullhed, will break a
very long outline. When two woods are oppofed on
the fides of a narrow glade, neither has fo much occa-
fion for variety in itfelf as if it were fingle ; if they are
very different from each other, the contraft fupplies the
deficiency to each, and the interval between them is
full of variety. The form of that interval is Indeed of
as much confequence as their oi\ti : though the outlines
of both the woods be feparately beautiful, yet if toge-
ther they do not caft the open fpace into an agree-
able figure, the w hole fcene is not pleafing ; and a
figure is never agreeable, when the fides too clofcly
correfpond : whether they are exactly the fame, or ex-
aftly the reverfe of each other, they equally appear ar-
tificial.

Every variety of outline hitherto mentioned may be
traced by the underivood alone ; but frequently the fame
effecls may be produced with more eafe, and with much
more beauty, by a few trees (landing out from the thick-
et, and belonging, or feeming to belong, to the wood,
fo as to make a part of its figure. Even where they are
not wanted for that purpofe, detached trees are fuch
agreeable objefts, lb diftinft, lb light, when compared
to the covert about them, that (kirting along it in lome
parts, and breaking it in others, they give an unafTect- 3
ed grace, which can no otherwife be given to the out- " grovf .
line. They have a ftill further effect, when they ftretch
acrofs the whole breadth of an Inlet, or before part of
a recefs into th; wood 5 they are themlelves Ihou-n to
advantage by the fpace behind them ; and that fpace,
feen betiveen their Items they in return throw into an
agreeable perfpeftive.

2. The prevailing charafter of a wood is generally
grandeur : the principal attention therefore uhich it re-
quires, is to prevent the excefles of that charai5tcr, to di-
verfify the uniformity of its extent, to lighten the un-
wieldinefs of its bulk, and to blend graces with great-
nefs. The character of a j^rove is beauty. Fine trees
are lovely objects : a grove is an aflcmblage of them ;
in which every Individual retains much of its own pecu-
liar elegance, and whatever it lofes is transferred to the
fuperior beauty of the whole. To a grove, therefore,
which admits of endlefs variety in the difpofition of the
trees, differences in their (hapes and their greens are
feldom very important, and fometimes they are detri-
mental. Strong contrafts fcatter trees which are thinly
planted, and which have not the connexion of under-
wood \ they no longer form one plantation ; they are a
number of fingle trees. A thick grove is not indeed ex-
pofed to this raiichief, and certain fiiuations may recom-
mend different ftiapes and different greens for their ef-
fects upon the furface •, but in tlie outline they are fel-
dom much regarded. The eve attraded into the depth

;9C.

t New
-Eflierin
Surry.

G A R D

ot the grov«, paiTes by little circumftances at the en-
trance ; even varieties in the form of the line do not al-
ivays engage the attention ; they are not fo apparent as
in a contir.utd thicket, and are fcarcely feen if they are
not confiderable.

But the furface and the outline are not the only cir-
cumftances to be atter-ded to. Though a grove be
beautiful as an objecl, it is befides delightful as a fpot
to walk Oi- to fit in ; and the choice and the difpofition
of the trees for effects within, are therefore a principal
confideration. Mere irregularity alone ^viil not pleafe :
llrici order is there more agreeable than abfolute confu-
lion : and fome meaning better than none. A regular
plantation has a degree of beauty ; but it gives no fatis-
faftion, becaufe we know that the fame number of trees
might be more beautifully arranged. A difpofition,
however, in which the lines only are broken, without
varying the diftances, is equally improper. The trees
(hould gather into groups, or ftand in various irregular
lines, and defcribe feveral figures : the intervals between
them Ihould be contrafted both in Ibape and in dimen-
fions : a large fpace Ihould in fome places be quite
open ; in others the trees ihould be fo clofe together,
as hardly to leave a paflage between them ; and in
others as far apart as the connexion will allow. In the
forms and the varieties of thefe groups, thefe lines, and
thefe openings, principally confifls the interior beauty
of a grove.

The force of them is mofl ftrongly iUuftrated at
Claremont f , where the walk to the cottage, though
dellitute of many natural advantages, and eminent for
none ; though it commands no profpeft ; though the
water below it is a trifling pond ; though it has nothing,
in (hort, but inequality of ground to recommend it ; is
yet the fineft part of the garden ; for a grove is there
planted in a gently curved direftion, all along the fide
of a hill, and on the edge of a wood, which rifes above
it. Large recefles break it into feveral clumps, which
hang down the declivity : fome of them approaching,
but none reaching quite to the bottom. Thefe receifes
are fo deep as to form great openings in the midll of the
grove ; they penetrate almoft to the covert : but the
clumps being all equally fufpended from the wood ; and
a line of open plantation, though fometimes narrow,
running conllantly along the top ; a continuation of
grove is preferved, and the connexion between the parts
is never broken. Even a group, which near one of the
extremities Hands out quite detached, is flill in llyle fo
fimilar to the reft as not to lofe all relation. Each of
thefe clumps is compofed of feveral others Hill more in-
timately united ; each is full of groups, fometimes of no
more than two trees, fometimes of four or five, and now
and then in larger cluilers ; an irregular waving line,
iifuing from fome little crowd, lofes itfelf in the next ;
or a few fcattered trees drop in a more diftant fucceflion
from the one to the other. The intervals, winding
here like a glade, and widening there into broader open-
ings, differ in extent, in figure, and direction ; but all
the groups, the lines, and the intervals, are colle3ed
together into large general clumps, each of which is at
the fame time both compact and free, identical and va-
rious. The whole is a place wherein to tarry ^vith fe-
cure delight, or faunter with perpetual ornufcmcnt.

•The grove at Eilier place was plantct' by t'e fame
Diafterly hand j but the neceflity of accommodating the
3

E N I N G.

young plantation to fome large trees which grew there
before, has confined its variety. The groups are few *"
and fmall : there \vas not room for larger or for more ;
there were no opportunities to form continued narrow
glades between oppofite lines ; the vacant fpaces are
therefore cbietiy irregular openings, fpreading every
way, and great differences of diftance between the trees
are the principal variety ; but the grove vrinds along
the bank of a large river, on the fide and at the foot
of a very fudden afcent, the upper part of which is co-
vered with wood. In one place, it preiTes clofe to the
covert ; retires from it in another ; and ftretches in a
third acrofs a bold recefs, which runs up high into the
thicket. The trees fometimes overfpread the flat be»
low ; fometimes leave an open fpace to the river ; at
other times crown the brow of a large knoll, climb up
a fteep, or hang on a gentle declivity. Thefe varieties
ia the fituation more than compenfate for the want of
variety in the difpofition of the trees ; and the many
happy circumftances which concur,

Part I.

-In Efher's peaceful grov

Where Kent and Nature vie for Pelham's love,

render this little fpot more agreeable than any at Clare-
mont. But though it was right to preferve the trees al-
ready ftanding, and not to Sacrifice great prefent beau-
ties to ftill greater in futurity ; yet this attention has
been a reftraint ; and the grove at Claremont, confider-
ed merely as a plantation, is in delicacy of tafte, and
fertility of invention, fuperior to that at Elher.

It is, however, poffible to fecure both a prefent and
a future effed, by fixing firft on a difpofition which will
be beautifiil when the trees are large, and then inter-
mingling another which is agreeable while they are
fmall. Thefe occafional trees are hereafter to be taken
away ; and muft be removed in time, before they be-
come prejudicial to the others.

The confequence of variety in the difpofition, is va-
riety in the light and Ihade of the grove ; which may
be improved by the choice of the trees. Some are
impenetrable to the fierceft funbeam ; others let in
here and there a ray between the large maffes of their
foliage ; and others, thin both of boughs and of leaves,
only chequer the ground. Every degree of light and
ihade, from a glare to obfcurity, may be managed,
partly by the number, and partly by the texture, of the
trees. Differences only in the manner of their growths
have alio correfponding effefls : there is a clofenefs
under thofe whofe branches defcend low, and fpread
Avide ; a fpace and liberty where the arch above is high ;
and frequent tranfilions from- the one to the other are
very pleallng. Thefe ftill arc not all the varieties of
which the interior of a grove is capable ; trees, indeed,
whole branches nearly reach the ground, being each a
fort of thicket, are inconfiftent with an open planta-
tion : but though fome of the characleriliic diftindions
are ihercby excluded, other varieties moie minute fuc-
L( ''•'■' ' :e; for the freedom of paflage through-
' ; tree in its turn near to the eye, and

iiiTerences in foliage to obfcrvalion.
J iitiL-, iiiijii .:> they may feem, are agreeable when they
occur ; it is true, they are not regretted w^hen want-
ing J but a defecl of ornament is not neceffarily a ble-
milli. 4

3. It has been already obftrvcd, that clumps differ Of Clumps.

only

Part. T.

GARDENING.

Wood, only in extent from woods ; if they are clofe ; or from
^-'^\^—' groves, if they are open : they are fmall woods, and
^°"'" ftnall groves, governed by the fame principles as the
larger, after allo^vances made for their dimenfions. But
befides the properties they may have in common with
woods or with groves, they have others peculiar to
themfelves which require examination.

They ere either independent or relative : when inde-
pendent, their beauty, as fingle objects, is folely to be
attended to ; when relative, the beauty of the indivi-
duals mud be facrificed to the effect of the whole, which
is the greater confideration.

The occajions on \vhich independent clumps may be
applied, are many. They are often defirable as beauti-
ful objetls in themfelves ; they are foraetimes neceffary
to break an extent of la\\Ti, or a continued line whether
of ground or of plantation ; but on all occafions a jea-
loufy of art conftantly attends them, which irregularity
in their figure will not always alone remove. Though
elevations (how them to ad%'antage, yet a hillock evi-
dently thrown up on purpofe to be cro^vned with a
clump, is artificial to a degree of difguft : fome of the
trees Ihould therefore be planted on the fides, to take
off (hat appearance. The fame expedient may be ap-
plied to clumps placed on the brow of a hill, to inter-
rupt its famenefs : tJley will have lefs oftentation of de-
fign, if they are in part carried down either declivity.
The cbjeclion already made to planting many along
fuch a brow, is on the fame principle : a fingle clump
is lefs fufpedled of art ; if it be an open one, there can
be no finer fituation for it, than jufl at the point of an
abmpt hill, or on a promontory into a lake or a river.
It is in either a beautiful termination, diftinft by its po-
fltion, and enlivened by an expanfe of fky or of water
about and beyond it. Such advantages may balance
little defefK in its form : but they are loft if other
clumps are planted near it ; art then intrudes, and the
whole is difpleafing.

But though a multiplicity of clumps, when each is
an independent objecl, feldora feems natural ; yet a
number of them may, without any appearance of art,
be admitted into the fame fcene, if they bear a rela-
tion to each other : if by their fucceffaon they diverfify
a continued outline of wood, if between them they
form beautiful glades, if altogether, they caft an ex-
tenfive laivn into an agreeable (hape, the effecl prevents
any fcrutiny into the means of producing it. But when
the reliance on tliat cffe6l is fo great, every other con-
fideration muft give ;vay to the beauty of tlie whole.
The figure of the glade, of the lawn, or of the wood,
are principally to be attended to : the Gnell clumps, if
they do not fall eafily into the great lines, are blemiih-
es ; their connexions, their contrails, are more import-
ant than their forms.

Of a Lake. III. WATER. All inland water is either ruimirig
or ftagnated. When ftagnated, it forms a laie or a
pool, which differ only in extent ; and a poal and a
pond ■irt the fame. Running waters are either a rivu-
/(?/, a river, or a rit/ ; and thefe differ only in breadth :
a rivulet and a brook are fynonyraous terms ; a Jlream
and a current are general names for all.

I. Space or expanfion is effential to a lale. It can-
not be too large as a fubjeft of defcription or of
contemplation ; bat the eye receives little fatisfaflion

when it has not a form on which to reft : the ocean \vat<
itfelf hardly atones by all its grandeur for its infinity ; ■~""v-
and a profped of it is, tlierefore, always moft agree-
able, wlien in fome part, at no great dillance, a reach
of Ihore, a promontory, or an illand, reduces the im-
menfity into ftiape. An artificial lake, again, may be
comparatively extravagant in its dimenfions. It may
be fo out of proportion to its appendages, as to feem
a vvafte of water ; for all fize is in fome refpefts re-
lative : if this exceeds its due dimenfions, and if a
flatnefs of ftiore beyond it adds ftill to the drearinefs
of the fcene ; wood to raife the banks, and objccls to
diftinguilh them, are the remedies to be employed. If
the length of a piece of water be too great for its
breadth, fo as to deftroy all idea of circuity, the extre-
mities ftiould be confidered as too far off, and made im-
portant to give them proximity ; while at the fame
time the breadth may be favoured, by keeping down
the banks on the fides. On the fame principle, if the
lake be too fraall, a low fliore will, in appearance, in-
creafe the extent.

But it is not neceffary that the whole fcene be
bounded : if form be impreffed on a confiderable part,
the eye can, without difguft, permit a large reach to
ftretch beyond its ken ; it can even be pleafed to ob-
ferve a tremulous motion in the horizon, which ftiows
that the water has not there yet attained its termina-
tion. Still (hort of this, the extent may be kept in
uncertainty ; a hill or a wood may conceal one of the
extremities, and the country beyond it, in fuch a man-
ner as to leave room for the fuppofed continuation of
fo large a body of water Opportunities to choofe this
ftiape are frequent, and it is the moft perfedl of any :
the fcene is clofed, but the extent of the lake is un-
determined 5 a complete form is exhibited to the
eye, while a boundlefs range is left open to the imagi-
nation.

But mere form will only give content, not delight :
that depends upon the outline, ivliich is capable of ex-
quifite beauty ; and the hays, the creeks, and the pro-
moiilories, which are ordinary parts of that outhne, to-
gether with the accidents of ijlands, of inlets, and of
outlets to rivers, are in their Ihapes and their combina-
tions an inexliauftible fund of variety.

Bays, creeks, and promontories, however, though
extremely beautiful, ihould not be very numerous : for
a fliorc broken into little points and holloivs has no
certainty of outline ; it is only ragged, not diverfi-
fied ; and the diftindlnefs and fimplicity of the great
parts are hurt by the multiplicity of fubdivilions.
But iflands, though the channels between them be
narrow, do not fo often derogate from grcatnefs ; they
intimate a fpace beyond them whofe boundaries do
not appear ; and remove to a diftance the Ihore which
is feen in perfpeftive between them. Such partial in-
terruptions of the light fuggeft ideas of extent to the
imagination. ^

2. Though the windings qf a river are proverbially oi' ,, Ki
defcriptivc of its courle j yet without being perpetual-
ly wrtathtd, it may be natural. Nor is the cliaracier
expreffed only by the turnings. On the (.ontrary, if
they are too frequent and ludden, the current is redu-
ced into a number of feparate pools, and the idea of
progrefs is obfcured by the difficulty of tracing it.
length is the flrongeft fymptom of continuation ;

long ^

391

GAR

long reaches are therefore charafteriftic of a river, and
' they conduce much to its beauty ; each is a confider-
able piece of « atcr, and variety of beautiful forms may
be given to their outlines.

A river requires a number of accom^tmimentf. The
changes in its courfe furnifli a variety of fituations ;
while the fertility, convenience, and amenity, ^vhich
attend it, account for all appearances of inhabitants
and improvement. Profufion of ornament on a ficti-
tious river, is a jufl imitation of cultivated nature.
Every fpecies of buildintj, every ftyle of plantation,
may abound on the banks ; and whatever be their cha-
raclers, their pro.\imity to the water is commonly the
happiell circumftance in their fituation. A lullre is
from thence diffufed on all around ; each derives an
importance from its relation to this capital feature :
thofe which are near eiiough to be reflected, immedi-
ately belong to it •, thofe at a greater diftance ftill
fliare in the animation of the fcene ; and objefts total-
ly detached from each other, being all attrafted toivards
the fan^e interefting connexion, are united into one
compofition.

In tlie front of Blenheim was a deep broad valley,
which abruptly feparated the caflle from the lawn and
the plantations before it ; even a direft approach could
not be made without building a monftrous bridge over
the vaft hollow ■■, but this forced communication ^vas
only a fubjeft of raillery ; and the fcene continued
broken into two parts, abfolutely diflinft from each
other. This valley has been lately flooded : it is not
filled ; the bottom only is covered with ivater j the
fides are Hill very high ; but they are no longer the
•eps of a chafm, they are the bold Ibores of a noble
liver. The fame bridge is {landing without altera-
tion : but no extravagance remains ; the water gives
it propriety. Above it the river firll appears, wind-
«ig from behind a fmall thick wood in the valley ;
and foon taking a determined courfe, it is then broad
enough to admit an ifland filled with the fineft trees ;
others correfponding to them in gro%vth and difpofi-
tion, ftand in groups on the banks, intermixed with
younger plantations. Immediately below the bridge,
the river Ipreads Into a large expanfe : the fides are
open lawn. On that furtheft from the houfe formerly
Hood the palace of Henry II. celebrated in many an
ancient ditty by the name of Fair Rofamond's Bower.
A little clear fpring, which rifes there, is by the
country people ftill called Fair Rofamond's Well. The
fpot is now marked by a fingle willow. Near it is
a fine collateral ftream, of a beautiful form, retaining
its breadth as far as it isfeen, and retiring at laft behind
a hill from the view. The main river, having received
this acceflion, makes a gentle bend : then continues
for a confiderable length in one wide direft reach; and,
juft as it difappears, throws itfelf down a high cafcade,
which is the prefent termination. On one of the
banks of this reach is the garden : the fteeps are there
diverfified with thickets and with glades ; but the co-
vert prevails, and the top is crouTicd with lofty trees.
On the other fide is a noble hanging wood in the park ;
it was depreciated when it funk into a hollow, and
was poorly loft in the bottom ; but it Is now a rich
appendage to the river, falling down an eafy ilope
quite to the water's edge, where, with overlhadow-
Jng, it is reftccled on the furface. Another face of
4

D E N I N G.

Pait 1.

the fame wood borders the collateral ftream, with an
outline more indented and various ; while a very large ^
irregular clump adonis the oppofite declivity. This
clump is at a confiderable diftance from the principal
river : but the ftream it belongs to brings it down to
connecl with the reft ; and the other objeds, which
were before difperfed, are now, by the intereft of each
in a relation, which is common to all, coUefted into
one Illuftrious fcene. 'llie caftle itfelf is a prodigious
pile of building ; which, with all the faults in its
architecture, will never feera lefs than a truly princely
habitation ; and the confined fpot where it was placed,
on the edge of an abyfs, is converted into a proud fitua-
tion, commanding a beautiful profpect of water, and
open to an extenfive lawn, adequate to the manfion,
and an emblem of Its domain. In the midft of this
la«Ti ftands a column, a ftately trophy, recording the
exploits of the duke of Marlborough and the grati-
tude of Britain. Between this pillar and the caftle is
the bridge, ^vhich now, applied to a fubjecl worthy of
it, is eftablilhed in all the Importance due to its great-
nefs. The middle arch is wider than the Rialto, but
not too wide for the occafion •, and yet that is the nar-
roweft part of the river j but the length of the reaches
is ever)^vhere proportioned to their breadth. Each
of them is alone a noble piece of water ; and the laft,
the fineft of aU, lofes itfelf gradually in a wood, which
on that fide Is alfo the boundary of the lawn, and, rifes
into the horizon. All is great in the front of Blen-
heim : but in that vaft fpace no void appears j fo im-
portant are the parts, fo magnificent the objeft. The
plain is extenfn'e, the valley is broad, the wood is deep.
Though the intervals between the building are large,
they are filled with the grandeur which buildings of
fuch dimenfions and fo much pomp diffufe all aroimd
them J and the river in Its long varied courfe, approach-
ing to every objedl, and touching upon every part,
fpreads its influence over the whole.

In the compofition of this fcene, the river, both as
a part itfelf, and as uniting the other parts, has a
principal fhare. But water Is not loft though it be
In fo confined or fo concealed a fpot as to enter into
no view ; it m^y render that fpot delightful. It is
capable of the moft exquifite beauty in its form j and
though not in fpace, may yet in difpofition have pre-
tenfions to greatnefs ; for it may be divided into feve-
ral branches, which \\-ill form a clufter of illands all
connected together, make the whole place irriguous,
and, in the ftead of extent, fupply a quantity of water.
Such a fequeftered fcene ufually owes its retirement
to the trees and the thickets with which it abounds ;
but, in the difpofition of them, one diftinftion ftiould
be conftantly attended to. A ri\er dowing through
a ivood which overfpreads one continued furlace of
ground, and a river between t(vo woods, are in very
different circumftances. In the latter cafe, the woods
are feparate ; they may be contnifted in their forms
and their characters, and the outline of ep.ch ihould be
forcibly marked. In the former no outline ought to
be difcernible ■, for the river paiTes between trees, i)ot
between boundaries ; and though in the progrcfs of
its courfe, the ftyle of the plantations may be often
changed, yet on the oppofite banks a fimilarity Ihould
conftantly prevail, that the Identity of the wood may
never be doubtful.

A

CARD

A riv£i between two wooJs may enter into a view ;
and then it niuft be governed by the principles which
regulate the conduct and the accompaniments of a ri-
ver in an open expofure. But when it runs through a
wood, it is never to be feen in a profpeft ; the place is
naturally full of obftructions ; and a continued open-
ing, large enough to receive a long reach, would feem
an artificial cut. The river mull therefore necelVarily
wind more than in eroding a lawn, where the paffage
is entirely free. But its influence will never extend fo
far on the fides : the buildings mud be near the banks ;
and, if numerous, will feem crowded, being all in one
track, and in fituations nearly alike. The fcene, how-
ever, does not want variety : on the contrary, none is
capable of more. The objeiLs are not indeed fo ditFer-
rent from »;ach other as in an open view ; but they are
very different, and in mucli greater abundance ; for
this is the interior of a wood, where every tree is an
objetl, every combination of trees a variety, and no
large intervals are requifite to diftinguilh the feveral
dilpofitions ; the grove, the thicket or the groups,
may prevail, and their forms and their relations may be
conftantly changed ^vithout reftraint of fancy, or limita-
tion of number.

Water is fo univerfally and fo defervedly admired
in a profpeft, that the moft obvious thought in the
management of it, is to lay it as open as poffible ; and
purpofely to conceal it would generally feem a fevere
felf-denial : yet fo many beauties may attend its paf-
fage through a wood, that larger portions of it might
be allowed to fuch retired fcenes than are commonly
fpared from the view, and the different parts in dif-
ferent ftyles would be fine contrails to each other. If the
water at Wotton * were all expofed, a walk of near two
miles along the banks would be of a tedious length,
from the- want of thofe changes of the fcene which
now fupply through the ivhole extent a fucceffion of
perpetual variety. The extent is fo large as to admit
of a divifion into four principal parts, all of them great
in flyle and in dimenfions, and differing from each
other both in character and fituation. The two firfl
are the leaft. The one is a reach of a river, about the
third of a mile in length, and of a competent breadth,
flowing through a lovely mead, open in fome places
to views of beautiful hills in the country, and adorned
in others with clumps of trees, fo large, that their
branches ftretch quite acrofs, and form a high arch
over the water. The next feems to have been once a
formal bafin encompafTed with plantations, and the
appendages on either fide ftill retain fome traces of
regularity ; but the (hape of the water is free from
them •, the fize is about 14 acres ; and out of it iffue
ttvo broad collateral ftreams, winding to^vards a large
river, which they a^e feen to approach, and fuppofed
to join. A real junction is however irapoflible, from
the difference of the levels ) but the terminations are
fo artfully concealed, that the deception is never fu-
fpefted, and when known is not cafily explained. The
river is the third great divifion of the water ; a lake
into which it falls, is the fourth. Thefe two do ac-
tually join •, but their charafters are direftly oppo-
iite ; the fcenes they belong to are totally diflind ;
and the tranfition from the one to the other is very
gradual ; for an ifland near the conflux, dividing the
breadth, and concealing the end of the lake, mode-
VoL. IX. Part I.

E N 1 N G.

rates for fome way the fpace ; and permitting it to ex-
pand but by degrees, raites an idea of groatnefs, from
uncertainty accompanied with incrcafe. The reality
does not dii'appoint the expectation •, and the illand,
which is the point of view, is itfelf equal to tlie fcene :
it is large, and high above the lake ; the ground is ir-
regularly broken ; thickets hang on the fides ; and to-
^vards the top is placed an Ionic portico, which com-
mands a nobie extent of water, not lefs than a mile
in circumference, bounded on one fide with wood, and
open on the other to two Hoping lawns, the lealt of
an hundred acres, divtrfified with clumps, and bor-
dered by plantations. Yet this lake, when full in view,
and with all the importance which fpace, form, and
fituation can give, is not more interefting than the
fequellered river, which has been mentioned as the
third great divifion of the water. It is jull within the
verge of a wood, three quarters of a mile long, every-
where broad, and its courfe is fuch as to admit of in-
finite variety without any confufion. The banks are
cleared of uiidenvood J but a few thickas ilill remain,
and on one fide an impenetrable covert foon begins :
the interval is a beautiful grove of oaks, fcattered over
a green fward of extraordinary verdure. Betucen thefe
trees and thefe thickets the river feems to glide gently
along, conftantly ^vinding, without one ihort turn or
one extended reach in the whole length of the way.
This even temper in the ftream fuits the fcenes through
which it pafles ; they are in general of a very fober
call, not melancholy, but grave ; never expofed to a
glare ; never darkened with gloom ; nor, by ftrong
contrails of light and Ihade, exhibiting the cxcefs of
either. Undillurbed by an extent of profpect without,
or a multiplicity of objeits within, they retain at all
times a mildnefs of character ; which is ilill more for-
cibly felt when the thadows grow faint as they lengthen,
when a little niftling of birds in the fprav, the leap-
ing of the fiili, and the fragrancy of the woodbine,
denote the approach of evening; while the fetting fun
(hoots its lall gleams on a Tufcan portico, which is
clofe to the great bafin, but which from a feat near
this river is feen at a diltan.ce, through all the obfcu-
rity of the wood, glowing on the banks, and retlecEled
on the furface of the water. In another ilill more
dillinguillied fpot is built an elegant bridge, with a
colonnade upon it, which not only adorns the place"*
where it ftands, but is alfo a piclurefque object to an
oftagon building near the lake, where it is fliown in
a fingular fituation, overarched, encompaffed, and
backed with wood, without any appearance of the
water beneath. This building in return is alfo an
objedt from the bridge ; and a Chinefe room, in a
little ifland jufl by, is another : neither of them are
confiderable, and the others which are vifible are at a
dillance ; but more or greater adventitious ornaments arc
not required in a fpot fo rich as this in beauties pecu-
liar to its charafter. A profufion of water pours in
from all fides round upon the view ; the opening of the
lake a])pears ; a glimpfe is caught of the large bafin :
one of the collateral ftreams is full in fight, and the
bridge itfelf is in the midll of the fined part of the
river : all feem to commimicate the one with the other.
Though thickets often intercept, and groups perplex
the view, yet they never break the connexion between
the feveral pieces of water ; each may ftill be traced
3 O along

393

394

W'ate

Of a Rill
3i>d a Riv-j
Jet.

GARDE

along large brandies or little catches ; which in fome
places are overQiadowed and dim ; in others glillcn
through a glade, or glimmer between the boles of
trees in a dillant perfpeftive ; and in one, \vhere tl:ey
are quite loll to the view, fome arches of the Hone
bridge, but partially feen among the wood, preferve
their connexion.

3 . If a large river may fometimes, a fmaller current
undoubtedly may often, Ise conduced through a wood :
it feldom adorns, it frequently disfigures, a profpeiS,
where its courfe is marked, not by any appearance of
■ivater, but by a confufed line of clotted grafs, whicli
dilagrees with the general verdure. A Rivulet may,
indeed, have cont'ideration enough for a home fcene,
though it be open j but a Rill is always moll agreeable
when moll retired from public view. Its charafleriftic
excellencies are vivacity and variety, which require at-
tention, leifure, and lllence, that the eye may pore
upon the little beauties, and the ear lillen to the low
murmurs of the llream without interruption. To fuch
indulgence a confined fpot only is favourable •, a clofe
copfe is therefore often more acceptable than a high
wood, and a fequellered valley at all times preferable to
any open expofure : a lingle rill at a very little dillance
is a mere water courfe •, it lofes all its charms ; it has
no importance in itfelf, and bears no proportion to the
fcene. A number of little flreams have indeed an ef-
feft in any fituation, but not as objefts ; they are
jnterelling only on account of the charafter they ex-
prefs, the irriguous appearance which they give to the
whole.

The full tide of a large river has more force than
ailivity, and feems too unwieldy to allow of very
quick tranlitions. But in a rill, the agility of its mo-
tion accounts for every caprice ; frequent windings
difguife its infignificance ; (liort turnings fhow its vi-
vacity ; fudden changes in the breadth are a fpecies of
its variety ; and however fantallically the channel may
be wreathed, contradled, and widened, it ftill appears
to be natural. We find an amufement in tracing the
little llream through all the intricacies of its courfe,
and in feeing it force a pafl'age through a narrow ftrait,
expatiate on every opportunity, llruggle with obflruc-
tions, and puzzle out its way. A rivulet, which is
the mean betn-ixt a river and a rill, partakes of the cha-
rader of both : it is not licenfed to the extravagance
of the one, nor under the fame rellraints as the other :
it may have more frequent bends than the river, longer
reaches than a rill : the breadth of a flr^am deter-
mines whether the principal beauty refults from extent
or from variety.

The murmurs of a rill are amongft the mod pleaf-
ing circuraftances which attend it. If the bed of the
flreara be rough, mere declivity will occafion a con-
llant ripling noife : when the current drops down a
defcent, though but of a few inches, or forcibly
bubbles up from a little hollow, it has a deep gurgling
tone, not uniformly continued, but inceffantly repeat-
ed, and therefore, more engaging than any. The
flatted ot all, is that found rather of the fplalhing than
the fail of water, which an even gentle Hope, or a tame
obllruclion, will produce : this is lefs pleafing than
the otlicrs j but none fliould be entirely excluded : all
m their turns are agreeable -, and the choice of them
is much, in cur powtr. By obferving their caufes, we

N I N G. Fart I.

may often find the means to llrcngthen, to weaken, or Rocks,
to change thera ; and the addition or removal of a ~~~v -'
iingle ftone, or a few pebbles, will fometimes be futii-
cient for the purpofe.

A rill cannot pretend to any found beyond that ofpff. .-
a little water fall : the roar of a cafcade belongs onlycailes. '
to a larger llream j but it may be produced by a rivu-
let to a confiderable degree, and attempts to do more
have generally been unfuccefsful. A vain ambition to
imitate nature in her great extravagancies betrays the
weaknefs of art. Though a noble river, throwing it-
felf headlong down a precipice, be an obje£l truly
magnificent, it mud however be confeiTed, that in a
fingle Iheet of water there is a formality which its vad-
nefs alone can cure. But the height, not the breadth,
is the wonder : when it falls no more than a few feet,
the regularity prevails ; and its extent only ferves to
expofe the vanity of affefting the llyle of a cataraft in
an artificial cafcade. It is lefs exceptionable if divided
into fcveral parts : for then each feparate part may be
wide enough for its depth j and in the whole, variety,
not greatnefs, will be the predominant charafter. But
a drudlure of rough, large, detached llones, cannot
eafily be contrived of llrength fufficient to fupport a
great weight of water : it is fometimes from neceflity
almoll Imooth and uniform, and then it lofes much of
its effefts. Several little falls in fucceflion are preferable
to one great cafcade which in figure or in motion ap-
proaches to regularity.

When greatnefs is thus reduced to number, and
length becomes of more importance than breadth, a ri-
vulet vies with a river : and it more frequently runs in
a continued declivity, which is very favourable to fuch a
fucceflion of falls. Half the expence and labour which
are fometimes bedowed on a river, to give it at the bed
a forced precipitancy in one fpot only, would animate
a rivulet through the whole of its courfe. And, after
all, the mod interefting circumftance in falling wateis
is their animation. A great cafcade fills us with fur-
prife : but all furprife mud ceale ; and the motion, the
agitation, the rage, the froth, and the variety of the
yvater, are finally the objetls which engage the atten-
tion : for thefe a rivulet is fufficient ; and they may
there be produced without that appearance of effort
which raifes a fufpicion of art.

To obviate fuch a fufpicion, it may be fometimes
expedient to begin the defcent out of fight j for the
beginning is the didiculty : if that be concealed, the
fubfequent falls feem but a confequence of the agitation
which chara6lerifes the water at his firil appearance 5
and the imagination is, at the fame time, let loofe to
give ideal extent to the cafcades. When a dream ilTues
from a wood, fuch management will have a great ef-
feft : the bends of its courfe in an open expofure may
afford frequent opportunities for it j and fometimes a
low broad bridge may furnilh the occafion : a little
fall hid under the arch will create a diforder ; in con-
fequence of which, a greater cafcade below will appear
very natural.

IV. ROCKS. Rocks are themfelves too vaft atidgfi^o^jy,
too llubborn to fubmit to our controul ; by the ad-
dition or removal of appendages which we can com-
mand, parts may be Ihown or concealed, and the cha-
raders with their impreffions may be weakened or en-
forced ;

Part I.

GARDENING.

forced : to adapt tlie accompaniments accordingly, is
tlie utmoil ambition of art when rocks are the fub-

Their moft diftinguiftied characters are, i//^/?//;/,7fr-
ror, and fcncy : the expreffions of all are conftantly
wild : and i'ometimes a rocky fcene is only wild, with-
out pretenfions to any particular charafter.

Rills, rivulets, and cafcades, abound among rocks :
they are natural to the icene ; ar.d fuch fcenes common-
'y require every accompaniment which can be procured
for them. Mere rocks, unlels they are particularly adapt*
ed to certain impreilions, though they may furpril'e,
cannot be long engaging, if the rigour of their charac-
ter be not fuftened by circumRances which may belong
either to thcfe or to more cultivated fpots : and when
the dreaiinefs is extreme, little Itreanis and waterfalls
are of themlclves infutF.cient for the purpofe j an inter-
mixture of vegetation is alfo necelTary, and on fome oc-
cafions even marks of inhabitants are proper.

Large clefts, floping or precipitous, with a dale at
bottom, funiilh fcene? of the wildeft nature. In fuch
fpots, verdure alone ivill give fome relief to the dreari-
nefs of the fcene ; and flirubs or bulhes, -without trees,
are a fufhciency of wood ; the thickets may alfo be ex-
tended by the creeping plants, fuch as pyracantha,
vines, and ivy, to wind up the fides or clufter on the
tops of the rocks. And to this vegetation may be
added fome fymptoms of inhabitants, but they muft be
flight and few 5 the ufe of them is only to cheer, not
to dellroy, the folitude of the place j and fuch there-
fore ihould be chofen as are fometimes found in fitua-
tions retired from public refott ; a cottage may be
lonely, but it rauft not here feem ruinous and neglefl:-
ed ; it (hould be tight and ^varm, w-ith every mark of
comfort about it, to which its pofnion in fome ilieltered
recefs may greatly contribute. A cavity alfo in the
rocks, rendered eafy of accefs, improved to a degree
of convenience, and maintained in a certain ftate of
prefervation, will fuggeft firailar ideas of pioteflion
from the bittereft inclemencies of the Iky, and even of
occaiional refrefament and repofe. But we may venture
ifill further ; a mill is of neceffity often built at fome
diftance from the town which it fupplies j and here it
would at the fame time apply the water to a ufe, and
increafe its agitation. The dale may befides be made
the haunt of thofe animals, fuch as goats, which are
fometimts v.ild, and fometimes domeftic ; and which
accidentally appearing, will divert the mind from the
fenfations natural to the fcene, but not agreeable if
continued long without interruption. Thefe and fuch
other expedients will approximate the fevereft retreat
to the habitations of men, and convert the appearance
of a perpetual banifhment into that of a temporary re-
tirement from fociety.

But too llrong a force on the nature of the place al-
ways fails. A winding path, which appears to be worn,
not cut, has more effect than a high road, all artificial
and level, which is too weak to overbear, and yet con-
tradicts, the general idea. 'J'he objefts therefore to be
introduced mufl be thofe which hold a mean between
folitude and population ; and the inclination of that
choice towards either extreme, ftiould be directed by
the degree of wildnefs which prevails ; for though that
runs fometimes to an excefs which requires correction,
cX other times it wants encouragement, and at all times

it ought to be prcferved : it is the predominant charac-
ter of rocks, which mixes w ith every other, and to which
all the appendages mufl be accommodated •, and they
may be applied lb as greatly to increafe it ; a licentious
irregularity of wood and of ground, and a fantaffic con-
duit of the itreams, neither of wliich would be to-
lerated in the midlt of cultivation, become and improve
romantic rocky fpots ; even buildings, paitly by their
ftyle, but ftill more by their pofition, in tlrange, dif-
ficult, or dangerous fituations, diftinguifli and aggravate
the native extravagancies of the fcene.

Greatnefs is a chief ini_nedient in the character of
dignitij, with lefs of \viidncfs than in any otlier. The
effeft here depends more upon amplitude of furface,
than variety of forms. The parts, therefore, mult be
large : if the rocks are only high, they are but ftupen-
dous, not majellic : breadth is equally effential to their
greatnefs 5 and every llender, every grotefque Ihape,
is excluded. Art may interpofe to fhow thefe large
parts to the eye, and magnify them to the imagina-.
tion, by taking away thickets which flretch quite
acrofs the rocks, fo as to difguife their dimeniions ; of
by filling with wood the fmall intervals between them,
and thus, by concealing the want, prefcrving the ap-
pearance of continuation. WTien rocks retire from the
eye down a gradual declivity, we can, by raifing the
upper groiuid, deepen the fall, lengthen the perfpec-
tive, and give both height and extent to thofe at a
diftance : this effeft may ije ftill increafed by covering
that upper ground with a thicket, which (hall ceafe,
or be lowered, as it defcends. A thicket, on other
occafions, makes the rocks which rife out of it feem
larger than they are. If they Itand upon a bank over-
fpread with ihrubs, their beginning is at the leaft un-
certain ; and the prefumption is, that they flart from
the bottom. Another ufe of this brufliy underwood is
to conceal the fragments and rubbilh which have fallen
from the fides and the brow, and which are often un-
fightly. Rocks are feldom remarkable for the ele-
gance of their forms ; they are too vafl, and too rude,
to pretend to delicacy : but their fhapes are often
agreeable : and we can affect thofe fhapes to a certain
degree, at leait we can cover many blemifhes in them,
by conducing the growth of fhrubby and creeping
plants about them.

For all thefe purpofes mere underwood fuflices : but
for greater effects larger trees are requifitc : they are
wortliy of the fcene ; and not only improvements, but
acceffions to its grandeur : we are ufed to rank them
among the noblelt objects of nature ; and when we fee
that they cannot afpire to the midway of the heights
around them, the rocks are raifed by the comparifon.
A fingle tree is, therefore, often preferable to a clump :
the fize, though really lefs, -is more remarkable : and
clumps arc befides generally exceptionable in a very
wild fpot, from the fufpicion of art ^vhich attends them j
but a ivood is free from that fufpicion, and its oivu
character of greatnefs recommends it to ever)- fcene of
magnificence.

On the fame principle all poffible conP.deration
fhould be gi\tn to the fheams. No number of Ujtle
rills aie equal to one broad river •, and in the principal
current, fome varieties may be facrificed to importance :
but a degree of ftrength ihould always be preferved :
the water, though it needs not be furious, Ihould not be
3 D 2 dull";

596 CARD

Rocks, dull; for dignity, wlien moft ferene, is not lahguid; and
'~7~k"~~' icace will hardly atone for want of animation,
loid. 'j-j^j charader does not exclude marks of inhabi-

tants, though it never requires them to tame its uild-
iiefs : and ivithout inviting, it occafionally admits an
intermixture of vegetation. It even allows of build-
ings intended only to decorate the fcene : but they
mufl be adequate to it, both in fizc and in charafter.
And if cultivation is introduced, that too fliould be
conformable to tlie reil ; not a lingle narrow patch
cribbed out of the -vvafte ; but the confines of a coun-
try flielving into the vale, and fuggelling the idea of
("Stent : nothing trivial ought to find admittance. But,
on the other hand, no extravagance is required to fup-
port it ; llrange ihapes in extraordinary politions, enor-
.'nous weights unaccountably fuftained, trees roofed in
the fides, and torrents raging at the foot of the roclis,
are at the belf ncedlefs exceffes. There is a temperance
in dignity, which is rather hurt by a wanton violence
on the common order of nature.

The terrors of a fcene in nature are like thofe of a
dramatic reprefentation : they give an alarm ; but the
fenfations are agreeable, fo long as they are kept to
fuch as are allied only to terror, unmixed with any that
are horrible and difgufting. Art may therefore be
ufed to heighten them, to difplay the objefts which are
' tiillinguillied by greatnefs, to improve the circumftances

whicli denote force, to mark thofe which intimate
danger, and to blend withal here and there a calf of
melancholy.

Greatnefs is as effential to the charader of terror as
to that of dignity : vaft efforts in little objefts are but
ridiculous ; nor can force be fuppofed upon trifles inca-
pable of refinance. On the other hand, it muft be al-
lowed, that exertion and violence fupply fome want of
fpace. A rock wonderfully fupported, or threatening
to fall, acquires a greatnels from its fituation, which
it has not in dimenfions ; fo circumftanced, the fize ap-
pears to be raonllrous ; a torrent has a confequence
%vhlch a placid river of equal breadth cannot pretend
to : and a tree, which would be inconfiderable in the
I'.atural foil, becomes important when it burlls forth
from a rock.

Such circuniltances (hould be always induflrioufly
fought for. It may be worth while to cut down fe-
versl trees, in order to exhibit one apparently rooted in
tiie (lone. By the removal perhaps of only a little
bruftuvood, the alarming difpofition of a rock, ftrangely
undermined, rivetted, or fufpended, may be fhown ;
and if there be any foil above its brmv, fome trees
iilanted there, and impending over it, will make the
objedl ftill more extraordinary. As to the dreams,
great alterations may generally be made in them : and
therefore it is of ufe to afcertain the fpecies proper to
each fcene, becaufe it is in our power to enlarge or
contraft their dimenfions ; to accelerate or retard their
rapidity ; to form, increafe, or take away obllruftions ;
and always to improve, often to change, their cha-
lafters.

Inhabitants furnilh frequent opportunities to ftrenglh-
rn the appearances of force, by giving intimations of
danger. A houfe placed at the edge of a precipice,
any building on the pinnacle of a crag, makes that
fituation feeni formidable, which might othenvife have
leen unnoticed : a fteep, in itfdf not verjr remarkable,

E N 1 N G. Parti.

becomes alarming, when a path is carried allmt up llie Rocks,
fide : a rail on the brow of a perpendicular fall, Ihows '— v— -'
that the height is frequented and dangerous : and a
common foot bridge thrown over a cleft between rocks
has a flill llronger effeft. In all thele inllances, the
imagination immediately traulports the fpedlator to the
fpot, and fuggells the idea of looking down fuch a
depth^: in the lafi, that depth is a chalm, and the fi-
tuation is direiSlly over it.

In other inllances, exertion and danger fecm to
attend the occupations of the inhabitants :

— — Half ^vay down

Hangs one that gathers famphire ; dreadful trade I

is a circumflancc chofen by the great poet of nature,
to aggravate the t(^rrors of the Icene he delcribes.

The different fpecies of rocks often meet in the
fame place, and compofe a noble fcene, which is not
dillinguilhed by any particular chara61er •, it is only
when one eminently prevails, that it deferves fuch a
preference as to exclude every other. Sometimes a
fpot, remarkable for nothing but its wildnefs, is highly
romantic: and when this wildnefs rifes to ya«cy,- when
the moft fingular, the molt oppofite forms and combi-
nations are thrown together j then a mixture alfo of
feveral charafters adds to the number of inllances
which there concur to difplay the inexhaultible variety
of nature.

So much variety, fo much fancy, are feldom found
within the fame extent as in Dovedale *. It is about*^^'^'"'^''''
two miles in length, a deep, narrow, hollow valley : ,,°"k"V''
both the fides are of rock ; and the Dove m its paffage
between them is perpetually changing its courfe, its
motion, and appearance. It is never lefs than ten,
nor fo much as twenty, yards wide, and generally about
four feet deep ; but tranfparent to the bottom, except
when it is covered with a foam of the purell white,
under waterfalls, which are perfeftly lucid. Thefe
are very numerous, but very different. In fome places
they ftretch ftraight acrofs, or allaut the llream : in
others, they are only partial ; and the water either
dailies againft the Hones, and leaps over them, or,
pouring along a ileep rebounds upon thofe below y
fometimes it rulhes through the fcveral openings be-
tween them ; fometimes it drops gently down ; and at
other times it is driven back by the obftruftion, and .
turns into an eddy. In one particular fpot, the valley
almoft clofing, leaves hardly a paffage for the river, .
which, pent up and ftruggling for a vent, rages, and
roars, and foams, till it has extricated itfelf from the
confinement. In other parts, the ftream, though never
languid, is often gentle; flows round a little defert
illand, glides between bits of bulrufhes, difperfes
itfelf among tufts of grafs or of mol's, bubbles about
a water dock, or plays with the flender threads of
aquatic plants which float upon the furface. The
rocks all along the dale vary as often in their ftrufture
as the ftream in its motion. In one place, an extended
furface gradually diininilhes from a broad bale almoft to
an edge : in another, a hea\-y top hanging forwards, ,
overfliadows all beneath; fometimes many different
fhapes are confufedly tumbled together ; and fome-
times they are broken into flender (harp pinnacles,
which arc upright, often two or three together, and
often ir, more iiumeroijs cluftets. On this fide of the

dale,

Parti. CARD

Rocks, dale, they are univerfally bare •, on the other, they are
*JTp'~~^ intentiixt-d with wood ; and the vaft height of both the
• fides, with the narrownefs of the interval between

them, produces a further variety : for wlienever the
fun '(hines from behind the one, the form of it is di-
llinftly and completely calt upon the other ; the rugged
furface on which it falls diverfifies the tints ; and a
rtrong refleOiied light often glares on the edge of the
deepell Ihadow. The rocks never continue long in
the fame figure or lituation, and are very much fepa-
rated from each other : fometimes they form the fides
of the valley, in precipices, in fleeps, or in ftages ;
fometimes they feem to rife in the bottom, and lean
back againfl the hill ; and fometimes they Hand out
quite detached, heaving up in cumbrous piles, or Part-
ing into conical fhapes, like vaft fpars, loo feet
high ; forae are firm and folid throughout ; forae are
cracked ; and fome, fplit and undermined, are wonder-
fully upheld by fragments apparently unequal to the
weight they fuftain. One is placed before, one over
another, and one fills at fome dillance behind an in-
terval between two. The changes in their difpofition
are infinite ; every ftep produces fome new combina-
tion J they are continually croffing, advancing, and re-
tiring : the breadth of the valley is never the fame 40
yards together : at the narrow pafs which has been
mentioned, the rocks almoft meet at the top, and the
iky is feen as through a chink between them : juft by
this gloomy abyfs, is a wider opening, more light,
more verdure, more cheerfulnefs than anywhere elfe
in the dale. Nor are the forms and the fituations of
the rocks their only variety : many of them are per-
forated by large natural cavities, forae of ^vhich open
to the £ky, fome terminate in dark recefles, and through
fome are to be feen feveral more uncouth arches, and
rude pillars, aU detached, and retiring beyond each
other, with the light (hining in between them, till a
lock far behind them clofes the perfpedive : the noife
of the cafcades in the river echoes amongft them ; the
Tvater may often be heard at the fame time gurgling
near, and roaring at a diftance ; but no other founds
difturb the filence of the fpot : the only trace of men
is a blind path, but lightly and but feldom trodden, by
thofe whom curiofity leads to fee the wonders they
have been told of Dovedale. It ftems indeed a fitter
haunt for mere ideal beings : the whole has the air of
enchantment. The perpetual (hifting of the fcenes ;
the quick tranfitions, the total changes, t'nen the forms
all around, grotelque as chance can cart, wild as nature
can produce, and various as imagination can invent ;
the force which feems to have been exerted to place
fome of the rocks where they are now fixed immove-
able, the magic by which others appear Hill to be fuf-
pended ; the dark caverns, the illuminated receil'es, the
fleeting ihadows, and the gleams of light glancing on
the fides, or trembling on the ftream •, and the loneli-
nefs and the ftillnefs of the place, all crowding toge-
ther on the mind, almoft realize the ideas which natu-
rally prefent themfelves in this region of romance and
of fancy.

The- folitude of fuch a fcene is agreeable, on ac-
count of the endlefs entertainment which its variety
aflFords, and in the contemplation of which both the
eye and the mind are delighted to indulge : marks of
iiihabitants and cultivation would dirturb that folitude ■■

E N I N G.

;97

and ornamental buildings are too artificial in a place T""!- =. &^f
fo abfolutely free from lellraint. The only accom-
paniments proper for it are wood and water ; and by
thefe fometimes improvements may be made. When
two rocks finiilar in Ihape and pofition are near toge-
ther, by Ikirting one of them with wood, while the
other is left bare, a material diftinaion is tftablilhed
between them : if the dreams be throughout of one
character, it is in our power, and lliould be our aim,
to introduce another. Variety is the peculiar pro-
perty of the fpot, and every accelTion to it is a valuable
acqiufition. On the fame principle, endeavours (hould
be ufed not only to multiply, but to aggravate differ-
ences, and to increafe diilincfions into contrails; but
the fubjeil will irapofe a caution againft attempting
too much. Art mnft almoll defpair of improving
a fcene, where nature feems to have exerted her in-
vention.

§ 2. 0/ Factitious Accompaniments.

These confift of Fences, Walks, Roads, Bridge
Seats, and Buildings.

^ Trcatife uf
Ptanfmr

^ and Cardtr.*

" I. The FENCE, where the place is large, becomes /s^, p. 595,
neceffary ; yet the eye diflikes conflraint. Our ideas&.=.
of liberty carry us beyond our own fpecies : the ima-
gination feels a diflike in feeing even the brute creation
in a ftate of confinement. The birds wafting them-
felves from wood to grove are objefts of delight ; and
the hare appears to enjoy a degree of happinefs un-
known to the barriered tlock. Befides, a tall fence fre-
quently hide? from the fight objefts the mod pleafing j
not only the flocks and herds themfelves, but the furface
they graze upon. Thefe confiderations have brought
the unfeen fence into general ufe.

This fpecies of barrier it muft be allowed incurs a
degree of deception, which can fcarcely be warranted
upon any other occafion. In this inftance, however,
it is a fpecies of fraud which we obferve in nature's^
prairlice : how often have we feen two dillinft herds
feeding to appearance in the fame extended ineadow ;
until coming abruptly upon a deep funk rivulet, or an
unfordable river, we difcover the deception.

Bcfides the funk fence, another fort of unfeen bar-
rier may be made, though by no means equal to that,
efpecially if near the eye. This is conftrufled of paling,
painted of the invifiblc green. If the colour of the
back ground were permanent, and that of the paint
made exaftiy to correfpond \vith it, the deception
would at a diftance be complete j but back grounds
in general changing with the feafon, this kind of fence
is the lefs eligible.

Clumps and patches of woodinefs fcattered proraif-
cuoufly on either fide of an unfeen winding fence, ailift
very much in doing away the idea of conftraint. For
by this means

The \vand'r»ng flocks that bro^vfc bet\veen the fliades,

Seem oft to pafs their bounds ; the dubious eye

Decides not if they crop the mead or lawn.

M.^sox. .

"II. The WALK, in extenfive grounds, is as ne-
ceflary as the fence. I'he beauties of the place are dif-
clol'ed that ihey muy be feen ; u:id il is the oflicc of the

walk

GARDENING.

Part 1

. walk 10 IcaJ the eye from view to view ; in order that
whillt the tone of health is prel'erved by the favourite
cxercife of nature, the mind may be thrown into unifon
by the harmony oi the furrounding obieCls.

The direction of the walk mulT; be guided by the
Jioints of view to which it leads, and the nature of the
ground it paflfes over : it ougiit to be made fubfervicnt
to the natural impediments (the ground, wood, and
water) which fall in its way, without appearing to
have any direction of its ov\n. It can feldora run with
propriety any diftaiice in a flraight line ; a thing which
rarely occurs in a natural walk, 'l"he paths of the Ne-
jjroes and the Indians are always crooked ; and thole of
the brute creation are very fimilar. Mr Rlafon's defcrip-
t^on of this pfeth of nature is happily conceived.
The peafant driving through each (hadowy lane
His team, that bends beneath th' incumbent weight
Of laughing Ceres, marks it with his wheel ;
At night and morn, the milkmaid's carelefs rtep
Has through yon pafture green, from ilile to ftile
Jmpreft a kindred curve : the fcudding hare
Draws to her dew fprent feat, o'er thymy heaths,

A path as gently waving

Eng. Card. v. 60.

" III. The ROAD may be a thing of necefllty, as
an approach to the manfion ; or a matter of amuferaent
only, as a drive or a ride, from which the grounds and
the furrounding country may be feen to advantage.
It fhould be the llu^y of the artift to make the fame
road anfwer, as far as may be, the twofold purpofe.

The road and the walk are fubjeft to the fame rule
of nature and ufe. The direftion ought to be natural
and eafy, and adapted to the purpofe intended. A road
of necelTity ought to be flraighter than one of mere
conveniency : in this, recreation is the predominant
idea ; in that, utility. But even in this the direft line
may be difpenfed with. The natural roads upon heaths
and open downs, and the giaffy glades and green roads
acrofs forefts and extenfive waftes, are proper fubjefts
to be ftudied.

" IV. The BRIDGE fhould never be feen where It is
not wanted : a ufelefs bridge is a deception ; deceptions
are frauds ; and fraud is always hateful, unlel's when
praftifed to avert fome greater evil. A bridge with-
out water is an abfurdity ; and half a one lluck up
as an eye-trap is a paltry trick, which, though it may
llrike the ftranger, cannot fail of difgufting when the
fraud is found out.

In low fituations, and wherever water aboimds,
bridges become ufeful, and are therefore pleafing ob-
je8s : they are looked for 5 and ought to appear not
as objects of ornament only, but likewife as matters of
utility. The walk or the road therefore ought to be
directed in fuch a manner as to crofs the water at the
point in %vhich the bridge will appear to the greateft
advantage.

In the conftrudlion of bridges alfo, regard muft be
had to ornament and utility. A bridge is an artificial
produftion, and as fuch it ought to appear. It ranks
among the nobleft of human inventions ; the (liip and
the fortrefs alone excel it. Simplicity and firmhefs
are the leading principles in its conftruiJHon. Mr Wheat-
ley's obfervation is juft when he fays, " The lingle

wooden arch, now much in falliion, feems to me gene- EuiUings.
rally miiapplied. Elevated without occafion fo much ' . v '
above, it is totally detached from the river ; it is ''"^''
often I'een Itraddling in the air, without a gllmpfe
of water to account for it ; and the ollentation of it
as an ornamental objecf, diverts all that train of ideas
ivhich its ufe as a commuiiication might fuggefl."
But we beg leave to dilier from this ingenious writer
\vhen he tells us, " that it is fpoiled if adorned ; it is
disfigured if only painted of any other than a dufky
colour." In a ruftic fcene, where nature 'wears her
own coarfe garb, " the vulgar foot bridge of planks
only guarded on one hand by a common rail, and fup-
ported by a few ordinary piles," may be in charaiSler ;
but amidll a difplay of ornamented nature, a contrivance
of that kind would appear mean and paltry ; and would
be an affectation of limplicity rather than the lovely
attribute itfelf. In cultivated fcenes, the bridge ought
to receive the ornaments which the laws of architec-
tural tafte allow ; and the more polilhed the fituation,
the higher fliould be the ftyle and finilhings.

" V. SEATS have a twofold ufe ; they are ufeflil as
places of reft and converiation, and as guides to the
points of view in which the beauties of the furround-
ing fcene are difclofed. Every pohit of view (hould
be marked with a feat ; and, fpeaking generally, no
feat ought to appear but in fome favourable point of
view. This rule may not be invariable, but it ought
feldom to be deviated from.

In the ruder fcenes of neglected nature, the fimple
trunk, rough from the woodman's hands, and the
butts or llools of rooted trees, without any other marks
of tools upon them than thofe of the faw which fe-
vered them from their ftems, are feats in character ;
and in romantic or reclule fituations, the cave or the
grotto are admiffible. But wherever human defign has
been executed upon the natural objects of the place, the
feat and every other artificial accompaniment ought to
be in unifon 5 and whether the bench or the alcove
be chofen, it ought to be formed and finlllied in fuch a
manner as to unite with the \\-ood, the lawn, and the
walk, which lie around it.

The colour of feats fhould likevvife be fuited to fi-
tuations : where uncultivated nature prevails, the na-
tural brown of the wood itfelf ought not to be altered ;
but where the rural art prefides, white or flone colour
has a much better effedt."

" VI. BUILDINGS probably were firfl introduced
into gardens merely for contrivance, to afford refuge A^'' W'ifa*
from a fudden fhower, and Ihelter againft the wind ; '^''I'^atimf"'
at the moft, to be feats for a party j or for retirement. (■yjjjjj_ '■
They have fince been converted into objefts, and now
the original tife Ls too often forgotten in the greater
purpofes to which they are applied : they are confi-
dered as obje<;ts only ; the infide is totally neglefted,
and a pompous eililice frequently wants a room bare-
ly comfortable. Sometimes the pride of making a
lavilh difplay to a vifitor without any regard to the
owner's enjoyments, and fometinies too fcrupulous an
attention to the ftyle of the Itrufture, occafions a po-
verty and dulnefs within, which dcpiive the buildings
of part of their utility. Btit in a garden they ought
to be conlidered both as beautiful objefts and as a-
greeafclc

Ofbuild-
ings intend
eil for ob-
jeas.

Parti. CARD

Builclingj, greeable retreats : it a charafter becomes them, it is
*— "v~— that of the Icene they belong to ; not that of their
primitive application. A Grecian temple or Gothic
church may adorn fpots where it would be affeftation
to preferve that folemnity within which it is proper for
places of devotion : they are not to be exact models,
fubjeds only of curiofity or ftudy : they are alfo feats :
and fuch feats will be little frequented by the proprie-
tor ; his mind mull generally be indifpofed to fo much
fimplicity, and fo much gloom, in the midlt of gaiety,
richnefs, and variety.

But though the interior of buildings fnould not be
difregarded, it is by their exterior that they become
ebjefis ; and fometimes by the one, fometimes by the
other, and fometimes by both, they are entitled to be
confidered as charaUers.

I. As objed>, they are defigned either to Jtflinguijh,
or to break, or to adorn, the icenes to which they are
applied.

The differences between one ivood, one la%^m, one
piece of water, and another, are not ab\-3ys very appa-
rent : the feveral parts of a garden would, therefore, of-
ten feem fimilar, if they were not dillinguilhed by build-
ings ; but thefe are fo obfervable, fo ob\'ious at a
glance, fo eaftly retained in the memory, they mark
the fpots where they are placed with fo much ftrength,
they attract the relation of all around with fo much
power, that parts thus dillinguilhed can never be con-
founded together. Yet it by no means follows, that
therefore every fcene mull have its edifice : the want
of one is fometimes a variety ; and other circumflances
are often fuihciently charafteriftic : it is only when thefe
too nearly agree, that we muft have recourfe to build-
ings for differences : we can introduce, exhibit, or
contraft them as we pleafe : the moft llriking objefl is
thereby made a mark of diftinclion ; and the force of
this firft Impreflion prevents our obferving the points of
refemblance.
Ohftrv. en The uniformity of a view may be broken by fimi-
AUd. Car- lar means, and on the fame principle : when a wide
"'"S- heath, a dreary moor, or a continual plain, is in pro-
fpeft, objefts which catch the eye fupplant the want of
variety : none are fo effectual for this purpofe as build-
ings. Plantations or water can have no very fen-
fible effeft, unlefs they are large or numerous, and
almoft change the character of the fcene : but a fmall
iingle building diverts the attention at once from the
famenefs of the extent ; which it breaks, but does not
divide ; and diverfifies, without altering its nature.
The defign, however, muft not be apparent. The me-
rit of a cottage applied to this purpofe, confills in its
being free from the fufpicion : and a few trees near it
will both enlarge the objeft, and account for its pofi-
tion. Ruins are a hackneyed device immediately de-
tefted, unlefs their llyle be fingular, or their dimen-
fions extraordinary. The femblance of an ancient
Britilh monument might be adapted to the fame end,
with little trouble, and great fuccefs. The materials
might be brick, or even timber plaftered over, if
(lone could not eafily be procured : whatever they
were, the fallacy would not be difcemible ; it is an
objeft to be feen at a dillance, rude, and large, and
in character agreeable to a wild open view. But no
building ought to be introduced, which may not in
reality belong to fuch a fituation : no Grecian tern-

E N 1 N G. 399

pies, no Turkilh mofques, no Egyptian obelifliS or py- Cm'Wir.g^.
ramids ; none imported from foreign countries, and '— v— '
unufual here. The apparent artifice would dcflroy an
efftcl, which is fo nice as to be weakened, if objefls
proper to produce it are difplayed with too much ollen-
tation ; if they feem to be contrivances, not accidents ;
and the advantage of their pofition appear to be more
laboured than natural.

But in a garden, where objefts are intended only
to adorn, every fpecies of architefture may be admit-
ted, from the Grecian down to the Chinefe ; and the
choice is fo free, that the mifchief mofl to be appre-
hended is an abufe of this latitude in the multiplici-
ty of buildings. Few fcenes can bear more than two
or three : in fome, a fingle one has a greater effect than
any number : and a carelefs glimpfe, here and there, erf
fuch as belong immediately to different parts, frequent-
ly enliven the landfcape with more fpirit than thofe
which are induftrioufly (howii. If the effect of a par-

tial fight, or a diftant view, were

attended to,
many fcenes might be filled, without being crowded j
a greater number of buildings would be tolerated, when
they feemed to be cafual, not forced ; and the anima-
tion, and the richnefs of the objefts, might be had
without pretence or difplay.

Too fond an oftentation of buildings, even of thefe
which are principal, is a common error ; and when all
is done, they are not always (hown to the greateil ad-
vantage. Though their fymraetry and their beauties
ought in general to be dlllinctly and fully feen, yet an
oblique is fometimes better than a direft view : and
they are often lefs agreeable objefls when entire, than
when a part is covered, or their extent is interrupted ;
when they are bofomed in wood, as well as backed by
it ; or appear between the ftems of trees which rile
before or above them ; thus thrown into perfpective,
thus grouped and accompanied, they may be as impor-
tant as if they were quite expofed, and are frequently
more piiflurefque and beautiful.

But a llill greater advantage arifes from this ma-
nagement, in connecting them with the fcene : they
are confiderable, and different from all around them ;
inclined therefore to feparate from the reft ; and yet
they are fometimes ftill more detached by the pains
taken to exhibit them : that very importance which is
the caufe of the diltin5Hon ought to be a leafon for
guarding againft the independence to which it is natu-
rally prone, and by which an objedl, which ought to
be a part of the whole, is reduced to a mere indivi-
dual. An elevated is generally a noble fituation. When
it is a point or a pinnacle, the llruiflure may be a conti-
nuation of the afcent ; and on many occafions, fome
parts of the building may defcend lower than others,
and multiply the appearances of connexion : but an
edifice in the midft of an extended ridge, commonly
fcems naked alone, and impofed upon the brow, not
joined to it. If wood, to accompany it, will not
grow there, it had better be brought a little way down
the declivity ; and then all behind, above, and about
it, are fo many points of contacl, by which it is incor-
porated into landfcape.

Accompaniments are important to a building ; but
they lo.'e much of their effeft when they do not ap-
pear to be cafual. A little mount juft large enougii
for It ) a fraall piece of water below, of no other ufe

than

4S0 G A K B E

PiiiUlirs'. than to reilcct ii ; srij a pl;intation clofe behind, cvi-
^='-~v-'~-' dcntly placed there only to give it relief; are as artifi-
cial as the llruclurc itfelf, and alienate it from the
fcene of nature into which it is introduced, and to
which it ought to be reconciled. Thcle appendages
therefore Ihould be fo difpofed, r.i;d ib connected with
the adjacent parts, as to anfwcr other purpofes, though
applicable to this : that they may be bonds of union,
not marks of dilYerence ; and that the fituation may
appear to have been cholen at the mod, not made, for
the building.

In the choice of <-a fituation, that which fhows the
building beft ought generally to be preferred : emi-
nence, relief, and every other advantage which can
be, ought to be given to an objei5l of fo much confider-
ation : they are for the moft part deiirable ■, fometimes
neceflary ; and exceptionable only when, inftead of rif-
ing out of the fcene, they are forced into it, and a
contrivance to procure them at any rate is avowed
without any difguife. There are, however, occafior.s,
in which the moft tempting advantages of fituation
mult be waved ; the general compofition may forbid a
building in one fpot, or require it in another ; at
other times, the intereil of the particular group it be-
longs to may exaiSl a facrifice of the opportunities to
exhibit its beauties and importance ; and at all times,
the pretenfions of every individual objeft muft give
way to the greater efl'ect of the whole.
Of thofe *• The fame ftruiSlure which adorns as an object, may

expreffive alfo be expreflive as a charafler. Where the former is
of charac- not wanted, the latter may be defirable : or it may be
tfr. weak for one purpofe, and ftrong for the other ; it

may be grave, or gay ; magnificent, or fimple : and
according to its flyle, may or may not be agreeable to
the place it is applied to. But mere confiftency is not
all the merit which buildings can claim : their charac-
ters are lometimes ftrong enough to determine, improve,
or correct, that of the fcene : and they are fo confpicu-
ous, and fo diftinguilhed, that whatever force they
have is immediately and fenfibly felt. They are fit
therefore to make a firft impreftion ; and when a fcene
is but faintly charailerized, they give at once a call
which fpreads over the whole, and which the weaker
parts concur to fupport, though perhaps they were not
able to produce it.

Nor do they ftop at fixing an uncertainty, or re-
moving a doubt ; they raife and enforce a charafter
already marked ; a temple adds dignity to the nobleft,
a cottage fimplicity to the moft rural, fcenes ; the
lightnefs of a fpire, the airinefs of an open rotunda,
the fplendour of a continued colonnade, are lefs orna-
mental than exprelTive •, others improve cheerfulnefs
into gaiety, gloom into folemnity, and richnefs into
profufion : a retired fpot, which might have been paflfed
unobferved, is noticed for its tranquillity, as foon as it
is appropriated by fome ftruilure to retreat ; and
the moft unfrequented place feems lefs folitary than
. one which appears to have been the haunt of a fingle
individual, or even of a fequeftered family, and is
marked by a lonely dwelling, or the remains of a de-
ferted habitation.

The means are the fame, the application of them
only is different, when buildings are ufed to correifl
the charafler of the fcene ; to enliven its dulnefs, miti-
gate its gloom, or to check its extravagance ; and, on
3

N r N G. PartT.

a variety of occafior.s, to foften, to aggravate, or to Buildings,
counteract, particular circumftances attending it. But '"■"v— '
care muft be taken that they do not contradifl too
ftrongly the prevailing idea : they may lelTen the
drcarineis of a wafte, but they cannot give it amenity \
they may abate horrors, but they \vill never convert
them into graces ; they may make a tame fcene agree-
able, and even interefting, not romantic ; or turn fo-
lemnity into cheerfulnefs, but not into gaiety. In
thefe, and in many other inftances, they correal the
character, by giving it an inclination towards a better
which is not very different ; but they can hardly alter
it entirely : when they are totally inconfiftent with it,
they aie at the beft nugatory.

The great cftefts which have ieen afcribed to build-
ings do not depend upon thofe trivial ornaments and
appendages which are often too much relied on ; fuch
as tjie fui-niture of a hermitage, painted glafs in a
Gothic church, and fculpture about a Grecian tem-
ple ; grotefque or bacchanalian figures to denote
gaiety, and death's heads to fignify melancholy.
Such devices are only defcriptive, not expreflive, of
character •, and muft not be fubftituted in the ftead of
thofe fuperior properties, the want of which they ac-
knowledge, but do not fupply. They befides often
require time to trace their meaning, and to lee their
application ; but the peculiar excellence of buildings is,
that their effects are inftantaneous, and therefore the
impreflions they make are forcible. In order to pro-
duce fuch effefts, the general ftyle of the ftrufture,
and its pofition, are the principal confiderations : either
of them will fometimes be ftrongly charafleriltic alone ;
united, their powers are very great ; and both are fo
important, that if they do not concur, at leaft they
muft not contradift one another. j.

Every branch of architefture furnilhes, on different Species and
occafions, otjefts proper for a garden ; and there is no lituations
reftraint on our felcftion, provided it be conformable to?''""''^-
the ftyle of the fcene, proportioned to its extent, and'^^'-
agreeable to its charafter.

The choice of fituations is alfo very free. A hermi-
tage, indeed, muft not be clofe to a road ; but whether it
be expofed to view on the fide of a mountain, or conceal-
ed in the depth of a wood, is almoft a matter of indif-
ference ; that it is at a diftance from public refort is fuf-
ficient. A caftle muft not be funk in a bottom •, but that
it ftiould ftand on the utmoft pinnacle of a hill, is not
neccffary : on a lower knoll, and backed by the rife, it
may appear to greater advantage as an object, and be
much more important to the general compofition.
Many buildings, which from their fplendour beft become
an open expofure, will yet be fometimes not ill beftow-
ed on a more fequeftered fpot, either to characterize or
adorn it ; and others, for which a folitary would in ge-
neral be preferred to an eminent fituation, may occa-
fionally be objects in very confpicuous pofitions. A
Grecian temple, from its peculiar tafte and dignity,
deferves every diftinflion ; it may, however, in the
depth of a wood, be fo circumftanced, that the want
of thofe advantages to which it feems entitled will not
be regretted. A happier fituation cannot be dc%'ifed,
than that of the temple of Pan on the fouth lodge on
Enfield Chafe. It is of the ufual oblong form, encora-
paffed by a colonnade ; in dimenfions, and in ftyle, it
is equal to a moft extenfive landfcape : and yet by the

antique

Parti.

BuiUlingj. antique and rui\ic rilr of its Doric columns without
''~~~^'~—' bafes-; by the chaliity of its little ornameJits, a crook,
a pipe, and a fciip, and thofe only over the doors •, and
by the fimplicity of the whole both within and without ;
it is adapted with fo much propriety to the thickets
which conceal it from the \\c\v, that no one can wifli
it to be brought forward, who is fenlible to the charms
of the Arcadian fcenc which this building alone has
created. On the other hand, a very Ipacious field, or
flu:ep walk, will not be difgraced by a farm houfe, a
collage, or a Dutch barn ; nor will they, though fmall
and familiar, appear to be inconliderable or infignifi-
cant objefts. . Numherlefs othei- inflances might be ad-
duced to prove the impoiTibility of reftraining particu-
lar buildings to particular fituations, upon any general
principles : the variety in their forms is hardly greater
than in their application. Only let not their ufes be
difguileJ, as is often abfurdl) attempted with the hum-
^ Planth^ bier kinds. '[ A barn J dreffed up in the habit of a
fr-tCjr- country church, or a farm houfe figuring away in the
o fiercenefs of a callle, are ridiculous deceptions. A
landfcape daubed upon a board, and a wooden Ileeple
fturk up in a wood, are beneath contempt."

Temples, thofe favourite and moll collly objects in
gardens, too generally merit cenfure for their inutiUty,
their profuSon, or the impropriety of their purpofe.
" Whether they be dedicated to Bacchus, Venus, Pria-
pi!S, or any other demon of debauchery, they are in
this age, enlightened with regard to theological and
fcientific knowledge, equally abfurd. Architefture,
in this part of its fphere, may mors nobly, and with
greater beauty and eflFetl, be exercifed upon a chapel,
a maufoleum, a monument, judicioully difpofed among
/i/V,p. 595. the natural ornaments. The late Sir William Har-
bord has given us a model, of the firft kind, at Gun-
ton, in Norfolk •, the parilh church Handing in his
park, and being an old unfightly building, he had
it taken down, and a beautiful temple, under the di-
rcclion of the Adams erected upon its fite for the fame
facred purpofe : — The mnufoleum at Caflle-Howard,
in Yorklhire, the feat of the earl of CarUile, is a noble
llruclure : — And as an inrtance of the laft fort, may be
mentioned the Temple of Concord and Viftory at
Stone, ereftcd to the memory of the great Lord Cha-
tham and his glorious war ; a beautiful monumental
buildin?, fuited to jhe greatnefs of the occafion."

To tlie great variety above mentioned muft be added,

Mr Wheatley obferves, the many changes which may

be made by the means of ruins. They are a clafs by

themfelves, beautiful as objcfts, exprcffive as characters,

and peculiarly calculated to connefl with appendages

into elegant groups. They may be accommodated

with eafe to irregularity of ground, anjl their diforder

is improved by it. They may be intimately blended

%vith trees and thickets ; and the interruption is an ad-

Okftr'jathn, Vantage : for imperfeftion and obfcurity are their pro-

M Modern perties, and to carry the imagination to fomething

Cardining. greater than is feen, is their effect. They may for any

of thefe purpofes be feparated into detached pieces ;

contiguity is not neceflary, nor even the appearance

of it, if the relation be prefcrvcd ; but flraggling ruins

have a bad effect, when the feveral parts are equally

confiderablc. There fliould be one large mafs to raife

an idea of greatnefs, to attract the others about it, and

to be a common centre of union to all : the fraaller

Vol. IX. Part II.

GARDENING.

pieces then mark the original dimenfions of one cxten- EuilJings.
five Itrudlure ; and no longer appear to be the remains -— "v—- '
of feveral little buildings.

All remains excite an inqtiiry into tlie former fiate
of the edifice, and fix the mind in a contemplation of
the ufe it was applied to ; befides the charailors ex-
preffed by their ilyle and pofition, they fuggclt ideas
which would not arife from the buildings if entire.
The purpofes of many have ceafed : an abbey, or a
caltle, if complete, can now be no more than a dwell-
ing 5 the memory of the times, and of the manners
to which they are adapted, is preferved only in hilto-
ry, and in ruins ; and certain Icnfations of regret, of
veneration, or compaflion, attend the recollection.
Nor are thefe confined to the remains of buildings
which are in difufe ; thofe of an old manfion raife
reflections on the doraeftic comforts once enjoyed, and
the ancient hofpitality which reigned there. What-
ever building we fee in decay, we naturally contrail
its prefent with its former ftate, and delight to ruminate
on the comparifon. It is true that fuch effects pro-
perly belong to real ruins j they are however pro-
duced in a certain degree by thofe wiiich are fictitious :
the imprelTions are not fo ffrong, but they are e.xa£lly
fimilarj and the reprefentation, though it does not
prefent facts to the memory, yet fuggefts fubjcfts to
the imagination. But, in order to affedl the fancy,
the fuppofed original defign ihould be clear, the ufe
obvious, and the form eafy to be traced : no frag-
ments ihould be hazarded xvithout precile meaning,
and an evident connexion ; none lliould be perplexed
in their conftruction, or uncertain as to their applica-
tion. Conjectures about the form raife doubts about
the exiftence of the ancient llruCture : the mind mull
not be allowed to hefitatc ; it mult be hurried away
from examining into the reality by the exacbiefs and
the f irce of the refemblance.

In the ruins of Tintern abbey J the original con- § Between
ftruclion of the church is perfectly marked ; and it is ^'^^PJl"™
principally from this circumftance that they are cele- 1"'' !l°"'
brated as a (ubject ot curiohty and contemplation.
The walls are almofl entire ; the roof only is fallen in,
but moll of the columns which divided the allies are
Hill (landing : of thofe which have dropped dovvn, the
bafes remain, every one exaCtlyin its place ; and in the
middle of the nave four lofty arches, which once fup-
ported the Iteeple, rife high in the air above all the
reft, each reduced now to a narrow rim of ftone, but
completely preferving its form. The fliapes even of
the windows are little altered : but fonie of them are
quite obfcured, others partially fhaded, by tufts of
ivy ; and thofe which are nioll clear are edged with
its flender tendrils, and lighter foliage, wreathing
about the fides and the divifions : it winds round the'
pillars ; it clings to the walls ; and in one of the allies
clufters at the top in branches, fo thick and fo large as
to darken the fpace below. The other allies, and the
great nave, are expofed to the iky •, the floor is entire-
ly overfpread with turf; and to keep it clear from
weeds and bullies, is now its highelt prefcrvation.
Monkifli tomb ftones and the monuments of bene-
factors long fince forgotten, appear above the green
fward; the bafes of the pillar, which have fallen,
rife out of it ; and maimed eihgies, and fculpture
worn with age and weather, Gothic capitals, carved
3 E cornices,

402

OARDENING.

Parti.

cornices, and various fragments, are fcattered about,
' or lie in heaps piled up together. Other fliattcred
pieces, though disjointed and mouldering, ftill oc-
cupy their original places ; and a ftaircafe much im-
paired, which led to a tower now no more, is fu-
fpended at a great height, uncovered and inaccelTible :
nothing is perfeiSl ; but memorials of every part ftill
fubiift ; all certain, but all in decay ; and fuggefting
at once every idea which can occur in a feat of devo-
tion, folitude, and defolation. Upon fuch models
fictitious ruins fhould be formed : and if any parts are
entirely loft, they fcould be fuch as the imagination
can ealily fupply from thofe which are ftill remain-
ing. Diftinft traces of the building which is fuppof-
ed to have exifted, are lefs liable to the fufpicion of
arti6ce, than an unmeaning heap of confiifion. Pre-
cifion is always fatisfaftory, but in the reality it is
only agreeable ; in the copy it is eflential to the imi-
tation.

A material circumftance to the truth of the imita-
tion is, that the ruins appear to be very old. The idea
is bcfides interefling in itfelf : a monument of antiquity
is never feen with indifference ; and a femblance of age
may be given to the reprefentation by the hue of the
materials, the growth of ivy and other plants, and
cracks and fragments feemingly occafioned rather by
decay than by deftruiftion. An appendage evidently
more modem than the principal ftrufture will feme-
times corroborate the effefl : the ftied of a cottager
amidft the remains of a temple, is a contraft both to
the former and to the prefent ftate of the building ;
and a tree flourilhing among ruins, fliows the length of
time they have lain neglefted. No circumftance fo for-
cibly marks the defolation of a fpot once inhabited, as
the prevalence of nature over it :

Campos ubi Trojnfuit,

is a fentence which conveys a ftronger idea of a city
totally overthrown, than a defcription of its remains •,
bat in a reprefentation to the eye, fome remains mull
appear ; and then the perverfion of them to an ordi-
nary ufe, or an intermixture of a vigorous vegetation,
intimates a fettled defpair of their reftoration.

Sect. II. Principles of SehHion and Arrangement in
the SubjeBs of Gardening.

I. Ok art. In the lower claffes of rural improve-
ments, art ihould be feen as little as maybe ; and in the
more negligent fcenes of nature, every thing ought to
appear ^ if it had been done by the general laws of
nature, or had grown out of a feries of fortuitous cir-
cumftances. But in the higher departments, art can-
not be hid ; and the appearance of delign ought not to
be excluded. A human produftion cannot be made
perfectly natural •, and held out as fuch it becomes an
impofition. Our art lies in endeavouring to adapt the
produCfions of nature to human tafte and perceptions ;
and if much art be ufed, do not attempt to hide it. Art
feldora fails to pleafe when executed in a mafterly man-
ner ; nay, it is frequently the defign and execution,
more than the produftion itfelf, that flrikes us. It is
the artitice, not the defign, which ought to be avoid-
ed. It is the labour and not the art which ought to
be concealed. The nixal artift ought, therefore, up-

on every occafion, to endeavour to a^•oid labour } or, Piclurefque
if indifpenfably neceffary, to conceal it. No trace ^""^"'y.
ftiould be left to lead back the mind to the expenfive '^' .

toil. A mound raifed, a moimtain levelled, or a ufe-
kfs temple built, convey to the mind feelings equally
difgufting.

II. PICTURESQUE BEAUTY. Though the Of Scenery,
aids of art are as elTential to gardening, as education •'''"'•
is to manners •, yet art may do too much : ftie ought
to be confidered as the handmaid, not as the mittrefs,
of nature ; and whether ftie be employed in carving a
tree into the figure of an animal, or in ihaping a view
into the form of a picture, (he is equally culpable.
The nature of the place is facred. Should this tend
to landfcape, from lome principal point of view, aflift
nature and perfect it ; provided this can be done with-
out injuring the vie«s from other points. But do not
disfigure the natural features of the place : — do not fa-
crifice its native beauties, to the arbitrary laws of land-
fcape painting.

Great Nature fcoms controul ; fhe will not bear

One beauty foreign to the fpot or foil

She gives thee to adorn : 'Tis thine alone

To mend, not change, her features. Mason.

Nature fcarcely knows the thing mankind call a land-
fcape. The landfcape painter feldom, if ever, finds it
perfeiSed to his hands ; fome addition or alteration
is almoft always wanted. Every man who has made
his obfervations upon natural icenery, knows that the
mifletoe of the oak occurs almoft as often as a perfect
natural landfcape 5 and to attempt to make up artifi-
cial landfcape upon every occafion is unnatural and ab-
furd.

If, indeed, the eye were fixed in one point, the
trees could be raifed to their full height at command,
and the fun be made to ftand ftill, the rural artift
might work by the rules of light and ftiade, and com-
pofe his landfcape by the painter's law. But, whiht
the fun continues to pour forth its light impartially,
and the trees to rife with flow progreflion, it would be
. ridiculous to attempt it. Let him rather feek out, imi-
tate, and aflbciate, fuch rtriking paffages in nature as
are immediately applicable to the place to be improv-
ed, with regard to rules of landfcape, merely human ;
— and let him,

'■ in this and all

Be various, ^vild, and free, as Nature's felf. Masoh.

Inftead of facrificing the natural beauties of the place
to one formal landfcape, let every ftep difclofe frefli
charms unfought for.

III. Of CHARACTER. Charader is very recon-
cilable with beauty ; and, even when independent of
it, has attradted fo much regard, as to occafion feve- if^h,
ral frivolous attempts to produce it : ftatues, infcrip- '^V-
tions, and even paintings, hiftory and mythology, and ''""'
a variety of devices, have been introduced for this
purpofe. The heathen deities and heroes have there-
fore had their feveral places aHigned to them in the Of e
woods and lawns of a garden j natural cafcades have ■'"''
been disfigured with river gods, and columns ere6ted on-'***'
ly to receive quotations 3 the compartiments of a fum-

mer

atlcy't

Parti.

CARD

Character, mer houfe have been filled with piflures of gambols and
" » revels, as fignifieant of gaiety ; the cyprefs, becaufe
it WRS once ufed in funerals, has been thought pecu-
liarly adapted to melancholy ; and the decorations, the
furniture, and the environs of a building, have been
crowded with puerilities under pretence of propriety.
All thefe devices are rather etnblcr?tal ical l\\zn exprefli\'e :
they may be ingenious contrivances, and recal abfent
ideas to the recollection -, but they make no immediate
imprelHon : for they mud be examined, compared,
perhaps explained, before the whole defign of them is
well underftood. And though an allulion to a favourite
or well known fubjecl of hiilory, of poetrv, or of tra-
dition, may now and then animate or dignify a Icene ;
yet as the fulajeft does not naturally belong to a gar-
den, the allufion ftiould not be principal : it fhould
feem to have been fuggeft ed by the fcene ; a tranfitory
image, which irrefiftibly occurred ; not fought for, not
laboured ; and have the force of a metaphor, free from
,j the detail of an allegory.
Jfimita- Another fpecies of character arifes from dired imi-
ivecha- tation ; when a fcene or an objeft, which has been ce-
^'^ "^' lebrated in defcription, or is famiUar in idea, is repre-
fented in a garden. Artificial ruins, lakes, and rivers,
fall under this denomination. The air of a feat extend-
ed to a diftance, and fcenes calculated to raife ideas of
Arcadian elegance or of rural fimplicity, with many
more which have been occafionally mentioned, or will
obvioufly occur, may be ranked in this clafs. They
are all reprefentations. But the materials, the dimen-
fions, and other circumftances, being the fame in the
copy and the original, their effefts are fimilar in both :
and if not equally ftrong, the defeft is not in the re-
femblance ; but the confcioufnefs of an imitation
checks that train of thought which the appearance na-
turally fuggefts. Yet an over-anxious folicltude to dif-
gtiife the fallacy is often the means of expofing it : too
many points of likenefs fometimes hurt the deception ;
they feem ftudied and forced ; and the affeftation of
refemblance deftroys the fuppofition of a reality. A
hermitage is the habitation of a reclufe ; it fhould be
diftinguiihed by its folitude, and its fimplicity : but
if it is filled mth crucifixes, hour glafles, beads, and
every other trinket which can be thought of, the
attention is diverted from enjoying the retreat to ex-
amining the particulars : all the collateral circumftan-
ces which agree with a charafter feldom meet in one
fubjeft ; and vvhen they are induftrioully brought to-
gether, though each be natural, the collection is ar
tincial.

But the art of gardening afpires to more than imita-
tion : it can create original characters, and give expref-
fions to the feveral fcenes fuperior to any they can re-
ceive from allufions. Certain properties, and certain
difpofitions, of the objects of nature, are adapted to ex-
cite particular ideas and fenfations : many of them have
been occafionally mentioned, and all are very well
known. They require no difcemraent, examination, or
difcudion ; but are obvious at a glance, and inftantanc-
oudy diftinguifhed by our feelings. Beauty alone is not
fo engaging as this ipecics of charafler : the impreffions
it makes are more tranficnt and lefs interclling ; for it
aims only at delighting the eye, but the other affects
our fenfibility. An alTemblagc of the mofl elegant
forms in the happiefl fituations is to a degree indifcrimi-

Of original
charadteis.

E N I N G.

nate, if they have not been felectcd and arr.-^ngcd with
a defign to produce certain exprelTions ; an air of mag-
nificence, or of fimplicity, of chcerfuhiefs, tranquillity,
or fome other general character, ought to pervade the
whole ; and objects pleafing in thcmfelves, if they con-
tradict that charafter, fliould therefore be excluded :
thofe which are only indifferent mull fometimes make
room for fuch as are more fignifieant ; many w4il often
be introduced for no other merit than their exprellion ;
and fome, which are in general rather dilagreeable, mav
occafionally be^ recommended by it. Barreiinefs itfeif
may be an acceptable circumftance in a fpot dedicated
to folitude and melancholy.

The power of fuch characters is not confined to the
ideas which the objei5ts immediately fuggeft ; for thefe
are connected with others, which infenfibly lead to
fubje£ts far diftant perhaps from the original thought,
and related to it only by a fimilitude in the fenfations
they excite. In a profpeft enriched and enlivened with
inhabitants and cultivation, the attention is caught at
firtt by the circumftances which are gayeft in their fe-i-
fon, the bloom of an orchard, the feftivity of a hay
field, and the carols of harveft home ; but the cheerful-
nefs which thefe infufe into the mind, expands afterwards
to other objects than thofe immediately prefented to the
eye j and we are thereby dilpofed to receive, and de-
lighted to purfue, a variety of pieafing ideas, and every
benevolent feeling. At the fight of a ruin, refleflions
on the change, the decay, and the defolation before us,
naturally occur ; and they introduce a long fuccefTiou
of others all tinctured with that melancholy which thefe
have infpired j or if the monument re\'ive the memorv
of former times, we do not ftop at llie fimple fa6t which
it records, but recollect many more coeval circumftan-
ces, which we fee, not perhaps as they were, but as they
are come down to us, venerable with age, and magni-
fied by fame. Even without the affiftance of buildings
or other adventitious circumftances, nature alone fur-
nilhes materials for fcenes which may be adapted to a!-
moft every kind of expreffion : their operation is gene-
ral, and their confequences are infinite : the mind is
elevated, depreffed, or compofed, as gaiety, gloom, or
tranquillity, prevails in the fcene ; and we foon lofe
fight of the means by which the charafter is formed ;
we forget the particular objefls it prefents ; and giving
way to their effefts, without recurring to the caufe, we
follow the track they have begun, to any extent which
the difpofition they accord with will allow. It fuftices
that the fcenes of nature have a power to aifeft our ima-
gination and our fenfibility ; for fuch is the conftitution
of the human mind, that if once it is agitated, the
emotion fpreads far beyond the occafion : when the
pafFions are roufed, their courfe is unreftrained ; when
the fancy is on the wing, its flight is unbounded ; and,
quitting the inanimate obje£ls which firft gave them
their Ipring, we may be led by thought above
thought, widely differing in degree, but ftill corre-
fponding in charafter, till we rife from familiar fub-
jccls up to the fublimcft conceptions, and are wrapt in
the contemplation of whatever is great or beautiful,
which we fee in nature, feel in man, or attribute to di-
vinity.

IV. GENERAL ARRANGEMENT. Notwuh-

ilanding the nature of the place, as already obfer^-ed,

3 E 2 ought

General

404

Huntinj
Box.'

Fla„,;ns

GARDE

ouglit not to be facrificed to the manfion •, — the houfe
mutt ever be allowed to be a principal in the compofi-
tion. It ought to be confidered as the centre of the
fyftem •, and the rays of art, like thofe of the fun,
(hould grow fainter as they recede from the centre.
I'he houfe itfclf being entirely a work of art, its imme-
diate environs (hould be highly finilhed ; but as the di-
ftance increafes, the appearance of defign fhould gra-
dually diminiih, until nature and fortuitoufnefs have
full pofleflion of the fcene.

In general, the approach (hould be to the back front,
which, in fuitablc (ituations, ought to lie open to the
pafture grounds. On the fides more highly ornamented,
a well kept gravel walk may embrace the walls ; to this
the (haven lawn and (Inubbery fucceed : next, the
grounds clofely paftured ; and iallly, the furrounding
country, which ought not to be confidered as out of the
artill's' reach : for his artconfifts not more in decorating
particular fpots, than in endeavouring to render the
whole face of nature delightful.

Another reafon for this mode of arrangement is, ob-
jesEls immediately under the eye are feen more diftinft-
ly than thofe at a diftance, and ought to be fuch as are
pleafing in the detail. The beauties of a flower can
be difcerned on a near view only ; whilft at a diilance
a roughet of coppice wood, and the moll elegant ar-
rangement of (lowering (hrubs, have the fame efteft.
The moll rational entertainment the human mind is
capable of receiving, is that of obferving the operations
of nature. The foliation of a leaf, the blowing of

N I N G.

flowers, and the maturation of fruit, are among the Oi
moll delightful fubjefts that a contemplative mind can*^"^ '-'
be employed in. Thefe proceflTcs of nature are flow j
and except the objett fall fpontaneoufly under the eye
of the obferver, the inconveniences of viliting it in a
remote part, fo far interfere ivith the more important
employments of life, as to blunt, if not dellroy, the
enjoyment. This is a (Irong argument in favour
of (hrubs and flowers being planted under or near
our windows, efpecially tliole from whence they
may be vie\ved during the hours of leifure and tran-
quillity.

Further, the vegetable creation being fubjeft to the
animal, the flirub may be cropt, or the flower trodden
down in its day of beauty. If therefore we wilh to
converfe with nature in private, intruders mufl be kept
off, — the flirubbery be fevered from the ground ; — ^yet
not in fuch a manner as to. drive away the pafluring
(lock from our fight. For this reafon, the fliaven lawn
ought not to be too extenlive, and the fence which in-
doles it (hould be fuch as will not interrupt the view :
but whether it be feen or unfeen, fafpecled or unfufpeS-
ed, is a matter of no great import : its utility in pro-
tefting the flirubs and flowers, — in keeping the horns
of the cattle from the window, and the feet of the flieep
from the gravel and broken ground, — in prefervin^r
that neatnefs on the outfide, w'hich ought to corrclpond
with the (iniihings and furniture within, — render it of
fufficient importance to become even a part of the orna-
ment.

Part IL

PART II. EXECUTION OF THE GENERAL SUBJECTS.

IMPROVEMENTS in general may be clalTed un-
der the following heads ; The Hunting-Box, the Onia-
merved Cottage, the Villa, and the Principal Rtjidence.

But before any (lep can be taken towards the execu-
tion of the defign, be it large or fraall, a map or plan
of the place, cxaiSlly as it lies in its unimproved flate,
(hould be made ; with a correfponding Iketch, to mark
the intended improvements upon. Not a ho%'el nor a
twig (hould be touched, untjl the artift has (ludied ma-
turely the natural abilities of the place, and has deci-
dedly fixed in his mind, and finally fettled on his plan,
the propofed alterations : and even then, let him " dare
with caution."

1. Of Improvements adapted lo a Hunting-Box.
Here art has little to do. Hunting may be called
the amufement of nature ; and the place appropriated
to it ought to be no farther altered from its natural flate
than decency and conveniency require : — With men
who live in the prefent age of refinement, " a want of
decency is a want of fenfe."
Ibid, The ftyle throughout fhould be mafculine. If ihrubs

p. fiio, &c. be required, they fliould be of the hardier forts : the
box, the holly, the laurullinus. The trees (liould be
the oak and the beech, which give in autumn an agree-
able variety of foliage, and anticipate as it were the
feafon of diverfion. A fuite of paddocks fliould be
f^en from the houfe ; and if a view of dillant covers
can be caught, the back -ground will be complete.
The ftable, the kennel, and the leaping -bar, are the

factitious accompaniments ; in the conflrucSlion of which
fimpUcity, fubftantialnels, and conveniency, fliould pre-
vail.

2. Of the Stijles of an ORNAMENTED CoTTAGE.

Neatnefs and fimplicity ought to mark the (lyle of
this rational retreat. Ollentation and (how (hould be
cautiouily avoided j even elegance (hould not be at-
tempted ; though it may not be hid, if it offer itfelf
fpontaneoufly.

Nothing, however, (liould appear vulgar, nor fliould
fimplicity be pared down to baldnefs ; every thintr
vvhimfical or expenln-e ought to be ftudioufly avoid-
ed ■) — chaflenefs and frugality (hould appear in every
part.

Near the houfe a ftudied neatnefs may take place ;
but at a diftance, negligence (hould rather be the cha-
ra£leriftic.

If a tafte for botany lead to a colleftion of native
(hrubs and flowers, a flirubbery will be requifite ; but
in this every thing (hould be native. A gaudy exotic
ought not to be admitted ; nor (hould the lawn be kept
clo(e (haven j its flowers fliould be permitted to blow ;
and the herbage, when moivn, ought to be carried oft",
and applied to fome uleful purpofe.

In the artificial accompaniments, ornament muft be
fubordinale ; utility muft prefide. The buildings, if any
appear, fliould be thofe in aclual ufe in rural economics.
If the hovel be wanted, let it appear ; and, as a fide-
fcreen, the bam and rick-yard a.'-e admilTible j whiKl

the

Part II. GARDE

v>ii.i. tlie dove-lioufe and poultry-yard may enter more freely
'^—v—' into the compofition.

In fine, the ornamented cottage ought to exhibit cul-
tivated n;^ture in the firll itage of refinement. It ranks
next above the iarm-houfe. . The plain garb of rufticity
may be fet oS" to advantage ; but the Itudied diels of
the artill ought not to appear. That becoiriing neat-
nefs, and tiiofe domeftic conveniences, which render
the rural life agreeable to a cultivated mind, are all
that fhould be aimed at.

3. OflAe Emheinjhments of a Viixa.

This demands a flyls very different from the preced-
ing. It ought to be elegant, rich, or grand, accord-
ing to the rtyle of the houfe itielf, and the ft-ite of the
furrounding com. try j the principal bufinefs of the artift
being to conneft the:? two in fuch a manner, that the
one Ihall not appear naked or flaring, nor the other de-
folate and inbofpitable.

If the houfe be ftately, and the adjacent country rich
and highly cultivated, a fnrubbery may intervene, in
which art may (ho'.v her utmoft Ikill. Here the artill
may even be permitted to play at landfcape : for a place
- of this kind being fuppofed to be fmall, the purpofe
principally ornamental, and the point of view probably
confined fimply to the houfe, fide-fci;eens may be form-
ed, and a fore-ground laid out fuitable to the befl dif-
tance that can be caught.

If buildings or other artificial ornaments abound in
the o.lscape, fo as to mark it ftrongly, they ought alfo
to appear more or lefs in the fore-ground : if the dif-
tance abomid with wood, the fore-ground Ihould be
thickened, lell baldnefs (hould offend ; if open and na-
ked, elegance rather than richnefs. ought to be ftudied,
lell heavinefs fliould appear.
Ibid. It is far from being any part of our plan to cavil

unnecelTarily at artifts, ivhether living or dead j we
cannot, however, refrain from exprelTrng a concern for
the alraoft total neglect of tlie principles here in or-
namenting the vicinages of villas. It is to be regret-
ted, that in the prefent praftice thefe principles feem
to be generally loft fight of. Without any regard to
uniting the houfe with the adjacent country, and, in-
deed, ieemingly without any regard whatever to the
offscape, one invariable plan of embellilhment prevails;
namely, that of ftripping the fore-ground entirely
naked, or nearly fo, and furrounding it with a wavy
border of (hrubs and a gravel walk ; leaving the
area, whether large or fmall, one naked flieet of green
Avard.

In fmall confined fpots, this plan may be eligible.
But a fimple border round a large unbroken lawn only
ferves to (how what more is \vanled. Simplicity in
genera] is pleafing ; but even fimpllcity may be carried
to an extreme, fo as to convey no other idea than that
of poverty and baldnefs. hefides, how often do we
fee in natural fcenery, the holly, and the fox-glove
flouriiliing at the foot of an oak, and the primrofe and
the campion adding charms to the hawthorn fcattered
over the pailured lawn ? And we conceive that fingle
irees footed with evergreens and native flowers, and
clumps as well as borders of ftirubs, are admiflible in or-
namental as well as in natural fcenery.

The fpecies of ftirub will vary with the purpofe. If
the principal intention be a winter retreat, evergreens

N I N G. 405

and the early-blowing fhtubs fliould predominate ; but Principal
in a place to be frequented in fummer and autumn, the R' '■'!t"'^c-^
deciduous tribes ought chie% to be planted. *

4. Of the Principai, Residence.

Here the whole art centres. The artift has here full
fcope for a difplay of tafte and genius. He lias an ex-
tent of country under his eye, and will endeavour to
make the molt of what nature and accident have fpread
before him.

Round a principal rcfidence, a gentleman may be fup-
pofed to have fome confiderable eftate, and it is not a
Ihrubbery and a ground only which fall under the con-
Cderation of the artift : he ought to endea%'our to dif-
clofe to the view, either from the houfe or fome other
point, as much as he conveniently can of the adjacent
eftate. The love of poflefl'ion is deeply planted in every
man's bread ; and places ihould bow to the gratification
of their owners. To curtail the view by an artificial
fide-fcreen, or any other unnatural machinery, fo as to
deprive a man of the fatisfaclion of overlooking his own
eftate, is an abfurdity which no artift ought to be per-
mitted to be guilty of. It is very different, however,
where the property of another intrudes upon the eye :
Here the view may, with fome colour of propriety, be
bounded by a woody fcreen.

The grounds, however, by a proper management,
may be made Independent of whatever is external ; and
though profpefts are nowhere more delightful than
from a point of view %vliich is alio a beautiful fpot, yet
if in the .environs of fuch a garden they ihould be
wanting, the elegant, pifturefque, and various fcenes
\rithin itfelf, almoft fupply the deficiency.

" This (lays Mr Whcatley) is the character of the Mr IVhco:-
gardens at Stowe : for thefe the views in the country Uy'i dc.
are only circumrtances fubordinate to the fcenes; 3.ni./'"''f'''"' °f
the principal advantage of the fituation is the variety ^'''"' ^'"'
of the ground within the inclofmre. The houfe ftands
on the brow of a gentle afcent : part of the gardens lie
on the declivity, and fpread over the bottom beyond it ;
this eminence is feparated by a broad w hiding valley
from another which is higher and llecper ; and the dcf-
cents of both are broken by large dips and hollows,
floping down the fides of the hills. Tiie whole fpaco is
divided into a number of fcenes, each diftinguilhed with
tafte and fancy ; and the changes are fo frequent, fo fud-
den, and complete, the tranfitions fo artfully conduilcil,
that the fame ideas are never continued or repeated to
fatiety.

Thefe gardens were begun when regularity was in fa-
fliion ; and the original boundary is ftill prefcrved, on
account of its magnificence : for round the whole cir-
cuit, of between three or four miles, is carried a very
broad gravel walk, planted with rous of trees, and open
either to the park or the country ; a deep funk fence
attends it all the way, and comprehends a fpacc of near
400 acres. But in the interior fcenes of the garden,
few traces of regularity appear ; where it yet remains
in the plantations, it is generally difguifed : every fymp-
tom, almoft, of formality, is obliterated from the ground ;
and an oflagon bafon in the bottom is now converted
into an irregular piece of water, which receives on one ,
hand two beautiful ftreams, and falls on the other doivn
a cafcade into a lake.

In the front of the houfe is a confiderable lav.-n, open

4o6

CARD

Principal to tlie water : beyond which are two elegant Doric pa-
Refiderce. , ijjons, placed in the boundary of the garden, but not
' marking it, though they correfpond to each other ; for
Hill further back, on the brow of fome rifmg grounds
without the inclofure, ftands a noble Corin.thian arch,
by which the principal approach is condufted, and from
which all the gardens are feen, reclining back againft
their hills ; they are rich with plantations ; full of ob-
je£ls ; and lying on both fides of tlie houfe almoft equal-
ly, every part is within a moderate diftance, notwith-
ftanding the extent of the whole.

On the right of the lawn, but concealed from the
houfe, is a perfeft garden fcene, called the queen's
ampldihealre, where art is avowed, though formality
is avoided. The fore-ground is fcooped into a gentle
hollow. The plantations on the fides, though but jult
rcfcued from regularity, yet in ftyle are contrafted to
each other : they are, on one hand, chiefly thickets,
Handing out from a wood ; on the other, they are
open groves, through which a glimpfe of the water is
vifible. At the end of the hollow on a little knoll,
quite detached from all appendage.;, is placed an open
Ionic rotunda : beyond it, a large lawn Hopes acrofs the
view ; a pyramid llands on the brow ; the queen's pil-
lar, in a recefs on the defcent ; and all the three build-
ings, being evidently intended for ornament alone, are
peculiarly adapted to a garden-fcene. Yet their num-
ber does not render it gay : the duiky hue of the pyra-
mid, the retired fituation of the queen's pillar, and the
lolitary appearance of the rotunda, give it an air of
gravity ; it is encompaffed with wood ; and all the ex-
ternal views are excluded j even the opening into the
lawn is but an opening into an inclofure.

At the king's pillar, very near to this, is another
lo^-ely fpot J \vhich is fmall, but not confined ; for no
termination appears j the ground one way, the water
another, retire under the trees out of fight, but no-
where meet with a boundary. The view is firft over
fome very broken ground, thinly and irregularly
planted ; then betiveen two beautifiil clumps, which
feather do^vn to the bottom ; and afterwards acrofs a
glade, and through a little grove beyond it, to that
part of the lake ivhere the thickets clofe upon the
brink, fpread a tranquillity over the furface, in which
their fliadows are reflected. Nothing is admitted to
difturb that quiet : no building obtrudes ; for objects
to fix the eye are needlefs in a fcene which may be
comprehended at a glance ■■, and none would fuit the
paftoral idea it infpires, of elegance too refined for
a cottage, and of fimplicity too pure for any other
edifice.

The fituation of the rotunda promifes a profpcft
more enlarged ; and in facl moll of the objefts on this
fide of the garden are there vifible : but they want
both connexion and contrail ; each belongs peculiarly
to fome other fpot : they are all blended together in
this, without meaning ; and are rather ftiown on a
map, than formed into a pidVure. The water only is
capital ; a broad expanfe of it is fo near as to be feen
under the little groups on the bank without interrup-
tion. Beyond it is a wood, which in one place leaves
the lake, to run up behind a beautiful building, of
tljree pavilions joined by arcades, all of the Ionic
order : it is called Kent''s BiiiUin^. And never was a
defign more happily conceived : it feems to be charac;-

E N I N G. ■

teriftically proper for a garden ; it is fo elegant, fo va-
ried, and fo purely ornamental : it direclly fronts the
rotunda, and a narrow rim of the country appears above
the trees beyond it. But the effedl even of this no-
ble objeft is fainter here than at other points : its po-
fition is not the moft advantageous ; and it is but one
among many other buildings, none of wiiich are princi-
pal.

The fcene at the temple of Bacchus is in charafler
direiflly the reverfe of that about the rotunda, though
the fpace and the objects are nearly the fame in both ;
but in this, all the parts concur to form one whole.
The ground from every fide fhelves gradually towards
the lake ", the plantations on the further banli open to
^ho^v Kent's building, rile from the water's edge to-
wards the knoll on ^vhich it ftands, and clofe again
behind it. That elegant ftrufture, inclined a little from
a front view, becomes more beautiful by being thrown
into perfpedlive ; and though at a greater diftance, is
more important than before, becaufe it is alone in the
view : for the queen's pillar and the rotunda are re-
moved far afide ; and every other circumftance refers
to this interefting objeft : the water attrads, the
ground and the plantations direft, the eye thither :
and the country does not juft glimmer in the offscape,
but is clofe and eminent above the wood, and connect-
ed by clumps with the garden. The fcene altogether
is a moft animated landlcape ; and the fplendor of the
building ; the reflection in the lake ; the tranfparency
of the water, and picturefque beauty of its form, diver-
fified by little groups on the brink, ^vhile on the broad-
eft expanfe no more trees caft their ihadows than are
furticient to vary the tints of the furface ; all thefe cir-
cumftances, vying in luftre with each other, and unit-
ing in the point to which every part of the fcene is re-
lated, diffufe a peculiar brilliancy over the whole com-
pofition.

The view- from Kent's building is very diflferent
from thofe which have been hitherto defcribed. They
are all directed down the declivity of the lawn. This
rifes up the afcent: the eminence being crowned with
lofty ^vood, becomes thereby more confidcrable ; and
the hillocks into which the general fall is broken,
floping further out this way than any other, they alfo
acquire an importance which they had not before ;
that, particularly, on which the rotunda is placed,
feems here to be a profound fituation ; and the ftruc-
ture appears to be properly adapted to fo open an es-
pofure. The temple of Bacchus, on the contrary, which
commands fuch an illultrious view, is itfelf a retired ob-
jeft, clofe under the covert. The wood rifing on the
brow, and defcending down one fide of the hill, is
fhown to be deep ; is high, and feems to be higher than
it is. The lawn too is extenfive ; and part the bounda-
ry being concealed, it fuggefts the idea of a ilill great-
er txlent. A fmall portion only of the lake Indeed is
vifible ; but it is not here an objeiEl : it is a part of the
fpot ; and neither termination being in fight, it has no
diminutive appearance ; if more water had been admit-
ted, it might have hurt the chara6ler of the place,
which is fober and temperate ; neither folemn nor gay ;
great and fimple, but elegant j above nifticity, yet free
from ortentation.

Thefe are the principal fcenes on one fide of the gar-
dens. On the other, clofe to the lawn before the houfe.

Part ir.

- Pfi>,cipa!
: Refidence.

Part IL

Prticipal is tne winding valley above mentioned : the lo;ver part
ReuJcnce. of it is affigned to the ElyCan fields. Th'efe are water-
'—~''^~~~ ed by a lovely rivulet ; are very lightfome, and very
airy, fo thinly are the trees fcattered about them ; are
open at one end to more uater and a larger glade j^nd
the reft of the boundary is frequently broken to let in
objeds afar oiF, which appear fti'l more dillant from
the manner of fliou ing them. The entrance is under a
Doric arch, which coincides with an opening among the
trees, and forms a kind of wfta,' through which a Pem-
broke bridge jiift below, and a' lodge built like a caftle
in the park, are feen in a beautiful perfpeclive. That
bridge is at one extremity of the gardens •, the queen's
pillar is at another ; yet both arc vifible from the fame
ftstion in the Elylian fields :' and all thefe external «ib-
jeiSs are unafTeciedly introduced, diverted of their own
appurtenar.ee?, and combined with others which belong
to the fpot. The temple of Friendihip is alfo in fight,
jull without the iihice ; and within it are the temples of
ancient Viitue, and of the Britifh worthies ; the one in
an elevated fituation, the other low down in the valley,
and near to tlie water ; both are decorated '.vith the ef-
figies of thofe who have been moft diftinguiihed for mi-
litary, civil, or literary merit ; and near to tiie former
Hands a rollral column, facred to the memory of Cap-
tain Grenville, who fell in an aftion at fea : by pla-
cing here the meed of valour, and by filling thefe fields
with the reprefeiitatlons of thofe who have delerved
bell of mankind, the character mtended to be given to
the fpot is jullly and poetically expreffed ; and the
number of the images which are prefented or excited,
perfectly correfponds with it. Solitude »vas never rec-
koned among the charms of Elyfium •, it has been al-
ivays pi(51ured as the manfion of delight and of joy :
and in this imitation, every circmnilance accords with
that eftabliihed idea. The xavacity of the ftream which
flows through the vale ; the glimpfes of another ap-
proaching to join it ; the fprightly verdure of the
green fward, and every buft of the Britilh worthies
re.lecled in the water ; the variety of the trees ; the
lightnefs of the greens ; their difpofiticn ; all of them
diftiniEl objects, and difperfed over gentle inequalities
of the ground ; together with the multiplicity of ob-
jefls both w'lthin and without, which embellifti and
enliven the fcene ; give it a gaiety, which the imagi-
nation can hardly conceive, or the heart wiih to be ex-
ceeded.

Clofe by this fpot, and a perfect contraft to it, is
the alder grove ; a deep recefs in the midft of a (liade,
which the blaze of noon cannot brighten. The water
feems to be a ftagnated pool, eating into its banks ;
and of a peculiar colour, not dirty but clouded, and
dimly reflefting the dun hue of the horiechefr.uts and
alders which prefs upon the brink : the ftems of the
latter, rifing in clullcrs from the fame root, bear one
anotlier down, and flant over the water. Milhapen
elms and ragged firs are frequent in the wood which
encompaflfes the hollow ; the trunks of dead trees are
left ftanding amongft them : and the uncouth fumach,
and the yew, with elder, nut, and holly, compofe the
underwood : fome limes and laurels are intermixed ; but
they are not many ; the wood is in general of the
darkelt greens ; and the foliage is thickened with ivy,
which not only twines up the trees, but creeps alfo
over the falls of the ground ; thefe are fteej) and

G A K D E N I N G.

407

abrupt : the gravel-walk is covered with mofs ; and a Principal
grotto at the end, faced with broken flints and pebbles, Rt''"!""^^-
preferves, in the firaplicity of its materials, and the '
dulkinefs of its colour, all the charaftcr of its fituation :
pvo little rotundas near it were better away; one
building is fuflicicnt for fuch a fccne of folitude as this,
in which more circumftances of gloom concur than
were perhaps ever collected together.

Immediately above the alder-grove is the principal
eminence in the gardens. It is divided by a great dip
into two pinnacles ; upon o:ie of ivhich is a large Go-
thic building. The fpace before this ftrufture is an
extenfive lawn : the ground on one fide falls imme-
diately into the dip ; and the trees which border the
lawn, finking with the ground, the houfe rifes above
them, and fills the interval : the vaft pile feems to be
flill larger than it is; for it is thrown into perfpective,
and betiveen and above the heads of the trees, the up-
per ftory, the porticoes, tiie turrets, and balluftrades,
and all the flated roofs, appear in a noble confufion.
On the other fide of the Gothic building, the ground
Hopes down a lor.g continued declivity into a bottom,
which feems to be perfectly irriguous. Divers Ilreams
wander about it in feveral diteclions : the contlux of
that which runs from the Elyfian fields with another
below it, is full in fight ; and a plain wooden bridge
thro^s-n over the latter, and evidently designed for a
pafiage, impofes an air of reality on the river. Be-
yond it is one of the Doric porticoes which front the
houfe ; but now it is alone ; it ftands on a little bank
above the water, and is feen under fome trees at a di-
ftance before it : thus grouped, and thus accompanied,
it is a happy incident, concurring ivith many other
circumltances to diltinguilh this landfcape by a charac-
ter of cheerfulnefs and amenity. ,

From the Gothic building a broad walk leads to-
the Grecian valley, which is a fcene of more grandeur
than any in the gardens. It enters them from the
park, fpreading at firft to a confiderable breadth ; then
winds ; grows narrower, but deeper ; and lofes itfelf
at lalt in a thicket, behind fome lofty elms, which in-
terrupt the fight of the termination. Lovely woods
and groves hang all the way on the declivities : and
the open fpace is broken by detaclied trees ; which,
near the park, are cautioufly and fparingly introduced,
left, the breadth ihould be contracted by them ; but as
the valley finks, they advance more boldly down the
fides, flretch acrofs or along the bottom, and clnfter
at times into groups and forms, which multiply the
varieties of the larger plantations. Thofe are fome-
times clofe coverts, and fometimes open groves ; the
trees rife in one upon high ftems, and feather down to
the bottom in another ; and between them are ftiort
openings into the park or the gardens. In the midlt
of the fcene, juft at the bend of the valley, and com-
manding it on both fides, upon a large, eafy, natural
rife, is placed the temple of Concord and Vit'tory ; at
one place its majeftic front of fix Ionic columns, fup-
porting a pediment filled with bas relief, and the points
of it crowned with ftatues, faces the view ; at another,
the beautifiil colonnade, on the fide, of 10 lofty pillars,
retires in perfpective. It is feen from every part ; and
imprelfing its own character of dignity on all around,
it fpreads an awe over the whole : but no gloom, no
melancholy, attends it ; the fenfations it excites are ra-
ther

-loS

CARD

Principr.! ther placid ; but full of refpecl, admiiavion, and fo-

Reli(.cncf. jg^^Jty . ^q ^yater appears to enliven, no diflant pro-

• fied lo enrich the view ; the parts of the fcene are

large, the idea of it fublirae, and the execution happy ;

it is independent of all adventitious circumfhances, aud

relies on itfelt for its greatnefs.

The fcenes which have been defcribed are fuch as
are moll remarkable for beauty or chara£ler •, but the
gardens contain many more ; and even the objefls in
tiiefe, by their feveral combinations, produce very dif-
ferent effefls, %vithin the diftance fcmetimes of a few
paces, from the unevennefs of the ground, the variety
of the plantations, and the number of the buildings.
The multiplicity of the laft has indeed been often urged
as an objeflion to Stowe ; and certainly, when all are
feen by a ftranger in two or three hours, twenty or
thirty capital ftruflures, mixed with others of inferior
note, do feem too many. But the growth of the wood
every day weakens the objedlion, by concealing them
one from the other : each belongs to a diftinft fcene j
and it they are confidered feparately, at different times,
and at leifure, it may be difficult to determine which
to take away. Yet flill it mufl be acknowledged that
their frequency delfroys all ideas of filence and retire-
ment. Magnificence and fplendor are the characlerif-
tics of Stowe : it is like one of thofe places celebrated
in antiquity, ^vhich were devoted to the purpofes of
religion, and filled \\ith facred groves, hallowed foun-
tains, and temples dedicated to feveral deities ; the
refort of diftant nations, and the objeiSi: of veneration
to half the heathen world : this pomp is, at Stowe,
blended with beauty •, and the place is equally diflin-
guiflied by its amenity and its grandeur.

In the miidft of fo much embellifnment as may be
introduced nito this fpecies of garden, a plain field, or
a Iheep-walk, is fometlmes an agreeable relief, and e-
ven wilder fcenes may occafionally be admitted. Thefe
indeed are not properly parts of a garden, but they
may be comprehended within the verge of it ; and the
proximity to the more ornamented fcenes is at leall a
convenience, that the trpnfjtion from the one to the
other may be eafy, and the change always in our op-
lion. For though a fpot in the higheft ftate of im-
provement be a neceflary appendage to a feat ; yet, in
a place wluch is perfeft, other characters will not be
wanting : if they cannot be had on a large fcale, they
are acceptable on a fmaller ; and fo many circumftan-
ces are common to all, that they may often be inter-
mixed ; they may always border on each other."

But on this head it would be in vain to attempt to
Prallkjl ^^y down particular rules : different places arc marked
Trcailft on by fets of features as different from each other as are
Flariing thofe in men's faces. Much mufl be left to the fkill
ond Gar- ^.M tafie of the artift •, and let thofe be \\ hat they may,
p'fi"'^' nothing but mature ftudy of the natural abilities of the
particular place to be improved can render him equal
to the execution, fo as to make the molt of the mate-
rials that are placed before him.

Some few general rules may neverthelefs be laid
down. The approach ought to be conduced in fuch
a manner, that the Itrikirg features of the place fhall
burft upon the view at once : no trick however fhould
be made ufc of: all fliould appear to fall in naturally.
In leading towards the houfe, its direftion fhould not
be fully in front, nor exactly at an angle, but fhould

E N I N G. PartIL

pafs obliquely upon the houfe and its accomp.inimeuts ; Frncipa!
lb that their pofition with refpe£l to each other, as R-<"-'t'™ce.
well as the perfpeflive appearance of the houfe itfelf, '~~'V— — '
may vary at every ftep : and having ihown the front
and the principal wing, or other accompaniment, to
advantage, the approach Ibould wind to the back front,
which, as has been already obferved, ought to lie open
to the park or paflured grounds.

The improvement and the rooms from which thty
are to be feen fhould be in unil'on. Thus, the view
from the drawing-room fhould be highly embeliiflied,
to correfpond with the beauty end eiegance within :
every thing here fhould be feminine, elegant, beauti-
ful, fuch as attunes the mind to polltenefs and lively
ccnverfation. The breakfafting room fhould have more
mafculine objefts in view ; wood, water, and an ex-
tended country for the eye to roam over ; fuch as al-
lures us imperceptibly to the lide or the chafe. The
eating and banqueting rooms need no exterior allure-
ments.

There is a harmony in tafle as in mufic : variety,
and even wildnefs upon fome occafions, may be ad-
mitted ; but difcord cannot be allowed. If, therefore,
a place be fo circumttanced as to confifl of properties
totally irreconcilcable, the parts ought, if poflible, to
be feparated in fuch a manner, that, like the air and
the recitative, the adagio and the allegro, in mulir,
they may fet off each other's charms by the contrart . —
Thefe obfervations, in the elegant performance whence DeTcriDtion
they are extrafted, the author lilulirates by the follow- of Perfe-
ing defcription and propofed improvement of Perfe- field, i'ojW.
field, the feat of Mr Morris, near Chepitow in Mon-P-'^'^. *«;■
mouthfhire ; a place upon which nature has been pe-
culiarly lavilh of her favours, and which has been fpo-
ken by Mr Wheatley, Mr Gilpin, and other writers,
in the moft flattering terms.

" Perfefield is fitualed upon the banks of the river
Wye, which divides Gloucefferfhire and Monmouth-
fliire, and which was form.erly the boundary between
England and \\ ales. The general tendency of the ri-
ver is from north to fouth ; but about Perfefield it de-
fcribes by its winding courfe the letter S, fomewhat
comprelTed, fo as to reduce it in length and increafe
its width. The grounds of Perfefield are lifted high
above the bed of the river, fbelving, and fonn the
brink of a lofty and fleep precipice, towards the fouth-
weff.

" The lower limb of the letter is filled with Perfe-
wood, which makes a part of Perfefield ; but is at pre-
fent an impenetrable thicket of coppice-w'ood. This
dips to the fouth-ealt doum to the water's edge ; and,
feen from the top of the oppoiite rock, has a good et-
feft.

" The upper limb receives the farms of Llancot, rich
and hidily cultivated, broken into inclofures, and
fcattered with groups and fingle trees ; two ivell look-
ing farm-houfcs in the centre, and a neat white chapel
on one fide : altogether a lovely little paradifaical fpot.
The lowlinefs of its fituation ftamps it witli an air of
meeknel's and humility ; and the natui-al barriers which
furround it add that of peacefulnefs and fecurity.
The pifturefque farms do not form a low flat bot-
tom, fubjeft to be overflowed by the river ; but take
the form of a gorget, rifing fullefl in the middle, and
falling on every fide gently to the brink of the Wye ;

except

Part II. GARDE

Principal except on xhe eaft Title, where the top of the gorget
Relidence. igans in an eal'y manner againll a range of perpendicu-
' ]ar rock ; as if to lliow its dilk with advantage to the
walks of Pcrfefield.

" This rock ftretchcs acrofs what may be called the
I///irnus, leaving only a narrow pals dOwn into the fields
of Llancot, and joins the principal range of rocks at
the loner bend of the river.

" To the north, at the head of the latter, ftands an
jmmEnle rock (or rather a pile of immenfe rocks heap-
ed one above another) called WwdciiJ} ; the top of
which is elevated as much above the ground of Pcrfe-
field as thofe are above the fields of Llancot.

" Thefe feveral rocks, with the wooded precipices
on the fide of Perfefitld, form a circular inclofure,
about a mile in diameter, including Perfe-wood, Llan-

cot, the Wye, and a fmall meadow lying at the foot of which offends

N I N G.

commands a near view of the oppofite rorks ; ,rriag- Pr
nificent beyond defcription I The littU-ncfs of Immau •^'^
art was never placed in a more humiliating pent of
view ; the calUe of Chepflow, a noble fortrels, is, com-
pared with thefe natural bulwarks, a mere houfe of
cards.

" Above the grotto, upon the ifthmus of the Perfe-
field fide, is a Ihrubbery •, ftrangely mifplaccd I an
unpardonable intrufion upon the native grandeur of
this fcene. Mr Gilpin's obfcrvations upon this, as
upon every other occafion, are very juft. He fays,
' It is a pity the ingenious embellilhcr of thefe fcenes
could not have been fatisfied with the great beauties
of nature which he commanded. The Ihrubberies he
has introduced in this part of his improvements I feat
will rather be elleemed paltry.' ' It is not the ihrub

409

the formal introduftion of it.

WindclifT.

" The grounds are divided Into the upper and low-
er lawn, by the approach to the houfe : a itnall irre-
ga'ar building, ftanding near the brink of the preci-
pice, but facing down the lower lawn, a beautiful
groiLnd, falling ' precipitately every way into a valley
which fhelves down in the middle,' and is fcattered
with groups and fingle trees in an excellent (lyle.

'• The view from the houfe is foft, rich, and beau-
tifully piifturefque ; the lawn and woods of Perfefield
and the oppoiite banks of the river ; the Wye, near
its mouth, winding through ' meadows green as eme-
rald,' in 2 manner peculiarly graceful 5 the Severn,
iiere very broad, backed by the wooded and highly
cultivated hills of Glouccllerfiiire, Wiltfliire, and So-
nierlVtlhire, Not one rock enters into the compofi-
tion. The whole view confills of an elegant arrange-
ment of lawn, wood, and water.

" The upper lawn is a lefs beautiful ground, and
the view from it, though it command the ' cultivfited
hills and rich valle)s of Monmouthlliire,' bounded by
tlie Severn and backed by the Mendip-hills, is much
inferior to that from the houfe.

" To give variety to the views from Perfefield, to
difclofe the native grandeur which furrounds it, and
to fet off its more ftriking features to advantage, walks
have been cut through the woods and on the face of
the precipice which border the grounds to the fouth
and eall. The viewer enters thefe walks at the lower
corner of the loner lawn.

" The firft point of view is marked by an alcove,
from which are feen the bridge and the town of Chep-
ftow, with its caille fituated in a remarkable manner
on the very brink of a perpendicular rock, walhed by
the Wye ; and beyond thele the Severn fliows a fmall
portion of its filvery furfacc.

" Proceeding a little farther along the walk, a vif iv
is caught which the painter might call a complete land-
fcape : The caflle, with the ferpentine part of the Wye

Wild underwood may be an appendage of the grandeft
I'cene ; it is a beautiful appendage. A bed of violets-
or of lilies may enamel the ground with propriety at
the foot of an oak j but if you introduce them artificial-
ly in a border, you introduce a trilling formality, and
difgrace the noble object you with to adorn.'

" The walk novv leaves the wood, and opens upon
the lower lawn, until coming near the houfe it enters
the alarming precipice lacing Llancot ; winding along
the face of it in a manner which does great honour to
the artill. Sometimes the fragments of rock which
fall in its way are avoided, at other times partially re-
moved, fo as to conducl the path along a ledge carved
out of the rock j and in one inftance, a huge frag-
ment, of a fomevvhat conical fliape and many yards
high, is perforated ; the path leading through its bafe.
This is a thought which will hand down to future
times the greatnels of Mr Morris's taffe j the defign
and the execution are equally great ; not a mark of a
tool to be feen \ all appears perfectly natural. The
arch-way is made winding, fo that on the approach
it appears to be the mouth of a cave ; and, on a near-
er view, the idea is ftrengthened by an allowable de-
ception ; a black dark hole on the fide next the cliff,
v/hich, feen from the entrance before tlie perforation is
difcovered, appears to be the darkfome inlet into the
body of the cave.

" From this point, that vaft inclofure of rocks and
precipices which marks the peculiar magnificence of
Perfefield is feen to advantage. The area, contain-
ing in this point of view the fields of Llancot and the
lower margin of Perfe-wood, is broken in a manner
peculiarly piftureffjue by the graceful winding of the
Wye ; here wafliing a low graffy Ihore, and there fweep-.
ing at the feet of the rocks, ^vhich rile in fome places
- perpendicular from the water j but in general they have
a wooded offset at the bafe ; above which they rife to
one, two, or perhaps three or four hundred feet high ;
pofing one full face, filvered by age, and bearded

below Chepflow, intermixed in a peculiar manner with with ivy, growing out of the wrinkle-like fcaras and
the broad waters of the Severn, forms the fore-ground ; fiffures. If one might be allowed to compare the
which is backed by diftant hills : the rocks, crowned pakry performances of art with the magnificent work

with wood, lying between the alcove and the caflle, to
the right, and Caftlehill farm, elevated upon the op-
pofite banks of the river, to the left, form the two
fide-fcreens. This point is not marked, and muil fre-
quently be loft to the ftranger.

" The grotto, fituated at the head of Peife-wood,
Vol. IX. Part I.

of nature, we Ihould fay, that this inclofure refembles
a prodigioas fortrefs which has lain long in ruins. It
is in reality one of nature's llrong-liolds ; and as fuch
has probably been frequently made ufe of. Acrofs tlic
iithmus on the Gloutellerlliire fide there are the re-
mains of a deep intrcnchment, called to tliis dav the
3 F Bukvarki

G( A R D E

Bukcriit ; and trr.dltion fiill teems with the extraor-
dinary warlike feats that have been performed among
this romantic fcenery.

" From the perforated rock, the walk leads do'.vn
to the co'.d-bath (a complete place), feated about the
nud-way of the precipice, in this part lei's fleep ; and
from the cold-batii a rough path winds doivn to the
meadow, by the fide of the Wye, from whence the
precipice on the Perfefield fide is feen with every ad-
vantage ; the giant fragments, hung with ihrubs and
ivy, rife in a ghalUy manner from amongil the un-
derwood, and lliow themfelves in all their native fa-
vagencls.

"" F.om the cold-bath upward, a coach-road (very
(kcp and ditlicuh) leads to the top of the cliff, at the
upper comer of the upper la 'vn. Near the top of the
road is a point which commands one of the moil plea-
fing views of Pcrrcneld : The Wye fweeping through
a grafly vale which opens to the left : — Llancot back-
ed by its rocks \vith the Severn immediately behind
them ; and, feen in this point of view, feems to be
divided from the Wye by on'.y a tharp ridge of rock,
^vith a precipice xm either fide ; and behind tlie Se-
vern, the vale and wooded hills of Gloucefterlhire.

" From this place a roads leads to the top of Wind-
cliff — aftonifhing fight ! llie face of nature probably
affords not a more magnificent fcene ! Llancot in all
its grandeur, the ground of Perfefield, the caltle and
touTi of Chepltov,-, the graceful windings of the Wye
below, and its ccndux with the Severn ; to the left
the foreft of Dean ; to the right, the rich marines and
piclurefque mountaijis of South \^'ales ; a broad view of
the Severn, opening its fea-like mouth ; the conriux of
the Avon, with merchant fhips at anchor in King-road,
und veffels of different defcriptions under fail ; Auft-
Clllf, and the whole vale of Berkeley, backed by the
-vooded fwells of Glouceflerfliire, the vieiv terminating
in clouds of diflant hills, rifing one behind another, un-
til the eye becomes unable to diftinguilh the earth's
billowy furface from the clouds themfelves."

The leading principle of the improvement propofed
by our author is, to " feparate the fublime from the
beautiful ; fo that in viewing the one, the eye might not
fo much as fufpetl that the leher was near.

" Let the hanging walk be conduced entirely along
the precipices, or through the thic kets, fo as to difcloie
the natural fcenery, without once dii<:overing the iawn
or any other acquired foftnefs. Let the path be as rude
as if trodden only by wild beafts and favages, and the
lefting places, i' any, as ruftic as potfible.

" Erafe entirely the prefent flirubbery, and lay out
anothrr as elegant as nature and art could render it be-
fore the houfe, fv.ciling it out into the lawn towards the
fla^ies j between which and the kitchen-garden make
a narrow winding entrance.

" Convert the upper lawn into a deer-paddock, fuf-
fering it to run as wild, rough, and foreft-like, as total
ncpligence would render it.

" '1 he viewer would then be thus condutfled : He
would enter the hanging-walk by a fequeflered path at
ihe lower confer of the lawn, purfuing it through the
■Kood to beneath the grotto, and round the head-land,
or winding through Perfc-wood, to the perforated rock
and the cold-bath, without once conceiwng an idea (if
poffibk) that art, or at leaft that much art, had been

N I N G.

Part II.

made ufe of in difclofing the naturd grandeur of tlie. Prii
furrounding objefls ; which ought to appear as if they ^'^''
prcfented themfelves to his view, or at raoft as if no- ^~"
thing was wanted but his own penetration and jud^^e-
ment to find them out. The walk fhould therefore
be condu61ed in luch a manner, that the breaks might
be quite natural ; yet the points of view obvious, or
requiring nothing but a block or ftone to mark them. •
A llranger at leaft wants no feat here ; he is too eawer
in the early part of his walk, to think of lounging up-
on a bench.

" From the cold bath he would afcend the fieep,
near the top of which a commodious bench or benches
might be placed: the fatigue of afcending the hill
would require a relling-place ; and there are few points
w^hich afford a more pleaCng view than this ; it is grand,
without beliig too broad and glaring.

" From these branches he would enter the foreft
part. Here the idea of Nature in her primitive ftate
would be ftrengthened : the roughnelTes and deer to
tile right, and the rocks in all their native wildnefs to
the left. Even Llancot might be flmt out from the
view by the natural flirubbery of the cliff. The Lover's
Leap, however (a tremendous peep), might remain ;
but no benches, nor other work of art, ihould here be
feen. A natural path, deviating- near the brink of the
precipice, woidd bring the viewer down to the lower
corner of the park ; where benches ihould be placed in
a happy point, lb as to give a full view of the rocks
and native wildneffes, and at the fame time hide
the farm houfes, fields, and other acquired beauties of
Llancot.

" Having fatiated himfelf with this favage fcene, he
would be led, by a ftill ruftic path, through the laby-
rinth— when the ihrubbery, the lawn, with all its ap-
pendages, the graceful W ye, and the broadfilver Se-
vern, would break upon the eye with every advantage
of ornamental nature : the tranfition could not fail to
ftrike.

" From this foft fcene he would be fliown to the top
of Windcliff, where in one vail view he would imite the
fublime and beautiful of Perfefield."

Only^ one particular remains now to be noticed. A
place which is the refidence of a family all the year is
very defeflive, if I'cme portion of it be not fet apart for
the enjoyment of a fine day, tor air, and exercife, in win-
ter. To fuch a fpot Ihelter is abfolutely effential ; and
evergreens being the thickeft covert, are therefore the
beft : their verdure alfo is tlien agreeable to the eye ;
and they may be arranged !o as to produce beautiful mix-
ture of greens, with more certainty than deciduous trees,
and with almoil equal variety : they may be coliecled in-
to a wood; and through that wood gravel-walks may be
led along openings of a confiderable breadth, free from
large trees which would intercept the rays of the I'un,
and winding in fuch a manner as to avoid any draft of
wind, from whatever quarter it may blov.-. But when a
retreat at all times is thus fecured, other Ipots may be
adapted only to occafional (■■urpofes j and be flieltered
towards the nortli or the eaft on one hand, while they
are open to the lun on the other. The few hours of
cheerfulnefs and warmth which its beams afford are fo
valuable as to jullify the facrifice even of the principles
of beauty to the enjoyment of them 5 and therefore no
objcflioiia '

Part III.

GARDENING.

Prriicipal objeiiions of famenefs or formality can prevail againft
RciiJcnce. (j.^ ple^ifantnefs of a ftraight walk, under a thick hedge
• or a fouth wall. The eye may, however, be diverted
from the Ikreen by a border before it, where the aco-
nite and the fnowdrop, the crocus and hepatica, brought
forward by the warmth of the fituation, will be well-
come harbingers of Ipring ; and on the oppofite fide of
the walk little tufts of lauruftines, and of variegated
evergreens, may be planted. The i'pot thus enlivened
by a variety of colours, and even a degree of bloom,
may be itill further improved by a green-houfe. The
entertainment which exotics afford peculiarly belongs
to this part of the year ; and if amongfl them be inter-
fperfed fome of our earlieft flowers, they will there

4:

and anticipate tiic gaiety ot ff'j"-''
ncing. The walk may alfo •^"'"'''

blow before their time,
the feafon which i« ad

lead to the lloves, where the climate and the plants are
always the fame. And the kitchen-garden (hould not
be far off; for that is never quite dtltltute of produce,
and always an aftive fcene : the appearance of bufmefs
is alone engaging ; and the occupations there are an ear-
nell of the happier fcafons to wliich they arc prepara-
tive. By theic expedients even the w inter may be ren-
dered cheerful in a place where iheltcr is provided againft
all but the bittercll inclemencies of the Iky, and agree-
able objefts and interefting araufcmcnts are contrived
for every hour of tolerable \vcather.

PART m. PRACTICAL GARDENING.

WE now proceed to treat of horticulture or prafti-
cal gardening. And although it may not appear to be
the mod perfect arrangement ; yet as it is probably the
moft convenient and ufeful in the directions to be given
for the praclical management of the garden, we Ihall
coufider the work to be done for each month of the
year in the kitchen garden, the fruit garden, the flower
garden and the nurlery, under fo many feparate fec-
tions.

JANUARY.

Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.

.Sow ra- I^' the beginning, or any time in the courfe of this

Jiihes. month, when the weather is open, fow fome fhort-top'd
radlfties on a border expofed to the fouth, and protected
by a wall or other fence ; and about the middle or lat-
ter end of the month, you may fow fome more of the
fame fort, and alfo fome falmon radifhes to fucceed the
(hort-top'd. The feed fliould be fown pretty thick at
this feafon, becaufe vegetation being flow at this period
they will be longer expofed to the depredation of birds,
and if the weather prove fevere, many of them will be
cut off after they have appeared above ground. Sow
the feed evenly over the furface, and rake it in with a
large wide-toothed rake, or if fown in beds, cover it
with earth to the depth of half an inch from the alleys.
A covering of ftraw about two inches thick would
greatly promote their growth, and proteft them from
iroft and birds. After the plants have come above
ground, the covering of ftraw Ihould be drawn off with
a light rake in the early part of the day, and replaced
in the evening.

Garden mats are frequently ufed to cover radilhes,
a number of fmall pins being previoully iluck into the
ground to fupport them an inch or two from the fur-
face, and prevent them from prcfung down the youn^
plants. The covering ought to be continued for a
longer or (liorter time, according to the feverity of the
weather ; but when the plants have puflied out their
rough leaves it may fafely be difcontinued. Radiilies
fown under common hot-bed frames, without the alFill-
ance of warm dung, will fucceed very well, and come
on much earlier than thofe fown in the open air : due
attention, however, mull be paid to give them air when-

ever the weather is mild, by raifing the glaffts, or re-,
moving them altogether during warm days. If ivaut-
ed very early, recourfe muft be had to a flight hot-
bed. IS

At any time in this month, when the weather is mild Cairots.
and dry, let a fpot of ground in a warm lituation be
prepared for fovring a few early carrots, by digging the
ground a full fpade deep, and breaking the earth well ;
and when the feed is fown, let it be raked in. When
carrots are wanted very early, they may be reared in a
flight hot-bed. ip

About the beginning, or any time in the month, Spinach,
when the w^eather is mild, you may fow fome fpinach j
but if the weather will permit, fome ought to be
fown, both in the beginning and towards the end of
the month. The fmooth-leeded or round-leaved fpinach
fliould chiefly be fown now. It is preferred, on ac-
count of its leaves being thicker, larger, and more fuc-
culent than the prickly-feeded ; though fome of the lat-
ter ought alfo to be fov\Ti, becaufe it is hardier, and
better able to fuftain the feverity of the weather. They
may be fown either broadcafl and raked in, or in flial-
low drills about an inch deep, and nine or ten inches
afunder. It is a frequent practice to fow fpinach in
drills between the rows of early beans and cabbages. jj

You may fow fome feed of crefs, muftard, radiih, Small
rape, &c. and likewife fome lap lettuce in a warm litua-'al-«l-
tion expofed to the fun. They form an agreeable falad
when cut young. The ground on which they are to
be fown o%ht to be floped to the fouth, and covered
\^ith a common hot-bed frame, which fliould be funk
in the ground, fo far as to allow the gkffes to ap-
proach to within fix or eight inches of the fown fur-
face.

But fmall falad will fucceed beft in a flight hot-
bed of warm dung formed to the depth of 18 or
20 inches ; air muft be admitted freely, whenever
the weather will permit, by raifmg or removing the
gblfes. .,

About the middle, or towards the latter end of theParflty.
month, low parfley feed in any dry fituation, in fliallow
drills nine inches afunder, and cover it in with cartii
to the depth of a quarter of an inch, or in fingle rows
along the borders of the kitchen garden. There arc
two forts, the plain-leaved and cuiled-leaved j the latter
is preferred as garnilhing on account of its lafge buihy
3 F 3 Icavti,

412

fanuarv.
KitcI.e'n
Garden.

GARDENING.

Part III.

Examine

cauliflower

plants.

leaves, but both are equally good as pot herbs. This
feed lies very long in the ground before it vegetates.
; Sow fome early peas in a warm lituation, to fucceed
thofe fown in November and December. The princi-
pal early peas are the Charlton hotfpur, golden hot-
fpur, Reading hotfpur, Mailers hotfpur, &.C. the two
firft of which are reckoned the earliell. Sow them in
rows two feet and a half afunder, but when they are to
be fupported by fticks they ought to be three feet
afunder. Some marrowfat peas Ihould likewife be fown
at this feafon for a firft crop of la^e peas : the dwarf
marrowfat is the moft proper, but any other late pea
will fucceed very well, fuch as the Spanilh moratto, tall
marrowfat, PrulTian prolific, fugar pea, dwarf _ fugar,
egg pea, pearl pea, Sic. Theft iliould be fown in rows
three feet afunder ; but when it is intended that they
ihould be fupported by fticks, the rows Ihould be three
feet and a half apart.

Any time in the courfe of the month, if the weather
be mild, a main crop of beans may be fown. The
Sandwich bean, toker, Windfor, broad Spaniih, broad
long-pod, &ic. are the kinds mort commonly ufed. After
the ground has been \^ell dug, put in the beans to the
depth of about two inches, ^vith a dibble, in rows three
feet apart, and at the diftance of four or five inches
from each other in the rows : or they may be fo^vn in
drills to the fame depth and dlfiance. If no early
beans were foivn in November or December, they
ought to be fown the earlleit opportunity this month •.
the early Mazagan and l-ilhon beans are the beft.
They ought to be planted in a warm border ; if at the
foot of a fouth wall, they will come on earlier. Thefe
may be planted clofer than the larger beans, two feet,
or two feet and a half, between the rows, being fuffi-
cient. When peas or beans are wanted very early, they
may be fown in hot-beds or floves, and when fome-
what advanced, they may either be planted out into o-
iher hot-beds, into peach and vine-houies, or into any
warm fituation in the open air.

In the beginning, and again towards the end of the
month, you may fow fome lettuce. The kinds com-
njonly lifed are the green and white cos, brov/n Dutch,
Cilicia, and common cabbage lettuce. Prepare a
piece of ground in a warm lituation ; fow the ieeds
moderately thick, and rake them in as evenly as pof-
lible. Thcv may alfo be fown under hand glaffes or
in common hot-bed frames, to be occafionally covered
•.%ith glaffes or mats : but in either cafe, air mufl: be
Ircely admitted, whenever the weather will permit.
When wilhed for very early, they may be fown in a
ilight hot-bed, and planted out in the open air in March
or April.

Take care of lettuce plants ^vhich have flood the
winter. — If you have lettuce plants in frames or under
hoops, covered with mats, give them plenty of air when
the weather is moderate. Remove all decayed leaves,
2nd deftroy fnails which fre<iuently infelf them ; and
when the frolt is fcvere, take care to protect thero well
■with mats.

The cauliflower plants raifed laft autumn, which have
flood during the winter in frames, (hould be looked over
in open weather. If any decayed leaves appear, pick
tbtm oS ; ftir up the earth between the plants, and re-
move all weeds. In mild weather, give them plenty

of air during the day, by pufliing down, or removing January,
the glaffes altogether : but cover them during the K.nchen
night, unlefs when the weather is particularly mild : ^""^^"'^
when it is frolly, or rains much, they ought to be cover- '

ed during the day. But if the frolf is very fevere,
the frames Ihould be protefted at night ^\•ith a cover-
ing of mats, and even during the day, ihould the froft
be intenfe, without funlhine ; and lome llraw, dried leaves,
or fomething of that nature, (liould likewife be laid all
round the outfide of the frame, to prevent the frolt from
penetrating its fides.

Cauliflowers under bell and hand glaffes require the
fame attention : during mild weather, the covers fhould
either be taken off altogether, or raifed (or tilted) on
the fouth fide, fo as to admit the air freely during the
day and ihut again at night, unlefs the ■sveather ihould
be very mild, in which cafe they may remain a little
tilted on one fide ; but fliould intenfe froll prevail, they
ihould [)e kept rtmt, and covered with ifraw or ibme-
thing of that nature. The free admiluon of the air will
prevent the plants from becoming weak, and make them
lefs apt to run up to dower before they have acquired
fullicient fize. In mild winters, llugs very frequently in-
jure cauliflower plants; they ought, therefore,_to be care-
fully looked for and deflroyed. ^g

About the end of the month, if the weather is mild, Plant cab-
plant out a few early cabbages, on a fpot of ground bagc^.
well dug and manured with rotten dung, at the di-
ftance of a foot and a half from each other, or even
clofev, as they are to be cut early, and before they ac-
quire a great fize. Tlie early York, Balterfea, and fu-
gar-loaf, are the kinds which ihould be planted at tiiii
feafon. ,.

Tranfplant fome full gtowa cabbages and favoys, for Tranfplant
feed, about the beginning of the month •, though the ear- cabbages,
ly part of winter is the rooft proper time for doing fo. ?"^- '"'^
See NovEMBliR. ^^ ■

In open dry weather, earth up fuch celery as has ad- ^^_
vanced much above ground ; let the earth be well bro- je"' . "°
ken, and laid up almoft to the tops of the plants, but
care muft be taken not to bruife them. This will af-
ford thsm proteftion againft froll, which might prove
very injurious to them at this feafon.

Where celery is wanted daily, a quantity of llraw or
fomething of that nature, fhould be laid over the rows
on the approach of froll, which ^vill prevent the frolt
from penetrating the ground, and on the removal of the
covering, the celery may be dug up : or when fevere
weather threatens to let in, a quantity of celery may be
taken up, placed in fome fituation Ihehered from the
weather, and covered as far as the blanched part extends
with fand. jo

In open dry weather prepare fome fall grown en- Blanch
dive for blanching. When the plants are perfeftly dry endive.
tie up their leaves clofe together, and they will be com-
pletely blanched in about a fortnight. As endive is
very apt to rot in wet weather at this feafon, whcri
blanched in the open air, a quantity of it ought to be
tranfplanted into a ridge of dry earth, in fome fituation
where it may be iheltcred from rain. 30

In open dry weather, the earth ihould be drawn up Earth up
about fuch peas and beans as may have advanced an inch P^*' ^""^
or two above ground, which will both llrengthen them-'
protect them a''ainll frolt.

If.

Part III.

GARDENING.

Man.igc

murtiroom
bed«.

Jaiiu.!r/. If artichoke? have not been earthed up before this,
Kitchen ^y^^^ ^.q^]^ ihould now be done the firft opportunity. See

.^^'^'"- NOVEMBKR.

J, Mulhroom beds ought to be ivel! covered at this fea-

Artlchokcs. fon, and prote£led both from rain and frolt. The co-
•ji vcring of llraw ihould be at leall a foot thick, and if
the rain (liould at any time have penetrated nearly through
it, it ought to be removed, and a covering of dry Uraw
put in its place ; for if the bed (hould get wet, the
fpawn would be injured, and the future crop de-
ftroyed.

Sometimes it is defirable to have fome of the ordinary
kitchen garden crops, at an earlier period, than that at
vvliich they are produced in the open air. For this
purpofe recourie is had to hot-beds ; there are likewife
fome things reared in the kitchen garden, fuch as cu-
cumbers and melons, which cannot be obtained in this
country without their aid. The principal crops, befides
cucumbers and melons, for which hot-beds may be pre-
pared in this month, are afparagus, fmall falad, mint,
tanfey, peas, and beans for traniplanting ■, radilhes,
early carrots, early potatoes, and kidney beans. Hot-
beds arc formed either of frelh horfe dung, or of tanners
bark ; the hot-beds ufed this month, as feed-beds for
early cucumbers and melons, are almoft always formed of
horfe dung. Procure a fuihcient quantity of frefli horfe
dung, according to the llze and number of the hot-beds
you mean to form, lay it up in a heap to ferment for ten
or twelve days, longer or Ihorter according to the condi-
tion of the dung or the Hate of the weather, during
which time it ought to be turned over once or tivice
with a fork, that it may be thoroughly mixed and
equally fermented. After the violent fermentation is
over, and the rank fteam has efcaped, it will be in
proper condition to form a hot-bed. Dung that is very
much mixed with ftraw, or is too dry, ought to be re-
jected. About a cart-load may be futficient for a
1 ommon hot-bed frame of one light, and fo on in pro-
}ortion for one of two or three lights. Hot-beds fliould
ie formed in a (ituation flieltered from the wind, and
txpofed to the morning and mid-day fun. Some dig a
trench about a foot deep, and a few inches longer and
^vider than the frame with which thty mean to cover
the bed ; others form hot-beds on the furface of the
ground. At this feafon cf the year the laft mode is to
be preferred, becaufc it affords an opportunity of lining
she bed with frelli hot dung quite down to the bottom,
to augment the heat when it declines ; in this way water
is like-.vife prevented from fettling about the bottom of
the bed, which is often the cafe, when the bed is formed
in a trench, which would inevitably check the fermenta-
tion, and confequently dellroy the heat ot the bed.
Mark out a fpace on the ground, a few inches longer
and wider than the frame which you intend to put on
tne bed. Spread the dung when in proper condition,
regularly with a fork, beating it down gently from time
to time with the fork : ^vhen the dung is trodden duu-n,
it is apt to heat too violently, and does not fucceed fo
well as when the dung is allowed to fettle gradually.
The dung ought to be raifed to three feet and an half,
or thereabouts. In this way hot-beds may be formed,
v.hich will pieferve their heat for a conliderable time j
When (lighter hot-beds are required, the dung may be
raifed to one foot and an half, or two feet : thefe llight
kiot-bcds anfwer very well for raifing early crops.

413-

Having prepared a hot-bed accordmg to the di- .Tanuarji
reftions ji-.ll: given for a larger or fraaller frame, ^i't'li'^i'
in proportion to the quantity of feed you intend '^°^ ,,
to fow, fuch a one as may be covered with a frame
of one light will be fufhcient to raife plants for an Sew cu-
ordinary crop. Let the frame and lights be put on, cun)l)er
and kept clofe, till the heat begin to rife, then raife ""'l "•''*"'
the glafs, that the ileara may pal's off. Three or four
days after the bed has been lormed, it may be covered
with earth prepared for that purpofe, to the depth of
about three inches ; before the earth is put on, if the
dung (hall have fettled unequally, the furface of the bed
ought to be made perfetlly level. Rich light dry earth
is bell adapted to this purpofe : tliat it may be dry
enough, it ought to have been protefted from the rain
by fome Ihade during the ivinter ; for, lliould it be wel,
it is apt to prevent the feeds from germinating, or to
injure the young plants. Fill two or three fmall riower-
pots with fome of tlie lame earth, and place them in the
hut-bed till the earth in them be warmed, and then fov,-
the feeds.

Soiv the feeds, and cover them about half an inch
deep ; the bottom of the pots ought to be plunged a
little way into the earth with which the bed is coveredj
fome of which ought to be drawn up round the pots,
A few days after fowing the feeds in the pots, fome leeds
may be fown in the earth of the bed. By fowing in
pots, if the bed (liould overheat (which is fometimes
the cafe) you have it in your power to withdraw and
remove the pots out of danger.

After fowing the feeds, put on the lights ; when the
fteam riles copioufly, give the hot-bed air by raifmg the
glafles a little. The hot-bed ought to be covered every
evening about funfet with mats, which fliould be taken
off again in the morning about nine o'clock, fooner or
later according to the Hate of the weather. A fnigle
mat will be fufficient at firft, as the warmth of the bed
will be ftrong. The ends of the mats ought not to
hang down over the fides of the frame, becaufe the rank
fteam proceeding from the bed would be confined, and
might injure the plants. The plants will appear, iii
two or three days after the feeds have been fown, when
care muft be taken to raife the glaffcs a little to admit
freih air, and to allow the Iteam of the bed to efcape ;
if this be not properly attended to, and if the beds be
kept too clofe, the plants will either be deftroyed alto-
gether, or become weak and yellowilh. About the
time the firft fown feeds appear above ground, a few more
ought to be fown in the earth of the bed. As thofe
tender plants are liable to luffer from various caufes at
this feafon, it would be proper to fow a little feed at
three different periods, at fliort intervals, that if one low-
ing fliould mifcarry, another may fucceed. Three or
tour days after the plants have come up, they ought to
be planted out into Imall pots.

The day before the plants are to be tranfplanted,
pots filled with light rich dry earth (hould be put into
the bed, that the earth which they contain may be.
brought to a proper temperature. Take the plants
carefully up, raifing them with your finger and thumb,
with all the roots as entire as pofTible, and with as much
of the earth as will readily adhere about the fibres.
Plant three cucumbers and two melons in each pot,
and draw the earth well up about the Items. If the
earth in the pots be very diy, a little water lliou'.d bi.

•Xi A R D E

given after the tranfplanting has been finilhed. The
pets ou^ht to be plunged clofe to one another in the
eartii of the bed, and all the fpaees between them ought
to be carel'uily filled with earth, to prevent the rank
1 learn ot" the dung from rifing up, which would certainly
kill the plants. The bed ought to be carefully exa-
mined every day to fee that tb.e roots of the plants do'
not receive too much heat. If anything like that appear,
draw up the puts a little, taking care to replunge them
to the rim after the danger is over. When the plants
are fairly rootc !, if the eaitii appears dry, give them a
little water in the warmcft time of the day ; let the
watering be occafionally repeated very moderately, ac-
cording as the earth in the pots becomes dry. All the
water given to the plants at this feafon ought to Hand
for a few hours within the bed, that it may acquire the
fame temperature with the earth in which the plants
jirow, as very cold water would cl-.ill the plants too much.
In order to prefer ve a proper heat in the bed as long as
podible, the fides of it ouglit to be covered with flraw
or dry leaves, which will defend the bed from cold
piercing winds, heavy rains, and fnow. Should the bed
be unprotcfted when any of thefe prevail, the heat
would be diininiihed, and the plants receive a check.
If a lively heat be kept up, you may admit air to the
,the plants every day, by railing the glaffes in propor-
tion to the heat of the bed and temperature of the
external air. If the air be very cold, it will be ne-
ceflary to fix a piece of mat or fome fuch thing to
the edge of the falh, Avhich may hang down over the
opening, and prevent the cold air from ruihing too
freely into the bed. About a fortnight after the Ix-d
has been formed, it ought to be examined carefully,
to difcover whether the heat of the bed ftill continues
llrong enough : if not, the dry leaves and flraw ought
to be removed from the front and back of the bed
if any had been placed there, and a quantity of frefh
horfe dung lliould be i'upplied. The lining thus ap-
plied (hould not exceed 15 or 18 inches in thicknefs,
and lliould be raifed a few inches higher than the
bed. When too thick a lining is applied, it is apt to
throw in too great a heat, and injure the plants. A
quantity of earth fhould be laid on the top of the dung
thus applied to the depth of two inches, to keep down
the rank fteam. The lining will foon increafe the
heat of the bed, and maintain it for ten days or a
fortnight longer. At the expiration of that time,
when the heat begins to fail, .the t\vo fides of the
bed lliould receive a lining of the fame thicknefs,
which will again augment the heat of the bed, and
preferve it in good condition for upwards of a fort-
night longer. By lining firil the one iide and then
the other at the interval of about a week or ten days,
the heat of the bed may be made to lall longer than
when both linings are applied, at the fame time. Either
method may be followed, according to the degree of
external cold which may prevail, or according to the
degree of warmth required to be maintained in the bed.
After performing the lining, if very cold, wet, or fnowy
weather prevail, it may be proper to lay a quantity of
long dry litter all round the general lining, which will
proteft the whole of the bed, and keep it in a proper
temperature. By the proper management of this feed-
bed, and by the due application of linings, the growth
fif young plants may be promoted till they are fit to be

N I N G.

Part III.

planted out into other hot-beds, where t!iey are to re-
main and produce fruit. W'here there is plenty of hot
dung and every other convenience, a fecond bed may
be prepared, into which the young plants may be trans-
ferred and nurfed till they become perfeftly fit for final
tranfplantation. Due attention mull be paid to have
this lecoiid nurfery-bed m proper condition for the re-
ception ot the pots containing the young plants. It is
to l)c formed, earthed over, and taken care of, according
to the directions given for the management of the feed-
bed. W^hen the plants have got their two firll rough
leaves, two or three inches broad, and have pulhed out
their two finl running buds, they are in a proper
ilate for planting out into larger hot -beds. For the
farther management of cucumbers and melons, fee Fe-
bruary.

It is proper that none but fuch feeds, both of cu-
cumbers and melons, as have been kept for fome time,
Ihould be fouTi ; thofe which have been kept for two or
three years are to be preferred, becaufe the plants which
proceed from thern are thought to be, not only more
fruitful, but to produce their fruit fooner. Plants which
are produced from recent feeds commonly pu(h vigo-
roully, and their fhoots gro%v to a great length before
they Ihoiv a fingle fruit. The beft forts of cucumbers
for producing an early crop, are the early (hort prickly
and long green prickly ; the former of thefe is the
earlier, the other produces the beft crop and the
largell fruit. Theift are feveral forts of melons fown
for. an early crop, viz. the romana, cantaloupe, po-
lignac, &c. The romana is a very good, bearer, and
produces early, and is a very well-tiavoured, though
fmall fruit. The cantaloupe is a very well-flavoured
melon,- acquires a good fize, and ripens early. The
polignac is alio a very good melon. It is better, how-
ever, to fow two or three kinds, if they are eafily to
be had, for the fake of gaining greater variety.

Hot-beds may be formed any time this month for
forcing afparagus : they are to be formed in the fame
way as hot beds for cucumbers and melons; the dung,
howe^'er, need not be raifed to the fame height, from
two and an half to three feet will be i'uilicient. After
a bed has been formed, it ihould be covered with
earth to the depth of fix or feven inches, and the af-
paragus plants immediately put in ; but the frame and
glaffes are not to be put on till after the violent heat of
the bed Ihall have fubfided, and the rank fteam efcaped.
A futficient quantity of afparagus plants, proper for
forcing, mull be provided ; viz. fuch as have been
raifed from feed and planted out in the open ground for
two or three years, as direfted elfewhere ; fix himdred
will be fallicient for a frame of three lights, and fo on
i;i proportion, for a larger or fmaller frame. The
ftrongell and moft %'igorous plants ought to be chofen,
and lliould be planted very clofe together, that the
quantity produced may repay the trouble and expence
of forcing. Having marked the Cize of the frame on
the furface of the bed, raile a ridse of earth a few inches
high, againft which place the nrft row of plants, and
draw a little earth over the roots of each ; next to them
another row may be planted as clofe as pofTible, and fo
on till the whole fpace is covered, fome moifl earth
(hould be applied all round the outCde of the fpace,
occupied by the plants, and raifed an inch or two above
their tops. Then the whole lliould be covered with a
quantity

Januar,
Kitche
Gal del

Fart III. CARD

J.ii'u.iy. quar.tity of rich light earth, to the depth of abc.ut luo
Kit.htn inches, and left in that fituation till the buds bc-gin to
. '*' ^'"" appear above ground. They Ihould then receive an
additional covering of rich light earth to the depth of
three or four inches. A wreath of ilrong flraw band
.is previoully fixed by fome round the bed, which both
fupports the laft covering of earth and the frame. The
llraw ropes (hould be about four inches thick, and fixed
down all round the edge of the bed, exactly in that
place where the frame is to be put. Should there be
no reafon to fufpcft ovcrheathig or burning, the frame
may be immediately put on ; care (liouhl be taken to
raife up or Ihove down the glafles tp allow the rank
lleam to efcape, particularly about the time the buds
begin to appear. If much rain or fnow (hould fall after
the bed has been formed, and before the frame is put
on, it will be necefl'ary to cover the bed with mats or
with iUau'. The hcf.t of the bed likewife during that
time lliouid be carefully examined ; with that .viev,-, two
or thiee fticks, called ivatc/i flicks, fliould be lluck in
the dung, u-hich iliould be pulled out two or ttiree times
in the coiirfe of the day, and examined by applying the
hand to tl-elr extremities •, if they are found veiy hot,
and there ihould be any danger of burning, it may be
moderated by boring feveral wide holts in the dung t.i
e?.ch fide of the bed, and in the earth immediately uiider
the roots of the plants, to admit air, and let the rank
lleam pafs off : thefe holes fliould be ihut after the heat
of the bed is become moderate. The outfide of the bed
(houid be protefted during wet, or very cold windy
weather, and when its best begins to decay, it ought tio
be revived by means of lining, as directed in cucumber
ar.d m.elon beds. After the afparagus begins to appear
above ground, due attention (liould be paid to the re-
gular admilTion of air, whenever the weather is at all
moderate •, and care murt be taken to cover the beds
with mats during fevere weather, and conftantly during
the night. In foi;r or five weeks after the formation of
the bed, the afparngu; will be fit for cutting, and will
continue to produce abundantly for t'>'.'o or three weeks
longer. During that time three or four himdred may
be colletled every week from a three light frame. They
muft not be cut, as is the cafe \''ien afparagus is col-
lefted in the open air, the fingers muft be introduced
into the eanh, and the buds are to be broken off clofe
34 to the roots.
Sow car- ' When carrots are required early, make a hot-bed
^'"*- about two feet thick of dung, and cover it to the depth

of fix inches with light rich earth. Sow the feed thin,
and cover it to the depth of a quarter of an inch. Ad-
mit air freely in mild weather through the day, and
cover them during the night. When about an inch or
two high, thin them to about three inches afunder, they
will be fit for draivin'g in April or May.

Sow rape, creSes, vr.ullard, and radllh, in a flight hot-
bed. The dung lliouid not exceed the thicknefs of
erghteen inc> es or two feet, and ihould be covered with
f.ve or I'x inches of light dry earth. The feeds may be
fo-.\Ti very thick, either in drills or all over the furface
•f the bed, and covered flightly. The bed (liould
be covered with a frame., and glafles, and proteiled
during the night and fevere weather with mats. When-
ever the ueather will permit, air mull be admitted,
othcrH'ife the plat^ts v.-ill be apt to, die as fad as they
come up.

E N I N G. 415

Where mint, tanfey, ar.d tarragon, are required very J.«r.uary.
early, a ilight hot-bctl may be prepared and covered _^","'
v>ith earth to the depth of five or fix inches, in which _1^^'^
the roots of mint, tanfey, ai-d terragon,^ay be planted
and covered with a frame and glafles. . .,

About the beginning of this month, ibme peas and Earlypca-!
beans may be Town in a hot-bed, either for tranfplant- and beans,
ing into n warm border in the open air, or into other
hot-beds where they are to remain, and produce a crop ;
the early framing pea is beft for this purpofe. .5

A hot-bed may be formed, in which fome early Early po- •
dwarf potatoes may be planted, either to be planted outt-ito's.
afterwards, or 10 remain to produce a crop. ,-

Sow fome early kidney beans in a hot-bed, or in Early-kid-
pots to be placed in a hot-houfe. Fill moderate fized"<^y '''»"'••
pots (24s) witli rich light earth, and fow three or
four beans in each pot. When the plants have come
up, give the.n a moderate quantity of water ; tliey will
produce a crop in March and April.

Sr.CT. II. Fruit Garden,

If any apple or pear trees remain unpruncd on walls ^PP'' ■'""'
or efpalicrs, that work may be performed any time !"•'" ''■'"^^^
this month, even though the weather Ihould be frofty : p,u,.fd,
fome people indeed think it improper to prune trees
during froil, lelt the trees fliould receive injury by
ha\ing their cut furfaces expofed to the adion of the
froll ; but their apprchcnfions sre chimerical.

Apple and pear trees produce their flower buds on
fliort branches, (or fpurs as they are termed,) which
proceed from the fides of the branches of one or more
years landing, and which every year increase in num-
ber, while the branches from wiiich they proceed
co:ilinue vigorous : if thefe branches, which throw out
fpurs, be (hortened or cut at their extremities, tliey
commonly pulh out a number of fmaller branches,
which acquire confiderable length, but form no flower
buds ; it is therefore proper in pruning thefe trees, to
take care never to Ihorten a leading branch where
there is room on the wall or efpalier to allow it to be
extended, unlefs vvlien a fupply of new wood is want-
ed to fill up a vacancy. In young trees which have
not yet formed a fufficient head, lelecl the moil vigo-
rous and beft placed flioots, and train them to the waU
or efpalier, at the diflance of from four to fix inches
from one another ; any branches that intervene be-
tween them are to be removed clofe to their origin,
and all thofe branches which do not apply well to
the wall or efpalicrs may likewife be removed. When
the branciies are too thin, and a fupply of wood is
wanted, one or more of the lall year's flioots may be
cut dowii to within a few inches of its origin ; four
or five buds are commonly left. Thefe branches fo
fliortened, commonly pufli out three or four flioots the
enfuing feafon. The young branches that have been
laid in at full lengtli; w-ill in t\vo or three years pro-
duce a good many fpurs or ihort brandies along their
fides, from which a crop of fruit may be expected.
In old trees, that have been already trained, all the vi-
gorous bearing branches are to be retained, unlefs where
tliey may happen to be too crowded, then the branch
intended to be removed ihould be cut out clofe to its "
iiifertion. When any of the old bearing oranchcs feem
to be worn cut, or decayed, they fliould be pruned out

near

39
Pium and
theiry.

Peach,
Heparin
&c.

GARDEN

near lo tKeir infertion ; from the ftump that is left left fi
fome ihoots will be puilicd out the following ftafon,
the bed of which may be retained, to fupply the place
of the branch removed. All the leading branches
ought to be looked over, and the fuperfluous fore-
rij;!)t and mifplaced flioots of lad year's growth which
will not eafily apply to the wall, (
clofe to their infertion into the main

I N G. PaitllL

t ten to fifteen inches long, or thereby. In trees January.

Fruit
Garden.

portionally longer, the fmaller ones from half a foot
ten inches, the more vigorous from one foot to a foot
and an lialf. In very vigerous trees, the branches
ought to be fhortened but Ultle, and fome of them not
ught to be cut otf at all, the fmaller fhoots may be ihortened to the
branch -, the mort length of a foot or fifteen inches ; the more vigorous

vigorous and beft placed fhoots iliould be trained at Ihoots (l;ould have only about a third or fourth part of
full length to the wall or efpalier at the diftance of their length cut off; and the moft vigorous (hculd not

from four to fix inches from one another. When there
happens to be any vacant fpace on the wall or efpalier,
fome of the laft year's flioots may be iliortened, as di-
rected in the pruning of young trees.

In looking over the leading branches, all the fpurs
which produce dower buds ought to be carefully re-
tained; and any dumps which may have been left, after
former pruning?, ought to be cut awayquite clofe to
the branch from which they proceed, for they con-
ftantly produce a redundancy of branches which create
confiifion, (hade the fruit from the fun, and rob it of its
proper nouriihment.

This is a proper feafon to pmne plum and cherry trees
either on walls or efpaliers : the fame dircftions which
have been given for pruning apples and pears will apply
to the pruning of plums and cherries, as they likewife
produce their fruit on fpurs, pulhed out from nearly the
extremity of the (hoots, which are t\vo or three years old.
It is improper in pruning to tliorten the branches, be-
caufe the very part would be removed from which the
fruit buds llrould proceed next or fubfequent feafon.

Thefe trees produce their fruit on the young branches
of lall year. A plentiful fupply of laft year's flioots
mull therefore be retained to be nailed to the wall, at
the diftance of from three inches to half a foot from one
another ; the moft vigorous and beft placed flioots are
to be felecled for this purpofe, and all fore-right, weak-
ly or fuperfiuous flioots are to be removed, likewife

be fliortened at all, for the more tluy are fl-.ortened,
the more they are difpofed to pufii vigoroufly and run
to wood, and on that account produce few fruit. As the
flower buds are fometimes iituated near the extremity,
at other times near the bottom of the branch, this cir-
cumftance in a certain degree mull regulate the ihcrten-
iug the branch, as care muft be taken to leave a fuf-
iicient quantity of dower buds, where fruit is the oh-
jctl. Care muft likewiie be taken te have a bud which
js experted to produce a branch, at the eye which i'i
next the cut extremity ; it is of no moment whether it
be alone or in company v»ith one or two flower buds,
but it is abfolutely necelTary to have one to produce a
leading branch, without which the fruit will not thiive.
When three or four lad year's iLoots are found on a
branch of the preceding year, the one at the upper and
lower extremities is frequently preferved ; in that cale
the intermediate ones ought to be cut away clofe to the
branch : but (hould any of the Intermediate ones be
felefted as the moft proper to be retained, the branch
of the preceding year thculd be cut off clofe by the up-
pemioft of the flioots which has been fixed on, and all
thofe flioots which are to be removed (hould be cut
aivay clofe to the branch from which they proceed,
Ai^ter each tree has been gone over, it ought to be
carefully nailed to the wall or fixed to tlie efpalier.

Vines 'if cut when in a growing date are apt to bleed Vines and
very copioufly. This bleeding is detrimental tothem,fi^s.

fome of the laft year's bearers. That the pruning knife and is ftopt with great dilficulty. It

may be ufed more freely, it would be proper not only
to unnail the flioots which had been laid in laft year,
but even fome of the principal branches. In felefting
the branches, attention muft be paid not only to their
pofition and proper diftance, but likewife to the quanti-
ty of flower buds they contain. Thefe buds are dif-
tir.guiftiable from thofe which produce branches by their
loundnefs ; and towards fpring when the buds begin to
iivell, by their fize : thofe which produce branches be-
ing generally (mail, flat and pointed. It frequently
happens that one of each is produced at the fame eye
(as it is termed), or fometimes two flower buds, with a
branch bud between them. All very drong thick
branches are to be rejeifted, as well as thofe that are
long, (mail, and feeble, becaufe the very vigorous
brandies arc much more apt to run to wood, than to
produce fruit. Thofe branches which are felefted as
the fitted to be retained, ought to be fnortened (due
regard being paid to their vigour, and to the number
and fituation of the flower buds they contain), which
ivill make them pufli out two or three branches the
enfiiing fummer, the beft of which may be retained for
next year's bearers.

In weak trees that are not dilpofed to pudi vigorouf-
ly, the fmaller flioots rtay be fliortened to the length
of fix or eight inches ; the more vigorous (hoots may be
3.

pruned

a fliort time before the rife of the fap, they are likewife
liable to bleed at the recently cut extremities ; it would
therefore be improper any time this month to prune
vines which grow h\ the hot-hoafe or in a vinery
which is to be early forced ; but fuch as grow on open
walls or in vineyards may be fafely cut any time this
month. Though it would certainly be advifable to
prune as foon after the fall of the leaf as may be, as in
that cafe the cut extremities would have fufficient time
to heal, and all danger of bleeding would be -re-
moved.

Fig trees may be pruned any time this month, though
perhaps it would be as well to defer it till next or fol-
lowing month. For the method, fee Fj;bru.\ry.

Goofeberries and currants may dill be pruned. See
November.

Goofeberries and currants may be planted if the fe-pijnt
verity of the froft does not render the groiuid too hard ; goofeberries
indeed they may be planted any time from the fall of =>"<• «"'•
the leaf in autumn tiU the pufliing out of their buds in '^""' ^
fpring. It is ufual to plant them in rows along thg
borders, or to divide the plots in the kitchen garden ;
in which cafe they ought to be planted two or -three
yards apart, and the diftance between the rows muft
depend on the fize of the plots they are to feparate ( I o,
15 or iS yards). They ought to be trained up with »

finglc

Part III. CARD

fingle ftalk to ti.e licIgLt of lo or 15 inches, which xvill
allow the kitcl^en crops that may b^ planted near them
to grow ireely, and will render llie operations of hoe-
ing, weeding, and raking under the bulhes ealy. 1'hey
are frequently planted out in compartments by them-
felves, in which cafe the bulbcs ought to lland at the
dillance of from five to eight feet in the rows, and the
rows ought to be eight or nine feet apart.

When plenty of room is allowed between the bulhes,
they grow freely, and produce larger fiuit ; free ad-
million is likewife afforded lo the fun and air, without
%vhich, the fruit would not acquire its proper davour ;
hoeing, and digging between the bulhes, is more eafily
performed, and crops of diffi-reia kinds of kitchen gar-
den produclions may be reared in the intervals. Cur-
rants are very frequently planted againfl walls, and rails
to which they are regularly trained. Goofeberries alfo
are fometiraes planted againft walls and rails, thofe
againll walls yield early and well flavoured fruit. The
va.-iety of goofeberries is very great, and every feafon
adds new varieties to thofc already known. The princi-
pal kinds are the early rough green, fmall eaily red,
imooth green, large Dutch red, common hairy red,
fmooth black, rough white, white cryftal, large yellow,
rough yellow, large amber, large tav\Tiy, &c.

The difierent kinds of currants are the black, common
uhite, large Dutch white or grape currant, common
red and champaigne. •

Rafpberries may be pruned or planted during this
or any of the winter months •, they produce their fruit
on fmall branches which proceed from the Ihoots of the
former year. Every year they pufli up a number of
ftioots from the root, which bear fruit the fubfequent
fummer, and then die. In dreir.ng ralpberries, all the
old dead llalks muft be cut away clofe by the ground,
and all the young ones except four or five of the llrong-
cd, which fliould be ihortened a little. All thefe (hoots
become fmall towards their extremity and bend a little ;
it is the common practice to cut off the bent part, but
I'ome Ihorten them one-third, others one-fourth. After
the llioots have been Ihortened, they ought to be inter-
twined or furroutided by a bandage of fome kind to
keep them together, for the fake of mutual fupport, be-
caufe when they are allowed to Hand fmgle they are
apt to be weighed down in fummer by the weight of
their own leaves and fruit, particularly when loaded
with rain, or to be beaten down by the wind ; in which
eafe they may frequently lie one over the other, create
confufion, and exclude tiie fun and air from thofe that
are undermolt, or may lie fo clofe to the gromid as to
have their fruit deftroyed. After the plants are pruned',
the ground bet-.veen them ought to be dug, and all
llraggling flioots which advance to a diftancc from the
main plants ought to be taken up.

Rafpberries may be planted any time this month
when the weather is moderate : when new plantations
of them are wanted^ they ought to be formed in open
fituations, if high tlavoured fruit be wilhed for ; but
rafps will thrive very well and produce good crops in
(hadowy fituations. The ground in which they are to
be planted ought to be well dug, and if a little rotten
dung be added, the plants will fucceed the better.
They ought to be planted at the diftance of three feet
from each other, in rows four or five feet apart. The
offsets which are dug up from between the rows of

Vol. IX. Part II.

E N I N G. 417

old plantations of rafphenics are commonly n.aJe ufc Jji'uaiy.
of for this purpofe. Any of the lall years ihoots that J'^"^^^^
are well rooted and tolerably vigorous will anfwcr per- ' ^

fedly well. Thofe which have two or three buds, form-
ed on the roots, from vihi<h young (hoots are to proceed
the following fummer, are generally to be preferred to
thofe which have fewer thoui^h equally ngorous. They
ought to be taken up carefully with all their roots, and
after the ftem has been fl'.onened a little (about one-
third) they may be planted at the dillauces already-
mentioned. Plantations formed now will yield fome
fruit the enfuing fummer, and a plentiful crop the fol-
lowing feafon. The kinds of rafpberries commonly
ufed are the white, double bearing, (which beats two
crops, one in fummer the other in autumn), the fmooth
ftalk, the Antwerp (very large). 44

If the weather be mild, all kind of fruit trees may Prepare for
be planted any time this month ; but if it (hould be p'^^""?
deemed more ^dvifeable to defer planting till next
month, the ground may be prepared for their reception
any time during open weather. The borders on which
fruit trees are to be planted, which are to be trained
againft walls or efpaliers, (hould be trenched or dug two
fpades deep. For planting and preparing ground for
fruit trees, fee October. ,

The roots of the more 'tender forts of fr\iit trees, viz. Proted the
peaches, neclarines, apricots, and indeed of all forts of roots, &c.
(toned fruit, which may have been planted any time in
the courfe of the winter, will require to be protefted
during froft by a covering of ftraw, or litter mixed with
dung, or (omething of that nature, applied to a con-
fiderable diftance round the ftem, fo as to cover the
ground completely, and prevent the froft from penetrat-
ing.

Proted fig trees during frofty weather with a cover-
ing of mats, or fomething of that nature, becaufe their
(hoots being fucculent, particularly towards their extre-
mities, are apt to be deftroyed by the froft. Tliis is of
the more confequence as the fruit is produced from the
young ("hoots only, and chiefly from their e.xtremities,
the parts moft liable to fuffer. ^g

Where there are vineries, peach, cherry-houfes, &c. Force fruit
the glaffes ought to be put on about the beginning of f^'s.
the month %vhen it is intended to force early, and fires
ought to be applied about the middle or towards the
end of it. See Forcing, Februart. ^y

Towards the beginning, middle, or end of the month, and ftraw-
hot-beds may be made for forcing ftra%vberrics, which, beme*.
if properly managed, will produce ripe fruit in March
or April. - The hot-beds are to be formed according
to the direftions given under the article JiMoii, and
Cuctimher. See Kilc/ieri Garjfn, J AyvAH\. The dung
(hould be raifed at leaft to the height of three feet, and
the frame and glaffes put on as foon as the bed is made,
\vhich will both proteft it from rain or fnow, and draw
up the rteam fooucr. As foon as the violent heat is
over, the furface of the bed ftiould be covered to the
depth of four er five inches with dry earth, or with a
quantity of decayed tanners bark taken from an old
tari-bed. The pots containing the plants (hould be
plunged up to the rims into the earth or tan vnih which
the bed is covered. They (liould be placed as dole to-
gether as poffible, and care taken to fill up all the in-
terftices with earth or tan. When all the pots are
plunged, put on the glaffes and keep them dole till
3 G the

48

41 S G A Pi D

January tile fleam life in the bed, when it uill be necefTary to
Howcr ,..,;(•, jj,^,^^ ^ ij(j]g i„.],i„|j^ iq alloiv the lieam to pafs off.
. _' ^ The alpine and fcarlet ftrawberry are commonly made
ufe of for this purpofe.

The plants ihould be two years old, and if potted
the precedin;^ autumn, they will fucceed the better ; but
if a quantity of plants were not put into pots laft
autumn for this purpofe, that work may be done any
time this month during open weather. For the method,
lee SEirKMBER. Or the plants may be taken up now
witli balls of earth, and placed in the beds without
being put into pots. When the plants begin to pulh,
let them have plenty of air during favourable weather,
for fliould they be kept too clofe they will become
weakly, and either produce no flowers at all, or their
liovvers will drop off without yielding fruit. They
Ihould likewife be frequently watered and protected
during the night in ftvere weather with a covering of
mats. When the heat of the bed begins to decay, it
Ihould be renowed by proper linings of frerti dung, ap-
jilied as direfted for melon-beds. As to the lize of
hot-beds nothing need be faid, as that mud be regulated
by the number of plants intended to be forced. Hot-
beds formed of tanners bark, particularly where there
are pits conflrufted on purpofe, will anfwer better than
thofe of hoife-dung, becaufe they afford a more equable
Ireat. Where there are pine-houfes, or hot-houfes of
any kind, plenty of Urawberries may be obtained early,
without much trouble, by placing pots filled with the
plants in them anywhere near tlie glafs.

Sect. III. T/ie Flower Garden or Pleafure Ground.

I'rotecl Double flowers, as fweetwilliams, wallflowers.

Sowers in ftocks, rofe campion, and auriculas, carnations, &c.
'"' *■ kept in pots ought to be protefted in fevere weather,

cither by common garden frames, or by coverings of
mats fupported on hoops. Due attention muft be paid
to give them air whenever the weather is mild. Where
there are no conveniences of the above defcription,
the pots may be plunged up to their rims In well-
Iheltered borders clofe to a fouth wall. The pots con-
taining hardy plants fliould likewife be plunged in the
earth in fome dry iituation up to the rims, to protcft
49 the roots from froft.
Julbous During fevere frorty weather the beds in which the

1001 s m £ner forts of hyacinths, tulips, rununculufes, anemones,
&c. have been planted fliould be proteiled by a cover-
ing of mats or ftraw ; but if the plants have begun to
make their appearance above ground, the beds fliould
be arched over with low hoops and covered with mats,
which ought to be fixed down to prevent their being
blown off by the wind ; and they Ihould be removed
^Q occafionally during mild weather
Plam Inil- If any hyacinth, tulij), narciffus, crown imperial,
bous roots, crocus, or fnowdrop roots remain unplanted, they ought
now to I)c put into the ground. For the method of

51 planting them fee October.

Sow hariiy About the latter end of the month, if the weather is

iiinuals. mild, few a few fwcet peas in any warm (hehered fitua-

tion for flowering early, alfo fome feeds of cand3'tuft,

larkl|.ur, adonis, dwarf funflower, pcrficaria, veniis

52 navel -wort, venus looking-glafs, lobel's-catchfly, and

\Tm fhT" P^"*^ ^""'^'^^'

Hu'uJufc. Pols of pinks, carnations, rofcs, Perfian or comTnon

E N 1 N G. Part III.

lilach, hyacinth, polyanthus, narciflus, Itahan narciiTus, January,
dwarf tulip, joii(;;-il, lily of the valley, &.c. may be , "'""■'''_.
placed in the hot-houl'e, ^vhere they will flower early. '
As foon as they come into blow they fliould be removed
into a green houfe, or the apartments of a divelling-
houfe, where they will continue longer in flower than
they would do. if left in ti.e liove, where the great heat
would accelerate their decay. All thofe fliould have
been put into pots the preceiiing autumn, or at leaft
fome time previous to their being introauced into the
hot-houfe. The roles in particular reqaire to be
well rooted in the pots before they are forced. j^

Shrubs may row be pruned, which Ihould be per- Manage.
formed with a knife and not with garden flieers. All '"*="'"'
irregular fhoots which extend far beyond the reli of "°*"
the branches fliould be cut oft". A few branches Ihould
alfo be cut out wherever they are too much crowded to-
gether, likewife all dead and decayed ones. After the
pruning has been finilhed, the ground in the ihvubbery
ought to be dug over, and all fuckers removed. Where
the flirubs are too much crowded together, fome of
them ought to be taken out ; and where any of them
have died, or if they fland too diilant, fome young
ones may now be planted to fill up the vacancies. ^^

Grafs walks and lawns fliould be kept neat by fre-Of grais
quent poling and rolling. Poling maybe perf. rmed ^"^'^^ ^""^
in open dry weather, with a long t iper afli pole about ^^^"''
twelve or fifteen feet long, which breaks and fcatters
the worm cafls. After this, in moderately dry weather,
roll uith a wooden roller, to which all the loofe worni-
cafts will adhere. V/alks or lawns may alfo be made
this month during open weather. Good turf may be
obtained from commons or downs whtre flieep feed,
or from fields which have been long under paflure.
Each turf fliculd be marked out a yaid long and a foot
in breadth, and cut to the thicknefs of an inch with a
turfing iron. As the cutting proceeds, they Ihould be
rolled up compaftly with the grafs fide in. If they are
not clofely rolled up they will be apt to break in
carrying. They muft be laid on the walk or lawn cloic
to one another after the furface has been rendered level
and compaft by proper treading, that it may not fettle
unequally. \\ hen they have been put on they muft be
beat down with a wooden rammer, and afterwards roll-
ed with a large iron or w^ooden roller. 55

Gravel walks fliould be cleared of weeds and all de-Of gravel
cayed leaves, and kept clean ; and in dry weather they'*'^"'*'
fliould be occafionally rolled. New walks may like-
wife be formed now. ' For the method fee March. ,

Edgings of boxwood, thrift, &c. may be planted edgings,
any time this month in open weather. Sue Octobkr. ^^

Hedges of hawthorn, barberry, privet, hazel, holm, planting,
yew, birch, elm, elder, &c. may be planted during thisiic. of
month. See November Old hedges which have'-^dgf*-
become open below fliould be plaflied. See Decem-
ber. _ _ 58

Foreft trees for ornamental plantations, coppices, orOtforca
woods, may be planted either now or at any time from"'"-
the fall of the leaf till the rife of the fap in fpring. See
October.

Sect. W\ Nurfcnj.

S'>
Pri'NK and tranfplant flirubs, fruit and forefl ^^^^_^\,,lni^,'i'
Trim the ilcms of forcfl-trees, and cut off all ir-,|,f„)j5 ^^jj
regular trees.

Pirt III.

J»

GARDENING.

60

Of feed,
lings.

regular rambling (Twots of (lirubs, and reduce tliem to a
Urten- regular neat form. This tvork may be executed any

Hol'j^.mfe. '•'"<= '^'* "1°"'^' '^''<=" '^"""S ^'"^^^ "■'^'"' ''"''' ^""^ '''"'
■ be done. All kinds of hardy deciduous llirubs, fruit,

and foreft trees may be tranfplanted during open
weather.

liig ground in open weather, and wheel out dung in
froft.

Vacant compartments of ground may be dug any
time during open weather; and likewife after the nc-
cefl'ary pruning has been given to the trees and Ihrubs,
the ground between the rows maybe dug, and ail weeds
carefully buried.

Tiie young plants of many'of the tenderer kinds of
trees and flirubs, fuch as cedar of Lebanon, and fome
other fpecies of pine, cyprefs, chiuefe arbor vits, ftraw-
berry-tree, Sic. require to be protefted during froft.
If they have been raifed in boxes or pots, they may be
placed in garden frames and occalionally covered with
the glaff 3 ; but care muft be taken always to remove
the glaffcs in mild open weather. If the plants Hand
in beds in the open ground, they may be covered with
mats fupported on hoops, which muft be removed du-
ring favourable weather, or a covering of peafe ftraw, or
fomething of that nature may anfwer the purpofe.

Layers of many kinds of trees and (hrubs may be
made any time this month during open we;ither ; many
of them u hich are laid now will be well rooted and
fit for removing by Oilober ; for the method fee No-

61 VEMBER.

By cuttings. Put in cuttings of honey fuckles, goofberries, currants,
&c. indeed moft kinds of trees and ihrubs may be pro-
pagated by cuttings. For this purpofe feleft the ftraight
{hoots of lart year's growth ; take them off by a clean
cut with a (harp knife, and reduce them to the length
of ten, twelve, or fifteen inches, by cutting off part of
their fmaller extremities. Plant them in rows a foot a-
part, and at the diilance of four or five iviches from one
another in the rows, taking care to infert one third or
sne half of their length into the ground. Though cuttings
will grow when their fmaller extremities are put into
the ground, they never fucceed fo well in this inverted
pofition, therefore in planting, attention ihould be paid
to place them in their natural pofition. Older and
longer branches of fome trees and ihrubs, viz. willow,
elder, &c. may be employed as cuttings.

By fuckers. Goolberries, currants, rofes, lilachs, and many other
(hrubs and trees, may be propagated by fuckers or ofF-
fets from the roots : thefe may be taken off any time
this month, and planted in rows. Previous to their
being planted it would be proper to trim off part of
their extremities.

Propamine
trees &c.
by layer.',

The air t
be cautio'
Iv admitt(

Skct. V. Grcen-Houfe ami Hol-lhufe.

^ During froft, keep the glaffes fhut, but whenever
"jthe weather is mild give the green-houfe air by opening
the glaffes more or lefs according to the flate of the
weather : even in the brighteft mild days during this
month the glaffes flwuld not be opened until about ten
o'clock in the morning, and ought to be (hut again
about three in the afternoon. In dull foggy days, even
though the weather be mild, they Ihould be opened but
little, and that for a (hort lime, and in very damp
weather, not at all. When very fevcre froft prevails,

fires muft be put on, and tlic flue5 ger.tly wr.rmed ;
the temperature of the air ft^.ould not be raifed higher
merely to keep off the effefts of the external froft.

419

but Januaiy.
Grccr.-

1.0.1K-.

tha

A little fire fliould likewife be put on during very wtt
weather to banilli the damps. Water fliould be given
to fuch plants as require it, but fparingly. Succulent
plants, fuch as aloes, &c. require little or no water at
this feafon. All dead and decayed leaves fliould be
carefully picked off, and the grcen-hcufc kept clean. 5-

Particular attention muft be paid to the pine apple Pine ajinle
plants which are to produce fruit the enfuing fummer, !''■'."" "-'■
as many of them in the courfe of this month begin toq""'<: ■i"'^'''"
(lie w flowers. If due attention be not now paid to keep
up a proper heat, both in the tanned bed and in the air
of the hot-houfe, the plants may receive fuch a check
as will confiderably affect the fize of the future fruit.
The bark bed muft be carefully examined ; and if the
bark be much decayed and the heat found on the de-
cline, a quantity of frefti tanners bark ftiould be pre-
pared to be added as a refreihmcnt to the old. The
pots containing the pine apple plants ftiould then be ta-
ken out of the tan pits, and a quantity of the decayed
tan removed from the furface and fides of the pits, to
make room for the frefti tan which is to be added.
The old tan muft likewife be turned up from the bot-
tom, and well mixed with the new, after which the
pots muft be again plunged into the tan. But if, oa
examination, the heat of the tan pit be found good,
and the tan not much decayed, it will be fufficient to
turn the old tan, and to mix it well together without
making any addition of new. This operation will re-
vive the heat of the bed, and preferve it in good condi-
tion for fome time to come. The heat of the air in the
houfe muft likewife be attended to, and regulated by
the thermometer and by due atf^ntlon to the fires.
Moderate waterhig muft be given once a week or ten
days, according as the pine-apple plants may feem to
require it ; and care muft be taken not to pour any of
the ivater into their hearts or among tkeir leaves.

The other plants in the hot-houfe muft be regularly
watered ; but thofe of a fucculent nature, fuch as the
different fpecies of aloe, euphorbia, mefembryanthe-
mum, &c. require very little water at a time, and that
but feldoin. C6

Kidney beans, fown in pots or in narrow boxes ofKiilney
about two or three feet long, may be reared in the hot-'*'^"'*
houfe. Thofe fown this month will produce fruit in
April or INIarch. When fown in pots, two or three
may be put into each, and covered ab.out an inch deep :
When in boxes they may be planted to the depth of an
inch along the middle, at the diftance of two or three
inches from one another. The pots or boxes may be
placed on the crib of the bark bed, on flielves, or any-
convenient fituation, within the houfe, where they may
not encumber the other plants. After the plants have
come up, they ftiould be regularly and frequently wa-
tered. The kinds commonly ufed for this purpofe are
the early fpeckled dwarf, negro dwarf, and dun-co-
loured dwarf. 6^

Cucumbers may be raifed with tolerable fucccfs in Cucumbers
the hot-houfe, which will prqduce fruit early in fpring.
If the plants have been railed in fmall pots, plunged in
the tan of the bark bed, or in hot-be Js made of horfe
dung, they ftiould be tranfplanted into larger pots or
boxes, in vyhich they may remain and produce fruit ;
3 G i or

420 G A R D

Ftliruary. or the feeds m?.y be fovrn at once in the pots where
Kitchen (}jgy ^^g ^q jcniain. In this cafe fix or eight feeds

. ^' '"' , may be fov\-n in each pot, or patches containing that
number may be fown at proper intervals in long narro\v
boxes. When the plants have come up, only two or
three of the llrongeft (hould be left in each pot or
patch. The pots or boxes may be placed in any con-
venient fituation in the hot-houfe, but will fucceed bell
on a Ihelf fixed near the top of the houfe, within a (hort
idiltance of the glafs. The plants rr.iift be frequently
watered, and have fome fmall rods fixed near them, to
which the runners may be fallened.

FEBRUARY.

Sect I. Kitchen GarJtn.

«S

Admit air ThE cauliflower plants, wliich are under frames,
to cauli- fliould have plenty of air. Indeed, whenever the wea-
flowers. ther will permit, the glaffes ought to be taken off en-
I"-"'- tlrely. ? ' ^ &^

About the end of the month, if the weather be mild,
fome of the flrongeft plants may be tranfplanted into
the fituations where they are to remain. They ought
to be planted in good well-manured ground, in a warm
fituation, at the diftance of two feet and a half each
ivay from one another. The fame attention muft be
paid to cauliflowers under bell or hand-glafles. WTien
more than two plants happen to be under one glafs, the
weakeft of them ihculd be planted out about the end of
the month, if the weather be mild, and only one or
two fhould be left under each' glafs : but if the weather
is unfettled or fevere, tranfplanting ought to 'be defer-

69 red till next month.

Sow cauli. Some c^ulitlower feed may be fown any time this
month to produce plants to fucceed thofe that have been
preferved during winter under frames or band-glafies, or
to fupply the place of thofe which may have been cut
off by tlie ieverity of t!ie weather.

For this purpofe make a flight hot-bed of horfe dung,
to the heiglit of 20 inches or two feet 5 cover it with a
light rich earth to the depth of four or five inches, on
the furface of which fow the feeds, and cover them to
the depth of a quarter of an inch with earth of the fame
delcription. After the feed has been fo^^^l, a frame and
glaffts ihould be put on, if one can be fpared for this
purpofe ; and when the plants begin to appear above
ground, they fliould have plenty of air, whenever the
weather will permit, otheri\-ife they will be dra^\'n up
and become weak. The glalTes, therefore, (unlefs in
very fevere weather) fliould be raifed every day, and in
mild ones taken off entirely. When there aiC no glaf-
fes to fpare, the bed may be covered during the night,
and in fevere weather, with mats properly fixed over it.
The plants ihould be fprinkled with water from time to
time, if moderate fliowers fhould not render this unne-

70 ceflarv.

llhhTT ^^'^b?f:« P'^f^^s- if tolerably ftrong, (hould be tranf-
planted in the courfe of this month. See P/anting out
^, Cabbages, January.
Sow cab- About the middle, or towards the end of the month,

ba£e5. fow fome cabbage and favoy feed to raife plants for late
crops in fummtr and autiunn. Both the early and late
kinds of cabbage may be fown now, but it is better to
fow thczn in Augnfl ; but if r.rnc '.vers for:; in autiiccn,

E N I N G. PartllL

or if the plants raifed then have been cut off by the fe- February.
verity of the winter, a quantity of both early and late Kitchen
ihould be fown the firft opportunity this month. That .

the plants may fooner acquire fuihcient ftrength for '
planting out, it would be proper to fow them in a flight
hot-bed. 72

Where foiall falad is required, let fome feeds of S'liall fa.
muilard,crefs, radifli, rape, &c. be fown regularly every '^'*-
eight or ten days during the courfe of the month. See
January.

Earth up celery in open dry weather if the plants Celery.
have advanced much above ground. Sow fome upright
celery feed for an early crop about the middle or to-
wards the end of the month in a fmall bed of rich light
earth in a warm fituation. There are three ways in
which this may be performed. I ft. The earth of the
bed fliould be well broken with the fpade ; the feed
fown on the rough furface and raked in. 2d!y, The
furface of the. bed may be made Smooth ; the feed foWTi
and covered to the depth of a jqaarter of an inch with
light rich earth. 3dly, A quantity of earth, to the
depth of about half an inch, ihould be removed with
the back of a rake from the furface of the bed into the
alleys, which, after the feed has been fown, fliould be
gently replaced with the rake. Thofe who are very
anxious to have early celery, fliould fow fome in a flight
hot-bed. The plants raifed now will be fit for ul'e in
June or July ; but it would be advifeable to fow few at
this feafon, ^s they will be very apt to pipe or run up
to feed before they acquire fuflicient fize : there are two
kinds of celery, the Italian, and turnip-rooted or cele-
riac. , ^^

About the beginning of this month fow fome ihort-Radiilics.
topped radilhes to fucceed thofe fown laft month, and
fome lalmon and Italian radifties at any time during the
month. See J..INUARY. 7-

Some round-leaved fpinach may be fown any time in Spinach,
the courle of the month, to fucceed that which was
fown lall month. See January. 76

Some early peas may be fown this month. This isPe^*-
like-.vife a proper feafon for fovving a full crop of late
peas, fuch as marrowfats, rouncivals, Carolina, and fu-
gar pea, &c. For the diftances at which they are to be
fown, fee January. 77

This is the proper time to plant beans. For the me- Beans,
thod and diftances, fee J.iXUARY. 7S

Such peas and beans as are lufFiciently advanced in Earth up
groTrth Ihould now be earthed up. ptasand

In mild open weather fow ibme feeds of green and
white cos lettuce, likeivife fome SiciUan, imperial, brown Sow and
Dutch, and common cabbsge lettuce. See January. trarfplar.t

If young lettuce plants are wanted for tranfplanting '<:ttucei
early, they fliould be fov.n in a flight hot-bed or in
fome warm flieltcred fituation ; and when they have ad-
vanced to the height of about two inches, they may be
planted out in the open ground. Lettuces that have
flood the winter in fiames, under hand-glaffes or in
warm borders, fliould be thinned and left ftanding at
the diftance of one foot from each other, and thofe that
are drawn out (hould be planted in fome proper fitua-
tion. %o

About the middle or end of this month fow fome car- Sow carrot
rots and parfiiips. They fucceed bcftin light deep foil,«'"lP"f'''F-
and in an open fituation. The ground ihould be dug,
at lead one fpade deep or two, if the depth of the foil

ivill

Part IIT.

GARDENING.

Plant c
rots,&i
feed.

Februai). will admit, and the clods ought to be well broken.
Kitchen Xhey may be fcuvn either broadcaft, in narrow beds, or
^^"'*"- in drills. See March.

' Sow fome feeds of red, white, and green beet, like-

Beet. ^'•"'^° °^ mangel wurzel or German beet. 'J'he fine red

root of the iirft is iifed as a pickle, &c. ; the leaves of
the white and green are made ufc of in foups, &c. ;
and the large leaves of the mangel wurzel are boiled
and ufed as fpinach. The footftalks of its leaves are
likewife ufed as afpara^us. Each kind Ihoidd be fown
feparately, either broadcalt or in drills, an inch deep,
and about a foot apart •, but the mangel wurzel re-
quires more room than the other kiiids, becaule it is of
larger growth. After the plants have come up, they
ihould be thinned out, to the dirtance of fix or eight
inches from each other. The feed may likewife be
dibbled in rows, about a foot apart, and at the dif-
tance of fix or eight inches from each other in the rows.
Two or more feeds may be put into each hole ; and
when the plants appear above ground, one of the ftrong-
Sj ert only Ihould be left.

Some of laft year's carrots, parfnips, and beets, ftioulJ
be planted out in roivs, two feet apart and one foot dif-
tant from each other in the row, to ftand and produce

S3 ^"^-

Sow unions Some onions and leeks m.av be fown in mild dry wea-
and leeks, ther, any time after the middle of this month. The
ground Ihould be well dug, and the feeds fown when
the furfacc is dry, and then raked in. The beft mode
is to divide the ground into beds of about four feet
w ide, for the convenience of thinning, weeding, &c. ;
but they may alio be fown in plots, ivithout being divided
into beds, in which cafe, if the foil be light, the feed
may be gently trodden in, before the furface is raked.
The leeks will be fit for tranfplanting in June and July,
and the onions for dranang in Augufl. Sometimes a
fmall quantity of leek-feed is fown along with the
onion •, and when the onions are drawn in Augull, the
Itreks are allowed to remain to acquire a proper fize ;
but it is better to fow each feparately. The principal
kinds of onions are the Straihurg, Deptford, Spanifli
84 Portugal, long keeping, and red.
Hamburgh The Hamburgh parllev and fcorzonera are cultivated
paifley.&c.foj. their roots ; the falfafy for its roots and tops. The
roots of all of them, if fown now or any time in fpring,
will be fit for uCng in autumn, and continue good all
winter. The Hamburgh parllev roots are not only ufed
for culinary purpofes, but recommended in medicine.
They are faid to be ufeful in the gravel. The feeds
may be fo^\-n in drills, fix inches apart, and covered
with earth to the depth of half an inch. The plants
ihould be thinned in May or June, and left (landing
at the dillance of fix inches from each other in the
rows.

About the middle of the month you may fow feeds
of burnet, lovage, angelica, marigold, fennel, dill, for-
re!, chervil, and clary. Each kind ihould be fown fe-
parately, either in the place where they are to remain,
or they may be tranfplanted in fummer. See June.

About the middle or end of the month fow marjo-
ram, thyme, favory, and hyflbp. The plants may ei-
ther remain where foxvn, or be planted out in the be-
ginning of fummer. See June.

Towards the end of the month plant flialot, garlic, and
rokambole. Having procured a quantity of their roots,

421

85
PBt.heiB.-,
&c.

Plant g3
lie. &c.

divide and plant them in rovrs nine inches apart and fis February,
inches diilant from each other in the roiv. They may l^""^^'^"
be put in to the depth of two inches with the dibble, or '''^ ''" 1
placed in drills, two inches deep, drawn with a hoe. S7

This is a proper time to raife a full crop of parlley. Parfley,
See J.VNU.\RY. S5

A few potatoes may be planted about ths middle or Putatoes,
end of this month for an early crop ; but if wanted very
early, fome early dwarf potatoes (hould be planted in
a llight hot-bed. For the method of planting, fee
March. 57

Horle radilh is propagated by offsets or cuttings of Horfe ra-
the roots, about three inclies long, which may be plant-''''''*
ed either with tlie dibble or fpade, at the dillance of fix
or eight inch;s from each other, in rows two feet apart.
When they are planted with the dibble, the holes ought
to be made 10 or 12 inches deep ; when with the fpade
a trench ihoiild be made a full I'pade deep, in the bot-
tom of which the offsets or cuttings Ihould be placed
erecl, and covered with earth from the next trench.
As they will not appear above ground till the month of
May, a crop of ipinach, radiihes, or fmall falad, may
be got from the groimd, and cleared off before the horfe
radilh appears. After the plants have come above
ground, they ought to be kept clear of weeds.

About the middle or towards the end of the month. Sow lur.-.ip,
fow fome feed of the early Dutch turnip in a border of
light earth, in a warm ikuation. See March. pi

If no preparations were made lad month for raifing CucunilTs
early cucumbers and melons, they may be commenced, '^"'^ melocJ.
any time this month, whh better profpe6l of fuccefs.
For the method of forming and managing the feed-bed, .
fee Janl'ary. — If the cucumbers and melons, fown lall
month and tranfplanted into fmall pots, be fit for ridg-
ing out, a hot-bed for one or more frames ihould be
got ready for their reception, which ihould be raifed to
the height of three feet and a half, and covered with a
frame and glalTes. About a week afterwards, if the
hot-bed has iettled unevenly, the frame and glaffes
ihould be removed ; and after the furface of the bed
has been made perfeclly level, replaced. As foon as
the violent heat has fubfidcd, the rank ileam elcaped,
and all danger of burning apparently over, cover the
bed to the depth of two inches with dry light rich
earth, and raife a conical heap of the fame earth,
to the height of about I o inches, immediately under
the centre of each light. By the following day the
earth will have acquired a proper warmth, and the bed
will be fit for the reception of the young plants. The
earth, laid over the furface of the bed, to the depth of
two inches, will prevent the rank lleara of the dung,
on the one hand, from rifing up freely, and yet not
keep it down altogether ; were much of the furface of
the dung expofcd, and the ileam allowed to efcape
freely, the young plants would be deilroyed ; and, on
the other hand, were it prevented from efcaping alto-
gether, by laying on earth to a fulKcient depth at once, .
the bed would become overheated, and the roots of the
plants might be burnt. j

The pots containing the young cucumber and melon Manage-
plants, which were tranfplanted lall month (fee jA-^en' o'"-"
NX'ARv), Ihould be well watered the day previous to**"'""^
their being ridged out, to make the ball of earth ad-'^'"''"
liere, and come out of the pot entire. After the tops
of the hillocks of earth, which had be^n raifed to the

hel{;h>

422

GARDENING.

Part III.

Frbriiary. height of 10 inches under each light, have been iiatten-
KTt;licn (.J \^y reJiicing their height about two inches, make a
. ■"''^'^- hole in the centre of each, capable of containing one of
the balls of eailh, which is to be turned out of the pots.
Seleft fome pots containing the llrongeft plants ; place
your hand on the furfacc of the pot, al!o\\ing the plants
to pafs between your fingers ; invert it, and ftrike the
edge of it gently againft the frame till the ball of earth
comes out, which ihould be put into one of the holes in
the hillock juft mentioned ; dole the earth round the
ball, and make it rife about an inch over its furface.
After they have been thus ridged out, they ihould re-
ceive a gentle watering, and be covered with the glaf-
fes till the ilcam begin to rife much, when air ihould
be given by railing the glalTes. Thefe hot-beds, into
which the cucumbers and melons have been finally
tranfplanted, mud be managed in the fame manner as
the nurfery beds, mentioned lail month. A covering
of ftraw, or fomething of that nature, ihould be laid all
round the dang ; linings of fredi dung Ihould be applied
to the fides of the bed ^vhen the heat begins to decline,
air admitted under the lame circumftances and with
the fame precautions as there ftated. If three cucum-
bers or two melons have been planted in the pots, as
before diretled, one of the weakeft of either ihould be
removed immediately before, or after tliey are ridged
out. Should any fymptoras of burning appear foon af-
ter the plants have been ridged out, part of the earth,
clofe to the bottom of the hillocks, nmft be removed ;
and as foon as the violent heat has fubiided, be replaced
\vith freih earth. When the heat of the bed begins to
decline a little, efpecially if any of the roots of the
plants Ihew themfelves through the fides of the hillocks,
a quantity of freih earth Ihould be applied all round
them, -(vhich fliould be kept within the frame for one
night previoufly, that it may acquire a proper tempera-
ture, for ihould it be applied cold, it might injure the
young roots. Two or three days after this an addition-
al quantity of freih earth fliould be applied to the fides
of the hills ; and in two or three more the whole fur-
face of the bed may be earthed over as high as the tops
c- of the hills.
Topping. When the plants have got tu-o rough leaves, and
when the fecond is about an inch broad, the bud,
which is fituated at the a.xilla (or bafe) of the fecond
rough leaf, muft be removed either with the finger,
a pair of fcilTars, or a penknife, or, when the bud is
very fmall, with a needle or pin, being careful not to
injure the joint. After the plants are thus topped or
Hopped, they foon acquire Ifrength ; and in about lo
or I 2 days, each of them will throw out two or three
runners, ^vhich will ihew tlowcrs fometimes at the fe-
,cond or third joint. Were the plants not to be topped,
the principal ilioots would probably advance to the
length of about two feet, without fending oft" any run-
ners to fill up the frame, and without Ihewing a fingle
tiower. If none of the runners, which are pulhed out
after the firif topping, fliew flowers at the third or
fourth joint, they fliould be topped likewife, which will
caufe each of them to puih out two or three runners, all
of which may perhaps prove fruitful. As thefe runners
advance in growth they ought to be trained regularly
along the furface of the beds, and all very weak or re-
dundant flioots removed. The cucumbers, if ivell ma-
naged, will be fit for the table about the end of this or

flowtrs.

beginning of next month ; but the melons will not be February.
ripe before May or June. ^I'.'',''*"

Cucumbers and melons have male and female flowers ''"' ^"' .
on the fame plant, which are eafdy diftinguiihed from p^
one another. The male flowers, in the centre of which Imprcgna-
the anthera; are fituated that contain the farina (ori
fuecundating powder), have ftalks of an equal thicknefs,*
without any fwell immediately under the ilowers ;
whereas a fvvelling is perceptible immediately under the
female flowers vchich contain the female organ of gene-
ration, as foon as they are puihed out from the ilalks of
the plant, \vhich is the germen or future fruit. If
none of the farina of the male be conveyed into the fe-
male flower, the germen decays, becomes yellowifli, and
drops ofl". It becomes therefore neceflary, particularly
at this early period, to impregnate the female flowers
by fulpending male flowers over them, and ihaking
fome of the farina ii:to the piftillum (or female organ) ;
for after the plants have continued fome time in flower,
the air of the hot-bed in which they grow becomes
loaded with the farina, by which means it is wafted into
the female flowers. Infects likewife, particularly bees,
at a more advanced period of the year, ferve to convey
it from flower to flower. As foon as the female flowers
have opened, pinch off a newly blovvn male flower, to-
gether with a portion of its foot ftalk, remove the great-
eft part of its corolla or flower leaf, introduce it into
the female flower, and either touch the piftillum of the
female gently with the anther^e of the male fo as to
make fome of the farina adhere, or Ihake the male
flower over the piftillum of the female in order to make
fome of the farina fall on it. In a day or two after im-
pregnation the germen or future fruit begins to fwell,
and in about a fortnight, if the weather be favourable
and the heat of the bed good, the young cucumbers
may be brought to table. This operation may be em-
ployed to produce new varieties, not only of cucumbers
and melons, but of many other vegetables. Were the
female of one variety of melon to be impregnated with
the farina of another, a kind would be produced par-
taking fomewhat of the properties of both ; thus a large
melon, not poiTeiTed of much flavour, might be improved
by intermixture with one fuperior in flavour but inferior
in fize. In hermaphrodite flowers this operation of im- '

pregnating, or crotling, as it is called by cattle breeders,
is perfoi-med by removing the anthera? from a flower of
one fpecies, and impregnating it with the farina of ano-
ther of the fam.e natural family. The plants proceeding
from fuch a commixture partake more of the properties
of the male than the female parent. We have feen a
hybrid produced from the />a/>aver/omniferum impreg-
nated with the farina of the />a/>aver orienlale, fo like
the male parent as ivith difficulty to be diftinguiflied
from it.

The paj>aver orientale produces only one flower on
a flalk ; fome of this hybrid however carried more than
one, and in this particular alone it refembled the pa[>a-
ver fomniferum, which branches very much. Mr
Knight has made fome curious and interefting experi-
ments on this fubjed, v hich he has detailed in the fol-
lowing letter to Sir Jofcph Banks, publiihed in the 91;
Tranfaflions of the Royal Society. '.' The refult of -^''KTugl.t's
fome experiments which I have amuled mylelf with" ""''^"'
makmg on plants, appearmg to me to be mterelting tOj^^
the naturalift, by proving the exiftence of fuperfoetation

Part III.

in t'.je vegetable
foine improvemcr
berty to comimin
ariirD--ils have vt-n

CARD

lOrld, and being likely to conduce to
:s ill agriculture, I have taken the li-
cate them to you. The breeders of
long entertained an opinion that con-

fideiable advantages are obtained by breeding from
males and females not related to each other. Though
this opinion lias lately been controverted, the number
of its oppofers has gradually diminiihed, and I can fpeak
from ray own obfervation and experience, that animals
degenerate hi fize, at leaft on the fame pafliire, and in
other refpeds under the fame management, when this
procefs of crolling the breed is negleCled. The clofe
analogy between the animal and vegetable world, and
the fexual fyilem equally pervading both, induced me to
fuppofe that fimilar means might be produdive of fimi-
lar eifeiils in each; and the event has, I think, fully juft-
ified this opinion. The principal objeft I had in view,
was to obtain new a^d improved varieties of the apple,
to lupply the place of thofe which have become difeafed
and unproduftive by having been cultivated beyond the
period which nature appears to have alFigned to their
exillence. But as I faw that feveral years mull elapfe
before the fiiccefs or failure of this procefs could poffibly
be afcertaincd, I ivilhed in the interval to fee what would
be its efTeils in annual plants. Araongft thefe none ap-
peared lo well calculated to anlvver my purpofe as the
common pea, not only becaufe 1 could obtain many
varieties of this plant, of different forms, fizes, and co-
lours, but alfo becaufe the ftruclure of its bloflbm., by
preventing the ingrefs of infers and adventitious farina,
has rendered its varieties remarkably permanent. I had
a kind growing in my garden, which, having been long
cultivated in the fame foil, had ceaied to be productive,
and did not appear to recover the v.-hole of its former
vigour when removed to a foil of a fomewhat difterent
quality : on this ray firll experiment in 1787 was made.
Having opened a dozen of its immature bloiTores, I de-
ftroyed the male parts, taking great care not to injure
the female ones ; and a few days, afterwards when the
LioiToms appeared mature, I introduced the farina of a
very large and luxuriant gray pea into one half of the
bloflbms, leaving the other half as they were. The
pods of each grew equally well, but I foon perceived
that in thefe into whofe bloSbms the farina had not been
introduced, the feeds remained nearly as they were be-
fore the blolTcms expanded, and in that flate they with-
ered. Thofe in the other pods attained maturity, but
were not in any fenfible degree different from thofe af-
forded by othfr plants of the fame variety ; owing, I
Imagine, to the external covering of the feed (as I
Lave found in other plants) being furniflied entirely by
the female. In the fucteeding fpring the difference
however became extremely obvious, for the plants from
them rofe with excelTive luxuriance, and the colour of
their leaves and ftems clearly indicated that they had all
exchanged their whitenefs for the colour of the male
parent. The feeds produced in autumn were dark

" By introducing the farina of another white variety,
(or In fome inllances by (impie culture), I found this
colour was eafily difcharged, and a numerous variety of
new kinds produced, many of which were in point of
fize and in every other refpefl much fuperior to the ori-
ginal white kind, and grew with cxcelTive luxuriance,
feme of them attaining the height of more than twelve

E N I N G.

feet. I had frequent occalion to obfervc in this plant a
ftronger tendency to produce purple bloflbms and co-
loured feeds than white ones ; for when I introduced
the farina of a purple bloflbm into a white one, the
whole feeds in the fucceeding year became coloured j
but when I endeavoured to difcharge this colour by re- •
verfing the procefs, a part only of them afforded plants
with ^vhite bloffoms ; this part fometimes occupying one
end of the pod, an^ being at other times irregularly in-
termixed with thefe whicli, when fown, retained their
colour. It might perhaps be fuppofed that fomething
might depend on t!;e quantity of farina employed ; but
I never could difcover, in this or any other experiment
in which fuperfoetation did not take place, that the
largell or fmalleft quantity of farina afforded any dif-
ference in the effect produced.

" The dillimilarity I obferved in the offspring afford-
ed by different kinds of farina in thefe experiments,
pointed out to me an eafy method of afcertaining whe-
ther fuperfostation, (the exigence of which has been ad-
mitted amongrt animals), could alfo take place in the
vegetable world. For as the offspring of a white pea
is always white, unlefs the farina of a coloured kind be
introduced into the bloffom ; and as the colour of the
gray one is always transferred to its offspring though
the female be white, it readily occurred to me, that if
the farina of both were mingled or applied at the fame
moment, the offspring of each could be eafily diflin-
guilhed.

" My firft experiment was not altogether fuccefsful,
for the offspring of five pods (the whole which efcap-
ed the birds) received their colour from the coloured
male. There was, however, a ff rong refemblance to the
other male in the growth and charader of more than
one of the plants, and the feeds of feveral in the autumn
very clolely refembled it in every thing but colour. lii
this experiment, I ufed the farina of a white pea, which
poffetVed the remarkable property of Ihrivelling excef-
fively when ripe, and in the fecond year I obtained
wliite feeds from the gray ones above-mentioned, per-
feftly fimilar to it. I am ffrongly difpofed to believe,
that the feeds were here of common parentage : but I
do not conceive myfelf to be in poffeffion of faffs fuf-
ficient to enable me to fpeak with decifion en this quef-
tibn.

" If, hoTvever, the female afford th? firfl organifed
atom, and the farina acl only as a fllmulus, it appears
to me by no means impoffible, that the explofion of
two veficlcs of farina at the fame moment (taken from
different plants^ may afford feeds (as I have fuppofed)
of common parentage, and as I am unable to difcover
any fource of inaccuracy in this experiment, 1 mull be-
lieve this to have happened.

" Another fpecies of fuperfoetation, if I have jullly
applied the term to a procefs in which one feed ap.
pears to have been the offspring of two males), has oc-
curred to me fo often as to remove all poffibility of
doubt as to its exillence. In 1 797, that year after I
had fcen the refult of the latl mentioned experiment,-
having prepared a great many white bloiloms, I intro-
duced the farina of a white pea, and, that of a gray pea
nearly at the fame moment into e ich, and as in the lafl
year, the charafler of the coloured male had prevailed,
I uftd its farina more fparingly thnn that of the white
one, and now alraoll every pod afforded plants of dif-
ferent

CARD

Ltc:\l colours. The majority however were white, but
the chara<5lers of the two kinds were not fufficiently dif-
, linft to allow me to judge with precifion whether any
of the feeds produced were of rjmmon parentage or
not. In the lall year I was more fortunate, having
prepared blofloms of the little early frume pea, I intro-
duced its own farina, and immediately afterwards, that
of a very large and late gray kind ; and I fowed the
feeds thus obtained in the end of the laft fuimner. Many
of them retained the colour and character of the fmall
early pea not in the fiightell: degree altered, and blof-
fomcd before they were i8 inches high, whilft others
(taken from the fame pods) whofe colour was chang-
ed, grew to the height of more than four feet, and were
killed by the froft before any bloiToms appeared.

" It is evident that in thofe inftances, fuperfetation
took place, and it is equally evident that the feeds were
not all of common parentage. Should fubfequent ex-
perience e\ince that a iingle plant may be the offspring
of tivo males, the analogy between animal and vegetable
nature may induce fome curious conjeflures relative to
the procefs of generation in the animal world.

" In the courfe of the preceding experiments, I
could never obferve that the character either of the
male or female in this plant at all preponderated in the
offspring, but as this point appeared intcrefting, I made
a fe^v trials to afcertain it. And as the foregoing ob-
fer\'ations had occurred in experiments made principally
to obtain new and improved varieties of the pea for
garden culture ; I chofe for a fimilar purpofe the more
hardy varieties ufually forni in the fields. By intro-
ducing the farina of the largeft and moll luxuriant kinds
into the blofloms of the moil diminutive, -and by reverf-
ing this procefs, I found that the powers of the male
and female in their effects on the offspring are exaftly
equal. The vigour of the growth, the fize of the
feeds produced, and the feafon of maturity, were the
fame, though the one was a very early, and the other a
late variety. I had in this experiment a flriking in-
Itance of the ftimulative effects of eroding the breeds ; for
the fmalleft variety whofe height rarely exceeded two
feet, was increafed to fix feet, whillt the height of the
large and luxuriant kind was very little diminiflied. By
this procefs, it is evident tliat any number of new va-
rieties may be obtained ; and it is highly probable, that
many of thefe will be found better calculated to correft
the defcfls of different foils and fituations, than any we
have^t . prefent 5 for I imagine that all we now poffefs
have m a great meafure been the produce of accident,
and it will rarely happen in this or any other cafe, that
accident has do;ie all that art uill be found able to ac-
coraplifh.

" The fuccefs of my endeavours to produce improv-
ed varieties of the pea, induced me to try fome experi-
ments on wheat, but thofe did not fucceed to my ex-
pectations. I readily obtained as many varieties as I
widied, by merely fowing the different kinds together,
for the Itrufture of the bloffoms of this plant, (unlike
that of pea), freely admits the ingrefs of adventitious
farina, and is thence very liable to fport in varieties.
.Some of thcfe I obtained were excellent, others very
bad ; and none of them permanent. By fcparaling
the bcft varieties, a moll abundant crop was produced,
but its quality was not quite equal to the quantity,
and all the difcardcd ^'aIieties again made their appear-

E N I N G. PartllL

ance. It appeared to me all extraordinary circum- rebruary.
Itance, that in the years 1795 and 1796, wlicn almoft Kitchen
the whole crop of com in this illand was blighted, the '^^"^^"' .
varieties thus obtained, and thefe only, efcaped in this '"
neighbourhood, though fown in feveral different foils
and fitnations.

" M^ fuccefs in the apple (ss far as long experience
and attention have enabled me to judge from the culti-
vated appearance of trees, which have not yet borne
fruit) has been fiilly equal to iiiv hopes. But as the
improvement of this fruit was the iirft objcift of my
attention, no probable means of improvement either
from foil or afpect were reglefted. The plants, how-
ever, which I obtained from my efforts to unite the
good quahties of two kinds of apple feem to poffefs
the greatef: health and luxuriance of growth, as well as
the moft promifing appearance in other relpecls. In
fome of thei'e, the character of the'male appeals to pre-
vail; in others, that of the femnle; and in others both
appear blended, or neither is diflinguifliable. Thefe
variations which were often cbfervable in the feeds
taken from the fingle apple, e\-idenlly arife from the
want of permanence in the characiers of this fruit
when raifed from feed.

'' The refults of iimila'r experiments on another fruif,
the grape, were nearly the fame as of thofe on the ap-
ple, except that by minghng the ftnina of a black and
a white grape, juit as the bloffoms of the latter were ex-
panding, I'fometimes obtained plants from the fame
berry fo dilTimilar that I had good rtafon to believe
them the produce of fuperfoetaiion . By taking off the
cups and deftroying the immature male piirts (as in the
pea), I perfeflly fucceeded in combining the charac-
ters of different varieties of this fruit, as far as the
changes of form and autunuial tints in the leaves of the
offspring will allow me to judge.

Many experiments of the fame kind were tried on
other plants ; but it is llifficient to fay that all tended to
evince, that impro'.ed varieties of every fruit and elcu-
lent plant may be obtained by this procefs, and that
nature intended that a fexual intercourfe li.ould take
place betiveen neighbouring plants of the fame fpecies.
The probability of this will, I think, be apparent,
\vhen \ve take a- view of the variety of methods which
nature has taken to difperfe the farina, even of thefe
plants in which it has placed the male and female parts
within the fame empalement. It is often fcattered by
an elaltic exertion of the filaments which fupport it in
the firll opening of the bloffom, and its exceflive light-
nefs renders it capable of being carried to a great di-
Itance by the wind. Its pofition within the bloffom is
generally well adapted to place it on the bodies of in-
fects, and the villous coat of the numerous family of
bees is not lefs well calculated to carry it. I have fre-
quently obferved with great pleafure the difperfion of
the farina of fome of the graffes, when the fun had juft
rifen fn a dewy morning. It feemed to be impelled
from the plant with coniiderable force, and being blue
was eafily vifible, and very ftrongly refembled in ap-
pearance the explofion of a grain of gunpowder. An
examination of the ftruflure of the bloffoms of many
plants, will immediately point out that nature has fome-
thing more in view than that its own proper males
Ihould fecundate each bloffom, for the means it employs
are ahvays beft calculated to anfwcr tlie intended pur-

pofe.

Part 111.

Fe'iruniy. pole.

Rut the farina

CARD

often fo placed tJiat it can never

Kitchct. pgach the fummit of the pointal, unlefs by adventitious
"^^ , means ; and many trials has'e convinced me that it has
no action on any other part of it. In promoting this
fexual Intercourfe between r.eighbouring plants of the
fame fpecies, nature appears to me to have an impor-
tant purpofe in view ; for independent of its ftiraulative
power, this intercourfe certainly tends to confine with-
in more narrow limits thofe variations which accidental
richnefs or poverty of foil ufually produces. It may be
objected by thofe who admit the exillence of vegetable
mules, that under this extenlive intercourfe thele muit
h sve been more numerous ; but my total want of fuc-
cefs in many endeavours to produce a iingle mule plant,
njakes me much diipofed to believe that hybrid plants
have been miftaken for mules, and to doubt (with all
t'le deference I feel for the ojanions of Linnajus and
his illullrious followers) whether nature ever did or ever
v.ill permit the produtlion of fuch a monlfer. The
exirtence of numerous mules in the animal world be-
tween kindred ipecies is allowed, but nature has here
guarded againft their produclion, by impelling every
animal to feek its proper mate ; and amongft the fea-
thered tribe, when from perverfion of appetite, fexual
intercourfe takes place betw-een thofe of dillinft ge-
nera (a), it has in foiue inllances at leall rendered the
death of the female the inevitable confequence. But
in the vegetable world there is not any thing to direct
the male to its proper female, its farina * carried by
winds and infefls to plants of every different genus and
fpecies, and it therefore appears to me (as vegetable
mules certainly are not common) that nature has not
permitted them to exift at all.

" I cannot difmifs this fubjecl, without exprefilng my
regret, that thofe who have made the fcience of botany
their Itudy (hould have confidercd the improvement of
thofe vegetables, which in their cultivated date afford
the largeft portion or fubfiltence to mankind and other
animals, as little connefled with the object of their
purfuit. Hence it has happened, that whilft much at-
tention has been paid to the improvement of every fpe-
cies of ufeful animal, the moll valuable efculent plants
have been almofl wholly neglected. But when the ex-
tent of the benefit which would arife to the agricul-
ture of the country, from the polTeflion of varieties of
plants, which with the lame extent of foil and labour
would afford even a fmall increafe of produce, is conil-
dered, this fubjeS appears of no inconhderable impor-
tance. The improvement of animals is attended witii
much expence, and the improved kinds neceffarily extend
ihemfelves llowly ; but a fjngle bulhel of improved ^vheat
(ir peas may in ten years be made to atTord leed enough
to fupply the ivhole ifland, and a fingle apple or other
fntit tree may within the fame time be extended to
every garden in it. Thefe confiderations have been the
taufe of my addrelhng the foregoing obfervations to
\ou at this time; for it was much my wilh to have afcer-
tained before I wrote to you, whether in any inltance a
iingle plant can be the offspring of two male parents.
The decinon of that queflion mult of neceffity have oc-
VoL. IX. Part II.

K i\ I N G. 425

copied two years, and mud therefore be left to the tell Fr^niary.
of future experiment." r^"^'!"

The opinion Mr Knight endeavours to eltablilh to- . "^ '"" f
w ards the end of his letter, is certainly incorreft, if he
means to aflert that hybrids can only be produced by a
commixture of different varieties of the fame fpecies,
and that none can be produced by the union of plants
of different fpecies. The faft already ftated relative to_
the hybrid produced between the pa()av. oriental, and
fiiinnif. (two fpecies as different, in every rcfpeit, from
each other as the horfe and afs).

Sect. II. Fruit Garden.

Where peaches, neftarines, and apricots, have notPru.i.n; of
been pruned before this, that work ought to be done frui:-t.ces.
without delay, becaufe the tlower buds after they have
begun to fwell (which they do at this feafon) are eafily
rubbed off. Plums, cherries, apples, pears, goofeber-
ries, currants, and rafpberries, Sec. may likewife be
pruned during this month if neglected till now. j,y

About the end of the month you may prune fig Figs,
trees, as by that time all danger of the young Ihoots
being killed by the froft will be over. As the young
ihoots of lalt feafon alone produce figs the enfuing, a
fufficient fupply of them muit be left to nail on to the
wall ; and fupertiuous, ill-placed, very ilronglong-jointed
ihoots, and fmall weak ones, ought to be cut away clofe
to the branch of the former year's growth. The
branches whicli are retained ought to be laid in and nailed
to the wall at full length, at the diftance of about half
a foot from each other. They ought not to be Ihort-
ened, becaufe the figs are generally produced from that
part of the branch near to the extremity : on this ac-
count likewife care muft be taken, in choofing thofe
which are to be retained, not only to prefer the Ihoots
of moderately vigorous growth, but likewife thofe
which have had leait of their extremities killed by the
frolt, for it frequently happens that the firoll kills the
fucculent extremities of branches, and fometimes even
the whole ihoot.

Shortening the branches has another bad effeft bc-
fides removing the part from which the fruit is to pro-
ceed, it makes them throw out a crowd of lateral ihoots,
which create confufion and Ihade the fruit. All (vom-
out old branches which are not furniihed with a iuth-
cient number of young lateral (hoots, ought to^ be cut
away, either clofe to the main branch from which they
proceed, or dole to fome ihoot placed near their lower
end. Young fig trees may be planted alfo any time
this month. See October. pg

Strawberry beds Ihould now receive a drefling. Lart Pbnt, Stci
year's runners Ihould be cut away, weeds and decayed llrawber-
leaves removed, the ground between the rows dug or"'^'
loofened with the hoe, and fome earth drawn up about
the roots of the plants. Strawberries may be planted
towards the end of the month: for the method fee June
and September. <)<>

Any time this month you may begin to force the Force
trees on hot walls, in vine, peach, and cherry houfes, ^^^^ '""*^
3 H &c.

(a) This is (kid to be the cafe with tlie drake and the hen.

420 CARD

Febraary. &c. T!)ey ougbt to be covered '.vlth the glaffes, fome
rlcafure or^j^g previous to the application of £re-heat, and if the
Garden ^°"'^5 have been conttrufled with pits for containing
■ hot-beds of tanners bark, or horfe dung, a quantity of

either fliould be got ready. If tanner's bark is to be
ufed, it ought to be fpread out and expofed to the air,
that it may dry, for if it be put in too wet it will either
not heat at all, or heat violently and foon rot, but if
j-roperly dried, the heat will be moderate and ialt for a
long time. When hode dung is to be ufed, it ought
to be forked up into a heap and allowed to remain for
a few days, during ivhich time it (liould be turned two
or three times with a fork that it may be thoroughly
mixed. Slight fires fliould be applied for two or three
days at firft, which may be gradually increafed. They
ought to be kindled about funfet, and fupplied with fuel
from time to time till about ten o'clock, which ^viU
keep the houfe in a proper heat until morning, when
the fires ihould again be fet a going, if the heat has de-
clined, but it will feldom be neceffary at this feafon to
keep the fires burning all day. The fuel employed
may be either coal, wood, peat, or turf: of thefe coal
' is beft, becaufe it makes the ftrongell, the moft dura-
ble, and moft eafily managed fire. The heat of each
houfe fhould be regulated by a thermometer. The de-
gree of warmth kept up at this feafon, fhould not much
exceed the 60° of Fahrenheit. When the fun fliines
bright the heat muft be regulated by opening the glaffes
more or lefs, and admitting the external air. Befides
the trees that may be trained to the wall or front of the
houfe, pots or boxes containing cherry or peach trees
may be introduced ; likewife pots of kidney beans,
llrawberries, &c. rofes, and a variety of other flowers.
The trees and plants within the houfe mufl be duly
watered, and have plenty of air admitted to them
whenever the weather will permit. When the fruit
approach to maturity a greater heat fliould be maintain-
ed within tlie houfe, which may be efFefted during the
day by the rays of the fvm, and fparing admilTion of
the external air, and during the night (iif the weather
be cold) by fire.

Sect. III. The Pleafure or Flower Garden.

Sow tenticr TotVARDS the end of the month, you may fow fome
innuab. tender annuals, fuch as balfams, cockscombs, globe
amaranthus, ice plant?, egg plants, &c. They mult
be fown in a hot-bed, which is to be formed and earth-
ed over in the fame way as feed beds for cucumbers and
melons. See January. The feeds may either be fown
in the earth of the bed, or in pots plunged into the
earth. Or a few may Le fown in pots, and introduced
into a cucumber or melon bed. When the plants have
acquired fufhcient ftrength to admit of being tranfplaut-
ed, they Ihould be put into feparate pots and transferred
j^j to other hot-beds. See April.
Hardy an- About the end of the month, you may fow fome
muali. feed of mignionet, ten weeks flock, larkfpur, flos A-

donis, convolvulus, lupines, fcarlet, fweet-fcented, and
Tangier pea, candytuft, dwarf lychnis, Venus's look-
ing glafs, Lobel's catchtiy, Venus's navel-wort, dwarf
poppy, annual funflowcr, oriental mallow, lavatera,
hawk weed, and many others. They mull be fown in

E N I N G. Part in.

places where they are to remain, for none of thefe plants Febiuary.
iucceed fo ivell when they are tranfplanted.

Dig fmall patches with a trowel in the flower borders,
break the earth well, remove part of it from the Imlace >
ivith the edge of the trowel, and fow the feeds, which
fliould be covered with the earth which had been moved
afide from the furface of the patches. The fmaller
feeds fuch as mignionet, ten weeks flock, larkfpur, fccc.
fhould be covered to the depth of about a quarter of an
inch J the larger ones, fuch as lupines, painted and fweet
peas, annual funflower, Jkc. may be covered to the
depth of an inch. After the plants have advanced a
little In growth, they fliould be thinned out in propor-
tion to their fi/e, viz. one funtiower fhould be left in
a place, two plants of lavatera and oriental mallow,
four or five of the larger, and fix or eight of the fmal-
ler lupines, and fo on in proportion. j^^

Moft kinds of hardy perennials and biennials may Plant hardy
be planted out this month, viz. polyanthufes, prim- perenniils.
rofes, London pride, violets, double daifeys, double
chamomile, faxifrage, rofe campion, rockets, campanu-
la, catchtiy, fcarlet lychnis, double feverfew, batche-
lor's button, carnations, pinks, fweetwilliam, colusi-
bines, monkfhood, tree primrofe, foxglove, golden-
rod, perennial afters, perennial fun-flower, holyhocks,
French honeyfucklcs, wallflowers, and many others. 103

Where auricula plants are much valued, and where Drefs and
there are many of the finer varieties, they are common- '^^'■' *""-
ly kept in ffcts. During mild weather anytime this*^ •*"■*
month, it would be proper to give them fome frelh earth.
Clear away all dead leaves from the plants, remove fome
of the old earth from the fides of the pot all around, fo far
as you can do it without injuring the roots, and fill the
pots with frefh earth prepared for the purpofe. See
September.

Auricula and polyanthus feed may be fown any time
this month, either in the open ground or in pots.
When fown in pots or boxes they are more eafily moved
to proper fituations during different feafons. Sow them
in light rich earth, and cover them to the depth of a-
bout a quarter of an inch. The pots or boxes fhould
be placed in a fituatlon flieltered from the north, and
expofed to the morning and midday fun, from which
they ought to be removed in -April to a more fhady
place. They will be fit for tranfplanting in the month
of June. See June.

About the end of the month plant out the cama-Xranfptant
tions which were raifed laft year by cuttings or layers, carnations,
into pots or borders where they are to remain to pro-
duce dowers the enfuing fummer. ''

Any time this month you may tranfplant evergreen Eyjrgrjgns.
trees, and fhrubs ; fuch as pines, firs, evergreen oaks,
hollies, yews, cypreffes, cedars, phillyreas, arbutufes,
laurels, lauruftinus, &c. ,^5

The finer forts of tiJips, hyacinths, anemones, ranun- Proteift tu-
culufes, &c. fhould be proteiSled during fevere weather, ''ps, &c.
as they begin to appear above ground. For the me-
thod of flickering them fee January.

Grafs walks and lawns ought to be kept clean, poled
and rolled at leafl once a week if the weather permit
it. After being rolled with a wooden roller to take
off the worm-cafts, a heavy ftone or iron one fhould be
paffed over them to render them firm. Their edges
ought likewife to he cut with an edging iron about the

end

Part III.

CARD

Ear'y

flos-.ers

forced.

February, end of the month, ^vhicll will give them a neat ap-
Nurfeiy. pearance.
j' Gravel and grafs walks may be made during this

Walks and month : for the latter fee JANUARY, and the former
edgings. March.

Edgings of boxwood, thrift, daifies, thyme, hyflbp,
&c. may be planted this month. Boxwood forms the
neateft, moll durable, and moll eaiily kept edging, and
if planted now it will fucceed very well. For the me-
thod fee October. Where any of the old bo\wood
edgings have become irregular, they ought to be taken
up and replanted.

Thrift is frequently employed as an edging, and well
kept makes a very neat one. The plants may be either
put in with the dibble fo clofe as to touch, or at the di-
flance of two or three inches from each other, or plant-
ed as boxwood, fee October. D.iilies are fometimes
ufed, and form a very pretty edging ; they may be
planted in the fame manner as the thrift.

A grc:it varietv of flowers, fuch as hyacinths, jon-
quils, and rofes, &c. may be placed in the hot-houfe,
vinery, or peach-houfe ; and when they have come into
flower they may be placed in a green-houfe, or in a-
partraents of a dwelling houfe.

Sect. IV. Nurfery.

Masi' things mentioned under the article work to
to be done in the nurfery for January may likeivife be
done this month ; fuch as pruning young trees and
{hrubs, digging between the rows, propagating by cut-
tings, fuckers, and layers, &c. See January.

Such lavers of lall year, as appear well rooted, (hould
be removed from the parent plant ("or ftool), and plant-
ed in rows of from one to two feet afunder, according
to the fize of the plant, and at the dirtance of a foot or
foot and a half from each other in the ro^v.

If feeds or ftones of apples, pears, cherries, and plums,
;.were not fown lall autumn to raife flocks for budding
and ingrafting, they fhould be fown about the begin-
ning of this month. They Ihould be fown in light foil,
and covered to about the depth of an inch. The plants
raifed from this fowing will be fit for tranfplanting in
the beginning of next winter or ipring. The feeds of
berries and nats of ihrubs and forefl trees may likewife
be fown any time this month in narrow beds, and cover-
ed in proportion to their fize, viz. the fmall feeds to
the depth of about half an inch, the larger to the depth
of an inch or an inch and a half, and fome of the nuts
even to a greater depth.

Trees and fhrubs may be removed from the feed -bed
or from where they fland too thick, and planted out in
rows at proper diflances, or tranfplanted into the places
where they are to remain.

Young trees that ivere budded fuccefsfully lafl fum-
mer (hould be cut down to mthin about four inches of
the bud. See June and July.

Pears, plums, and cherries may be ingrafted towards
the end of the month, if the weather is mild : apples
likewife may be ingrafted at the fame time, or in the
courfe of the following month.

Grafting or engrafting, in gardening, is the taking
a fhoot from one tree, and inferting it into another, in
fuch a manner, that both may unite clofely and become
fine tree.

Layers
pUnied.

and tranf-
plinted.

engrafted.

E N I N G. - 427

By the ancient writers on huftandry and gardening February,
this operation is called incifton, to dillingullh it from ^'uf'^iTj
inoculation or budding, which tliey call infertion. j^
Grafting has been praftifed from the moll remote anti- Hiftory of
quity, but its origin and invention are differently related engrafting,
by naturalills. Theophraftus tells us, that a bird having
fwallowed a fruit wliole, call it forth into a cleft or ca-
vity of a rotten tree, where, mi.xiug with fome of the
putrefied parts of the tree, and being walhcd with he
rains, it germinated, and produced within this tree a
tree of a different kind. This led the Imlhandman to
certain reflcClions, from which afterwards arofe the art
of engrafting.

Pliny gives a different account of the origin of graft-
ing : he fays, a hufbandman wilhing to make a palli-
fade in his ground, that it might endure the longer,
and with a vie^v to fill up and llrengthen the bottom of
the pallifade, wattled it with the twigs of ivy. The
effeft of this was, that the ilakes of the pallifades tak-
ing root, became engrafted into the twigs, and produ-
ced large trees, which fuggelled to the hufbandman the
art of engrafting.

The ufe of grafting is to propagate any defirsble forts
of fruit fo as to be certain of the variety ; for as all
good varieties of fruit have been accidentally obtained
from feeds, lo the feeds ot thele, when fown, will many
of them degenerate, and produce fuch fruit as is not
^vorth cultivating ; but when grafts are taken from fuch
trees as produce good fruit, thefe will never alter from
their kind, whatever be the Hock or tree on which they
are grafted. Many have fuppofed that fruit undergoes
a change, by being engrafted ; but this is not the cafe,
M. Du Hamel tried it on different trees, and for fear of
error repeated every experiment feveral times. He
grafted the peach on the almond, the pliun on the apri-
cot, the pear upon the apple, the quince on the white
thorn, one fpecies of plum on another, and the almond
and apricot on the peach. All thefe fucceeded alike ;
the fruit was never altered ; the leaves, the wood, the
flowers, were perfeftly the fame with thofe of the tree
from which the grafts were taken.

Some authors have made mention of engrafting trees
of diftincl genera on one another ; fuch as the apple on
the oak, the elm, the raapple, and the plum. M. Du
H.imel tried a number of thefe experiments, none of
which proved fuccefsful. Engrafting feems nev»r to
fucceed but when trees of the fame natural family are
grafted on one another. Some trees are fuppofed to
live longer, and grow more vigoroully when engrafted
than when growing in a natural (late. It is faid, that
this is the cafe with the peach, when engrafted on the
plum. But it is commonly alledged, that engrafted
trees do not live fo long as they would have done in
their natural Hate. The reafon why engrafted trees
are Ihort lived, perhaps proceeds from another caufe
than merely from the circumliance of being grafted,
viz. the age of the tree from which the fcions were
originally taken. jj-

The proper tools and other materials ufed in graft- Method of
ing, are, I. A llrong knife for cutting oS the heads;' riorminj
of the flocks previous to the infertion of the graft; alfo''"
a mall hand faw for occafional ufe in cutting off the
heads of large Itocks. 2. A common grafting knife or
iharp pen knife ^"or cutting and ihaping the grafts rea-
dy for infertion ; alio to (lope and form the (locks for
3 H a the

428

February, the reception of the grafts. 3. A flat grafting chifel
, ^"^'^O'- ^ and fmall mallet for cleaving large flocks, in cleft
' grafting, for the reception of the graft. 4. A quantity
of new bafs firings for bandages for tying the grafted
parts clofe together, to fecure the grafts, and promote
their fpeedy union uith the ftock. And 5. A quantity
of grafting clay for claying clofely round the grafts at-
ter their infertion atjd binding to defend the parts from

GARDENING.

Part III.

Whip-grafting being the raoft expeditious and fuc- February,
cefsful method of grafting, is the moft commonly prac- Nurfcry.
tiled in all the nurferies ; it is always performed upon '' '
fraall flocks, from about the fize of a goofe-quill to half^viiip.
an inch or a little more or lefs in diameter, but the near-grufting.
er the ftock and graft approach in fize, the better ; and
is called ^vhip-grafting, becaufe the grafts and ftock
being nearly of a fize, are floped on one fide fo as to fit

joints of
lows. H

igling rods, &.C.
ving the fcions

being dried by^ the fun and winds, for thefe parts ought each other, and tied together in the manner of whips
to be clofely furrounded with a coat of clay in fuch a - --'- "^ '• ^ •'- 1 .1 .1 . •

manner as cffeclually to guard them from all weathers,
which would prove injurious to the young grafts, and
prevent their junction with the ftock.

For this purpofe fome argillaceous loam or pure clay
murt be procured, to which Ihould be added one fourth
part of frefti horfe dung and a fmall portion of cut hay.
'J"he whole muil be well moiftened with water, and
thoroughly beat with a flick after the manner of
mortar.

The icions or grafts (which Ihould be llioots of laft
vear) ought to be felefted and cut off fome time about
the beginning or middle of the month. Each kind
ought 10 be put up leparately in little bundles, which
Ihould be infertcd into the earth of a dry border, and
ihould be pioteded during fevere weather by a cover-
ing of llraw or fomething of that nature. The reafon

d the method is as fol-
grafts, knife, bandages,
and clay ready, begin the work by cutting off the head
of the flock at (ome fmooth part ; this done, cut one
fide Hoping up^vards, about an inch and a half or near
two inches in length, and making a notch or fmall flit
near the upper part of the flope downwards, about half
an inch long, to receive the tongue of the fcion ; then
prepare the fcion, cutting it to five or iu: inches in
length, forming the lower end^lfo in a floping manner,
fo as exactly to fit the lloped part of the ftock, as if

cut from the fame place, that the bark of both may
join evenly in every part, and make a flit fo as to form
a tongue to fit the llit made in the Hope of the ftock ;
then place the graft, inferting the tongue of it into the
flit of the ftock, applying the parts as evenly and dole
as poflible, and immediately tie the parts clofe together

for taking them off at the time mentioned, is that their with a ftring of bafs, pafllng clofely leveral times round

growth may be checked, and that they may be prefer- the flock and graft ; then clay the whole over near an

ved in a condition for grafting ; for were they to remain inch thick all round, from about half an inch or more

on the trees, their buds would begin to fwell, and would below the bottom of the graft, to an inch above the top

foon advance fo far as to be unfit for ufing with any of the ftock, finithing the ^vhole coat of clay in a kind

profpedl of fuccefs. The flocks intended to be grafted, of oval form, clofing it effectually about the fcion, fo

muft, previous to the infertion of the graft, be cut
down ; thofe intended for dwarf trees, to be trained
on walls or efpaliers, muft be cut over five or fix
inclies above the ground ; thofe intended for ftand-
ards fliould be cut over at the height of five or fix
feet.

The flocks muft vary according to the kinds of fruit
to be grafted on them, and to the fize of the tree to be
produced. Apples are grafted on apple ftocks raifed
from feed, cuttings, or layers ; for dwarfs, paradife pip-
pin or Siberian crab ftocks are ufed ; for half dwarfs,
codlin ftocks raifed from fuckers, cuttings or layers ; and

that neither air nor water may penetrate. The clay
muft be examined from time to time, for ftiould it crack
much, or fall off, a quantity of frelh clay ought to be
applied immediately. Tliis fort of grafting may alfo
be performed upon the young flioots of any bearing tree,
if you wifli to alter the kind of fruit or to have more
kinds than one on the fame tree. By the middle or
latter end of May the graft will be well united with the
ftock, as will be evident from the fliooting of the buds
of the graft, when the clay fliould be removed ; but the
bafs bandage fliould remain until the united parts feem
to fwell, and be too much confined, then the bandage

for full ftandards, flocks raifed by fowing the feed of fliould be taken off entirely.

crabs or any common apple. Pears are engrafted upon
pear ftocks obtained from feed or fuckers, on quinces,
and on white thorn. When they are engrafted on
quince ftocks, they become dwarf, and are fit for efpa-
liers, &c.

Cherries are engrafted upon cherry ftocks obtained
by fowing the ftones of red or black cherries, and plums
are engrafted upon plum flocks raifed from feed or fuck-
ers (B).

There are different methods of grafting, termed
whip-grafting, cleft-grafting, crown-grafting, cheek-
grafting, fide-grafting, root-grafting, and grafting by
approach or inarching ; but whip-grafting and cleft-
grafting are the moft commonly ufed, and v.hip-grafting
mofl of all.

Cleft-grafting is fo called becaufe the ftock being toocijft.Jrjf..
large for whip-grafting, is cleft or flit down the a-.iddleing.
for the reception of the graft, and is performed in
ftocks from one to two inches diameter or upwards.
Firft, with a flrong knife take oft' the head of the ftock
>vith a floping cut about an inch and a half long, then
cleave the flock with a flrong knife or chifel and mallet
acrofs the flope to the depth of about two inches, or
long enough to admit the graft, leaving the inflrument
in to keep the clett open. Prepare the fcion by cutting
it to fuch length as to leave four or five eyes, floping
the lower part of it on each fide, wedge falhion, to the
length of an inch and a half or two inches, making
one edge very thin, and leaving the other much thicker
with the bark on ; then place it in the cleft at the back

part

(b) Stocks which are raifed from feed, generally grow more freely and vigoroully than thofe raifed from cut-
lings or layers, and on that ^iccouat are called free ftocks.

Part m.

GARDENING.

f ebnury. part of the ftock, wnlh the thickeft edge outwards to the
Nurfery. ^j hole depth of the (lope, tak!ng care that the bark of
* the rtock and graft join exactly ; when the knife or
ciiifcl is removed, cacii fide of the cleft will prefs on the
graft and hold it fail. It mull then be bound with a
bafb bandage and clayed over as in whip-grafting, leav-
ing three or four of the eyes of the fcion uncovered.

li large itccks "or branches are to be grafted in this
way, they mail be cut horizontally and fmoothed, and
may be cleft quite acrofs, and a graft inferted on each
fide. P.Iore clefts indeed than one may be made, and
two grafts put in each. This method of grafting may
be performed on the branches or items of old trees, with
a view to produce vigorous branches or change the kind
of firuit.

Towards the latter end of May or beginning of June
the junction of the. graft «-ith the ftock will be effec-
tually formed, when the clay may be removed, and in
a fortnight aftenvards the bafs bandage may aUb be
1,8 taken away.
Crown- Crown-grafting is commonly praclifed upon fuch

gtdfting. flocks as are too large to cleave, and is often perform-
ed upon the large branches of apple and pear trees,
&c. that already bear fruit, when it is intended
to change the forts, or fupply the tree with a number
of new vigorous branches. It is termed crown-
grafting, becaufe, after the Hock or branch has been cut
over, feveral grafts are inferted all around betwixt the
wood and bark, fo as to produce a cro«Ti-like appear-
ance ; this kind of grafting fliould not be performed
until March or early in April, for then the fap being in
motion renders the bark and wood of the ftock much eafier
to be feparated for the admiflion of the graft. The man-
ner of performing this fort of grafting is as follows : firft
cut off the head of the llock horizontally, and pare the
top Gnooth ; then having the grafts, cut one fide of
each tlat, and lomewhat doping, an inch and a half,
forming a fort of ihoulder at the top of the flope to relt
upon the crown of the llock ; after the bark of the
llock has been railed by means of a wedge, fo as to ad-
mit the fcion between the bark and the wood, let the
fcion be thruu down to the Ihoulder with its cut
fide next the wood of the flock : in this manner three,
four, or more grafts may be inferted into one ftock or
branch. After the grafts have been inferted, let them
be tied tight, and let the clay be applied fo as to rife an
inch above the top of the ftock, taking care to form it
fo as to prevent the admilTion of water, which would
injure the grafts. Cro'.sTi-grafting may alfo be perform-
ed by making feveral clefts in the crown of the ftock,
and inferting the grafts into the clefts. The grafts
will be pretty well united with tlie ftock by the end of
May or beginning of June, when the clay and bandage
may be taken away. The trees grafted by this me-
thod mil fucceed very ivell ; but for the firft two or
three years the grafts are liable to be blown out of the
flock by violent winds, to prevent which, long flicks
muft be tied to the ftock or branch, to which they may
J, be fixed.

Cheek- Cheek-grafting is thus executed. Cut the head of

grafting, the ftock off horizontally, and pare the top fmooth :
then cut one fide Hoping an inch and a half or two
inches deep, and cut the lower part of the graft Hoping
the fame length, making a fort of ftioulder at the top
qf tl-.c (loped part ; it is then to be placed upon the

429

(loped part of the ftock, refting the (houlder upon the T'cbr
crown of i: ; bind it with bafs, and finilh it with a co- '^^^'f"}- _
venng of clay as in whip-grafting.

Side-grafting is done by inferring grafts into the fides sidcgrift.
of the branches without cutting them over, and may beif'g-
praiHfed upon trees to fill up any vacancy, or for the
purpofe of variety, to have feveral forts of apples, pears,
plums, &c upon the fame tree. It is performed thus.
Fix upon fuch parts of the branches where wood is
wanted to fumiih the head or part of the tree ; there
flope off the bark and a little of the wood, and cut the
lower end of the grafts to fit the part as near as pofli-
ble, then join them to the branch and tie them ivith
bafs, and clay them over, m

Root-grafting. This is done by whip-grafting fcions Root-
upon pieces of the root of any tree of the fame genus,S'-"""S-
and planting the root where it is to remain ; it will take
root, draw nourifhment, and feed the graft. ,22

Grafting by approach, or inarching, is preferred whenTr.arching,
the ftocks defigned to be grafted, and the tree from
which the graft is intended to be taken, either grow fo
near, or can be placed fo near together, that the branch
or graft may be made to approach the llock, without
feparating it from the tree till after its union or junction
with the flock, fo that the branch or graft being bent
to the flock they together form a fort of arch, whence
it is called grafting by approach or inarching. It is
commonly praftifed upon fuch trees as are with dithcul-
ty made to fucceed by any of the former ways of graft-
ing. When intended to propagate any kind of tree or
Ihrub by this method of grafting ; if the tree be hardy
enough to grow in the open ground, a proper quantity
of young plants for flocks muft be fet round it, and '
when gro'.\Ti of a proper height, the work of inarching
muft be performed ; if the branches of the tree you in-
tend to take grafts from be too high for the (locks, in
that cafe the ftocks planted in pots, muft be placed on
a night (lage or fome fupport of that nature, of fuch a
height as to make them reach the branches. Inarching
is fometimes performed with the head of the ftock cut
off, fometimes it is allowed to remain ; when the head
of the ftock is cut off, the work is more eafily perform-
ed, and is generally more fuccefsful, becaufe the ftock
having no top of its own to fupport, will tranfmit all
the nourifliment taken up by its roots into the graft •,
%vhen the ftocks are properly placed, make the branches
approach to them, and mark on the branches the places
where they will molt eafily join to the ftock, and in
thofe parts of each branch, pare aivay the bark and part
of the wood two or three inches in length, and in the
lame manner pare the flock at the proper place ; then
make a (lit upwards in the branch fo as to form a fort of
tongue, and make a Hit downwards in the ftock to ad-
mit it ; let the parts be then joined, floping the tongus
of the graft into the llit of the ftock fo as to make the
whole join in an exaft manner •, then tie them clofe to-
gether with bafs, and afterwards cover the »vhole with
a proper quantity of clay, as before directed in the
other methods. Aftcrthis,let a ftout Itake be fixed for the
fupport of each graft, to which the ftock and graft may
be fixed, to prevent their being disjoined by the wind.
If this operation be p( rformed in fpring, the graft and
flock will be united in four months, when the branch may
be feparated from the parent plant •, this fiiould be doiie
cautioullv and with a (harp knife, left the graft (houli .

be

■I '3
A new n

4 hod.

154
Extreme
%raBch-
grafting.

GARDE

be fliaken ^nd loofened from the flock. If the head
of the ftock were not removed previous to inarching,
it iliould now be cut off clofe to the infertion of the
graft, and all the old clay and bandages fhould be tak-
en away and replaced with ne«% which fliould be allow-
ed to remain a few weeks longer. If the graft and
flock do not feem perfeiRly united the firft autumn after
they have been inarched, they (liquid be allowed to
ftand till next autumn : for were the branch to be cut
off from the parent plant before a complete union was
formed between it and the ftock, the operation would
prove abortive.

An anonymous author has given, in a treatife publiib-
ed at Hamburgh under the title Amrenitates Hortcnfes
Nov^, a new method of grafting trees, fo as to have very
beautiful pyramids of fruit upon them, which will exceed
in flavour, beauty, and quantity, all that can otherwife be
produced. This he fays he had long experienced, and
gives the following method of doing it. The trees are
to be tranfplanted in autumn, and all their branches cut
off : early in the following fummer the young ihoots are
to be pulled off, and the buds are then to be engrafted
into them in an inverted pofition. This he fays, not
only adds to the beauty of the pyramids, but alfo makes
the branches more fruitful. Thefe are to be clofely
connected to the trunk, and are to be faflened with the
common ligature ; they are to be placed circularly
round the tree, three buds in each circle, and thefe cir-
cles at fix inches diftance from each other. The old
trees may be grafted in this manner, the fuccefs having
been found very good in thofe of twenty years Handing j
but the moft eligible trees are thofe which are young,
vigorous, and full of juice, and are not above an inch
or two thick. When thefe young trees are tranfplant-
ed, they muft be fenced round with pales to defend
them from the \nolence of the wind. The buds en-
grafted muft be fmall, that the wounds made in the bark
to receive them, not being very large, may heal the
fooner ; and if the buds do not fucceed, which will be
perceived in a fortnight, there muft be others put in
their place. The wound made to receive thefe buds
muft be a ftraight cut, parallel to the horizon, and the
piece of bark taken out, muft be downwards that the
rain may not get in at the wound, In the autumn of
the fame year this will be a green flourilhing pyramid,
and the next fummer it will ftower, and ripen its fniit
in autumn.

Mr Fairman, of Kent, gives an account of a method
of renewing decayed trees, by what he calls extreme
branch-grafting, which has been publiflied in the Me-
moirs of the Society of Arts for l8o2. It is addreffed
to the Secretary.

" Sir,

" From much convcrfation with Mr Eucknall, on the
Idea of impro>-ing ftandard fruit trees, we could not but
remark that in apple orchards, even in fucli as are moft
valuable, fome were to be feen that were ftinted and
barren, which not only occafioned a lofs in the produc-
tion, but made a break in the rows, and fpoiled the
beauty and uniformity of the plantation.

N I N G. Part III.

" To bring thefe trees into'an equal ftate of bearing, Fehmary,
fize, and appearance, in a ihort time, is an object of the Nutferj .
greateft importance in the fyftem of orcharding, and '
alfo for the recovery of old barren trees, which are
fallen into decay, not fo much from age as from the
forts of their fruits being of the worn out, and deemed
nearly loft, varieties.

" Having long entertained thefe thoughts, and been
by no means inattentive to the accomplilhment of the
defign, I attempted to change their fruits by a new
mode of engrafting, and am bold enough to affert that
I have moft fortunately fucceeded in my experiments ;
v.orking, if I am to be allowed to fay it, from the er-
rors of other pratlitioners, as alfo from thofe of my own
habits.

" My name having feveral times appeared in the
Tranfacfions of the Society for the encouragement of
Arts, &c. ; and having the honour of being a member
of that Societv, I thought no pains or expence would
be too much for the completion of fo deiirable an im-
provemerrt. Under thefe imprellions, and having many
trees o<" this defcription, I made an experiment on three
of them in March 1 798, each being nearly a hundred
years old. They were not decayed in their bodies, and
but little in their branches. Two of thefe were golden
pippins, and the other was a golden rennet : each had
likewife been paft a bearing ftate for feveral years. I
alfo followed up the practice on many more the fucceed-
ing fpring, and that of the laft year, to the number of
forty at leaft, in my different plantations (c).

" The attempt has gone fo far beyond my utraoft
expeMation, that I beg of you, Sir, to introduce the
fyftem to the fociety for their approbation ; and I hope
it will deferve the honour of a place in their valuable
Tranfaftions.

" I directed the procefs to be conduced as follows :
cut out all the fpray wood, and make the tree a perfect
fkeleton, leaving all the healthy limbs ; then clean the
branches, and cut the top of each branch oft", where it
would meafure from an inch to two inches in diameter.
Some of the branches muft of courfe be taken off, where
it is a little larger, and fome fmaller, to preferve a head
or canopy of the tree ; and it will be neceifary to take
out the branches which crofs others, and obferve the
arms are left to fork off; fo that no confiderable open-
ing is to be perceived when you ftand under the tree,
but that they may reprefent a uniform head. I muil
here remark to the practitioner, when he is preparing
the tree as I directed, that he ftiould leave the branches
fufficiently long to allow of two or three inches to be
taken off by the faw, that all the fplintered parts may
b" removed.

" The trees being thus prepared, put in one or two
grafts at the extremity of each branch ; and from this
circumftance I wifli to have the method called extreme
branch grafting. A cement, hereafter defcribed, muft
be ufcd inftead of clay, and the grafts tied with bafs or
foft ftring. As there was a confiderable quantity of
mofs on the bodies and branches of the trees, I ordered
my gardener to fcrape it off, which is effeclually done
v.hen they are wet, by a ftubbed birch broom. I then

ordered

.(c) The average expence I calculated at 2s. 6d. each tre«.

Part III.

GARDENING.

Febniary. ordered him to brufli them over with coarfe oil, Tvbich

. ^•"'''■'y- invigorated the growth of the tree, aifled as a m;;riuve

* to the bark.," and made it expand very evidently ; the

old cracks were foon, by this operation, rendered invi-

fible.

" All wounds iliould be perfeilly cleaned out, and the
medication applied, as defcribed in the Orchardilt,
p. 14. By the beginning of July the bandages were
cut, and the ihoots from the grafts Ihortened, to pre-
vent them from blowing out. I mult here, too, ob-
fers'e, that all the Ihoots, or fuckers from the tree,
muH enjoy the full liberty of growth till the fucceeding
fpring, when the greater part muft be taken out, and
few but the grafts fufiered to remain, except on a
branch where the grafts have not taken 5 in that cafe
leave one or two of the fuckers, wiiich will take a graft
the fecond year, and make good the deficiency. This
was the whole of the procefs (d).

" By obfer\ing what is here llated, it will appear that
the tree remains nearly as large when the operation is
finilhed, as it was before the bufinefs began ; and this
is a moll elTential circumftance, as no part of the form-
er vegetation is loft, which is in health fit to continue
for forming the new tree. It is worthy of notice, that
when the vivifying rays of the fun have caufed the lap
to flow, thefe grafts, inducing the rluld through the pores
to eveiy part of the tree, will occafion innumerable fuck-
ers or fcions to ftart through the bark, which, together
with the grafts, give fuch energy to vegetation, that, in
the courfe of the fummer, the tree will be aiElually cover-
ed over by a thick fohage, which enforces and quickens
the due circulation of fap. Thefe, when combined,
fully compel the roots to ^vork for the general benefit of
the tree.

" In thefe experiments, I judged it proper to make
choice of grafts from the forts of fruits which were the
moft luxuriant in their growth, or any new variety, as
defcribed in the 17th and 1 8th volumes of the Society's
Tranfaflions, by which means a greater vigour was ex-
cited ; and if this obfervation is attended to, the practi-
tioner will clearly perceive, from the firft year's growth,
that the grafts would foon ftarve the fuckers which
(hoot forth beloiv them, if they were fuffered to remain.
With a view to accomplifh this grand object of im-
provement, I gave much attention, as I have obferved
before, to the general practice of invigorating old trees ;
and I happily difcovered the error of the common mode
of engrafting but a (hort diftance from the trunk or
body. There the circumference of the wounds is as
large as to require feveral grafts, which cannot firmly
unite and clafp over the flumps, and confequently thele
wounds lay a foundation for after decay. If that were
not the cafe, yet it fo reduces the fize of the tree, that
it could not recover its former ftate in many years, and
it is dubious if it ever would ; whereas, by the method
of e.xtreme grafting, the tree will be larger in three or
four years, than before the operation was performed.
For all the large branches remaining, the tree has
nothing to make but fruit-bearing wood ; and from the
very beautiful verdure it foon acquires, and the fymme-

Aif

try of the tree, no argument is neceflary to enforce the February,
praftice. Some of the trees, done in this way, yielded Green-
each t;vo bulhcls of apples from the third year's wood, i""*! *"**

Cement fur Engrafting.

One pound of pitch,

One pound of rofin,

Half a pound of beeswax,

A quarter of a pound of hog's lard,

A quarter of a pound of turpentine ;

to be boiled up together, but not to be ufed till you can
bear your finger in it."

Sect. V. Green-houfe and Hot-houfe,

The fame care of the green-houfe is required during-
this month \vhich ^vas recommended in January. If fe-
vere frolt, or very wet weather prevails, the glafles mull
be kept clofe during the day to exclude the frofl and
damp, or flight fires may be had recourfe to for this
purpofe. ,j.

In mild weather the glafles muft be opened during Air to be
the day to admit air, and water ntuft be given to the*d™''te4^
plants regularly, though fparingly. Towards the end
of the month it will be proper to remove a little of the
earth from the furface and fides of the boxes or pots,
and to replace it with fome frelh compoft. If any of
the orange trees, myrtles, or plants of that nature,
have irregular heads, they may be cut fo as to caufe
them to throw out a number of new branches to fill up
any vacant places, or form an entirely new head. If
they require to be much pruned, or to be cut over alto-
gether, it would be proper to iliift them at the fame
time, i. e. to remove them from the box or pot in which
they have ftood with the ball of earth about their roots,
part of which, together with any matted roots, Ihould
be pared off from the fides and bottom, and replaced in
the boxes and pots, with a proper addition of frelh
earth. Any of the plants which are to undergo this
operation, that are very fickly, (hould have almoft the
whole of the earth removed from their roots, and ought,
for fome time after fhifting, to ftand in a bark-bed. ,jg

If the bark-bed in the pine ftove received no frelh pine ftov-,
tan or turning lall month, it fhould be examined as
early as convenient ; and if the heat fhould have at all
declined, it ought immediately to be turned or have an
addition of frelh tan, as direfled lad month. See ].\-

NU.\RY.

If a lively heat be not kept up in the bark bed now,
ivhen the plants ftiew flower, the fize of the fiature fruit
will be conCderably affefted. A proper degree of
warmth, applied to the roots of the plants, will make
them grow vigoroafly and produce large fruit. The
heat of the air of the houfe mull be kept at a proper
temperature, by due attention to the fires every night
and morning, and even during the day in frofly wea-
ther, or when cold winds prevail. The bark bed, in
which the fucceffion pine-apple plants grow, (hould be-
examined ; and if the heat in it begins to decline, it

ought

(d) The fyftem fucceeds equally well
vent the cherry tree from gumming.

pear, as alio en cherry trees, provided the medication is ufed to pre-

432

GARDENING.

Part ill

March, cug'it to be turned or receive an addition of frefli tan.
Kitchen w'^jjen the fun dunes bright, and the weather is mode-
■_ ""^° '■^'■f I 2'- '""'^ ^^ given by opening fome of the glaffes.
Water ihould be given regularly both to the pine apple
and other plants in the hot-houfe, but much lliould not
,j- be given at a time.
Kidney The kidney beans that were fown laft month (hould

beans to he receive water frequently. If none were fown lafl month,
watered. j-^j^^ ^f j|,g ^^^^y J^.jjrf kinds may be fown no-.v.
Cucumbers ^^ "° cucumbers were fown laft month in the hot-
fown, houfe, fome may be fown now ; or, plants raifed in

hot-beds may be introduced, and placed in any conve-
nient fituation near the glafs.

Sect. 1. Kitclien Garden.

We need not here give a detailed account of the me-
thods of performing many of the things mentioned under
this head, in the two preceding months, though moft of
them might be performed now with better profpecl of
I2g fuccefs, as this is the principal month in the year for

Sow full fowing and planting iuU crops of the greater part of

crops. kitchen-garden vegetables. We fliall, therefore, mere-

ly enumerate them. Make hot-beds. Sow cucumbers
and melons. Tranfplant and few cauliflower. Tranf-
plant and fow cabbage. Tranfplant and fow lettuce.
.Sov.' fpinach, onions, leeks, radilhes, carrots, parf-
nips, beets, beans, peas, turnips, celery, fmall fa-
lad, parfley, falfafy, and Hamburgh parfley. Plant (hal-
j.i^ lot, garlic, fcorzonera, and rockambole.

Brocoli. Some feed of the early purple and cauliflower broco-

li fhould be fo^vn, both about the beginning and towards
tlie end of the month, in a bed of rich earth, in an
open fituation, to raife plants to be fit for the table the
folloxving autumn. For the fubfequent management,
,., fee Aprii., May, June, and July.

Sea cab- The feeds of the fea cabbage {crambc mantima) may

iage. be fown any time this month, in narrow beds of light

earth, about four feet wide, for the convenience of
weeding. They may either be fown all over the fur-
face of the bed, tolerably thick, when they are to be
tranfplanted, or in drills a loot and a half or two teet
apart, where they are to remain. Thofe plants are pe-
rennial, and every year pulh up thick fucculent ihoots.
They ftiould be covered fome time during the courfe of
the winter, with dry earth, to the depth of a few inch-
es, by which the young (hoots, as they come up in
fprirg, are blanched and become fit for ufe. They
Ihould be cut as foon as they appear above ground, or
iji very foon after, in the manner of aiparagus.

Coleworts. Sow brown and green cole, or bore cole.

Any tirr.e in the courfe of the month fome leeds of
bro'A-n and green cole (kale) may be fown in an open fi-
tuation, for when they are fliaded they are apt to grow-
up tall and weak. The plants railed now will be fit for
planting out in fummer, and may be cut for ufe any
,,, time from autumn to fpring.

AVparaguf About the beginning of this month afparagus feed
may be fown in narrow beds of good earth in an open
fituation. The feed may be fcattered regularly all over
the furface of the bed, raked in, and then receive a
llight covering of earth from the alleys, or in drills,
-Aout an inch deep, at the diftance of fix inches from

one another. The plants will appear above ground i.T flirch.
four or five weeks, when they ought to be kept clear of '^I'^Ji'^n
^^■eeds, and watered occafionally during .dry weather. ' t

The plants raifed no^v will be fit for tr'anfplanting next
fpring into beds, where they are to remain and produce
crops, or into plots, to remain for a year or two till
they be fit for forcing. 134

This is a proper feafon for making plantations of af-Afparagu3
paragus, for w-hich purpofe young j)lants of one or two ^" ^^ plauu
years old are commonly ufed. '1 Ley fucceed beft in a^
deep light foil, and in an expofed fituation. The
ground ihould be well manured, dug to the depth of
J 2 or 15 inches, and divided into beds of the breadth
of four lect and a half, in which the afparagus may be
planted in rows, 10 or 12 inches apart, and about the
fame dillance from each other in the rows. The ufual
mode of planting them is to ifretch a garden line along
the bed, and to form a drill with a fpade, to the depth
of about fix inches, in which the afparagus roots are
placed with their crowns or buds uppermott.

A crop of orions may be lown in beds when it is an
objecl to make the moll of the ground. j,_

The furface of afparagus beds (hould be loofened ordrefled^,
turned over with a fork, in the courfe of this month.
The inftrument commonly made ufe of for this purpofe,
is a fork with three flat blunt prongs. Care mull be
taken not to dig too deep, left the tops of the afpara-
gus roots fhould receive injury. Immediately after the
furfaces of the beds have been loofened, they lliould be
raked over ; for if the raking were to be deferred for
fome time till the buds of the afparagus approach the
furface of the ground, they might be broken by the
teeth of the rake. Afparagus beds wiU continue to
produce good crops for 10 or 12 years, if properly ma-
naged. They ought not to be cut till the third or
fourth year after they have been planted in rich foils j
however, a few of the ftrongeft ihoots may be cut even
in the fecond, but it fliould be done fparingly. When
afparagus has advanced to the height of three or four
inches abo%'e ground, it ftiould be colle£led for the ta-
ble •, but as the ihoots are commonly cut about three
inches under the fmface of the ground, care mull be
taken not to injure the riling buds (for feveral buds vife
in fucceflion from the fame root), for this reafon, it is
commonly cut with an inftrument made on purpofe,
called an afparagus hiife, which fliould be introduced
clofe by the Ihoot to the requifite depth, and direfted fo
as to cut it ofl' obliquely. ^ ,

Artichoke plants, that were earthed up during win- Artichokes
ter to proteS them from froft, fliould now be exa-drcfled,
mined ; and if their ftenis appear to pulh up vigoroully, ^i^"!
the earth ought to be remoi'ed and levelled. The foil
fliould liktwife be loofened from the plants, and if ma-
ny flioots proceed from the fame root, they fliould all be
taken away except three of the ftroiigefl. The redun-
dant (hoots, if carefully detached from the main roots,
may be employed to form new plantations ; the earth,
therefore, (hould be fo far removed as to allow the hand
to be introduced to flip them clofe to their infer-
tion.

Plantations of young artichokes are made towards the _].
end of this or in the courfe of next month, as foon, in-
deed, as the offsets (the only way in which this plant
is propagated) can be procured. For this purpofe
choofc a plot of good ground, dig in a good quantity

137

Part III. GARDENING

March, of rotten dung, and plant tlie offsets with a dibble after
Kitchen ji^gjj. topj 2^j1 jQQjj jjg^g jjggi^ trimmed a little (if it ap-

_ pear ncceflary), in rows about four feet and a half

afunder, and at the diftance of from tuo to three feet in
the rows. A crop of fpinach, lettuce, radilhes, &c.
may be got from the ground the firll year, without inju-
ring the artichokes. This plantation will produce heads
in September and October, and ivill continue to pro-
duce plentiful crops for fix or feven years. \Vlicnever
artichokes are required late in the feafon, young plan-
tations ought to be formed every year, as it is from
them alone that heads may be expeiSed late in autumn •,
for the old plantations generally produce them in June,
July, and Auguil. There are two forts, the large
globe, and the French or green oval artichoke ; the for-
mer is commonly preferred, on account of the fize of
the head and the quantity of eatable matter they af-
13S ford.
Pot-herbs Slips or cuttings of fage, rue, rofemary, hyflbp,
propagated, thyme, and favory, may be planted any time this month.
They Ihould be planted about fix inches apart, and to
the depth of nearly two-thirds of their length. By
1-5 next autumn they will be fit for tranfplanting.
Sow Ikir- Some feeds of flcirrets may be fown in narrow beds,

'^"> in an open fituation, either in drills fix inches afunder,

or regularly over the furface of the bed. After the
plants have come above ground, they fhould be thinned
out to the dirtance of about fix inches from one another,
and allowed to remain in the place where fown. This
plant is frequently propagated by offsets taken from old
roots, which (hould be planted at the diftance of fix or
eight inches from one another.

About the end of the month, if the weather be mild
and dry, a few early kidney-beans may be fown in a
well Iheltered fituation, at the foot of a wall, having a
fouth expofure. See April. But as thefe plants are
tender, they are liable to be injured by cold weather,
therefore a fmall quantity only (liould be fown now.

About the middle or latter end of the montli forae
cardoons may be fown for tranfplanting. For this pur-
pofe a piece of light ground fhould be well dug, the
feed fown thin'.y, and raked in evenly ; a few weeks after
the plants have come up, they ihould be thiniied out
to the dirtance of about fix inches from one another,
to alloiv them room to grow till they are ftrong
enough to be planted out, which will be in June. See
June. They may be fo\vr. likewife in rows five feet
afunder, and at the dirtance of four feet from each
other in the row, and allowed to remain where fown.
They are biennial, gro«- to the height of three or four
feet, and are cultivated for the fake of the foolftalks of
their leaves, which are blanched by being earthed up
fomewhat in the manner of celery, on which account
they require a good deal of room.

This is a proper time to plant chives, a fmall fpecies
of onion, which is ufed in fpring as a fubftitute for
young onions. They grow in large tufts, and are pro-
pagated by parting the roots into fmall tufts containing
«ight or ten bulbs, which may be planted with the dib-
ble in beds or rows at the dilfance of fi.x or eight inches
from one another.

You may now plant Jerufalem artichokes, a fpecies
of funflower {hettanlhiit tuhercfa) the roots of which
fomewhat refemble the potato, and are to be planted
Vol. IX. Part II.

140

kidney
beans.

141

and car
doons.

14'?
Jerulalcm
ariicboke

much in the fame manner to the depth of about four
inches, in rows three feet apart, and about half that
dirtance from each other in the ro\v. They ara fit for ,
the table in Odober, and continue good all ivinter and
fpring.

A full crop of potatoes may be planted any time to- potatoes,
wards the end of this or in the courfe of next month.
Cuttings of moderate-fized potatoes (of the variety in-
tended to be planted), each containing one or two eyes
at leart, may be put in with a blunt dibble, to the depth
of about four inches, in rows two feet apart, and at the
diftance of about a foot from each other in the row, or
in trenches or holes made with the fpade. In the fields
they^are planted either with the dibble or in furrows
made by the plough. See Agriculture. They fuc-
ceed bell in light foil, which fliould be well manured.
After they have come above ground, they ought to be
kept clear of weeds, and have a quantity of earth
drawn up about their llems. There are many varieties
of this vegetable, ivhich are obtained from feed •, the
prmcipal are, early dwarf, champion, large round white,
oblong red and white kidney, common kidney, fmall
white kidney, round red, large round dark red, &c. 145

Any time in the courfe of this month new planta- *°^ »wuf.
tions of mint may be formed. This plant is propa-
gated by parting the roots or by cuttings of the young
flalks ; the former is pracliied this month, the latter in
next and following month. Procure a quantity of the
roots from an old plantation of mint ; part and plant
them in rows fix inches alunder, and about the fame
diftance from each other in the row, either mth the
dibble, or in dnlls about an inch deep, drawn by the
hoe. Thefe plants fucceed very well in any loil, but
prefer a moift one. The kinds commonly cultivated
are fpearmint, peppermint, orangemint, &c. , .j

The le?.ves and flowers of Indian creffes are frequent- Sow I.idian
ly ufed in falads, and their feeds for pickling. The'^'<-'^^»
feeds may he lown about the beginning of the month,
at the diftance of two or three inches from each other,
in drills, about an inch deep. If they are not fown
along fide of a hedge or other fupport, tliey may have
fticks placed befide them like peas after they have come
above ground. There are two kinds, the large, and
dwarf; the former is generally preferred. 147

Seeds of bafil, love apple (or to/rw!oes), and capficum, ''*'''» ^'^
may be fown any time this month. They are tender
annuals, and muft be fown in a hot-bed, to be'after-
wards planted out in the open ground in May ; they
muft be managed like other tender annuals. See Flower
Garden. Bafil is ufed in foups and falads, and muft be
fown in very dry earth, otherwife the feeds \vill rot.
Love apples are ufed in foups and for pickling. The
capficum, of which there is great variety, is ufed as a
pickle, and for feafoning. The principal kinds are
the long-podded, heart-ftiaped, bell-lhaped, angular-pod-
ded, round (liort-podded, cherry-lhaped, &c.

Sow cucumbers and melons, to be planted out underc
hand or bell-glaffes. »i

Some cucumber and melon feed may be fown to-
wards the end of this month, in any of the beds already
employed ; or one may be formed on purpofe to raife
plants to be reared under bell or hand-glaffcs. Thofe
fo^vn now will be fit for ridging out in the beginning of
May. See May.

3 I Sect.

14S

A U D

StCT. II. Frui! GarJi

»S3
Trantplant

iiuals.

All kinds of fruit trees mentioned under this head
laft month may be pruned now, though it ought to be
performed as near the beginning of the month as pof-
fible ; for if the weather has been mild during the pre-
ceding month, many of llie trees will have advanced
too far to be in a ftate proper for pruning. Figs, how-
ever, on account of the late period at which they begin
to puili, may be fufely pruned ; indeed this is the belt
ieafon for pruning them.

Fruit trees may Hill be planted, though the earlier in
the month the better ; for if mild weather prevails, the
btids of the trees will have advanced fo far before the
end of the month, as to render tranfplanting lefs fafe.
For the method, fee October. The duration of the
planting feafon depends more on the mildnefs and fe-
verity of the weather than the time of the year.

When apricot, neftarine, and peach trees are in
flower, they (hould be protected during froft with large
garden-mats fixed to the top of the walls by hooks, and
fattened at the bottom to prevent them from being agi-
tated by the wind fo as to daili off the bloffbms. Thefe
mats muft be removed during the mildeft part of the
day, unlefs when the weather is very fevere, and without
funfhine. Inftead of mats, old fifh-nets doubled may
be ufed for this purpofe, and need not be removed du-
ring the day ; a number of fmall branches of ever-
greens (well clad with leaves) fixed among the branches
of the trees in flower, will alfo afford Ihelter to the
bloflbfn and fetting fruit.

Drefs ftrawberry beds, if not done laft month. See
February.

Fruit trees on hot walls, in peach, cherry, and vine-
houfes, muft be duly attended to, muft receive air and
^vater regularly, and have the fires put on every even-
ing and cold morning.

Sect. III. F/ower Garden and Pleafure Ground.

If any early annuals, fuch as balfams, cockscombs,
&c. were fovvn laft month, they will be fit for planting
out into fmall pots or a hot-bed prepared for the pur-
pofe. This hot-bed Ihould be raifed to the height of
two feet ; and when the violent heat has fubfided, co-
vered over to the depth of fix inches with rich dry
earth. The plants may be put in at the diftance of
three or four inches from one another, or rather in
fmall pots, becaufe from thefe they can be more eafily
removed into larger ones at a fubfequent period. Due
attention muft be paid to give them water and air when
requifite ; and linings of frefh dung mull be applied to
the bed whenever the heat begins to decline. If pro-
perly taken care of, they will be fit for final tranfplanta-
tion in May or June.

If no tender annuals were Town in February, fome
may be fo.vn any time this month.

S'.w lefs tender or half-hardy annuals, fuch as China
after, Indian pink, capficum, French and African mari-
gold, chryfanthemum, tree and purple ajaaranthus, and
Chinefe hollyhocks.

Form a llight hot-bed any time this month, which
need not be raifed higher than t .vo feet, and earth it
over 10 the depth of about fix inches. The feed may

E N I N G. Part Hi

be fown in narrow drills, at the diftance of two or Mar'li.
three inches from one another, and each kind, fcparate- , ^^"''^'">'-
ly or in pots, plunged in the earth of the bed. After '
the plants have come up, they will require plenty of
free air and moderate watering ; and when they have ac-
quired the height of two or three inches, they muft be
gradually hardened to bear the open air, by taking the
lights entirely off in mild warm days. Inftead of hot-
ted frames and lights, oil-paper frames, or hand-
glalTes, may be made ufe of. The plants raifed now
will be fit for tranfplanting into the flower border in
May. If hardy annuals were not fown laft month,
they may be fown any time during the prefent. i-j

Cuttings of double chryfanthemums which were plant- Manage-
ed laft autumn in pots or boxes, ftiould be planted out"'^"'"'^
into pots or flower borders if mild weather prevails. ^ "^ ^"'"f'
Auricula plants in pots Ihould be protected from rain auriculas
and froft, and Ihould ftill be kept covered ivith hooped
arches, over which mats may be occafionally thrown,
for Ihould they be expofed to much rain or fevere
weather now when their liower-ftalks begin to advance,
the future bloom might be injured. Keep the pots
clear of iveeds, and give them a little water in dry
weather, or expofe them to a gentle Ihower. If the
pots received no frelh earth laft month, let them receive
fome now. 15S

Let the hoops mentioned the two preceding months '■V^""''"-
ftill continue over the beds of tulips, hyacinths, ranun- ^'^■
cuius, &c. for if fevere weather occurs, ;the beds muft
be protected by a covering of mats, as already mention-
ed. See January. When the ftalks of hyacinths,
particularly double ones, have advanced almoft to their
full height, they are apt to be borne down by the
weight of their own flowers, therefore a neat fmall ftick
ought to be fixed in the ground clofe to every plant, to
which the floiverftalks Ihould be faftencd by a piece of
bafs or other foft ligature. 157

Ranunculufes and anemones may ftill be planted ;'^^"""*^"'"''
they will fucceed the early ones, and flower in June'"
and July.

Towards the end of the month, feeds of biennial and Sow hi- -
perennial flowers may be fown, fuch as carnations, nials, &c.
pinks, fweet^villiams, wallflowers, and ftock julvflov.ers
of all forts, alfo rofe campion, catchfly, fcarlet lychnis,
columbines, Greek valerian, polyanthus, auriculas, fca-
bioufes, and Canterbury bells •, likewife hollyhocks,
French honeyfuckles, rockets, honefty or fatin flower,
tree prinuofe, flirubby mallo^v, broad-leaved campanula,
foxglove, fnapdragon or frogfmouth, &c.

Biennial and perennial plants may likewife be tranf-
planted at this feafon. jjj

Trees and ihrubs, both deciduous and evergreen, mayf'^"' t'^^»
ftill be planted; but that "■"'■'■- n^.^,,!^ K» fl.,;<K„,l K^f.™:""! 'lirubi.
the end of the month.

rk Ihould be finilhed befo:

Sect. IV. Nurfery.

Fruit trees, elms, &c. may be engrafted ; and thelngraftinj:
flioots of trees engrafted laft year fliould be fo ftiort- =•"'' tre»t-
ened about the time their buds begin to ftvell, as to leave '"''"' "'
four or five buds, which will pufti out branches to forra^ej'ijft "
a head. The Ihoots of laft year's growth of trees bud- ^ car.
ded the preceding fummer ftiould likewife be (liortcned,
and the heads of trees budded laft fummer Ihould be
cut off about four inches above the bud, which will

Part III. CARD

March, caufe it to pufh out vigorouny. The part of the flock
Nurkry. ^yhich is left will ferve as a fupport, to which the young
branch may be fixed in the courfe of the fummer to pre-
vent it from being blown out by the wind.

Seeds of hardy trees and Ihrubs may be fown
any time this month, in beds three or four feet wide,
which Ihould be well dug, and thoroughly pulverifed.
The feed may be fown either regularly over the furface
of the bed or in drills, and covered in proportion to
their fize ; the acorns and other large feeds to the depth
of from an inch and a half to two inches, and the
dialler ones from about half an inch to an inch. Some
of the more delicate fhrubs, fuch as the arbutus, &c.
may be fown in pots or boxes, by which means they
will be more eaCly protefted from the feverity of the
weather in winter.

Propagate RIoll kind of trees and ihrubs may be propagated by

by cuttings. ^mjjjjgj jj^jg month, particularly vines.

The vine cuttings mull be flioots of laft year's growth,
about ten or twelve inches long, and each furnilhed with
three buds. If cut from the \ines during the winter,
before the fap begins to rife, and preferved in dry earth,
they will fucceed the better. Some leave about an inch
of the former year's wood attached to each cutting, but
this is unneceffiiry. They may be planted in rows a
foot and a half afunder, and at the diftance of eight or
ten inches from each other* in rows, and fo deep as to
leave only their uppermoft bud above ground ; they
fnould afterwards be occaflonally watered, and kept
clear of weeds. Though cuttings of \'ines may be raifed
in the open air, much better plants may be obtained by
ftriking them in a hot-bed or tan-pit in a hot-houfe.
At pruning feafon lelecf fome well-ripened (lioots, cut
them into pieces of a convenient length, and infert them
a little way into pots filled with dry earth, where they
may remain till v.anted for planting. Proteft them in
fevere, but in mild ^veather, expofe them to the free air.
About the beginning of this month, if there is no room
in the hot-beds already made, prepare one on purpofe,
which may be formed and earthed over exactly like a
feed bed for melons. See January. Fill a number
of pots, about four inches deep, correfponding to the
cuttings you mean to plant, with light rich earth. Take
the cuttings you have preferved during the winter j felecl
the roundeft and fuUelt buds ; cut the branch about a
quarter of an inch above, and about three inches below
the bud, with a Iharp knife, fo as to make a fmooth cut,
and infert each clofe by the lide of the pot, fo deep,
that the bud may be covered about a quarter of an inch
by the earth of the pot ; for it is alleged, that a cutting
flrikes with greater freedom when placed clofe to the
fide than in the middle of the pot. When plants are
raifed in this manner from a fingle bud, they feem as if
reared from feed. As foon as the cuttings are planted,
plunge the pots into the earth of the bed, give them a
gentle watering, and put on the glalTes. Attention
muft be paid to the bed, to fee that the heat be not too
llrong, for a moderate bottom heat is all that is necef-
fary. Air (liould be freely admitted during the day,
and even during the night, in mild weather ; but ivhen
the weather is cold, the beds Qiould be covered with
mats during the night, to proteft them from froll. The
cuttings (hould likewife be ihaded when the fun fhines
very bright, with mats, and Ihould receive occafional
watering. When the plants are about fix or eight

435

E N I N G.

inches liigh, they will require to be fhifled into larger
pots, which mull be done cautioully for fear of injuring
their roots. Take pots of about fix inches deep, and '^'"""
about the fame width ; put a little good earth into the ''^
bottom of each, and turn the cutting out of the fmall
pot into it with the ball of earth as entire as polTible,
and fill it up with earth. The frames of the beds
(hould be r-iilld in proportion as the plants increale in
height, and the heat of the bed renewed by linings of
frerti dung wlien on the decline. Support the ihoots
when they are about ten or twelve inches high, and
pinch off the tendrils and lateral ihoots as foon as they
appear. They will be fit for planting out in the end of
June or beginning of July. ^g

When dry weather prevails, give gentle waterings Water
to feedling trees and Ihrubs, and keep them free fromftc(t:ings.
iveeds,

Slct. V, Crecn-hotife and Hol-houfi.

The plants in the green-houfe (hould receive air Air to be
freely, unlefs dui-ing wet or frofty weather, and more ■"''!<=''' ■•"^■
frequent and plentiful waterings than in the f.vo former"'"'^'''
months. Dead branches or decayed leaves foould be
removed, and any of the larger leaved plants that ap-
pear foul (liould have their leaves cleaned with a wet
fponge. Thofe alfo which require fliifting or pruning
may be managed as directed lall month. Sow feeds
and plant cuttings of green-hou("e plants ; for which
purpofe a hot-bed or tan-pit of a hot-houfe will be ne-
celTary at this leafon. j^.

Pine apple plants will require a good deal of warmth, Treatriicnt
particularly in the tan -pit ; as their fruit will now be of '"«
confiderably advanced, they muft therefore be kept in a' I'p'*^'-
vigorous itate of growth, to fecure large fruit. If the
heat of the tan-bed be not very great, at leail one-third
of new tan ought to be added. After the tan has been
procured, it ought to be fpread out and dried a little,
and tlien laid up in a heap, in fome (hade adjacent to
the hot-houfe, till it begin to ferment. The plants
(liould then be taken from the tan-bed, and a quantity
of the decayed, tan removed from its furface and fides,
to make room for the new, which mu(l be thorouglily
mixed with the old ; and, as this operation ought to be
completed in the courfe of one day, a liifficient number
of hands (liould be employed to etfeft it. Both pine
apples and other plants in the hot-houfe (liould be re-
gularly watered, and have frelh air admitted in bright
calm days, from about two hours before till tuo or three
after noon.

APRIL.

Sect. I. Kilc/wn Garden.

If the heat begin to decline in the cucumber and Ma^i ge-
melon beds, they (hould receive linings as direfted in .-ncnt of cu«
the former months ; for thcfe plants will not yield fine cumbers
fruit, or a plentiful crop, if the beds are dertitute of a*"'' ""^'""''
proper heat. Air mull be admitted every day, and a
moderate watering given every four or five days, par-
ticularly to cucumbers ; but melons fliould receive it fpa-
ringly, efpecially when their fruits are fetting, as much
water at that lime would prove injurious, and make the
fruit drop off. Keep the plants clear of all dec.iyed
3 I 2 leaves

GARDENING.

Part TIT

leaves and decayed male flowers. When the fun (hines
fo bright as to caufe the leaves of cucumbers and melons
to flag, it will be proper to fliade them for two or three
hours, during its greateft heat, with a thin mat or a
little loofe hay, ftre(ved thinly over the glafles.

Mate hot-beds on which to ridge out cucumbers or

melons under hand glaffes or oiled paper frames. See

i<f7 May.

?iint Sow fome cabbage, Cilicia, imperial, and large ad-

iettucf, mlrable cabbage lettuces any time this month ; indeed,

fome ought to be' fown about the beginning, middle,

and towards the end of the month, to lecure a regular

fuccellion. Should the lettuces that were fown lail

month or in February Hand too thick, they may be

thinned out and tranfplanted at the diftance of about ten

inches from each other, and watered occafionally till

jgg they take root.

kidney Some early kidney beans, viz. the Batterfea, fpeckled,

beans. dun-coloured, and Canterbury dwarfs, may be planted

towards the end of the month, in a well-llieltered fitua-

tion, expofed to the fouth, in drills two feet or two feet

and a half afunder, and about two inches from each

other in the drills. The taU running kinds fliould not

j6p be planted till next month.

Tranfpiant Some of the cabbagt and favoy plants, ivhich were

cabbages, fown in February and March, ihould be thinned and

'^' tranfplanted, when their leaves are about two inches

broad, into beds, to gain ftrength before their final tranf-

plantation ; and thofe which have flood the winter may

170 be planted out for good.

■iau'i. Cauliflower plants under bell or hand glalTes fhould

flowcts, ]j3^.g fg^g earth dra'>\-n up about their items, and ihould

be expofed to the open air during the day in good

weather. Thofe foivn laft month Ihould be planted

out into beds in the open air, or into flight hot-beds, to

forward their growth. Some of the flrongeft of the

plants raifed in the early part of fpring may be planted

out at the end of the month, at the diftance of two

or two feet and a half each way from one another,

and fhould be occafionally watered till they are well

,,, rooted.

brocoli, Young plants of brocoli, which were fown laft month,

may be planted out at the diflance of t\vo or three

inches from one another, to acquire ftrength for final

tranfplantation ; and fome feed of the early purple, late

purple, and cauliflower brocoli, may be fown to raife

plants for tranfplanting in June. Soine plants of laft

year's fowing, which produced heads this fpring, fhould

be allowed to remain for feed, which wiU ripen in

Auguft,

Sect. II. Fruii Garden.

Tran^lant ^^ '**^ feafons, pear, plum, and cherry trees may ftill

ind prune, be planted, and even apricot, peach, and neflarine ; but

it fhould be done as early in the month as poffible, for

if any of thefe have advanced much in growth before

they arc tranfplanted, they will not pufli freely in the

courfe of the fummer, and will be liable to be injured

by drought. Where pruning has been negledled, it

may ftill be done, but the fooner the better, for many

J-. fruit trees will now be in flower.

and proteet Fruit trees in flower fliould ftill be protefled in cold

ftuit*i.ees. Tveather. See March. All ill-placed fhoots fhould

be rubbed off, and the young fruit on apricot trees where Apiil.
fet too thick iliould be thinned. Fndt

Look over the vines trained on walls about the end ^' ,
of the month, and rub off the young fhoots which pro- ,. ,
ceed from the old wood, unlefs they happen to be lituated Orel's vine?
where a fupply of young wood is wanted ; likewile where
tno Ihoots proceed from the fame eye on branches of
of laft year's growth, let the wcakell be rubbed oiF.
Stakes Ihould be placed befide tlie vines in the vine-
yard, to which they ihould be tied, and the ground
between the rows fhould be kept perfeftly free from

''""^'- . . ... 175

The vine was introduced by the Romans into Britain, Hiftory of
and appears formerly to have been very common. From the vine,
the name of vineyard yet adhering to the ruinous fites
of our caftles and monalleries there leem to have been
few in the country but what had a vineyard. The
county of Gloucefter is particularly commended by
Malmftuiry in the twelfth century, as excelling all the
reft of the kingdom in the number and goodnefs of its
\'ineyards. In the earlier periods of our hiftory the ille
of Ely was exprefsly denominated the Ijle of Fines by
the Normans. Vineyards are frequently noticed in the
defcriptive accounts of Doomfday } and thofe of Eng-
land are even mentioned by Bede as early as die com-
mencement of the eighth century.

Doomlday book exhibits to us a particular proof that
wine was made in England during the period preceding
the conqueft. And after the conquell, the bilhop of
Ely appears to have received at leaft three or four tuns
annually, as tythes from the produce of the vineyards
in his dioccfe, and to have made frequent refervations
in his leafes of a certain quantity of wine^for rent. Dr
Thomas, the late dean of Ely, gives the following ex-
trafls from the archives of that church.

& s. d.
Exitus vineti - - 2 1 5 3-j

Ditto vineae - - 10 12 2^

Ten bufhels of grapes from the vineyard 076
Seven dolia mufti from the vineyard, 12th

Edward II. - - 15 i 0

Wine fold for - - - I 12 c

Verjuice - - - I 7

One dollum and one pipe filled ^vith new
wine, and fuppofed at Ely. For ivine
out of this vineyard - 122

For verjuice from thence. - 0160

No wine but verjuice made, 9th Edward IV.

From thefe extracts it appears that Ely grapes would
fometimes ripen, and the convent made wine of them j
and fometimes not, and then they converted them in-
to verjuice. Maddocks in his hiftory of the Exche-
quer, i. 364, fays that the Iherifts of Northampton-
fhire and Leiceilerlhire, ^^•ere allowed their account,
for the livery of the king's vinedrefTer at Rockingham,
and for necefTaries for the vineyard. A piece of land
in London, now forming Eaft Sraithfield and fome adjoin-
ing ftreets, was withheld from the religious houfe within
Aldgate by four fucceflive conftables of the Tower, in
the reigns of Rufus, Henry, and Stephen, and made by
them into a vineyard, to tlieii- great emolument. In the
old accounts of rectorial and vicarial revenues, and in
the old regillers of ecclefiaftical fuits concerning them,

the

Part III. GARDEN

April, the tithe of wine is an article that frequently occurs

in Kent, Surry, and other counties. And the wines
" °' of Gloucellerlhire within a century after the conqueft
were little inferior to the French in fwectnefs. It is
alleged that a black grape very firailar to the black
mutcadinc was introduced from Gaul into Britain,
about the middle of the third century. To thc-fe
proofs of the antiquity of vineyards in Britain, we (liall
add the following account of the vineyard at Pains-
hill, Surry, (the moll extenfive one at prefent in Eng-
land), given by the original proprietor, the honourable
Charles Hamilton, to Sir Edivard Barry, and publilhed
in his treatlfe on wines, p. 468. a^

" The vineyard at Pains-hill is fituated on the
fouth fide of a gentle hill, the foil a gravelly fand : it
is planted entirely with two kinds of Burgundy grapes,
the Auvernat, wliich is the moll delicate, but the
tenderell ; and the Miller grape, commonly called the
black duller, whicli is more hardy. The firll year
I attempted to make red wine in the ufual way, by
treading the grapes, then letting them ferment in a
vat, till all the huflis and impurities formed a thick
crull at the top : the boiling ccafed, and clear wine
was drawn off from the bottom. This effay did not
anfwer ; the mne was fo very harlh and aullere, that
I defpaired of ever making red wine fit to drink ;
but through that harlhnefs I perceived a flavour fome-
thing Uke that of fome fmall French ivhite wines,
which made me hope I fiiould fucceed better witli
white wine. That experiment fucceeded far beyond
my moll fanguine expeflation ; for the very firll year
I made white wine, it nearly refembled the flavour
of Champagne ; and in two or three years more, as
the vines grew llronger, to my great amazement my
%vine had a finer flavour than the bell Champagne I
ever tailed. The firll running was as clear as fplrits ;
the fecond was ceil de perdrix ; and both of them fpark-
led and creamed in tke glafs like Champagne. It
would be endlefs to mention ho^v many great judges
of wine were deceived by my wine, and thought it
fuperior to any Champagne they ever drank ; but fuch
is the prejudice of moll people againll any thing of
Englilh growth, I generally found it moll prudent
not to declare where it grew, till after they had paf-
fed their verdicl upon it. The furell proof I can
give of its excellence is, that I have fold it to wine
merchants for fifty guineas a hogihead ; and one wine
merchant to whom I fold five hundred pounds worth
at one time afilired me, he fold fome of the beil of
it from 7s. 6d. to 10s. 6d. per bottle. After many
years experience, the bell method 1 found of making
and managing it was this : I let the grapes hang till
they had got all the maturity the feafon would give
them ; then they were carefully cut off with fciffars,
and brought home to the \vine barn, in fmall quan-
tities, to prevent their heating, or prefling one another ;
then they were all picked off the lla'ks, and all the
mouldy or green ones were difcarded, before they
were put upon the prefs •, where they ivere all pref-
fed in a few hours after they were gathered : much
would run from them, before -the prefs fqucezed
them, from their own weight one upon another. This
ruiming uas as clear as water, and f.veet as fyrup ;
and all this of the firft prefling, and part of the

I N G.

fecond continued tvhite ; the other preflings grew red-
dilh, and were not mi.xed witli the bell. As fall as
the wine run from the prefs into a large receiver, it
was put into the hoglheads, and clofely bunged up.
In a few hours one would hear the fermentation be-
gin, which would foon burll the calks, if not guard-
ed againll, by hooping them llrongly with iron, and
fecuring them in llrong wooden frames, and the heads
with wedges. In the height of fermentation, I liave
frequently feen the wine oozing through the pores of
the Hayes. The hogftieads were left all the depth of
winter in the cold barn, to reap the benefit of the frofls.
When the fermentation was over, which was eafily dif-
covered by the ceflation of noife and oozing, but to
be more certain, by pegging the calk, when it would
be quite clear, then it was racked off into clean hogf-
heads, and carried to the vaults, before any warmth
of weather could raife a fecond fermentation. In
March, the hogHieads ivere examined : if any were not
quite fine, they were fined down with common filh glue in
the ufual manner ; thole that were fine of themfelves
were not fined down, and all were bottled about the
end of March ; and in about fix weeks more would
be in perfect order for drinking, and would be in their
prime for above one year ; but the fecond year the fla-
vour and fweetncfs ivould abate, and iv ould gradually
decluie, till at lall it loll all flavour and fweetnefs ; and
fome that I kept fixteen years became fo like old hock,
that it might pafs for fuch to one v.ho was not a perfect
connoilTeur. The only art I ever ufed to it, was put-
ting three pounds of white fugarcandy to fome of the
hogftieads, when the wine was firft tunned from the
prefs, in order to conform to a rage that prevailed, to
drink none but very fweet Champagne. I am convini
ced much good wine might be made in many parts of
the louth of England. Many parts are fouth of Pains-
liill ; many foils may be yet fitter for it 5 and many
fituations mud be fo : for mine was much expofed to
the fouthweft ivind (the word of all for vines), and
the declivity w^as rather too lleep •, yet with thefe dif-
advantages it fucceeded many years. Indeed the un-
certainty of our climate is againft it, and many fine
crops have been fpoiled by May froils and wet'fum-
mers ; but one good year balances many dLlappoiut-
raents."

In a differtation on the growth of wine in England
by F. X. Vilper, printed at Bath 1 786, there is a method
of training vines along the furface of the ground pro-
pofed, which feems well adapted to the northerly cli-
mate of Britain, for which the Rev. M. L. Brocg ob-
tained a patent. Mr Vifper acknowledges, that he took
the firll hint from the following paffage, from Lord
Chancellor Bacon : " The lownefs of the fruit boughs
makes the fruit greater, and caufes it to ripen better .for
we always fee in apricots, peaches, and mello-cottens
upon a wall, the largell fruit is towards the bottom ;
and in France, the grapes t!wt make the wine grow
upon low vines bound to fmall flake:, while the raifed
vines in arbours make verjuice." He adds " It s re-
ported, that in Ibme places vines are fuffcred to grow
like herbs, fpreading upon the ground, and the granes
of thefe vines are very large ; it were pr per to try
whether plants uliially i'uflaincd by props, wi'.l not bear
large leaves and fruit if laid along the ground."

Sect.

438

GARDENING.

Part III.

Grouml, Sow and tranfplant tender annuals. See February

&c. and March, Proteft hyacinths, ranunculufes, and

*^~^^ anemones, planted in beds, from hea\7 rain and froft, as

Scw-^Ind direclcd in .January and February ; likevvife, when they

tranfplant a'^ >" tia^ei', from very briglu funlhine, from about

annual-, two liours before till twHi or three after noon ; but in

this cafe the covering ihould be raifed a confiderable

height, to admit air, and allow them to be viewed.

Plant tuberofes in a hot-bed or hot-houfe, and give
tliera but little water till they have come above
j^^ ground.
Plant evei- E\er^reen flirubs and trees may flill be planted, but
greens. ^g earlier in the month the better.

17$ Grafs walks and lawns iliould be poled, rolled, and

AValks mown. Gravel wallis may be broken up and turned,
ilrcflcd.

Sect. IV. Nur/a-y.

Examine LooK over newly engrafted trees, and fee if the

newly in- day l^eeps clofe about the grafts, as it is apt to crack

>:raticd gj^j £^j| pjjp. ^^.}ign you find it any way defeftive fo as

admit the air and rain to the graft, then remove it and

appiv freili clay in its Head. All llioots which rife from

the ilalk below the graft mull be taken off whenever

they are produced ; for if permitted to remain, they

would rob the graft of nourilkment, and prevent it

J fhooting freely.

Thofe bud- Trees that were budded laft year, will now begin to

ded laft pufli out their firfl (hoots. Should they be infefted with

jear. infecls, fo as to caufe any of their leaves to curl, thefe

ftiould be picked off, and pains taken to deflroy the

vermin. Shoots that proceed from the flock under the

,S, bud muft be rubbed oil as foon as they appear.

And tranf. The fowing and tranfplanting of young trees and

plant young (lirubs from the feed bed, or where they ftand too thick,

*^^^* ftiould be finifhed early in the month, and if very dry

weather prevail, water Ihould be given to feed-beds,

cuttings, and lately tranfplanted trees and flirubs.

Sfct. V. Grecn-hoiife and Hot-houfc.

Air may be admitted, and water given more freely
than in the former months, becaufe the plants will be-
gin now to advance in growth ; but in general the
management mull be nearly the fame as recommended
,8j laft month.
Requifite A proper degree of warmth, both in the bark bed
Iieat for and in the air ol the hot-houfe, is requfite for fruiting
pine apples. ^■^^^ apple plants. Water may be more frequently
given, and air admitted more freely, becaufe the weather
will be milder ; and in other refpeds they muft be
managed as direcled in March. The fucceffion pine
apple plants, or fuch as are to fruit next year fliould
be fliifted into larger pots, (viz. 24s.) the iize com-
monly made ufe of. When the plants are healthy,
they fliould be turned out of the pots with the ball of
earth about their roots as entire as poffible, and put
them into larger ones with an additional quantity of
frefli earth ; but (hould the plants be fickly, infefled
with infects, or appear to have bad roots, the whole
of the earth fliould be fliaken off, and the roots trim-
med, a few of the under Icuves Urlpptd o.T the ftcm,

l\Uy.
Kitchei
Garden

and the plants then put into pots filled entirely with
frefli earth.

After the plants have been thus fliifted, they fliould

have a moderate quantity of water given them fre- ''
quently, which will promote their growth. The yoimg
pine apple plants which were raifed from fuckers or
crowns laft feafon fliould likewife be fliifted into larger
pots, if their roots appear to have filled thofe in which
they have ftood during the winter : if healthy, they
ihould be turned out of the pots with the ball of earth
entire ; if otherwife, they muft be treated like the fuc-
ceffion plants as above. ,§

This«HS a proper feafon for propagating hot-houfe Propagate
plants by cuttings, layers, &c. or for fowing their feeds, hot-houfe
Cuttings of green-houfe plants may likewife be ftruck ?'*'''*•
in the bark bed of the hot-houfe, and kept there till fit
for tranfplanting.

M-\Y.

Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.

MeloXs require attention, particularly when their TreatmeBt
fruit are fetting. The heat of the hot-beds muft be of melons,,
kept up by proper linings ; water muft be given ^'^■
moderately, and air admitted regularly. In warm
weather when the fun ihines bright, the plants fliould
be Ihaded from its rays for an hour or two about
mid-day, by a covering of mats or fomething of that
nature. A piece of tile or llate fliould be placed im-
der each fruit after it is fet, to prevent it from coming
into contail with the moift earth of the bed, which
would injure it, and caufe it to drop off. Ridges may
be formed for the reception of the melon and cucum-
ber plants, which were lown laft or preceding month, ,
to be railed under hand or bell glaffes. Thefe rid-
ges fliould be about four feet wide, and are to be
conftrufted in the fame manner as hot-beds. See Jan-
uary. The dung Ihould be raifed to the height of
tivo feet and half, and covered ivith fix or eight inches
of rich light earth, and may be made either in trenches
about a foot deep or on the furface of the groimd.
When more than one ridge is to be conftrufted, they
fliould be placed parallel to one another at the dlf-
tance of about four feet, which interval fliould af-
tenvards be filled up ivith frefli horfe dung when the
heat in the ridges begins to decline; this wiU both
revive the heat, and when earthed over, will afford
room to extend the advancing runners of the plants.
As foon as the ridges are earthed over, the hand or
bell glaffes may be put on along the middle of the bed,
at the diftance of four feet, when intended for melons,
and three feet when for cucumbers ; and the following
day, or as foon after as the earth under the glaffes has
become warm, a hole fliould be made under each, into
which two melon or three cucumber plants are to be put
with the ball of earth about their roots ; the earth fliould
then be well clofcd about the ball and fteni of the plant,
a little water given, and the glaffes put on. Shade
them for a day or two, and give air during the day
by raifing the glaffes. When the plants have filled
the glaffes, the runners muft be trained out from under
them, but this ftiould not take place till the end of
the month, or fome time in June. Oil paper frames
are fometii.ics ufcd for covering the ridges. Thefe

frames

Part III.

GARDENING.

:\lay. frames are made of thin flips of wood covered with
Fniit pajjer, rendered tranfparent and water proof by means
. of oil. Melons reared in this way will produce plen-

tifully in Augufl and September, and cucumbers from
the middle of June, till the cold weather in autumn
fet in. If no cucumber plants were railed in March
or April for this purpofe, fome feeds may be fown in
the ridges. Some may likewife be fown about the end
of the month in the open ground, to produce a crop
for pickling ; but ihould cold weather prevail at that
time, it Ihould be deferred till June. Gourds and
pumpkins may be fown in the open ground in a warm
fituation, or in a hot-bed, to be afterwards tranfplant-

IS. '^-

Plant icid- -^ ^^ crop of kidney beans may be planted both of

ncy beans, the dwarf and tall running forts : the former, viz.
black fpeckled, Batterfca and Canterbury wliite, (hould
be planted in drills about an inch deep, and two feet
and a half afunder, at the diftance of two or three
inches from each other ; the latter, viz. the fcarlet and
large Dutch white, fliould be fou-n in drills, about an
inch and a half deep, and three feet and a half or
four afunder. Thefe running kinds mull have tall
iS5 fticks, or fome fupport of that nature.

Capficum, The capCcum and love apples which were raifcd laft

&c. planted Qr the preceding month in hot-beds, may be planted out
_ °'"' into well lueltered lituations expofed to the fouth.

'^7 Some fpinach plants, both of the fmooth and prickly

jj^^jj feeded, Ihould be allowed to run up for feed ; and fome

of the different kinds of radifhes (hould be tranfplanted
jgg for the lame purpofe.

Weed and The different crops (hould be kept clear of weeds,

thin ciops. and thinned with the hoe. Turnips may be left at the
dirtance of feven or eight inches from each other ; car-
rots, fix or eight ; parfnips, eight to ten or twelve ; onions,
four or Eve ; Hamburgh parlley, fcorzonera, and fal-
fafy-, fix or feven ; and cardoons, five or fixj that they
jg may acquire (Irength for final tranfplantation.

Plant cut Plant out cabbages, favoys, cauliflower, brocoli, and

cabbages, bore cole.

Sec.

Sect. II. Frui: Garden.

Wall-trees -^^ ^^^^ '""^^^ '^'■''^^ "°^^' ^^^'^ made vigorous (lioots, a
♦rained. fufficient quantity of the beft placed lateral, and all the
terminal ones, (hould be trained to the wall, and all
foreright, ill placed, fupertluous, and very luxuriant
/hoots, fhould be removed. None of the young branches
fhould be (liortened, unlels where a fupply of new wood
is wanted to fill up fome vacant fpace. AVhen the fruit
ftands too thick on wall trees, they (hould be thinned.
When wall trees areinfelled %vith inl'efts, means ihould
be made ufe of to deftroy them; the curled leaves ihoidd
be picked off with a view to check their propagation ;
tobacco dull may be fometimes employed with advan-
tage ; but water fprinkled plentifully over the branches
with an engine confliuiSted on purpofe, is the mod elB-
, cacious remedy.

Examine Let vines both on walls and in vineyards be looked over,

^nes. and let all fuperfluous branches, which proceed from

the old wood or lateral (lioots, which are pulhed out by
the young branches, be rubbed off; indeed this muft be
done conllantly during the funinr.er^

439

Tur.t.

'ozi'ef GarJcn, or Pica fine GrounJ. f^'t'^'>='>
•' Garden.

Tevdf.r annuals fiiould be tranfplanted into newl ,9,
formed hot-beds, xvlien they are wilhed to floiver earl^ Tranfplant
and in full "perfeftion, particularly balfams and cockf- """'''^^ *"-
cofiibs. """'* '"">

Let the auricula plants in pots, which are pad flow- ° ipi '
er, be placed in Ibme fituation where they may enjoy Treatment
the free air and the fun till about ten o'clock in the °f auticu.

Si:cT. III. T;.e FA

Some wallflower and flock gillillower feed may be joj,.' ,*aii.
foxvn about the beginning of the month •, cuttings alfo of ilouer, &.c.
double wall-flouers and (locks may be planted under
bell and hand glaffes, or in a (hady border.

Perennial and biennial plants that were fown laft Tranlplant
March, will be fit for tranfplaiiting about the end of biennials,
the month into beds, where thf y may : ' - '• -

llrength.

acquir

Sect. rV'. i^Ji-ri/.

Towards the end of the month, the clay (liould be Newf/
removed from newly grafted trees, and the bandages .sraittd
lool'ened, becaufe they might check the growth of the '■^^"■
grafts which will now (hoot fieely, and all buds under
the graft Ihould be carefully removed.

Skct. V. Grecn-lmuje and Hct-lwnfe.

About the end of the month, If the weather (hould p] „',''',„ j,
be lavourable, the greater part of the plants may beren>'ov.d
removed frosi tlie green-houle, and placed in fome well- nui opca
rtieltered fituation in the open air. The plants in the air.
hot-houfe (hould receive ^vater and air freely, particu-
larly in bright weather.

JUNE.

TlIK

Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.
care of cucumbers and melons which wa

recommended for laft month, is neccflary now ; the cu- &c
cumbers fown in the open ground la(l month (liould
be thinned, when they begin to pulh out their firft
rough leaves, and a few more feeds may be fown for the
fame purpofe, but the earlier in the month the belter.
Tranfplant celery for blanching. For this purpofe,
form trenches, about a fpade deep and three feet apart j
lay the earth which coires out of the trenches regular-
ly along each fide ; lay into each trench lome well rot-
ten dung, and dig it in : put the plants in a row along
the middle of the trench at the dillnnce of four or five
inches from one another. About a month or fix weeks
after they have been planted, when they have acquired
the height of fix or eight inches, a quantity of earth-
fliould be laid about their (kms, to l.)lancK them and
prepare them for the table ; this fliould be done during dry
weather, and repeated once a fortnight, or according ai
the plants advance in growth, till they are blanched to
the height of a foot or fifteen inches. The earlier
fown celery will be fit for tranfplanting about the be-
ginning of the month ; the later fown, about the end.
About the httcr.end of the month tranfplant endivt

fist

44-0

199
Endive
bUoched.

ICO

Caufifl^w-
ers, &c.
planted
out.

Sow tur-

CARD

for blanching ; tthicli fliould be planted out in rows,
foot apart, and at the fame diftance frcm one anotl
in the roiv. Some endive feed ihould be fown for a
principal crop ; the green curled is commonly fo\vn for
this purpofe, becaufe it is kail apt to be injured by rain
or cold.

The cauliflower, brocoli, and bore-cole plants which
were fown laft month, Ihould be planted out at the
diilance of about three inches from one another, into
beds where tht-y may rem.tin, to acquire ftrength to fit
them for final tranfplantation in July. Some of the
early cauliflower plants, which have formed good heads,
lliould be allowed to ftand for feed, which will ripen in

September.

About the middle of this month is the bed feafon

for fowing a principal crop of tiuniips ; the difterent

kinds commonly fown, are the yellow, white Dutch,

round white, ftone-tumip, Suedilh, black RufT.an, fmall

French round. The large white Norfolk, green topped,

and red-topped, are cliiefly ul'ed for field culture.

Plant out leeks in rows nine inches afunder, and

about ii\ inches from one another in the row ; it is

an ufual practice to trim off the extremities of their

leaves and of their roots before they are planted.

Plant out pot-herbs, fuch as thyme, favory, fweet-

marjoram and hylTop ; likcwife angelica, marygolds,

clary, &c. A rainy or dull day ihould be chofen, and

the plants put in at the diilance of fix inches from one their firft clipping,

Another ; occafional watering will be neceflfary, till they

have taken root. Cuttings or flips of fage, hylTop, rue,

rnfcmary, lavender, &.c. may be planted in a fhady fitu-

ation, and occafionally watered.

E N I N G. Part III.

or four inches apart, or more clofely together, and co- July,
vered with bell or hand glades. Kitihen

Propagate carnations, pinks, and double fweet-williams, ^'^^"' ^
by layers. Select young (hoots about five or fix inches ^oy
long for this purpofe ; ftrip oiF the leaves from the lower : arn
part of the Ilalks, and trim off the tops of thofe placed ^<^-
at its extremity ; make a ilanting cut with a fharp knife
on the under part of the llalk, which Ihould commence
at a joint near the middle of the flioot, and extend up-
wards almoft half way to the next ; make a hole in the
earth about an inch or an inch and a half deep, im-
mediately under the ftoot, for its reception ; fix it dow-n
with a fmall hooked Itick, and cover it \vith earth, except
an inch or two ai its extremity. A little water fliould
be given in dry weather, which will malie the layers
ftrike root more readily. Pinks and carnations may
likewife be propagated by cutt'ngs or pipings. Thefe
pipings are formed of the extremities of the young
ftioots, taken off immediately under the third joint,
which fliould be infertcd into light earth almoft to their
tops, (the extremities of their leaves being previoufly
trimmed off.) They fliould receive a little water to
make the earth fettle clofely about them, and lliould be
covered with a bell or hand glafs. The earth is fome-
times rendered quite wet, and reduced to fl ftate refem-
bling mortar, before the pipings are introduced.

About the end of the month hedges fttould receive

Sect. IV. Kurfery.

Strawberry
plants pre-

Sect. II. Truit Garden.

Wall trees, and vines in the vineyard, require the
fame attention this month that was recommended laft.
When plantations of flrawberries are wanted, the young
plants that are produced at the joints of the runners,
that are furniflied with good roots, fliould be taken up
about the end of this month, and planted in a ftiady
border at the diilance of about fix inches from one
another ; by September they will be fit to be planted
out at the diilance of a foot or fifteen inches from each
other.

Sect. III. Floicer Garden,

Phafu.

id.

lOj

Bulbuus
roots, Sec
taken up

Propagate
pfrcni.ial
plants.

The roots of hyacinths, jonqiuls, ranuriculufes, &c.
fliould be taken up after their ftalks begin to decay,
dried and preferved till planting feafon ; the roots of
narciffu*, crocus, fnow-drop, &c. may likewife be taken
up and feparated, and either planted again immediately
or kept till autumn.

Take up alfo autumnal flo^vering bulbs, fuch as
cokhicum, autumnal crocufcs and narciffas, Guemfey
and belladona lilies, cyclamens, &c. ; take off the off-
fets, and plant them again immediately, or keep them
till next month.

Perennial plants, fuch as double fcarlet lychnis,
double rocket, &c. may be propagated by cuttings of
their flalks •, each cutting fliould confift of three or four
joints, two of which, (or more than one half the length
of the cutting), fliould be inferted into the ground j
they may be either planted into a fliady border, three
3

About the end of the month you may inoculate p. „i*,^treej
peaches, neftarines, apricots, and rofes-: for the method, inoculated,
fee July.

If any of the trees that were budded laft fummer, or
engrafted laft fpring, have made very vigorous ftioots,
flakes fliould be fixed into the ground clofe to the
flocks, to which both the flocks and flioots muft be
fixed.

Propagate both deciduous and evergreen (hrubs by
layers, particularly fuch as do not pufti out roots freely
except from the new wood.

Sect. V. Green-houfe and Hot-houfe.

If the green-houfe plants were not placed in the openExotici
air laft month, on account of the coldiiefs of the wea-picp^gated.
ther, they may be lately trufted out now. Thefe plants
may be propagated this month by cuttings, layers, in-
arching, &c.

Hot-houfe plants may likewife be propagated now,
and fliould receive a plentiful allowance of air and wa-
ter ; pine apple plants which are approaching to matu-
rity ftiould be fparingly watered, becaufe too much wa-
ter would injure the flavour of the fiiiit.

JULY.
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.

Plant out cabbages, favoys, brocoli, bore-cole, endive Cabb'ee'
and celery ; for the methods fee the former months, kc planted
Sow fome brocoli feed about the beginning of the out.
month. Sow fome endive feed for a winter crop ; the
green curled endive is th.e bell for this purpofe, but

fome

Part in.

G A R D F. N I N G.

fomc %\liut aiul Bal;ivian may likewife be fown. Some
kidney-beans, of the dwarf kind, lliould be fown for a
late crop. Some turnip-rooted or Spanilh radiHj may-
be fown, and managed exaftly like turnip : there are
two kinds, the black and the white ; both of which are
211 very hardy, and lland the winter well.

late crops Some peas and beans may be fown ■when a late crop

oipeu. is wanted.

As artichokes now advance to maturity, thofe ^vho
prefer one large head to two or three fmaller ones,
ought to cut off all the lateral heads from the ftalks,
before they exceed the fize of a hen's egg ; which will
promote the growth of the principal head. It is a
common practice to break down the llalks of artichokes
near the ground, as foon as their heads have been cut
for the table, to make them pufh more vigorouily from
the root.

If the llalks of onions, garlick, and fliallot, begin to
decay, which is fometiraes the cafe about the end of
this month, they Ihould be pulled up and dried. See
August.

Sect. II. Fruit Gaitieti.

Fniit uro- ^^ fruits advance to maturity, wall trees fliould be
tecltd. protected from birds by nets ; and means (hould be ta-
ken to deftroy fnails, wafps, and other infefts.

513 Sect. III. Flower Garden, or Pleafure Ground.

Plant out

annuals. SoME tender annuals may be planted out into the

flower borders in the open air.

^'"^ . Seedling auriculas and polyanthufes may be planted

culaf Sec" °'^*' '"*°^ border not expofed to the midday fun, at the

diftance of two inches from r>ne another, and watered

occafionaily.

Sect. IV. Nurfery.

Inoculate apricots, peaches, neflarines, plums, and
pears ; the firft four are commonly inoculated on plum
flocks, the laft on pear or quince flocks. Inoculating
or budding, as it is termed, may be performed on many
other trees, and iTirubs ; the method of performing it is
as follows.
Metlioil of With a budding .knife, which refembles a penknife
iaoculatioD. with a flat handle, make a horizontal cut at fome
fmooth part quite through the bark of the flock, from
the middle of which m.ake a perpendicular cut down-
wards, about two inches in length, fo as to form a fi-
gure relembling the letter T. Take a young flioot of
the tree, with which you intend to inoculate, cut ofi"
the leaves from its lower extremity, leaving a fmaU part
of tlie footflalk of each, then, about an inch under the
lowert bud, make a crols cut in the flioot almoft half-
\vay through, with the knife ilanting upwards, and
^\ith a clean cut, bring it out about half an inch above
the bud, detaching part both of tiie wood and bark
containing the bud. Separate the fmall piece of the
^^ood which was taken off along with the bud, from
the bark, which is readily done with your knife, pla-
cing the point of it between the bark and wood at one
end ; then examine the infide of the bark, to fee if the
internal eye of the bud be left ; for if there appears a
Imall hole, the eye is gone with the wood, and the bud
Vol. IX. Part U.

441

Houfe and
Hot-houlc.

becomes ufelefs ; but if no hole appears, the bud is good, July,
and may be inferted into the flock, by raifing the bark Green,
with the handle of the budding knife on each fide of
the perpendicular cut, immediately under tlie crofs cut.
If the piece of bark which contains the bud be too long
for the incifion made in the flock, it (hould be reduced
to a proper length wuh the knife, and introduced be-
tween the bark and wood of the flock, and placed foas
to make the bud project through the perpendicular cut.
Having fixed the bud, and placed the bark of the flock
clofely about it, put a bandage of mat, which fliould
be previoufly ftecped in water to increafe its tenacity,
round the flock, which fliould extend from a little be-
low to a little above the incifion ; taking care that
none of the folds of the bandage cover the bud.

In three weeks or a month after the inoculation has
been performed, the buds will have united with the
flock, which is difcoverable by the bud appearing
plump ; the bandages iliould then be removed : were
they to remain, they would cramp the buds and injure
them. The incifions fliould be made in the flocks,
about fix inches above ground, when dwarf trees are
ivanted ; and at the height of fix feet, when flandards
are to be inoculated : the buds remain dormant, and re-
quire no further attention till next fpring ; when they
begin to pufli out, the heads of the flalks fliould be
cut off.

Seedling pines, where they ftand too thick in the Seedling
feed-bed, may be tranfplanted ; but great care rauft be pines tranf-
taken to water them and ftiade them from the fun, planted.

Sect. V. Green-houfe and Hot-houfe.

Greex. HOUSE plants require a plentiful fupply of tva-
ter at this feafon. If the fruit have fet too thick on— ..^''',
orange or lemon trees, they fliould be thinned, other- (>„;£ of
wife they will not acquire a proper fize. oranges.

As many of the pines will ripen their fruit in the "^
courfe of this month, it is a proper time to begin to P™pag»<e
propagate thefe plants, which is done by planting the'""'*''''
crowns that are produced, at the top of the fruit, and
the fuckers which proceed from the root of the plants,
about the time the fruit is ripe, or foon after they are
cut.

Thefe fuckers or crowns, if properly managed, will
produce fruit in two years, and then decay. Each fruit
is furmounted by at Icafl one crown, which frequently
has a number of offsets at its bafe ; and each plant, after
it has produced fruit, throws out from its root one or
more fuckers before it decay.s. The crowns, when
they are feparated from the fruit, mufl lie five or fijc
days in fome dry place, till the part which was attach-
ed to the fruit is completely dried, before they arc fit
tor planting. The fuckers which proceed from the root
of the plant fhould be taken off, when they have ac-
quired the length of five or fix inches, and when their
lower extremity has become brown ; they mufl likewife
lie in fome dry fituation for a few days, till the part by
which they -ivere connefted with the root of the parent
plant be thoroughly dried. Put each crown or fucker
into a fmall pot, filled with light rich earth, and plunge
them in the bark-bed of a hot-houfe, or in a hot-bed
made on purpofe. 119

A method of raifing pine apples in water is given by Method of
William Ballard, Efq. of Devonfliire, m the 67th vo- 1^'^'/^^;°'*
5 K lume

442

houfe and
Hot-l.oi.fe.

lume of the Philofopliical TranfacUon:
of this method is as follows :

" In the front part of the lioufc, and indeed any-
where in the lou'elt parts of it, the pine-apple plants
will not thrive well in water. The way in which I
treat them is as follows : — I place a (hclf near the high-
eft part of the back wall, fo that the pine apples may
Hand wthout abfolutely touching, but as near it as can
be ; on this ftielf I place pans full of water, about feven
or eight inches deep ; and in thefe pans 1 put the pine-
apple plants, growing in the fame pots of earth as they
are generally planted in, to be plunged into the bark-
bed in the common way ; that is, I put the pot of
earth, with the pine plant in it, in the pan full of wa-
ter, and as the water decrcafes I conftantly fill up the
pan. I place either plants in fruit, or young plants,
as foon as they are well rooted, in thefe pans of water,
Lnd find they thrive equally well ; the fruit reared this
way is always much larger, as well as better flavoured,
than when ripened in the bark-bed. I have more than
once put only the plants themfelves without any earth,
1 mean after they had roots, into thefe pans of water,
ivith only ivater fufficient to keep the roots always co-
vered, and found them Houriih beyond expeftation. In
my houfe the ihelf I mention is fupported by irons from
the top ; and there is an intervening fpace of about l o
inches between the back wall and the (lielf. . A neigh-
bour of mine has placed a leaden cillern upon the top
of the back tlue, in which, as it is in contaft with the
tliie, the ivater is always ^varm when there is fire in the
houfe, and finds his fruit excellent and large, lily
flielf does not touch the back flue, but is about a foot
above it ; and, confequently, the water is only warmed
by the air in the lioufe. Both thefe methods do well.
The way I account for this fuccefs is, that the \varm
air, always afcending to the part where the Ihelf is pla-
ced, as being the highell part of the houfe, keeps it
much hotter than in any other part. The temperature
at that place is, I believe, feldom Icfs than what is in-
dicated by the 73° of Fahrenheit's thermometer, and
when the fun ihines it is often above 1 00° : the water
the plants grow in feeras to enable them to bear the
greateft heat, if futlicient air be alloxved ; and I often
fee the roots of plants growing out of the holes in the
bottom of the pot of earth, and ftiooting vigoroully in
the ivater.

" My hot -houfe, the dimenfions of which it may be
proper to know, is 60 feet long, and 11 feet wide, the
Hues included ; fix feet high in the front, and 11 feet at
the back of the infide of the houfe. It is warmed by
two fires. A leaden trough or cillern on the tO]) of the
back flue is preferable to my flielf; as in it the pine
plants grow much faftcr in the winter, the water being
always warmed by the flue. Of this I have feen great
benefits thefe laft two months in my neighbourhood.

" It is not foreign to this purpofe to mention, that as
a perfon was moving a large pine plant from the hot -bed
in my houfe laft fummer, which plant was jufl (hewing
fruit, by fome accident he broke off the plant jull above
the earth in which it grew, and tliere was no root what-
ever left to it. By way of experiment, I took the
plant, and fixed it upright in a pan of water, without
any earth whatever, in the fliclf ; it there foon threw
out roots, and bore a pine apple that weighed upwards
of two pounds."

GARDENING, Partlll.

His account i. The bromelia ananas, of .which there are fix va- Auguft.

rieties : I. Ovalm, or oval-lhaped pine apple. 2. Py- Kitchen
ramida/is (pyramidal), or fugar-loaf pine. 3. Glaher, ^"'t''"-
with fmcoth leaves. 4. Lucidus, with fliining green ''~~^

leaves. 5. Serotinus, with a yellowifli-coloured fleih. Varieti 5
6. T/Vvy/r, or green pineapple. _ ofthepfne

The firfl: fort of ananas is the mofl common in Europe ; apple,
but the (econd fort is much preferable to it, the fruit of
this being larger and much better flavoured : the juice
of this fort is not fo aflringent as that of the firif ; fo
that this fruit may be eaten in greater quantity, with
lei's danger. This fort frequently produces fuckers im-
mediately under the fruit, whereby it may be increafed
much better than the common lort 5 fo that in a few
years it may be the beft common fort in Britain.

The third fort is preferved for curiofity by way of
variety ; but the fruit is not worth any thing.

The fort with very imooth green leaves, was raifed
from feeds taken out of a rotten fruit, which came
from the Weft Indies to the late Henry Heathcote,
Efq. from whom Mr Millar I'eceived one plant, wliich
produced large fruit : this is what the people of Ame-
rica call the king pine.

AUGUST.
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.

Sow fome prickly-feeded, or triangular-leaved fpI-SoNv Vimep
nach, for a winter and fpring crop; for though theiropsof
round-leeded produces larger and more fucculent leaves, tp'nach.
the prickly-feeded is to be preferred now, becaufe it is
by much the hardier of the two. After the plants have
got their firft leaves about an inch broad, they fliould
be thinned to the diftance of four inches from one ano-
ther, and kept free from weeds.

Sow fome cabbage feed both of the early and late Cabbage,
kinds, to produce plants for ne.xt year.

Sow fome onions, to be ufed when young in winter o^io^j^
or fpring, or to produce a crop of early onions this
fummer. The Stralhurg or any other kind may be
fown now, but the WeJfti onion is very hardy, and
ftands the w inter well ; for though their tops fliould be
dertroyed by the feverity of the weather, they will pufli
up again from the root in the fpring : this onion, how-
ever, does not produce bulbs. ^^ .

Towards the end of the month fow fome cauliflower dulifiowir
feed to produce plants for an early crop ne.xt fummer,
which may be proteded during the winter, either under
hot-bed frames, bell or hand-glafles, or in a well-fliel-
tered border expofed to the fouth. Between the i 8th
and 24th of tllis month is, perhaps, the beft time to
fow thefe feeds. The London gardeners, who fow
great quantities, are accullomed to fow them on a par-
ticular day, viz. the 21ft of this month. If they be
fown too early, they are apt to button, as the garden-
ers term it, i. e. run up to feed without producing heads
of a proper fizc ; and if they be fown too late, the
plants do not acquire fuflicient ftrength, before winter,
to enable them to fupport the feverity of the weather. ,5^

Sow fome lettuce feed about the middle of the month, Lettuce.,
both to fupply the table late in the autumn, or begin-
ning of winter, and to plant out into well-iheltered
borders, or under hot-bed frames, to fiand during win-

Plant

Part III.

CARD

AuRuft. Plant out brocoli, favoys, bore -cole, and celery, tor

Tniit t]jg yfe of winter and fpriiig.

._<^"'f"- The cardoons which were planted in June fliould

,j5 have fome earth laid up to their Items, to blanch them

Plant out and render them fit for the table. That this may be

brocoli, &c. accompliilied the more eaaly, tie up the leaves of each

plant, ivith a piece of bafs mat or fmall ftraw rope, and

apply ipme earth clofe round the ftem, which earthing

muft be repeated at intervals, till it rife to the height of

2, J two feet.

Time of The principal crops of onions will be fit for taking

tskiiiJ up up in the courfe of this month. Choofe a dry day for

onions. taking them up ; take oif tlie llalks within two or three

inches of the bulb •, fpread them in fome dry place, ex-

pofed to the funfhine, for lo or 1 2 days, that they may

be thoroughly dried.

Sect. II. Fruit Garden.

Oreft the LoOK over vines, figs, and other wall trees ; remove

vines, Stc. all foreripht and fuperfluous branches, and nail the

others clofe into the wall, that the rays of the fun may

have free accefs to the fruit.

Vines in the vineyard llkewife fhould be fixed to the

flakes, and cleared of all fuperfluous flioots.

Sect. III. Flower Garden or Pltafure Ground.

Pfo'a'ate ABOUT the end of the month, you may propagate
fibrous- ^'y fl'PS fibrous-rooted perennial plants, fuch as double
reoted rofe campion, catchtly, double fcarlet lychnis, double

'als. rocket, double ragged robin, bachelors button, gentia-
nella, polyanthufes, auriculas, double daifies, &c. As
thefe plants frequently grow in tufts, they may be taken
up and divided, taking care that every Hip be provided
with fome roots.

Auricula and polyanthus ieed may be fown any time
2-51 this month, but will not come up till fpring.
1 car- Layers of carnations, double fweetwilliams, and

'°"*' pinks, that are properly rooted, may be feparated from
the parent plant, and planted into borders or pots.
Cuttings and pipings of pinks and carnations, may be
231 planted cut into beds or borders.

V bul- Towards the end of the month the feeds of bulbous-

')la°ts ' ^°°^^^ flowers, fuch as tulips, hyacinths, narciffus, iris,
crocus, fritillaria, crown imperial, liiies, and fno.vdrops •,
likewife, the feeds of anemone, ranunculus, and cycla-
men, mav be fown in beds or boxes, to obtain new va-
rieties. 1'hey muft be protefted during winter from the
froft ; and when they appear above ground in fpring,
they mull be kept clear of weeds.

Plant out feedling biennials and perennials.

E N I N G.

443

September.

Sect. V. Green-houfe and Hot-houfe.

Green-house plants, in the open air, mul\ be ma-
naged as already di reeled.

The plants in the hot-houfe muft receive a plentiful
allowance of air and water.

Succellion pine-apple plants, that are to produce fruit
next year, ibould be (hifted into larger pots, viz twen-
ty-fours or fixteens, about the beginning of the month.
The plants fliould be turned out of the old pots and
placed in the new ones, a quantity of light rich earth
being previoufly put into the bottom of each. Each
pot ihould tlien be filled with fome of the fame earth,
watered, and plunged into the tan, which, at the fame
time, fliould be tumed over and receive an addition of
about one-third of frelh tan.

SEPTEMBER.

Clip hedges. About the end of this month hedges ihould receive
their fecond clipping.

Sect. IV. Nurfery.

^^^b'dJ-d BuDDlKG may (till be performed about the begin-
ning of the month, and thofe trees which were budded
three weeks or a month a^o, fliould be examined. If the

buds remain plump and frelh, there is reafon to believe
that they have fucceeded ■, in that cafe the bandages
muft be loofeiied.

Sect. I. Kitchen Gardei

235

Plakt fome brown Dutch, cos, and common cab-pb
bage lettuce, in a well-fiieltered Ctuation, expofed to li-ttuce.
the mid-day fun, to be covered \vith hot-bed frames and
glafles, which ihould not be put over them till fome
time next month. ,^5

Plant out from the feed-bed the cauliflowers thatCaull-
were fown laft month, into well-iheltered borders, at flowers.
the diftance of three or four inches from one another,
taking care not to plant them fo deep as to cover their
hearts with earth. Thefe plants may be either planted
out again next month under garden frames, bell or hand-
glafles, to ttand during the winter, or may remain where
planted. j^y

Plant brocoli, favoys, bore-cole, celery, and endive, BrocoIi,&c,

Earth up celery and cardoons.

Tie up the leaves of endive with a piece of bafs mat,

fomething of that nature, to blanch them, and pre-

are them for the table.

'3S-

Mufhroom beds may be formed any time this month. Preparation
as fpawn will very eafily be procured during Auguft, of muni-
September, or Oftober. The fpawn has the appear- f""" '^'^''*-
ance of a white mould fliooting out in ilrings, which,
when bruifed, fmells like muilirooms. It may be ob-
tained either from old mufliroom beds, old hot-beds, or
dung hills that are principally compofed of horfc dung,
and from pallure fields, indeed in any place where
horfe or Iheep's dung has lain for fome time undifturbed
and not expofed to much moillure j and may be pre-
ferved for a confiderable length of time, in a proper
ftate for ufing. If fpawn is not otherwife to be pro-
cured, fome may be produced by laying a quantity of
horfe dung and rieh earth in alternate layers, and co-
vered with llratv to exclude the rain and air ; for the
more thefe are excluded, the fooner the fpawn will ap-
pear, which commonly liappens in about two months
after the dung and earth have been laid together.
Mufhroom beds fliould be formed of dung that has been
fpread out for fome time, without having been ferment-
ed, and may be made two or three feet broad, and of
any length. A ftratum of dung about a foot thick,
fliould be laid firft, wliich fliould be covered with
rich earth to the depth of about four inches, then ano-
3 K 2 ther

444 CARD

September, tlier ftratum of dung about ten inches thick, which
fruit iliould be covered like the former ; a third ftratum of

. ^'"'''^"- , Jung may be laid and covered with earth like the two
former. The whole (hould be made to grow narrower
as it advances in height, and formed into a ridge re-
fembling the roof of a houfe. When the bed is finilhed
it fliould be covered with lliaw, to exclude the rain,
and to prevent the bed from being dried by the fun or
wind, in which fituation it ihould remain eight or ten
days, when the bed will be in a proper temperature of
warmth to receive the fpawn. 'I'he /pawn fliould be
placed in lumps four or five inches afunder, in the
iloping fides of the bed, and covered with a little rich
earth ; the whole mult then be covered with a thick
coat of ftraw. When thefe beds are made in fpring or
;;utum.n, as the weather in thole months is temperate,
the fpawn will take foon, and the mulhrooms will ap-
pear in about a month after the bed has been made ;
but when thefe are made in ivinter, when the weather
is cold, or even in fummer ^vhen the weather is very
hot, a much longer time will elapfe. The principal
thing to be attended to, in the management of thefe
beds, is to preferve them in a proper degree of moirture
.'.nd warmth. Therefore, when the weather is very
cold or very wet, care mult be takem to apply a thick
covering of dry llraw, and when the bed appears dry,
a gentle watering mull be given.

Sect. II. Fruii Garden.

Frul^tobe WHERE any fruit, particularly grapes, are (haded
expofed to 'with leaves, pains ftiould be taken to expofe them to
the fun. the rays of the fun, that they may acquire proper fla-
vour, likewife when the cluflers are entangled, they
fliould be difengaged, that each may have the benefit
of the fun and air.
240 Strawberries may be planted any time this month

^'^^,"[""''" when the weather is ftiowery. If rain fliould not fall to-
wards the beginning of the month, the tranfplanting
fliould be deferred, othervviie they mull be watered oc-
cafionally, for fome time after they are planted. If
any were planted into beds in June, they will be in ex-
cellent condition for planting out now ; but if none
were planted out then, the bell rooted plants produced
at the joints of the runners, or offsets from the old
plants, fliould be chofen, and planted at the diltance
of a foot or 15 inches from one another, either in beds,
about four feet wide, or in rows along the borders.
Moll kinds of ftravvberries fucceed befl in an open fi-
tuation, but the wood ftrawberry may be planted under
the fliade of trees or buflies.
lltr-"*' The principal kinds of llrawberries, are, the fcarlet

kindTof' °'' ^''■g'"'3"> white wood, green wood, red wood,
ftraw large white wood, hautboy rtra;vberry, large globe

berries. hautboy, oblong hautboy, royal hautboy, green haut-
boy. Chili rtrawberry, globe Chili, fugar-loaf Chili,
pine-apple Chili, Bath Chili, Carolina Chili, white
Carolina Chili, Devonfliire Chili, Royal Chili, Dutch
Chili, Alpine or prolific, which produces fruit from
.lune to November, red Alpine, white Alpine, fcarlet Al-
pine, pine-apple flrawberry, red, white, and green.

About the end of the month, moil of the late pears
and apples will be fit for taking down, to be laid up
for keeping. See October.

E N I N G. PartllT.

Sect. III. F/oiver Garilcn or PUafure Grouml. Kitcheri

Gaiden.

Transplant and propagate fibrous-rooted perennial 'v -^
plants by flips.

Towards the end of the month, hyacinths, tulips, -j.^j^j** j^^^.
and other bulbs, may be planted. See Octoblk. planted.

Sect. IV. m,rfcnj.

'43

Transplant evergreens towards the end of the Transplant
month, fuch as Portugal laurels, lauruftinus, arbu-^^J^l'^P^-
tus, &.C. _ greenir&i:-

Both evergreen and deciduous trees and fhrubs may
be propagated by layers or cuttings about the end of
the month.

Sect. V. Grcai-lwufe and Hot-honfc.

About the end of the month, if the iveathcv be Tender
cold, orange and lemon trees, and many of the ten-Pf"^.
derer kinds of green-houfe plants, fliould be removed in- (i,g houiV.
to the houfe. 245

About the end of this month or beginning of next,Tan.bed
the tan-bed in the hot-houfe (hould be refrcflied with a''«"^«'«<'>
quantity of new tan, one half or two thirds according
as the old tan may be more or lefs decayed.

OCTOBER.

Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.

24«

Plant out fome of the lettuces that were railed in^'sntout
Auguft, into a well flieUeied border or into a hot-bed '"'""'■
frame to fupply the table during winter and fpring. ^ 247
Cauliflowers that wen; planted out lafl month from the '?"'''
feed-bed, may now be planted under hot-bed frames, at jet^jamei
the diftance of about four inches from one another, or
under bell or hand glaffes. Four or five plants may be
put under each hand glafs, all of which (fliould they
furvive the winter) may again be planted out in the
fpring, except one, or at moll two, of the llrongeft,.
which fliould be allowed to remain and produce heads.
See February.

Propagate aromatic vegetables by flips, fuch as thyme,
mint, balm, fage, &ic. ^ .

Afparagus beds fliould receive their winter drefling, q,^(-^ ^(-pj.
i. e. their ftalks Ihould be cut dowTi, and the alleys be-iagus.
tween the beds fliould be dug, and a little of the earth
from the alleys fpread over the furface of each bed.
Afparagus beds require fome dung once every two years,
which fliould be applied at this feafon. Before the
alleys are dug, a little well rotten dung Ihould be (pread
over the furface of the beds, dug in with a fork, and
covered with a little of the earth from the alleys.
Where forced afparagus is required early in winter, a
hot-bed may be made any time this month. See
January.

Plant fome early Mazagan beans, and hotfpur peas
about the end of the month, to ftand the winter, and
produce a crop early in fummer.

Sect. II. Fruit Garden.

Winter pears and apples fliould In general be ga- Gather
thered this month. Some will be fit to take down the winter ap-
beginning pl".

Part III.

CARD

Oifloher. beginning of the month, others will not be ready before
Fru'.t i]-._g niiddle, or to\v-3rds the end. To know ivhen the
, fruits have had tlieir full growth, fome of them ihould

be tried in different parts of the tree, by turning them
gently upwards; it they quit liie tree easily,' it is a 'ign
of maturity, and lime to gather tliemT But none .>f the
more delicate eating pears ihould be permitted to hang
longer on the trees than the middle of the month, el-
pecially if the nights prove frolly ; for if they are once
touched Tvith the froil, it will occafion many of them
to rot before they are fit for the table : and therefore,
in general, let neither apples nor pears remain longer
on the trees than the middle or the end of this month,
for they will not improve by hanging on the trees after
that time. The belt apples and pears which are in-
tended for long keeping, ihould be taken down one by
one, on a dry day, and carefully put into balkets, to
be carried to the fruitery, or place where they are to be
iiored up. Tlie fruit themfelves iliould be dry when
taken down from the trees, therefore Ihould not be ga-
thered too early in the morning, before the dew on
their furface has evaporated. They ihould be laid in
a heap for ten days or a fortnight, that their watery
juices may tranlpire ; each ihould then be thoroughly
dried with a cloth, and laid on the flielves of the
fruitery, or in boxes or hampers well covered with dry
ftraw or hay.
»S° About the end of the month, apricots, peaches, and

^ntV^ nertarines may be pruned. See January.
trees. "' -^'^ ^°'''' °^ ^"^' '■''^^^ ""^y ^^ planted, fuch as apri-

cots, peaches, nectarines, plums, cherries, apples, pears,
quinces, vines, figs, mulberries, medlars, fervices, iil-
berts, &c. The ground for this purpofe ihould be
trenched to the depth of one or two ipades, and ihould
be well manured. If the borders on which the fruit
trees are to be planted have not a iufT)cient depth of foil,
a quantity of good earth may be added. Peaches, nec-
tarines, ^apricots, plums, and cherries, are commonly
planted at the diftance of about fifteen feet from one
another. Pears and apples when engrafted on dwarf
flocks may be planted about the fame diflance, but
thofe which are on free flocks, about eighteen or twen-
ty feet. Cherries and plums for flandards fliould be
planted at the diflance of twenty or twenty-five feet from
one another. Apples and pears, on free flocks, ihould
Le planted in rows, thirty or forty feet afunder, and at
the diftance of twenty-five or thirty feet from one ano-
tiicr in the row. Dwarf apples and pears, however,
may be planted .it lefs than half that diilance.

The principal kinds of apricots are, the early muf-
cadine, Turkey, Bruffels, Roman, Breda, orange, Al-
giers, royal, Moor-park, alberget, tranfparent, Dun-
more, or apricot peach, and Portugal.

The principal iorts of peaches are, the red magdalen,
white magdalen, red nutmeg, white nutmeg, noblefs,
early Newington, old Ncwington, great French mig-
none, fmall niignone, admirable chancellor. Millet's
mignone, incomparable, violet native, purple native.
Royal George, Montauban, teton de Venus, round
t rani parent, Catharine, and bloody peach.

The principal kinds of neflarlnes are, early nutmeg,
Newington, red, Roman, violet, violet, mulk, golden,
fcarlet, Elruge, Temple, Murray, Brugnion, ivhite I-
t all an.

The principal forts of phims are, the Primordan or

E N I N G. 445

early white, Prccoce or early black, early Morocco, oaober.
Orleans, green gage, la royale, damas de Tour, damas '^™''
violette, wiiite bonum magnum or cgg'plum, red bo- '^^"^'^ "" ,
num magnum or Imperial, Perdrigion white, Perdri-
gron violet, Monfitur plum, drap d'or, royal dauphin,
Folheringham, azure native, or early blue gage, queen
mother, niyrobalan, apricot pium, red, white, diapree,
Monlieur native, Roche carbon, Jaunc native, gJolTe
queen Claude, petite queen Claude, impcriale violette
or blue imperial, petite mirabillc, damas mufque, din-
pree noire, diapree violette, imperitrice blanche or
white emprefs, imperitrice nwre or late black, Spanifli
damas, damas of September, St Catharine, common
damlon, Bullace,

The principal kinds of ciicrries are, the early May,
May-duke, arch-duke, Harrifon's duke, white heart,
black heart, bleeding heart, Adams's crown heart,
Hertfordihire heart, o.x heart, Turkey, carnation, am-
ber, Kentiili or Flemilh, Portugal, morella, white crof-
fian, black coroun, fmall black guigne or geeii, fmall
red guigne, fmallcll wild black, of the woods and
hedges, ditto red. ^cz

The principal kinds of apples are, the common cod- ^pplc-%
lin, Kentilh codlin, Dutch codlin, Margaret, golden
pippin, gold rennet, Holland pippin, Kentiili pippin,
nonpareil, royal ruffet, WHieeler's rufftt, golden
ruflet, gray ruffet, winter pearmaln, fcarlet pear-
main, Loan's pearmain, aromatic rulfet, pomme d'Ap-
pis, Newton pippin, Englilh rennet, autumn rennet,
winter queening, margiile, nonefuch, gray Lead-
ington, Marget, tender rennet, kitchen rennet, large
white, Italian, Spanlili rennet, Canada rennet, grofle
rennet de Normandie, Fearns pippin, white French ren-
net, clufler pearmain, lemon pippin, French pippin,
winter greening, winter pippin, Flanders pippin, white
coftin, Kirton pippin, ftone pippin, courpendu, or hang-
ing body, courpendu red, rambour iummer, rambour
winter, rennet grife, FreVich rennet, cat's head, leather-
coat, rulTet of winter, pomme de gelee, Siberian crab,
American cherry crab, two years apple hanging on the
trees, if permitted, till the I'econd year. j,j

The principal kinds of pears are, the green miflal, Pears.
Catharine, jargonelle, cuilTe madame, Wlndfor chamon-
telle, creflane, echaflerie, grafle blanquette, beure de
rol, white beure, winter beur^', colraar, St Germain,
lent St Germain, Martinfee, graffe mufcat, autumn
mufcat, orange bergamot, Hambden's bergamot, red
beure, golden beure, brown beure, great rouflelet, petit
roulFelet, Holland bergamot, verte longue, winter bon-
chretien, fummer ditto, Spanilh ditto, MctTicur Jean,
Green fugar, la marquis, Iwan egg, virgleule, Portugal,
gray goodwife, citron de carmes, ambrette, royal
d'hiver, St Michael, Louife bonne, fummer orange,
winter orange, Svvils bergamot, devionett.

Baking pears. Large black pear of VVorcefler, Par-
kinfon's warden, Uvedale St Germain, Cadillac. The
principal kinds of quinces are the Portugal, apple quince,
pear quince. The principal kinds of mulberries are
the common black, white, red, medlars, Dutch, Not-
tingliam or Engliili. Services. Common wild fervice,
bervey, Aveet fervice or ferb, apple-lhaped, pear-lhaped,
berry-fliaped. ,.,

The principal forts of figs are, the common bIuc,Fig!.'"'
early long blue, early white, large white, large Genoa,
Brunfuick, Marfeilles, Cvprian, brown Ifchia, brown

Malta.

44^

Kovtmbci
Kitchen
Giirrten.

GAUD E

Malta. Filberts. Large red Ikinned filbert, white
(kiiined, common hazel nut, Barcelona nut, cob nut,
cluilcr nut, Byzantine nut.

Goofeberries, currants, and rafpberries, may likewife
be planted about the end of this month. See J.v-

N I N G.

Sect. II. Fruit Garden.

Pait III.

Sow lioni
-ihiit, &c

Blanch er
dive, &c.

Sect. III. Flower Garden, or Fleafiire Ground.

BuLBOUS-rooted plants, fuch as tulips, hyacinths,
-narciflus, jonquils, crocus, dens-canis, crown imperial,
fword lily, ixia, Perfian and Englifh iris, ranunculus,
and anemone, may be planted any time this month,
either in beds by therafelves, or in tloiver borders, to-
gether nith other flowers ; but the finer forts of tulip,
hyacinths, ranunculus, and anemone, are commonly
planted in beds, fix or eight inches dillant, and two or
three deep.

Plant out deciduous and evergreen trees and flimbs.
The method of planting all thefe is to open a circular
hole, wide enough to receive the roots, and about a
fpade deep, more or lefs, according to the length of the
roots.

Thorn and other hedges may be planted towards the
end of this month, or any time in the courfe of the
next.

Sect. IV. Nurfery.

Sow haws, holly berries, hips, barberries, yew-ber-
ries, acorns, beech-mafts, maple and afli-feed, cherry and
pliim Hones, in a bed about four feet wide. It is a
common praftice to keep haws and hips, in heaps cover-
ed over with earth for twelve months •, for thofe which
are fown without this preparation frequently lie a whole
year in the feed-bed, without coming above ground.
Plant cuttings of laurels and evergreens.

Sect. V. Grcenhoufe and Hot-houfe.

The hardier kinds of green-houfe plants (hould be all
»cmoved into the green-houfe, when they fhould have
plenty of air, except in very cold or wet weather.

The fucceflion pine-apple plants (hould be removed
into the fruiting houfe, which fliould previoufly receive
a quantity of new tan, as direfted laft month. The
younger fuccelTion plants likewife fliould be moved into
the place of thofe that have been transferred into the
fruiting houfe, air ftiould be given freely in mild weather,
and water very moderately.

NOVEMBER.
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.

Tie up endive for blanching, continue to earth-up
cardbons, and drefs the plantations of artichokes, i. e.
cut down their larger leaves, and lay fome earth about
the plants, to proteft them during winter.

Carrots and parfneps may be taken up, a;id preferved
in fand during the winter.

Some more peas and beans may be fown to fucceed
thofe that were fown laft month, or to fupply their
place if they (liould be cut off by the fe^■erity of the
/.eathcr.

The beft time for pruning vines is immediately after
the tall of the leaf, becaufe the greatell poflible time in i'
that way is allo^ved for healing the wounds. Vines
that are cut about the time of the rife of the fap in the
fpving, are apt to bleed profufely ; this happens fome-
times even to thofe that are pruned in the courfe of the
winter. It is a common error, in pruning vines, to allow
the branches to grow too dole together, particularly
in thofe varieties which grow vigorouily, and have very
large leaves ; for, in fummer, when the leaves are fully
expanded, they are fo much crowded together as to ex-
clude the rays of the fun from the fruit. When pruning
is properly performed, the young branches Ihould be
left at the diftance of from one foot or two feet, and
even upwards from one another ; but this in a great
meal'ure mull be regulated by the fize of their leaves.
The Syrian grape has leaves about a foot and a half
broad, ivith foot-ftalks fix inches long. The black
Hamburgh has leaves twelve or thirteen inches
broad, with footftalks feven inches long. The black
duller on the contrary has leaves five inches broad, with
foot-ftalks three inches long. Blue frontignac and claret

grape

have leaves fix inches broad, with foot-ftalks about

four inches long. When vines are weakly, each ihoot
fhould be fliortened fo as to leave only three or four
eyes ; when they are moderately vigorous, each fliould
be left about a foot long. When \'ery vigorous, fome
of the flioots may be left three or four feet long or
more ; the (hoots of vines, however, that are trained to
the rafters of a vinery or pine-ftove may be left eighteen
or twenty feet long. It has been obferved, that both
the largeft grapes and fineft clutters are produced on
flioots of a confiderable length. When vines have been
allowed to run into confufion, much time and pains are
requifite to reduce them to regularity ; but when they
have been trained regularly from the beginning, pruning
is eafily and expeditioufly performed. j.g

If the following direftions for training vines in a Direaiom
vinery be obferved, they will eafily be kept in order, fur training
and plentiful crops of good fruit may be expefted. '■'"'=*•

Vines may be planttd both on the back wall and
front of a vinery ; thofe on the back wall ihould be
planted fron fix to twelve feet afunder, according to the
vigour of growth of the particular fort, and in fuch a
pofition that the two uppermoft buds may point eart and
weft ; thefe on the front (hould be planted fo as one
may be trained to each rafter. When the vines begin
to grow, all the buds except the two uppermoft muft
be rubbed off from thofe on the back wall, and all ex-
cept the uppermoft from thofe on the front wall. If any
of the plants ftiew fruit the firft year, the clutters fyiould
be rubbed off, as well as the tendrils and lateral (hoots
and the principal flioots fliould be trained regularly to
the trellis as they advance in growth. Fires fliould be
put in the vinery during the fpring, to encourage an
early growth in the vines, that they may have full time
to ripen their wood. In the month of .lune the glaiTes
may be taken off altogether, but (hould be put on again
in September, and continued till the fall of the leaf,
when the vines fliould be pruned. The two flioots
which each vine on the back-wall was permitted to
pufh, fliould be cut down to their third or fourth bud,
according'

Part III.

GARDENING.

Garden.

November, according as either cf tht;m appears fulleft and ftrongeil,
f'u't and then bent down as near as poiTible to a horizontal
pofition, foiraiiig a figure lefemb.'ing the letter T.
Plants in front that are trained to the rafter?, ihould
be cut down almnil to the bottom, and no more left
than is merely fulKcient to train them to the rafter.
Only two Ihoots ihould again be permitted to grow on
each plant on the back wall, and one on thofe of the
front, and thel'e may be allowed to run the whole height
of the houfe before they are flopped. After the vine
flioots are flopped (which is done by pinching off their
tops), they will in general pufh out laterals at three or
four eyes, on the upper part of the Ihoot. Thefe late-
rals ihould not entirely be taken oft', as it would caufe
more eyes lower upon the flioots to pulh out. It would
therefore be prudent to permit the firlt laterals to grow
twelve or fourteen inches, and then to pinch off their
tops. Thefe laterals, in their turn, will pulli out fecon-
dary laterals, which fliould be pinclied off' at tlie lecond
or third joint, and in that way the Tap may be diverted
till the end of the feafon.

The flioots of the plants on the back wall mufl; be
brought down to a horizontal pofition, and cut fo that
the branches of each plant may reach withhi a foot
of the other. If all the vines on the rafters have puflied
vigoroufly, it will be proper to prune every other plant
down to three or four eyes, and the red to from twenty to
twenty-five eyes each, the latter being intended to pro-
duce fruit, and the former to make bearing wood againft
another year. When the vines begin to pufli in the
Ipring of the third year, the flioots of thofe on the back
wall ihould not be allowed to itand nearer one another
than a foot or fifteen inclies, all the intermediate buds
being carefully rubbed off. The flioots ought to be
trained up perpendicularly, and however vigorous they
may be, no more than one clufler fiiould be allowed to
remain on any of them : all of them may run up to the
height of five or fi.\. feet before they are Itopped. The
flioots on the rafters, that were pruned to twenty or
twenty-five eyes each, will probably pulh at all of them ;
but not more than five or feven flioots fliould be per-
mitted to remain, even on the ftrongefl ; viz. a leading
ffioot, and two or three on each fide. Care being taken
to leave one ftioot as near the bottom as poflible, as the
whole branch will require to be pruned down to this
fiioot ne.Kt winter. Only one flioot Ihould be left upon
thofe vines that were pruned down to three or four eyes,
at every other rafter ; and this mufl be trained up the
rafter as in the preceding year. At next pruning feafon
all the flioots proceeding from the horizontal branches
of the vines in the back wall fliould be pruned down to
three or four eyes. The vines on the front which pro-
duced fruit Ihould be pruned to their lowefl flioot, which
fliould be Ihortened, fo as to leave four or five eyes.
Thofe at every other rafter which were fliortcned the
preceding year, and which were allowed to pufli one
(hoot, Ihould now be pruned like the bearers of the
former year ; i. e. twenty or twenty-five eyes fliould be
left on each. In the following and all fucceeding
feafons, thefe vines on the front will require a fimilar
management, with this difference, that, as they acquire

447

more flrength, they may be permitted to pulh more November.

flioots, and more clufters may be allowed to remain on J 'o"'er

each (hoot ; for, as the vines advance in age, they will p)gjr||'r°'

certainly be enabled to produce every year for a certain GtO(in(5.

period, a larger crop of fruit. The fpurs of the vines — — v '

on the back-vvall, i. e. the flioots that were fliortened to

three or four eyes, fliould be allowed to pulh up one

flioot : thefe flioots at ne.xt pruning feafon mufl be cut fo

as to leave a long one, viz. about four ftet, and a Ihort

one, alternately. The long ones fliould be allowed to-

pulh five flioots (all the other buds being rubbed off),

the four lateral of which fliould be cut down to two or

three eyes each, at next priining feafon, and the terminal

one Ihould be left about a foot and a half long. Tile

fliort flioots between the long ones mull conflantly be

pruned down to two or three eyes each, in order to keep

up a proper fucceflion of bottom wood. The pruning

following feafon mufl: be the fame, with this difference,

that the upright flioots, as they have acquired a foot and

a half additional length, may be allowed to pufli feven

flioots inflead of five. 259

'J'he principal kinds of vines (e) are, « the white j^.'^*""^"^
mufcat of Alexandria, * black daraafcus, * golden galli- pp ^p^j.
cian, *f tthite frontinac, 'f grifly frontinac, *f black
or purple frontinac, f J blue or violet frontinac, f J red
frontinac, 'f white fweet water, *j- black Hamburgh,
*f red Hamburgh, or Gibraltar grape, * white Ham-
burgh, *+ malvoile or blue tokay, *j- genuine tokay,
*f tiame-coloured tokay, f | brick grape, *f white muf-
cadine or chaffelas, *f royal mufcadine or d'arboyce,
*f Malmfey grape, *-(■ claret grape, * Syrian, f J Bur-
gundy or Munier grape, f J fmall black duller, f large
black clufter, f J early black July grape or morillon,
noir nati*, f white parlley-leaved. ,

Goolhtrries and currants may be pruned any time p^^ae goof-
from the fall of the leaf, till their buds begin to grow berries and
in the fpring. If thel'e bulhes be not well pruned, the currants.
fruit will neither be large nor well-flavoured. The
principal thing to be attended to is, to keep them open ;
for they are very apt to become over-cro^vded with
branches : all fuckers therefore which arife from the
root, or flioots which proceed from the main ftem,
fliould be removed, bccaufe they would only create con-
fufion, by growing up into the heart of the bulli. When
laft furamer's flioots ftand too thick, on the main-
branches, which is frequently the cafe, particularly
with gooflierrics, they Ihould be thinned, and few
either of them or of tlie main branches Ihould be Ihort-
ened, becaufe the more they" are fliortened the more
liable they are to run to wood. They who make ufc
of garden-lhears, for fake of e.Kpedition, which is too
frequently the cafe, may I'ave time, and make neat-look-
ing buflies, but will be difappointed with refpeft to the
quantity and quality of their fruit.

StCT. HI. F/ower Garden or Pleafiire Ground.

Fibrous-rooted perennial plants may fiill be plant-
ed ; likewife bulbous-rooted plants, fuch as tulips, hya-
cinths, &c.

Shrubs and ornamental or forefl trees may be tranf-
planted

(e) Thofe marked * are for a hot-lioufe ; thofe marked f are for
a common wall.

and thofe marked j are foi

G A II D E

. pbiUed now or any time during the winter ^vlien the
weather is open.

Sect. IV. TIw Nurferu.

Traxsplant young trees and ihrubs, and proteft
tender feedlings during fevere ^veather.

Sect. V. Greeu-Houfe and Hot-Houfe.

The plants in the green-houfe ftiould have air during
the day, whenever the ;veather will permit, and (hauld
receive but little water. The plants in the hot-houfe
Ihould likewife receive air during the day in favourable
weather, and fires muft be put on every evening, but
feldom need to be continued during the day, except the
weather is very fevere.

DECEMBER.
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.

The cauliflower plants and lettuces planted under
hot-bed frames, or under bell or hand-glaifes, (hould be
expofed to the air during the mild days, and protefted
during fevere weather ivith a covering of mats or ilraw.
In dry weather celery and cardoons ftiould be earthed
up, and endive tied up for blanching.

In this month there is nothing to be done either in
the fruit garden, nurfery, green-houfe, or hot-houfe, that
has not already been taken notice of in the preceding
months.

Here we fhall add fome obfervations on the con-
ftruftion of green-houfes and hot-houfes.

A green-houfe conflrufled for the protetlion of fuch
vegetables as cannot (land in the open air during win-
ter, may vary in form ai d dimenfions according to the
fancy of the proprietor, and the number of plants it is
intended to contain. When the front only is of glafs,
which formerly was the only, and even llill is the pre-
valent, mode of conllrufting green-houfes, the pillars
between the faihes ouglit to be as narrow as the weight
ihcy have to fupport will admit of, and formed fo as to
give the leaft poflible obllruftion to the light ; they
may be either of (lone, brick, wood, or caft iron. The
height of the falhes Ihould equal if not exceed the
width of the houfe, that a iuthcient quantity of light
may be thrown on the plants which ftand near the back
wall, otherwife they unll lofe colour, become unhealthy
and deformed ; for not only the colour, but the vigour,
and even the form of vegetables, depends on the light.
When one half or the whole of the roof is of glafs,
which ought to be the cafe, there is no neceflity for
attending to the proportion the height ought to bear
to the width of the houfe. The ends of the houfe
(hould alfo be of glafs, unlefs when it is connected with
a feries of other buildings. The pots containing the
plants are commonly fet on benches, which gradually
increafe in height as they recede from the front ; how-
ever, when the roof is of glafs, the arrangement may be
different. Every green-houfe ought to be furnifhed
with Hues ; for though many unnters may occur in
which the application of fire-heat may not be neceffary,
yet fuch intenfe frofts at times prevail as would infalli-

N I N G. Part III

bly kill a great many of the plants : extern.il coverings, Conftmc.
it is true, are frequently made ufe of as a protciSlion ' ''" °'
asjainft the feverity of the weather, but they do not, ^'J'^^"'
anl^ver the purpole equally well, tor when the froit con- j

tinues long they cannot be applied day and night with-
out doing injury, by excluding air and light ; the ap-
pHcation of fire -heat is likewife neceflary for baniftiing
the damp, which very much injures and frequently de-
ilroys the plants, during long-continued, dull, rainy
weather. The flues in green-houfes are frequently con-
fined to the back wall, but they ought to pafs in
front of the houfe likewife, becaufe the plants fituated
are moft liable to be injured by the feverity of the
weather.

As fires are feldom required, and thofe but very
flight ones, merely to banilh frolf and damp, it will not
be neceflary from economical motives to conllruft the
flues, fo as to throw off the greateft poflible quantity of
heat, they may therefore be concealed that they may
not affeft the appearance of the houfe.

Hot-houfes for rearing plants which grow in warmer
climates, or for forcing at an early period luch vege-
tables as grow in the open air, vary confiderably accord-
ing to the different purpofes for which they are intend-
ed, ift, Confervatories, or dry ftoves, fo called becaufe
they are conftrufted without pits for containing tanners
bark, oak leaves, or other fermentable iubflances, and
in which the plants grow in the earth which forms the
floor of the houfe, and not in pots. Thofe are common-
ly of a confiderable width and height, and are either
covered entirely, or at leaft on the front, roof, and ends,
with glafs. 2dly, Hot-houfes for rearing exotic plants,
furnilhed with a pit containing tanners bark, oak leaves,
heated land, &c. in ivhich pots containing the plants
are plunged : thefe likewife are of confiderable breadth
and height, and have their front, roof, and ends, cover-
ed with glafs. 3dly, Pine-houfes which are furniflied
with a pit, as above : thefe are low, the roof being with-
in a few feet of the furface of the pit, that the pine
plants may be as near the light as polhble, and the
roof and part of the front only need be of glafs.

Vine-houfes are commonly conftruiled without pits,
and are generally about 12 or 14 feet high, fometimes
very narrow, at other times of confiderable breadth ;
the former anfwer beft for forcing at a very early period,
and in both houfes the vines are commonly trained
both to the back and front.

Peach-houfes are almoft always conftru£led without
pits, are of a moderate height, and vary in breadth.
The peaches are trained either to the front or back, or
to both ; and fometimes they are planted in the middle
of the houfe, and allowed to grow like llandard fruit
trees, in which cafe the houfe ftiould be capacious.

Cherry and fig-houfes are conflrucled nearly in the
fame way as peach-houfes. The fluts for warming all
thefe ought to pafs round the front as well as the back
of the houfe, and ought to have as much of their fur-
face expofed as poflible ; for the more of the furface of
the flue comes in contaft with the air of the houfe, the
more readily the houie ^vill be warmed : therefore they
ought not to be built in contaft with the front or back
%valls when that can be avoided, but ought to be fup-
ported on pillars of brick, to keep them from retting
on the ground.

The furnaces for containing the fuel are placed fome-

Pai-t III

Conftruc

GARDEN

N G.

times ill fioiU, fometimes at the end, but moft frequent-

tion ot jy befiind the houfe. They ought to be fituated fo far

tufes &.C below the level of the flue, as is neceflary to caufe a

^ fufficient draught ; if this be not attended to, the Imoke

will not pafs through the flues to warm the houfes, but

efcape fome other way. When the furnaces are about

18 inches high (a common fize), they ought to be

placed about two ifeet below the level of the flue, that

the heated air may have an afcent of about fix or eight

inches, which will be fufEcient to give the requifite

draught.

When the hot-houfe is of confiderable extent, it is
better to employ feveral moderate, than a fmaller num-
ber of ftrong fires, for violent fires are apt to crack the
flues, in which cafe the fraoke efcapes into the houfe,
and injures the plants. Some are partial to large fires,
from an idea that they confurae lefs fuel in proportion ;
but this is a miftake, for two moderate fires are found
to heat the fame extent of hot-houfe to an equal de-
gree, and more equably, with a lefs expenditure of
fuel than one large one. One moderate fire will be
fufficient for an extent of 500 or 600 fquare feet of
glafs, but if the houfe is protefted with coverings du-

ring the night, it will be fufficient for 700 or 800 :
thus the numlier of f^uaie feet of glafs being known,
the requifite number of firts may be eafily afcertained. .
The fires employed for warming hot-houl'es may at the
fame time he converted to other ufcful purpofes. At
Billing in Northamptonthire, the feat of Lord John
Cavendifh, the furnaces are conllrufled to burn lime at
the fame time that they heat the hot-houfe. One fur-
nace can burn four bulhels of lime, and confume about
three-fouiths of a hundred weight of coal, when lighted
only at night and in the morning.

Hot-houfes are fometimes protedled during the wn-.
ter nights by external coverings of wood or canvafs,
&c. This renders lefs fire neccfiary ; but the faving in
point of fuel is more than overbalanced by the original
expence of the covering, by the trouble of taking it off
and putting it on morning and evening, and by the
quantity of glafs broken, particularly when the cover-
ing is made of canvafs, which is apt to be dalhed
againft the glafs by the wind. When light coverings
of cloth are applied internally they are not liable to the
lafli-mentioned objedlion, but there are few hot-houfes
v.liere they can be fo applied.

INDEX TO Part III.

JInNU^LS, when fown, N^JI, 76,
101,
y?pple trees, when pruned,
apples, when gathered,

diff'erent kinds of,
apricots, different kinds of,
Artkholes, when earthed up,

when drefled and planted,

Jerufalem, when planted,
-^fparagus, how fown and managed.

ICO,

154

38

249
251
250

3'
136,
'37
143
133
•'35
248

Beans, when fown, 23

when earthed up, 30

early kidney, 66

full crop of, 185

Blanch endive, 29

Bulbous roots, how proteded in beds, 49

when planted, 50

when taken up, 205

Cabbages, wV.en planted,

when tranfplanted
Cardoons, when fown.
Carrots, when fown,
Caulifower, when to examine

raifed in a hot-bed, 69, 1 70,

224, 236

Celery, early crop, how rai'eJ, 73

Cherry trees, ivhen pruned, 39

Vol. IX. Part II.

26

27

141

18, 44

Crops, full, for the kitchen garden, 1 29

La'jous, drcfTmg of, N'
Leehs, how raifed.

' SA

., IO(j

Cucumbers, early, how raifed.

67, 91

83

E.

Engrcjimg of fruit trees, when \

Lettuce, when fown, 24,

79

, 167

5er-

M.

formed

^3

Melon feeds, when fown, n,

• 9>

, 9»r

hiftory of.

114

topping.

93

method of performing

, 115

impregnation of,

94

different kinds of, 1 1

6-124

obfervations on,

9i

treatment of, 1

84,

198

F.

Mujljroom-beds, how to manage.

32

Tigs, method of pruning,

97

preparation of.

238

different kinds of.

^5i

Flowers, how proteifled in pots,

48

N.

forced in hot houfes,

"IZ

NcBarirus, when pruned,

43

Fruil trees, how to force the growth

different kinds of,

2 JO

of,

46, 99

Nui-fery,

59

pruning of.

96

0.

engrafting of,

'13

Onions, how raifed.

83

planting,

i;o

early crop of, ■

223

protefting the flower, i

J'.>73

time of taking up,

227

G.

P.

Garden, kitchen.

17

Parfey, when fown.

21

, 84

Garlic, when planted.

86

Peach trees, when pruned,

40

Grapes, diflx-rent kinds of,

259

different kinds of,

250

Green-houfes, conflruaion of.

260

Peafe, when fowni,

22

H.

Hot-houfes, conftruflion of,
Hot-beds, method of preparing,

late crop of.

2ir

25o
3:

Pear trees, when pruned,

different kinds of.
Pine apples, management of,

33
252
65

I.

(love for,

126

Inarching of fruit trees.

122

heat for,

182

Inorulali'in of fruit trees.

21S

how propagated,
3 L

218
Pi-:v

450

GARDENING.

Index,

Pine apples, rai'ed in water, N"

219

S.'u

iii„S'

N

»6o

Trees, propagated by layers,

N^ei

varieties of,

220

Shrubs-,

how managed.

53

cuttings,

62

Tlum trees, when pruned,

39

Spinach,

when fown,

19

fuckers,

(>i

digerent kinds of,

250

winter crop of.

221

air cautioufly admitted to,

64

Potatoes, early, when planted,

36

Sin

aivbe

Tries, forcing of the growth

Turnips, full crop of,

' 201

full crop of.

144

of,

47

Pot-herbs, when fown,

«5

time and mode of dref-

V.

planted out,

203

fing.

98

I'^ines, how propagated.

i6z

R.

Radijhes, when fown,

horfe, how propagated,

plantations of, made,

204,

dreffed,

'74

'7

89

different kinds of,

240

241

hiftory of,

pruning and training of, :

175
257. 258

Rafpherries, v^ hen pruned and plantec

1,43

T

W.

S.

Trees,

roots of, how protefted.

45

Walks, grafs and gravel, drelTing

of, 107

Safad, fmal!,

20

time proper for planting,

44

GAR

Gardintr GARDINER, STEPHEN, bifhop of Winchefter,
!! and lord chancellor of England, bom at Bury St Ed-
^Garmm. ^^^^^ ;^ Suffolk, natural fon to Richard Woodville,
brother to (^ueen Elizabeth wife to Edward IV. was
learned in the canon and civil laws, and in divinity. He
figned the divorce of Henry Vlll. from Katharine of
Spain ; abjured the pope's fupremacy ; and writ De ve-
ra el falfa obedientia, in behalf of the king ; yet in
Edward's reign he oppofed the reformation, and was
punifned with imprifonment ; but Q^ueen Mary coming
to the throne, (he enlarged him. He drew up the ar-
ticles of marriage between the queen and Philip of
Spain, which were very advantageous to England. He
was violent againft the reformers ; but on his death-bed
v.as diffatisfied with his life, and often repeated thefe
words: Erravi cum Petro,fed nonjlevi cum Petro. He
died in 1555.

GARGARISM (from ycc^^^c^t^a, " to wafli the
mouth ;") a gargle. Its ufe is for walhing the mouth
and throat «-ith, when inflammations, ulcerations, &c.
are there. A fmall quantity may be taken into the
mouth, and moved brilkly about, and tnen fpit out ;
or if the patient cannot do this to any advantage, the
liquor may be injected by a fyringe. When gargles are
required, their ufe fliould be more frequently repeated
"than is done in common praclice.

GARGET, a difeafe of cattle, confifting in a fwel-
ling of the throat and the neighbouring parts ; to pre-
vent which bleeding in the fpring is recommended.

GARGIL, a diftemper in gecfe, which by Hopping
the head frequently proves mortal. Three or four
doves of garlic, beaten in a mortar with fweet butter,
and made into little balls, and given the creature fall-
ing, are the ordinary cure.

GARIDELLA, a genus of plants belonging to the
dccandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 26th order, Multijiliqucc. See Botany
Index.

GARIZIM, Gerizim, or Gerifim, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a mountain of Samaria, at the foot of which
flood Sichem j fo near, that Jotham could be heard by
the Sichemiies from its top, (Judges, ix. 7.) Famous
for the temple biuh on it by Saiiballet, in favour of his

GAR

fon-in-law Manaffeh, by the permiffion of Alexander GarlaniJ
the Great, and 200 years after deftroyed by John Hyr- II
canus, fon of Simon, the fourth in fucceffion of the Af- . ^^'"^'- ^
moneans (Jofephus). '

GARLAND, a fort of chaplet made of flowers,
feathers, and fometiraes precious ftones, worn on the
head in manner of a crown. — The word is formed of
the French guir/ande, and that of the barbarous Latin
garlanda, or Italian ghirlanda. Menage traces its ori-
gin from gyrus through gyrulus, to gyrulare, gyrlan-
dum, ghirlandum ; and at length ghirlanda and guir-
lande ; fo that guirlande and garland are defcended in
the fixth or feventh degree from gyrus. — Hicks rejefls
this derivation, and brings the word from gardel handa,
which in the northern languages fignify a nofegay artfully
•wrought with the hand.

Garland alfo denotes ornaments of flowers, fruits,
and leaves, intermixed ; anciently much ufed at the
gates of temples, where feafts and folemn rejoicings
were held ; or at any other place ivhere marks of pub-
lic joy or gaiety were required, as at triumphal arches,
tournaments, &c.

GARLIC. See Allium, Botany Index.
GARMENT, that wherewith any perfon is clothed.
See Dress and Habit.

GARNET, in Natural Hi/lory, a %'ery beautifiil gem,
of a red colour, with an adnuxture of blue. See Mi-
neralogy Index.

When pure and free from blemiflies, it is little infe-
rior in appearance to the oriental ruby, though only of
a middle degree of hardnefs between the fapphire and
common cryftal. It is found of various fizes, from that
of a pin's head to an inch in diameter.

Among lapidaries and jewellers, genuine garnets
are known by different names according to their dif-
ferent degrees of colour. I. The garnet, fimply fo
called, is the finelt and moft valuable kind, being of a
very deep blood-red with a faint admixture of blue.
2. The rcck-ruby ; a name very improperly given to
the garnet when it is of a very ftrong but not deep red,
and has a fairer caft of the blue ; this is a very beauti-
ful gem. 3. The forane or fcrain garnet ; that of a
yet brighter red, approaching to the colour of native
cinnabar.*

GAR [45

cini\abar, with a faint blue tinge. 4. The almandine,
a garnet only a little paler than that called the i-ock-
ruhij.

G A RNEt -Colour. See Colouring ofGiA^u

To imitate GjxstTS. The making the counterfeit
garnet in pafte is done as follows. — Take prepared cry-
iial two ounces, common red-lead fix ounces, manga-
nefe 16 grains, zaffre three grains; mix all well, put
them into a crucible, cover it with lute, and fet it in
a potter's kiln for 24 hours. Or take cryftal t^vo oun-
ces, minium five ounces and a half, manganefe 15
grains, zaffre four grains : mix them well together ; and
let all be baked, in a pot well luted, in a potter's kihi
24 hours.

GARONNE, a large. river of France, which ta-
king its life in the Pyrenean mountains, runs north-
welt by the city of Tholoufe, divides the provinces of
Guienne and Gafcony, and, vifiting the city of Bour-
deaux, falls into the bay of Bifcay, about 60 miles
below that city. It has alfo a communication with
the Mediterranean, by means of the royal canal of
Louis XIV. The tide flows up this river 20 miles
above Bourdeaux.

GARRICK, David, Efq. the great Rofcius of his
age and country, who for near 40 years Ihone the bright-
er luminary in the heraifphere of the llage, was born at
the Angel Inn at Hereford, in the year 1716. His
father, Captain Peter Garrick, was a French refu-
gee, and had a troop of horfe which were then quar-
tered in that city. This rank he maintained in the ar-
my for feveral years, and had a majority at the time of
his death •, that event, however, prevented him from
ever enjoying it. Mr Garrick received the firft rudi-
ments of his education at the free-fchool at Litchfield ;
which he afterwards completed at Rocheller, under
the celebrated Mr Colfon, iince mathematical profelTor
at Cambridge. Dr Johnfon and he were fellow-ftu-
dents at the fame fchool ; and it is a curious fact, that
thefe two celebrated geniufes came up to London, with
the intention of pulhing themfelves into aftive life, in
the fame coach. On the 9th of March 1736, he was
entered at the honourable fociety of Lincoln's Inn.
The ftudy of the law, however, he fjon quitted ; and
followed for lome time the employment of a wine mer-
chant : but that too dilgulling him, he gave way at laft
to the irreull'ble bias of his mind, and joined a travel-
ling company of comedians at Iplwicli in .Suffolk, where
he went by the name of Lyil:!le. Having in this poor
fchool of Apollo got fome acquaintance with the thea-
tric art, he burl^ at once upon the world, in the year
1743-1, in all the lu Ire of perfe6lion, at the little
theatre in Goodman's Fields, then under the direction
of Henry Giffard.

The character he firft performed was Richard III.
jm which, like the fun buriling from behind a cloud,
he difplayed in the eiilieil da.vn even more than
meridian brightnefs. His excellence dazzled and alto-
niihed every one ; and the feeing a young man, in no
more than his i4th ye:ir, aiid a novice in reality to
the Itage, reaching at one iingle ftep to that height of
perfedion which matunty of years and long practical
experience had not been able to bellow on the then
capital performers of the Eugliih fta^e, was a pheno-
menon that could not but become the objeft of uni-
»er(al fpecalation and of as univer'al admiration. The

I ] G A il

theatres at the weft end of the town xvere dcfertei j
Goodman's Fields, from being the rendezvous of citi- "
zens and citizens wives alone, became the rcfort of all
ranks of men ; and Mr Garrick continued to aft till
the clofe of the feafon.

Having very advantageous terras offered hira for the
performing in Dublin during fome part of the fummer
(1741), he went over thither, w^here he found the
fame juft homage paid to his merit which he had re-
ceived from his own countrymen. To the fervice of
the latter, however, he elleemed himfelf more imme-
diately bound; and therefore in the cnfuing winter,
engaged himfelf to Mr Fleetwood, then manager of
Drury Lane ; in which theatre he continued till the
year 1745, when he again went over to Irelind, and
continued there the whole feafon. Joint manager with
Mr Sheridan in the direflion and profits of the theatre
royal in Smock Alley. From thence he returned to
England, and was engaged for the feafon of 1 746 with
Mr Rich at Covent Garden. This was his laft per-
formance as a hired actor : for in the clofe of that
feafon, Mr Fleetwood's patent for the management of
Drury Lane being expired, and that gentleman having
no inclination further to purfue a defign by which,
from his want of acquaintance with the proper con-
duct of it, or fome other caufe, he had coniiderably
impaired his fortune ; i\Ir Garrick, in conjunftioii
with Mr Lacy, purchafed the property of that theatre,
together witk the renovation of the patent ; and in
the winter of 1747, opened it with the greateft part of
Mr Fleetwood's company, and with the great addi-
tional ftrength of I\Ir Barry, Mrs Pritchard, and
Mrs Gibber, from Covent Garden.

Were we to trace Mr Garrick through the feveral
occurrences of his life, — a life fo aftive, fo bufy, and
fo full of occurrences as his, we fhould fwell this account
to many piges. Suifice it to fiy, he continued in the
uiiraolelted enjoyment of his fame and unrivalled ex-
cellence to the moment of his retirement. His univer-
fality of excellence was never once attacked by compe-
tition. Tragedy, comedy, and farce, the lover and
the hero, the jealous hulband who fufpeCls his wife
without caufe, and the) thoughtlefs lively rake who at-
tacks her without defign, were all alike his own. Rage
and ridicule, doubt and defpair, tranfport and tender-
nefs, compafTion and contempt ; love, jealoufy, fear,
fury, and Cmplicity ; all took in turn poffelTion of his
features, while each of them in turn appeared to be
the fole pofleiTor of his heart. In the feveral charac-
ters of Lear and Hamlet, Richard, Dorilas, Romeo,
an J Lufignane; in his Ranger, Bayes, Drugger, Kite-
ly. Brute, and Benedidt, you faw the mufcuJar con-
formations that your ideas attached to them all. In
fhort. Nature, the miftrefs from whom alone this great
performer borrowed all his leflbiis, being in lierfclf in-
exhaultible, this her darling fon, marked out for her
trueft reprcfentalive, found an unlimited fcope for
change and diverfity in his manner of copying from
her various produftions. There is one part of theatri-
cal conduct wliich ought unqueftionably to be recorded
to Mr Garrick's honour, fincc the caufe of virtue and
morality, and the formation of public manners, are
coniiderably d"pendent upon it ; and that is, the zeal
wnsli which he aimed to baniih from the ftagc all thofe
plays which carry with them an immoral tendency,
^ L 2 and

G A R

[ 4-

>-k. 2nd to prune from thofe vvliicli do not abfolutely, on
— the whole, promote the interefls of vice, fuch fcenes
of licentioufncfs and liberty, as a redundancy of wit
and too great livelinefs of imagination have induced
fomc of our comic writers to indulge themfelves in, and
to which the fympathetic dirpoution of our age of gal-
lantry and intrigue has given fanftion. The purity of
the Englilh ftage has certainly been much more fully
ellabliihed during the admiiiiftration of this theatrical
miiiiftcr, than it had ever been during preceding ma-
nagements. He feems to have carried his modeil, mo-
ral, chaile, and pious principles with him into the
very management of the theatre itfelf, and refcued per-
formers from that obloquy which ftuck on the profef-
fion. Of thofe who were accounted blackguards, un-
worthy the affociaticn of the world, he made gentle-
men, united them with fociety, and introduced them
to all the domefiic comforts of life. The theatre was
no longer efteemed the receptacle of all vice ; and the
moral, the ferious, the religious part of mankind, did
not hefitate to partake of the rational entertainment of
a play, and pafs a cheerful evening undifgufted with
the liceiitioufnefs, and uncorrupted by the immorality,
of the exhibition.

Notwithllanding the numberlefs and laborious avo-
cations attendant on his profeffion as an aftor, and his
ftation as a manager ; yet llill his aftive genius was
perpetually burfting forth in various little produftions
in the dramatic and poetical way, whofe merit cannot
but make us regret his want of time for the purfuance
of more extenfive and important works. It is certain
that his merit as an author is not of the firft magni-
tude : but his great knowledge of men and manners, of
Rage efFe^l, and his happy turn for lively and ftriking
iatire, made him generally fuccefsful ; and his pro-
logues and epilogues in particular, which are almofl in-
numerable, polTefs fuch a degree of happinefs, both in
the conception and execution, as to ftand unequalled.
iiis Ode on the death of Mr Pelham ran through four
editions in lefs than fix weeks. His Ode on Shake-
fpeare is a mallerly piece of poetry •, and when deliver-
ed by himfelf, was a moft capital exhibition. His al-
terations of Shakefpeare and other authors have been
at times fuccefsful, and at times exploded. The cut-
tmg out the gravediggers Icene from Hamlet will never
be forgotten to him by the inhabitants of the gallery
at Drury. Though necelTary to the challenefs of the
fcene, they cannot bear to lofe fo much true fterling
wit and humour ; and it muft be owned, that exube-
rances of that kind, though they hurt the uniformity,
yet increafe the luxuriance of the tree. Among his
alterations the following are part : Every Man in his
Humour, altered from Ben Johnfon ; Romeo and Ju-
liet, Winter's Tale, Catherine and Petruchio, Cvmbe-
line, Hamlet, &c. altered and made up from Shake-
fpeare ; Gameflers, a comedy, from Shirley ; Ifabella,
from Southtrne. To thcfe we add, as original pro-
tluflions. The Farmer's Return, and Lir.co's Travels,
interludes ; Guardian, Lethe, Lying V ,kt, Mifs in
her Teens, Male Coquet, Irilh Widow, and other co-
medies in two a£tf, ; Enchanter, a mufical entertain-
mmt ; Lilliput : the Chriftmas Ta!e is afcribed to him,
Bnd many others.

We r.o'.v bring i.im to the period of his retirement
in the fpring of 1776 ; when, full of fiin-, with the ac-

3 ] GAR

quirement of a fplcndid fortune, and growing iuto G.:ri.u
year«, he thought proper to feek the vale of life, to I'

enjoy that dignified and honourable eafe which was ''''""
compatible with his public fituation, and which he had
fo well earned by the adivity and the merits of his
dramatic reign. But very ihort indeed was the period
allotted to him for this precious enjoyment : for on
the 20th of January 1779, he departed this life; leav-
ing no one rival in excellence upon earth to compen-
fate for his lofs, or a hope of our ever meeting with
his like again.

GARRISON, in the art of war, a body of forces,
dlfpofed in a fortrefs, to defend it againft the enemy,
or to keep the inhabitants in fubjeflion ; or even to be
fublifted during the winter feafon ; hence garrifon and
lu.'nter quarters are fometimes ufed indifferently for the
fame thing ; and fometimes they denote different thingr.
In the latter cafe, a garrifon is a place wherein forces
are maintained to fecure it, and w'here they keep re-
gular guard, as a frontier town, a citadel, caftle, tower,
&c. The garrifon ihould be always ilronger than the
towTifmen.

Du Cange derives the word from the corrupt Latin
garnij'iQ, ^vhicli the latter ivriters ufe to fignify all man-
ner of munition, arms, viftuals, &c. neceffary for the
defence of a place, and fuftaining of a fiege.

Winter quarters fignify a place where a number of
forces are laid up in the winter feafon, without keeping
the regular guard.

GARSTANG, a town in Lancafhire, 223 miles
from London. It is a large populous place, near a mile
in length, but built in a very irregular manner, with
dirty ftreets, and very indifferent houfes. The church
is a llately Gothic ftrufture. By the late inland navi-
gation, it has communication with the rivers Merfey,
Dee, Ribble, Oufe, Trent, Darwent, Severn, Hum-
ber, Thame', Avon, &c. which navigation, including
its windings, extends above 500 miles, in the counties
of Lincoln, Nottingham, York, Weftmorland, Cheller,
Stafford, Wanvick, Leicefter, Oxford, Worcefter, &c.
GARTER, a ligature for tying up the Hocking ;
but particularly ufed for the badge of a noble order of
knights, hence denominated the

Order of the G.HTit, a military order of knighthood,
the moll noble and ancient of any lay order in the
world, inftituted by Edward III. The knights com-
panions arc generally princes and peers ; and the king
of England is the fovereign or chief of the order. The
number of knights was originally 26 ; but fix were
added in 1786, on account of the increafe of the royal
family. They are a college or corporation, having a
great and little leal.

Their officers are a prelate, chancellor, regiftcr, king
at arms, and uiher of the black rod. They have alio
a dean, with 1 2 canons and petty canons, vergers, and
26 penfioners or poor knights. The prelate is the
head. This office is veiled in the biihop of Winchefter,
and has ever been fo. Next to the prelate is the chan
cellor; which office is veffed in the bilhop of Salifbury,
who keeps the feals, &c. The next is the regifter,
who by his oath is to enter upon the rcgilfry, the fcru-
tinies, eleftions, penalties, r.nd other afls of the order,
with all fidelity : The dean of Windfor is always regif-
ter ex officio. The fourth off.cer is Garter and king-
at-arm«, being two diltincl offices united in one perfon.

Garter

CAR { 453 3

. Garter carries the roJ and Iceptic at the ic..fl of St
"^ George, the protetlor of this order, when the l'overti;>n
h prefent. He notifies the elefHons of new knights,
attends tlie folemnity of their inftallations, carries the
garter to foreigiv princes, &c. He is the principal
oiFicer within the college of arms, and chief of tl^e he-
ralds. Sec Ki.va-a/Jrms.

All thefe oflkcrs except the prelate have fees and
penfion.-. The college of the order is feated in the
caille of Wiudfor, within the chapel of St George, and
the charter houfe, ereftcd by the founder for that pur-
pofe. The habit and enfign of the order are, a garter,
mantle, cape, george, and collar. The three tirlt were
afllgned the knights companions by the founder ; and,
the george and collar by Henry VIH.

The garter challenges preeminence over all the
otlier parts of the drefs, by rcafon that from it the
noble order is denominated ; that it is the firll part of
the habit prefentcd to foreign princes and abfent
inights, wlio, and all other knights-eleft, are there-
with firll adorned ; and it is of fo great honour and
grandeur, thp.t by the bare invelHture with this noble
eniign, the knights are efteemed companions of the
greateft military order in the world. It is worn on
tlie left leg betvveen the knee and calf, and is ena-
melled with this motto, Hoxi SOIT qui Mai, y PEXSE ;
i. e. iikame to him thai thinks evil hereof: The meaning
of which is, that King Edward ha\ang laid claim to the
kingdom of France, retorted Ihame and defiance upon
him that (liould dare to think amifs of the juft enter-
prife he had undertaken, for recovering his lawful right
to that crown ; and that the bravery of tliofe knights
whom he had elecled into this order, was fuch as
ivould enable him to maintain the quarrel againft thofe
that thought ill of it.

The mantle is the chief of thefe veftraents made ufe
of upon all folemn occafions. The colour of the man-
tle is by the ftatutes appointed to be blue. The length
of the train of the mantle only diftinguilhes the fove-
reign from the knights companions. To the collar of
the mantle is fixed a pair of long firings, anciently
woven with blue fitk only, but now twifted round, and
made of Venice gold and filk, of the colour of the
robes, with knobs or buttons, and talTels at the end.
The left flioulder of the mantle has from the Inftltu-
tion been adorned with a large garter, with the device,
HoKl SOIT, &.C. Within this is the crofs of the or-
der, which was ordained to be worn at all times by
King Charles I. At length the liar was introdu-
ced, being a fort of crofs irradiated with beams of

GAR

filv

The collar Is appointed to be compofed of pieces of
gold In falhion of garters, the ground enamelled blue,
and the motto gold.

When the knights wear not their robes, they are to
have a filver ftar on tlie left fide ; and they commonly
bear the plflure of St George, enamelled on gold, and
befet with diamonds, at the end of a blue ribbon, crof-
fing the body from the left fhoulder. They are not to
appear abroad without the garter, on penalty of 6s. 8d.
paid to the regiller.

The manner of elefllng a knight companion into
this mofl noble order, and the ceremonies of invefti-
ture, aie as follow. When the foverelgn defigns to
flecl 3 co'np:\nion of the garter, the chancellor belong-

ing to this orui-r ilrav/s up the letters, which, paiTmg
both under the fbvereign's )i(_n manual and lignct of tlie
order, are fc.-it to tlie peifon" by Garter principal king
at arms ; and are in this manner, or to the fame tfte£l :
" We, with the companions of our nioft noble order
of the garter, alTembled in chapter, holdcn this prefent
day at our callle at Windfor, confidcring tlie virtuous
fidulity you have fhown, and the honourable exploits
you have done in our fervice, by vindicating and main-
taining our right, &c. have elected and chofen you one
of the companions of our order. Therefore, we re-
quire you to make your fpeedy repair unto u^, to receive
the enligns thereof, and be ready for your inllallation
upon the — day of this prefent month, &c."

The garter, which is of blue velvet bordered with
fine gold wire, having commonly the letters of the
motto of die fame, is, at the time of eledlion, buckled
upon the left leg, by two of the fenior companions,
who receive it from the fovereign, to whom it wa>
prefented upon a velvet culhion, by Garter king a:
arms, with the ufual reverence, wliilll the chancellor
reads the following admonition, enjoined by the fla-
tutes ; " To the honour of God omnipotent, and in
memorial of the blefled martyr St George, tie about
thy leg, for thy renown, this noble garter ; wear it as
the fyrabol of the moll lUullrious order, never to fa-
forgotten or laid afide ; that thereby thou raayefl be
admonlihed to be courageous ; and having undertaken
a jufl war, in which thou ihalt be engaged, thou
mayell lland firm, valiantly fight, and fuccefsfuHy con-
quer.'' The princely garter being then buckled on, and
the w-ord of its fignification pronounced, the knight elert
is brought before the fovereign, who puts about his
neck, kneeling, a dark blue ribbon, whereunto is ap-
pendant, wrought in gold within the garter, the Image
of St George on horfeback, with his fword drawn,
encountering with the dragon. In the mean time, the
chancellor reads the following admonition : " Wear
this ribbon about thy neck, adorned with the image of
the blelTed martyr and foldier of Chrift, St George,
by whofe imitation provoked, thou mayell lb overpafs
both profperous and adverfe adventures, that having
floutly vanquilhed thy enemies both of body and foul,
thou mayefl not only receive the praife of tliis tran-
fient combat, but be cro\Tned with the palm of eternal
vielory." Then the knight elefled kitfes the fovereign 's
hand ; thanks his majelly for the great honour done him ;
rlfes up, and falutes all the companions feverally, who
return their congratulations. See a reprcfcntatlon of
the above infignia, among others, on the plate belong-
ing to Orders of KutatitHoosi.

Since the inllitution of this order, there have been
eight emperors and twenty-eight kings, befidcs nu-
merous fovereign princes enrolled as companions there-
of. Its origin is fomeuhat differently related. The
common account is, that the counttfs of SaUfLury
at a ball happening to drop her garter, the king took
it up and prefented it to her with thefe words, " Hc-
ni fait qui nial y penfe ; i. e. Evil to him that evil
tlilnks. This accident, it is faid, gave rife to the order
and the motto ; it being the fpirit of the times to mix
love and wnr together : but as in the original ftatutes
of this order there is not the leafl conjeclurc to coun.
tcnance fuch a feminine inllitution, credit cannot be
given to this tradition. CamdfTi, rem, &c. ti<ke it

GAR [4,

to liave tccn imlitiited on occafiou ot the victory ob-
tained by Edward over the French at the battle of
'' Creffy •, that prince, fay fome hifiorians, ordered his
garter to be dilplayed, as a fignal of battle : in com-
memoralion whereof, he made a garter the principal
ornament of the order, ereded in memory of this fig-
nal victory, and a fymbol of the indilToluble union of
the knights.

It appears from Raftel's Chronicle, lib. vi, quoted by
Granger in the fupplement to his Biographical Hillory,
that this order was de^ifed by Richard I. at the liege of
the city of Acre, when he caufed twenty-fix knights,
who firmly llood by him, to wear thongs of blue leather
about their legs, and that it was perfeilcd in the nine-
teenth year of Edward III.

In 1551, Edward VI. made fome alterations in the
ritual of this order : that prince compofed it in La-
tin, the original whereof is Hill extant in his own
hand writing. He there oidained, that the order
ihould no longer be called the order of St George, but
that of the Garter; and, inllead of the george, hung
at the collar, he fubftituted a cavalier, bearing a book,
on the point of his fword, with the word proieclio gra-
ven on the fword, and verbum Dsi on the book : ^vith
a buckle in the left hand, and the word Jides thereon.
Larrey.

GjKTSK, principal King at Arms. This office was in-
(lituted by Henry V.

Garter, and principal king at arms, are two diftincl
offices united in one perfon : Garter's employment is
to attend the fervice of the order of the garter ; for
which he is allowed a mantle and badge, a houfc in
Windfor caftle, and penfions both from the fovereign
and knights, and laftly, fees. He alfo carries the rod
and fceptre at every fealt of St George, when the fove-
reig;; is prefent, and notifies the eleftion of fuch as
are new chofen j attends the folemnity of their inltal-
lations, takes care of placing their arms over their
feats ; and carries the garter to foreign kings and
princes, for which fervice it has been ufual to join him
in commiflion with fome peer, or other perfon of di-
ftinftion.

Garter's oath relates only to fervices being performed
within the order, and is taken in chapter before the fo-
vereign and knights. His oath, as king at arms, is ta-
ken before the earl marfhal.

Garter is alfo a -terra in heraldry, fignifying the
moiety or half of a bend.

GARTH is ufed in fome parts of England for a
little backfide or clofe. It is an ancient Britilh word.
Gardd, in that language, fignifies garden, and is pro-
nounced and written garlh. This word is alfo ufed for
a dam or wear, &c.

Carth Men is ufed in our ftatutes for thofe who
catch fiUi by means of filh garths, or wears. By ftatute
it is ordained, that no filher, nor garth man, Ihall ufe
any nets or engines to dcflroy the fry of fiit, &c.
17 Ric. II. cap. 9. The word is fuppofed by fome to
be derived from the Scotch \\ord gart, which fignifies
forced or compelled ; becaufe fi(h are forced Dy the wear
to pafs in a loop, where they are taken.

Garth, Sir Samuel, an excellent Engliih poet and
phyfician, was defcended from a gjod family in York-
ihire. He was admitted into the college of phyficians
3

54 1

GAR

at London in 1693. He at that time zealoufly promo- O^iih.
ted and encouraged the erefling of the difpenfary for Garumna
the relief of the fick poor, by giving them advice gra-' '
tis, and medicines at low rates. This work of charity
having expofed him and many other phyficians to the
envy and refentment of feveral perfons of th? fame fa-
culty as well as apothecaries, he ridiculed thtm, with
a peculiar fpirit and vivacity, in a poem called the
Difpenfary, in fix cantos, highly efteemed. He was
one of the moft eminent members of the famous fo-
ciety called the Kit Kat Club, which confifted of
noblemen and gentlemen diilinguiilied by their excel-
lent pans and afi'edion to the houfe of Hanover.
Upon the accefiion of George I. he was knighted,
and made phyfician in ordinary to his majefty, and
phyfician general to the army. Nor were thei'e more
than juft rewards even of his phyfical merit. He had
gone through the office of cenlor of the college in
1702 ) and had praclifed always with great reputation,
and a ftrict regard to the honour and interell of the
faculty, never, ftooping to proftitute the dignity of
his profeflion, through mean and fordid views of felf-
intereft, to any, even the moll popular and wealthy-
apothecaries. In a fteady adherence to this noble
principle, he concurred with the much celebrated Dr
RadcUfiie, with whom he was alfo often joined in phy-
fical confult.ations. He had a very extenfive praiftice,
but was very moderate in his views of advancing his
own fortune ; his humanity and good nature inclin-
ing him more to make ufe of the great inteiell he had
with perfons in power, for the fupport and encourage-
ment of other men of letters. He chofe to live with
t'ne great in that degree of independency and freedom
which became a man pofleffed of a fuperior genius,
whereof he was daily giving frelh proofs 10 the pub-
lic. One of his laft performances in polite letters,
was his tranllation of the whole fourteenth book, and
the ftory of Cinnus in the fifteenth book, of OWd's Me-
tamorphofes. Thefe, together with an Englifh ver-
fion of the reft, were publilhed in 1 7 1 7 ; and he has
prefixed an excellent preface to the whole, wherein
he not only gives an idea of the work, and points out
its principal beauties, but fhows the ules of the poem,
and how it may be read to moil profit. The dillem-
per which feized him the enfuing year, and ended not
but with his life, caufed a general concern ; which
was particularly tellilied by Lord Lanfdowne, a brother
poet, though of a diflerent party, in fome admirable
verfes written on the occafion. He died, after a Ihort
illnefs, which he bore with great patience, in January
1719.

GARUMN A, a noble and navigable river of Gaul,
which rifing from the Pyrenees, formerly bounded
Aqnitain on the north (Ciefar); hut by the new regu-
lation of Auguflus divided it in the middle, emptying
itfelf to the north of Burdegala, in the Aquitanic
ocean. Now the Garonne. Mela obfcrves concerit-
ing it, that uniefs it is fwclled by winter rains, or the
m-iltina; of the fnow, it is for a great part of the year
fhoalv and fcarce navigable ; but when increafed by
the meeting tide, whereby its waters are impelled, it is
fomewhat fuller ; and the farther the river advances,
it K broader, till at length it refembles a large frith or
arm of the fea, not only bearing large vtflcls, but a!-

S [45

■aging fea, toffes them extremely,
clion of the wind be one way and

G A

fo fweiling like a ragin;
efpecialiy if the d
_ that of the current another,

GAS, in Chemiflrij, a general name for all perma-
nently elaftic fluids, which are obtained hy chemical
procelTes, as azon'c gas, nwrisiic acid zas, nitrt/iis ,f<7/.
See Chemistry [/i{/ex. It is derived from the German
gafcht or gall, fignifying an eruption of wind, or the
ebullition attending the expullion of elaftic fluids from
fubftances in a (late of fermentation or effervefcence.
It was firft employed bv Van Helmont.

GASCOIGN'E, Sir William, chief julHce of the
court of king's bench under Henry IV. A moft
learned and upright judge : who being infulted on the
bench by the then prince of Wales, afterwards Hen-
ry V. with equal intrepidity and coolnefs committed the
the prince to prifon ; and by this feafonable fortitude
laid the foundation of the future glory of that great
monarch, who from this event dated his reformation
from the licentioufnefs of his youth. It is not well
authenticated that the prince ftruck Sir William, as
recorded by Shakefpeare ; but all authors agree, that
he interrupted the courfe of juftice to fcreen a lewd
fcrvant. Sir William died in 14 13.

Gascoign'E, George, an Englifh poet of fome fame
in the early part of the reign of Oueen Elizabeth, was
bom at Walthamftow in EiTex, of an ancient family,
and educated at both univerfilies, but principally at
Cambridge. From thence he removed to Gray's Inn,
and commenced ftudent of the law ■, but having a ge-
nius too volatile for that ftudy, he travelled abroad, and
for fome time ferved in the army in the Low Countries.
He afterwards went to France ; where he became ena-
moured of a Scottilh lady, and married her. Being
at length, fays Wood, -Meanj of l/icfe I'nnities, he re-
turned to England ; and fettled once more in Gray's
Inn, where he wrote moft of his dramatic and other
poems. The latter part of his life he fpent in his na-
tive village of Walthamftow, where he died in the year
1578. He had the charafter of a polite gentleman,
an eloquent and witty companion, et vi'r inter poetas fui
feculi prtrjlantijfimus. His plays, firft primed feparatcly,
were afterwards, with feveral other poems, &c. re-
printed in two volumes 410 j the firft volume in 1577,
the fecond in 1587.

GASCOIN, or Gascoiot, denotes tlie hinder thigh
of a horfe, which begins at the ftitie, and reaches to
the ply or bending of the ham.

GASCONADE, a boaft or vaunt of fomething
very improbable. The term has its rife from the Gaf-
cons, or people of Gafcony in France, who it fcems
have been diftinguiftied for bragging and rhodomon-
tade.

G ASCONY, the r fouth-v.eft province of France,
is bounded by Guif on the north, by Languedoc

on the eaft, by the . yrences \vhich feparate it from
Spain on the fouth, and by the bay of Bifcay on the
weft. It had its name from the ancient inhabitants,
'called Gafconef, or Vafcones ; by the modern* Bafques,
or Vafqiies. After thefe were fubdued by the Franks,
they had for fome time dukes of their own, who were
fubjecl to the dukes of Aqjitaine ; but both were at
laft: difpoflefled by the kings of Fr.ince. The country
produces corn, wine, fruits, tobacco, hemp, brandy,
prunes, &c. The inhabitants arc noted for a corrupt

5 ] GAS

and vicious pronunciation of the French tongue, as well GalFcn
as their vain-glorious boafting. II

GASSENDI, PtTER, one of the moft celebrated ^^^
philofophers France has produced, was born at Chan-
terfler, about three miles from Digne in Provence, in
i.^"^^- When a chi!;', be took particular delight in
gazing at the moon and ftars as often as they appeared
in clear unclouded weather. This pleafure frequently
drew him into bye places, in order to feaft liis eye
freely and undifturbed •, by which means his patents
had him often to feck, not without many anxious fears
and appreheniions. They therefore put him to fchool
at Digne ; w here, in a Ihort time, he made luch an
extraordinary progrefs in learning, that fome pcrfons,
who had Icen ipecimens of his genius, refolved to have
him removed to Aix, in order to ftudy philofophy
under Feiay, a learned minor friar. This propofal
was fo difagreeable to his father, who intended to breed
him up in his own way to country bufinel's, as being
more profitable than that of a fcholar, that he would
confent to it only upon condition that he Ihould return
home in two years at fartheft. Accordingly young
GaiTendi, at the end of the appointed time, repaired
to Chanterfier ■, but he had not been long there when
he was in\'ited to be profeflor of rhetoric at Digne, be-
fore he was quite 16 years of age; and he had been
engaged in that office but three years, when his matter
Fefay dying, he was made profeflor in his room at Aix.
When he had been there a few years, he corapofed his
Paradoxical Exercitations ; which, coming to the hands
of Nicholas Peirefc, that great patron of learning
joined with Jofeph Walter prior of Valette in promot-
ing him ; and he having entered into holy orders, was
firft made canon of the church of Digne and doctor of
divinity, and then obtained the wardenftiip or reftor-
ftiip of that church. Gafiendi's fondnefs for aftrono-
my grew up with his years ; and his reputation daily
increafing, he was in 1 645 appointed royal profelTor
of mathematics at Paris. This inftitution being chiefly
defigned for aftroncmy, our author read leCUircs on
that fciencc to a crowded audience. However, he
did not hold this place long j for a dangerous cough
and inflammation of the lungs obliged h'm, in 1647,
to return to Digne for the benefit of bis native air. —
Gaflendi wrote agaiiift the metaphyfical meditations of
Defcartes ; and di^nded with that great man the phi-
lofophers of his time, almoft all of whom were Carte-
fians or Gaflendians. He joined to his knowledge of
philofophy and the mathematics an acquaintance with
the languages and a profound erudition. He wrote,
I. Three volumes on Epicurus's Philofophy; and fix
others, which contain his o.vn philofophy. 2. Aftro-
nomical Works. 3. The Lives of Nicholas de Peirefc,
Epicurus, Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Puerbachius,
and Regiomontanus. 4. Epillles, and other trcatifes.
All his. works were collected together, and printed at
Lyons in 1658, in fix volumes folio. He died at Pa-
ris in 1658, aged 63.

GAS! EROS lEUS, the stickleback, a genus of
filhes belonging to the order of thoracici. See Ich-
thyology Index.

GAST-Hot'ND. See G^ts Hound.

GASTRIC, in general, fomething belonging to the
ftomach.

Cjstkjc Juice, a thin pellucid liquor, which diftih

frvni .

GAT

[ 456 ]

GallTocne- from certain glands in the ftomacli, For the dilutii
"'"5 &c. of the food. See Anatomy.
GASTROCNEMIUS,
y—^^-^L^ MY, Tab/e of the Mufcles.

G ASTROMANCY, or C astromaxtia, a kind of
divination j:riili;.:d Kiv.ong the aiicicists isy means of
^rords coming or Iceraing to come out of the belly.

The ^vord is Greek, ytcf^'fictfliM, compofed of y«r>:{,
6e//y, and fuivltix, divination.

There is another kind of divination called by the
fame name gq/lromancy, which is performed by means
of glafles or other round tranfparent vefiels, within
which certain figures appear by magic art. It is thus
called, becaufe the figures appear as in the belly of the
veffels.

GASTRORAPIIY, in Surgery, the operation of
fewing up wounds of the abdomen. See Surgery.

GASTROTOM Y (of ytm^, and ti^.., / cut), the
operation of cutting open the belly ; otherivife called
■the CirfarcanfeBiun. See MiDWII-erY.

GATAKER, Thomas, a learned critic and divine,
%vas bom at London in 1574, and ftudied at St John's
college, Cambridge. He was afterwards chofen preacher
at Lincoln's Inn ; which he quitted in 1611, for the
reftory of Rotherhithe in Surry. In 1620, he made
a tour through the Low Countries; and in 1624, pu-
blifhed at London a book, entitled, Tranfubllantiation
declared by the confeflion of the Popilh Writers to
have no necelTary foundation in God's Word : he
Tvrote likewife a defence of this difcourfe. In 1642,
he was appointed one of the afiembly of divines, and
xvas engaged with them in writing annotations upon
the Bible. He died in July 1654, in the 80th year
of his age. Befides the above v\orks, he publilhed,
1. A Diflertation upon the Style of the New Tefta-
ment. 2. De Nomine Tetrogrammata. 3. De Di/>h-
l/iongis. Jive Bivocalibus. 4. An Edition and Tranlla-
tron of the Emperor Marcus Antoninus's Meditations.
5. A CclJedion of Sermons, in folio; and many other
works. His piety and charity Avere \cry exemplary ;
and his mcdcfty fo great, that he declined all ec-
clefiaftical dignity and court preferments. His ex-
tenfive learning was admired by Salniafius and other
great men abroad ; his houfe was a private feminary
lor young gentlemen of this nation, and many fo.
reigners reforted to him to receive advice in their
ftudies.

GATE, in ^rchiteBure, a large door, leading or
giving entrance into a city, town, caftle, palace, or
other considerable building. See Architectuuk.

Thebes, in Egypt, was anciently known by the ap-
pellation iL'iih a hundred gates, in ancient Rome there
was a triumphal gate, porta triumphalis. In modern
Home there is the jubilee gate, which is only opened in
the year of a grand jubilee.

The gates of London were many of them converted
into gaols or prifor.s, as Ludgate, Newgate, &c. but
they are now removed. The Itfler or by-gates are
called piPerns. Gates, through which coaches, &c.
are to pafs, fliould not be lei's than 7 feet broad, nor
more than 12 ; the height to be l^ the breadth.

Gate, or Gait, in the manege, called in French
train, is ufed for the going or pace of a horfe.

Gatj:, in a military fcnfe, is made of ftrong planks,
•jvilli iron bars, to oppofe an enemy. They are gene-

GAT

rally made in the ;nlddle of the curtain, from -^A-'lience
they are feen, and defended by the two flanks of the
baftions. They fl-.ould be covered with a good rave- v,
lin, that they may not be feen or enfiladed by the
enemy. Thefe gates, belonging to a fortified place,
are paflages through llie rarapart, w-hich may be fhut
and opened by means of doors and a portcullis. They
are either private or public.

Private gates are thofe paflages by which the troops
can go out of the to\vn unfeen by the enemy, when
they pafs to and from the relief of the duty in the
outworks, or from any other occafion which is to be
concealed from the beCegers.

Public gates are thole paflages through the middle
of fuch curtains, to which the great roads of public
ways lead. The dimenfions of thefe are ufually about
13 or 1 4 feet high, and 9 or 1 o feet wide, continued
through the rampart, ^v^th proper recefles for foot
paflengers to Hand in out of the way of wheel car-
riages.

Gates of Hell. This expreflion is ufed in Scripture,
to denote figuratively either the grave or the powers of
darknefs, i. e. the de\'il and his angels.

The Mahometans ufe the expreflion literally, and
fuppofe that hell has feven gates. The firft is that
where Mufflilmans, who incur the guilt of fin, will be
tormented. The fecond is for the Chriftians. The
third is for the Jews. The fourth is for the Sabians.
The fifth for the Magians or ^vorfliippers of fire. The
fixth for Pagans and idolaters. And the feventh for
hypocrites, who make an outward Ihow of religion,
but have none.

GATESHEAD, in the county of Durham, is as
it were the fuburbs of Newcaftle, though it lies in an-
other county, being divided by the river Tyne ; over
wliich there is a fine ftone bridge, with an iron gate
in the middle, having the arms of Durham on one
fide, and thofe of Newcaftle on the other, which is
the boundarv between the bidiopric and Northumber-
land.' The church is a fine building, with a very high
tower, feen at a great diftance ; and in the church-
yard are feveral ancient monuments. There are few
traces left of its ancient moiiaftery, except a ftone
gateway, or rather a modern creflion. The houfe
covered two acres and a half of land.

GATH, or Geth, in Ancient Geography, a cele-
brated city of the Philiftines, and one of their five
principalities. It is famous for having given birth to
Goliath. David made a conqueft of it in the begin-
ning of his reign over all Ifrael ; and it conrinued fub-
jecfl to the kings his fuccefiors till the declenfion and
decay of the kingdom of Judah. Rehoboam rebuilt or
fortified it ; King Uzziah retook it, and Hezekiah once
more reduced it under his fubjedlion.

Gath flood about five or fix miles from Jamnia,
about 14 fouth of Joppa, and 32 weft of Jerufalem.
Hence fome authors (among whom is F. Calmet)
have committed an egregious millake in making Gath
the mort fouthem, and Ekron the moft northern, of
the Philiftine cities ; as if thefe two had been the two
boundaries of their dominions, whercjis thefe t;vo ci-
ties are not above five miles afunder ; and Gaza is the
Ivtft of the five fatrapies fouth. And Jofephus (in the
place already quoted) exprefles himfelf plainly enough,
when he fays, tliat Hezekiah took all the Philiftine

cities

G A U

[ 4

cities from Gaza to Gath ; there being many more
cities ot that name, which fignifies in the Hebrew a
_j wine f>refs. Several more of the name of Gcth or
Gath ate mentioned in Eufebius and St Jerome, whofe
Cluation, according to them, plainly ihows them to
have be«i difterent places from this, and from each
oilier ; befides tlsofe which had an adjunft to diftin-
guilh them.

This city recovered its liberty and lurtrc in the time
of the prophets Amos and Micah ; but was afterwards
demoliQied by Hazael king of Syria, after which it
became of but little confideration till the time of the
holy war, ^vhen Fulk king of Jferufalem built a caftle
on its ruins.

Gath Opher, Gath Epher, or Galli, in the canton of
Opher, in Galilee, was the birth-place of the prophet
Jonah. Joihua makes this city to be part of the tribe
of Zebulun \ and St Jerome, in his preface upon Jo-
nah, fays, that it was two miles from Sephoris, other-
wife called Diocafarea. '

Gath Rimr/ioTi, a city belonging to the tribe of Dan.
St Jerome places it ten miles from Dioipolis on the
way from Eleutheropolis. It was given to the Levites
of Kohath's family.

Gath Runmon, was alfo a city in the half tribe of
Manaffeh, on this fide Jordan, asid was alfo given for a
place of abode to the Levites of Kohath's family.

Gats Rimmon, was likewile a city in the tribe of
Ephraim, given to the Kohathites.

GAT'J'ON, a borough in the county of Surry, 19
miles from London. It lies under the fide of a hill
going to Reygate ; and is fuppofed to have been
known to the Romans, by reafun of their coins and
other antiquities that have been found here. It is a
borough by prefcription ; and has fent members to
parliament ever Ijnce the 29th of Henry VI. It was
formerly a large town ; but is now a mean village,
with a fmall church, and without either fair or market.
The members are returned by its conflable, who is an-
nually chofen at the lord of the manor's court.

GAUBIUS, Jeromf.-David, M. D. profeffor of
medicine at Leyden, and afterwards fellow of the Roy-
al Society of London, was born at Heidelberg in
the year 1 705. From the Jefuits- he received the
rudiments of his education, and was much elleemed
by them on account of his abilities ; but his father
afterwards fent him to the orphan houfe of Halle, left
he Ihould be obliged to abjure his religion. The na-
ture of tlie difcipline, however, he here found to be
much too fevere, which induced him to requeft his fa-
ther to remove him from it, which was accorduigly com-
plied with. His teacher at this hofpital attributing the
fiillike of young Gaubius to the want of genius, urged
him to give his fon fome mechanical employment ; but
the father thought proper to indulge his ardent defire
after knowledge, and accordingly fent him to Amfter-
dam to ftudy under his uncle John, who was an eminent
phyfician. After profecuting his medical lludies for
fome time at Hordwyk, he rcfolved to viCt Leyden,
where the immortal Boerhaave was an eminent profef-
for', and whofe penetrating eye foon difcovered that
Gaubius was poiTeifed of talents above mediocrity. He
honoured him with unlimited acccfs to his houfe, de-
lighted in imparting inftruftion to him, and gradually
forwarded the cultivation of his mind. He took the

Vol. IX. Part II.

57 1 G A U

degree of doctor at the age of 20, after a difputation on Gsiihfiis,
the nature of folids, containing an abftraft of the fyilem C'a^!^^n.
which he himfelf followed through life. '~'^

He travelled through various parts of Europe, and
wlien he returned to Heidelberg by the ^vay of Straf-
burgh, he was appointed city-phyfician at Deventer in
the province of OverylTel ; but he foon after removed
to Amfterdam. Boerhaave never loif fijjht of his fa-
yourite pupil ; for wlien the infirmities of old age and
indefatigable labour made him anxious to rclign \<\%
chair, Gaubius on his recommendation was appointed
to fucceed him. He publiihed his InilruC^ions for writ-
ing Recipes in the year 1738, by which he acquired
great and juftly merited approbation, as he reduced the
art from a mere mechanical to a fcientific form. His
Principles of Nofology is perhaps his moil mafterly per-
formance, as it evinced that he was highly worthy of
fuch a preceptor. His next publication, which appear-
ed in 1771, was his " Adverfaria varii Argumenti," a
work which was particularly interefting to chemifts ;
and his oration on the 200th annivcrfary of the acade-
my of Leyden attrafted confiderable notice, as in it
he traced our, with his accullomed acumen, the chief
epochs of the arts and fciences in Holland.

He %vas lilcewife the author of numerous and valuable
papers in the Tranfaclions of the Society of Haerlem,
and was editor of many excellent performances, among
which we may rank Cramer's Elementa artis docimajllces ;
Albinus de prefagienda vita el rnorle, and Swammer-
dam's Book of Nature, which he partly tranflated. His
literary merit fpread his fame fo far beyond the bounds
of his native country, that pupils 'repaired to Leyden
from every quarter of Europe. In addition to his
widely extended reputation, he was blefied with the en-
joyment of good health till he was 70 years of age, and
died on the 29th of November 1780, in his feventy-
fifth year.

One work of his, entitled " Inftitutiones Pathologias
Medicinal is," was deemed fo valuable by ProfcfTor
Ackerman, and of fuch fingular advantage in acade-
mical leflures, that he gave the world a fourth edition
of it, publiihed at Nuremberg in 1787.

GAUDEN, Dr Joseph, fon of John Gauden vicar
of May field in EiTex, was born there in 1 605. At
the commencement of the civil war, he was chaplain to
Robert earl of Warwick ; who taking part with tlie
parliament againft the king, was followed by his chap-
lain. Upon the ellablifliment of the Prefbyterian mo-
del of church government, he complied ^vith the ruling
powers, and was nominated one of the alTerably of di-
vines who met at Weftminifter in 1643, and took the
covenant ; yet havhig offered fome fcruples and objec-
tions to it, his name was afterwards firuck out of tlie
lift. Nor did he efpoufe the parliament caufe any
longer than they adhered to their firft avowed princi-
ples of reforming only, inllead of deftroying, mo-
narchy and epiicopacy. In this fpirit he was one of
tliofc divines who figned a protellation to the army
againft the violent proceedings that affefted the life of
th^ king : and a few days after his execution publiihed
the famous Zucoit BienAjxit, y1 Portraiture of hit Sacred
Majefly m his Solitude and Sufferings ; which ran through
50 editions in the courfe of a year. Upon the return
of Charles II. he was promoted to the fee of Exeter;
and in 1 662 was removed to Woicefter, much to his
3 M regret,

G A U

havinc; flattered himfelf with

[ 458 ] G

hopes of a meiit, till the fourth court

A U

• j and his death happened the
fame year. He wrote many controverfial pieces fjited
to the ciicumftances of the times, and to his own views
from them. The Eikon Bajllike above-mentioned he
publiihed as the king's private meditations ; though on
this point there has been a long controverfy. Alter
the bifhop's death, his widow, in a letter to one of her
fons, calls it The Jewel ; and faid, her hufband had
hoped to make a fortune by it •, and that (he had a
letter of a very great man's, which would clear up that
he writ it. This aficrtion, as the earl of Clarendon
had predifted, was eagerly efpoufed by the anti-royal-
ji^s, in the view of difparaging Charles J. But it has
heen obferved, that Gauden had too luxuriant an ima-
gination, which betrayed him into a ranknefs of flyle
in the A.latic way ; and from thence, as Biibop Bur-
net argues with others, it may be certainly concluded,
that not he, but the king himfelf, was the true author
of the Ejx«» B«ir(A«)i ; in which there is a noblenefs and
jufinefs of thought, with a greatnefs of ftyle, that made
it be looked on as the beft written book in the EngllHi
language.

GAVEL, or Gabzl, among builders. See Gabel.

Gavel, in Lavj, tribute, toll, cuftom, or yearly re-
venue ; of which we had in old time feveral kinds. See
Gabel.

Gavel Kind, a tenure or cuflom belonging to lands
in tlie county of Kent. The word is faid by Lambard
to be compounded of three Saxon words, gyfe, eal, iijn,
" omnibus cognatione proximis dala." Verftegan calls it
gave/kind, quafi " give all kind," that is, to each child
his part : and Taylor, in his hiftory of gavelkind, de-
lives it from the Britifh gavel, i. e. a hold or tenure,
and ccnned, ^^ generatio ^ViXfamilia;'''' and io gavel cen-
ved might lignify tenura gencralionis. — It is uuiverfally
J'.nown what ftruggles the Kentilh men made to pre-
ierve their ancient literties, and Avith how much fuc-
rcfs thofe ftruggles were attended. And as it is prin-
cipally here that we meet with the cuftom of gavel-
kind (though it was and is to be found in fome other
parts of the kingdom), we may fairly conclude, that
this was a part of thefc liberties; agreeable to Mr Scl-
den's opinion, that gavelkind, before the Norman con-
queft, was the general cuftom of the realm. The di-
ftinguifiied properties of this tenure are various : fome
of the principal are ihefe : I. The tenant is of age
fufflcient to alienate his eftate by feoffment, at the age joined together by three brafs joints ; by which means

and if at that time he
find none, at this fouith court it is awarded, that he
take the tenement in his hand in name of a diftrefs, '
and keep it a year and a day without manuring ; with- s
in which time, if the tenant pay his arrears, and make
rcafonable amends for the withholding, he lliall have
and enjoy his tenement as before : if he come not be-
fore the year and day be paft, the lord is to go to the
next county court with witncfles of what had palled
at his own court, and pronounce there, his procefs, to
have further witnefles j and then by the award of his
own court, he fltall enter and manure the tenement as
his own : fo that if the tenant defircd afterwards to
have and hold it as before, he muft agree with the
lord ; according to this old faying : " Has he not llncc
any thing gi%'en, or any thing paid, then let him pay
five pound for his were, e'er he become healder again."
Other copies have the firll pari with fome variation j
" Let him nine times pay, and nine times repay."

Gavelet, in London, is a writ ufed in the huftings,
given to lords of rents in the city of London. Here
the parties, tenant and demandant, appear by fcire
facias, to ftioiv caufe why the one ihould not have his
tenement again on payment of his rent, or the other
recover the lands on default thereof.

GAUGAMELA, in ^Indent Geography, a village
of Aturia, lying between the rivers Lycus and Tigris ;
famous for Alexander's viftory over Darius. It is faid
to have been allowed to Darius Hyftafpes for the
maintenance of a camel ; and hence the name. It was
not far from a more conliderable place called Arbela ;
whence the latter gave the name to the victory. See
Arbela.

GAUGE-POINT of a folid meafure, the diameter of
a circle whole area is equal to the folid content of the
fame meafure.

G AUGER, a king's officer, who is appointed to
examine all tons, pipes, hogftieads, and barrels, of wine,
beer, ale, oil, honey, &.c. and give them a mark of
allowance, before they are fold in any place within the
extent of his office.

GAUGING. See Geometry.

GAUGwa-Rod, an inftrument uied in gauging or
meafuring the contents of any veflel. That ufualiy
employed is the iour-foot gauging rod. It is com-
monly made of box, and confifts of four rules, each a
foot long and about three-eighths of an inch fquare,

of ij. 2. The eftate does not efcheat in cafe of an
attainder and execution for felony ; their maxim being,
" the father to the bough, the fon to the plough."

3. In raoft places he had the power of deviftng lands by
will, before the ftatute for that purpofe was made.

4, The lands dcfcend, not to the eldelr, youngeft, or
any one fon only, but to all the fons together ; which
was indeed anciently the moll ufual courle of defcent,
all over England, though in particular places particu-
lar cuftoms prevailed.

GAVELET, in Law, an ancient and fpecial celTa-
vit ufed in Kent, where the cuftom of gavelkind con-
tinues, by which the tenant, if he withdraws his rent and
ferviccs due to the lord, forfeits his land and tenements.

The procefs of the gavelet is thus. The lord is firft
to fctk by the fteward of his court, from three weeks
to three weeks, to find fome dillrefs upon the tene-

the rod is rendered four feet long when the four rules
are quite opened, and but one foot when they are all
folded together. On the firft face of this rod, mark-
ed 4, are placed two diagonal lines •, one for beer and C
the other for wine : by means of which the content of
any common veffel in beer or wine gallons may be rea-
dily found, by putting the rod in at the bung hole of
tlie veflel till it meets the interfed ion of the head of
the vtflel with the ftaves oppofite to the bung hole.
For dirtincfion of this line, there is written thereon,
beer and wine gallons. On the fecond face, 5, are a
line of inches and the gauge-line ; which is a line ex-
prefling the areas of circles, whofe diameters are the
correlpondent inches in ale gallons. At the beginning
is written, ale area. On the third face, 6, are three
fcales of lines ; the firft, at the end of which is written
hogjl.'cad, is for finding how many gallons there are in

Plate

cxxviir.

G A U [45

a hogfhead xvhen it is not full, lying with its axis pa-
rallel to the horizon. The fecond line, at the end of
v.hich is nritten B. L. fignifying a bull lying is for the
fiime ufe as that for the hoglhead. The third line is
to find how much liquor is wanting to fill up a butt
when it is fianding : at the end of it is written B. S.
fignifying a butt ftanding. In the half of the fourth
face of the gauging rod, 7, there are the thvec fcales of
lines, to find the wants in a firkin, kilderkin, and bar-
rel, lying with their areas parallel to the horizon.
They are diftinguidied by letters F. A'. B. fignifying a
f.rkin, hildfrkin, and barrel.

Ufe of the diagonal lines on this rod. To find the
content of a velTel in beer or wine gallons, put the
brafed end of the gauging rod into the bung hole of
the cafli, with the diagonal lines upwards, and thrull
this brafed end to the meeting of the head and flaves ;
then with chalk make a mark at the middle of the
bung hole of the velTel, and alfo on the diagonal lines
of the rod, right againft, over one another, when the
brafed end is thvuft home to the head and ftaves : then
turn the gauging rod to the other end of the veflel,
and thruft the brafed end home to the end, as before.
LafUy, See if the mark made on the gauging rod come
even with the mark made on the bung hole, when the
rod was thruft to the other end ; which if it be, the
mark made on the diagonal lines will, on the fame
lines, ihow the whole content of the calk in beer or
wine gallons.

If the mark made on the bung hole be not right
againft that made on the rod when you put it the
other way, then right againft the mark made on tlie
bung hole make anollier on the diagonal line ; and the
divifion on the diagonal line between the two chalks
will (liow the velTel's whole contents in beer or wine
gallons. Thus, e. gr. if the diagonal line of the vefTel be
28 inches four-tenths, its contents in beer gallons will
be near 51, and in wine gallons 62.

If a velTel be open, as a half barrel, tun, or copper,
and the meafure from the middle of one fide to the
head and ftaves be 38 inches, the diagonal line gives
1 22 beer <;allons ; half of which, -nz. 61, is the con-
lent of the open half tub.

If you have a large veflel, as a tun or copper, and
the diagonal line taken bv a long rule proves 70 inches j
the content of that velVel may be found thus : Every
inch at the beginning end of the diagonal line call ten
inches. Thus ten inches becomes ico inches; and
every tenth of a gallon call 1 00 gallons ; and every
whole gallon call looo gallons.

Example. At 44.8 inches on the diagonal beer
line is 200 gallons •, fo that 4 inches 48 parts, now
called 44 inches 8-tenths, is juft two tenths of a gallon,
now called 100 gallons ; fo alfo if the diagonal line be
76 inches and 7-tcnths, a clofe cafk of fuch diagonal
ni!l hold 1 000 beer gallons ; but an open cafk but half
fb much, viz. 50c beer gallons.

Ufe of the GjuGE Line. To find the content of any
cylindrical vclVel in ale gallons ; feek the diameter of
the vefTel in inches, and juft againft it on the gauge
line is the quantity of ale gallons contained in one inch
deep ; this multiplied by the length of the cylinder
will give itf content in ale gallons.

For example, fuppofe the length of the velTel 32.06,
and the diameter of its bafe 25 inches ; to find what

9 ] G A U

is the content in ale gallons ? Riglit againft 25 inches Gaul,
on the gauge lin? is one gallon and .745 of a gallon ; ^— v— '
which multiplied by 32.06, the length, gives 55.9447
gallons for the content of the vclTcl.

The bung diameter of a hoglhead being 25 inches,
the head diameter 22 inches, and the length 32.06
inches ; to find the quantity of ale gallons contained in
it ' — Seek 25, the bung diameter, on the lineof inches ;
and right againll it on the guage line you will find
1.745 ■ ^^-^^ """^ third of it, which is .580, and fet it
down twice ; feek 22 inches in the head diameter, and
againft it you will find on the gauge line 1.356 ; one-
third of which added to twice .580 gives i.Cszc)6;
^vhich multiplied by the length 3 2.06, the producl will
be 51.603776, the content in ale gallons. Note, this
operation fuppofes, that the aforefaid hoglhead is in
the figure of the middle fruftum of a fpheroid.

The ufe of the lines on the two other faces of the
rod is very e^y ; you need only put it doiviiright into
the bung hole (if the veflel you defire to know the
quantity of ale gallons contained therein be lying) to
the oppofite ftaves ; and then ^vhere the furface of the
liquor cuts any one of the lines appropriated to that
vefTel, will be the number of gallons contained in that
veflel.

Gaul, the name given by the R.omansto the coun-
try that now forms the kingdom of France. — The ori-
ginal inhabitants were dcfcended from the Celtcs or
Goraerians, by whom the greateil part of Europe was
peopled ; the name of Galli, or Gauls, being probably
given them long after their fettlement in that country.
See Gallia.

The ancient hiftory of the Gauls is entirely wrapped
up in obfcurity and darknefs ; all we knovv concerning
them for a long time is, that they multiplied fo fait,
that, their country being unable to contain them, they
poured forth in vaft multitudes into other countries,
which they generally fubdued, and fettled themfelves
in. It often happened, however, that thefe colonics
^vcre fo molefted by their neighbours, that they were
obliged to fend for afTift-ance to tiieir native country.
This was always very eafily obtained. The Gaids were
upon every occafion, ready to fend forth great numbers
of new adventurers ; and as thefe fpread defolation
wherever they came, the very name of Gauls proved ,
terrible to raoft of the neighbouring nations. — The Account of
earlieft excurfion of thefe people, of which we have any.'*": Cmliih
diftina account, was into Italy, under a famed leader, I"™'*"'""'
named Bel/ovefus, about 622 years before Chrift. He
crolTed the Rhone and the Alps, till then unattemptcd ;
defeated the Hetrurians ; and feized upon that part of
their country, fince known by the names of Londiardij
and Piedmont. — The fecond grand expedition was made
by the Ccenomaui, a people dwelling between the rivers
Seine and Loire, under a general named FJitonis. 'J'hcy
fettled in thofe parts of Italy, now known by the
names of Brefciano, the Cre/nonefe, the Alantuai, Cur-
niola, and the Venetian. — In a third excurfion, two
other Gaulifh nations fettled on both fides of the river
Po ; and in a fourth, the lioii and Lingoncs fettled in
the country between Ravenna and Bologna. The time
of thefe three laft expeditions is uncertain.

ITie third expedition of llie Gauls was more remark-
able than any of the former, and happened about 200
years after that of Bellovtfus. The Senoncs fettled
3 M 2 between

' into Italy.

Expedition
againft the
Greeks.

G A U

Gaul. beHveen Paris and Meaux, were invited into Italy by a

— » Hetrurian lord, and fettled therafelves in Umbria.

Brcniius their king laid fiege to Clufium, a city in al-
lir.nce with Rome ; and this produced a war with the
Romans, in which the latter were at firft defeated, and
their city taken and burnt ; but at length the whole
array was cut oft" by Camillus, infomuch, that not a
fmgle perfon cfcaped.

Some other expeditions the Gauls undertook againft
the Romans : in which, though they always proved un-
fuccefsful, by reafon of their want of, military difci-
pline ; yet their fierccnefs and courage made them fo
formidable to the republic, that, on the firft neivs of
their march, extraordinary levies of troops were made,
facrifices and public fuppiications offered to the gods,
and the law which granted an immunity from military
fervice to priefts and old men, was, for the time, abo-
j lifhcd.

Againft the Greeks, the expeditions ^f the Gauls
were very little more fuccefsful than againft the Ro-
mans. The firft of thefe we hear oijfias about 279
years before Chriil, in the year after Pyrrhus had in-
vaded Italy. At this lime, the Gauls finding them-
felves greatly overftocked at home, fent out three great
colonies to conquer new countries for thtnifelves. One
of thefe armies was commanded by Drcnnus, another
V>y Cerelhriiis, and the third by Bt/p'us. The firft en-
tered Pannonia or Hungary ; the fecond Thrace ;
and the third marched into lUyricum and RIacedonia.
Here Belgius at firft met with great fuccefs ; and en-
riched himfelf by plunder to fuch a degree, that Bren-
nus envying him, refolved to enter the fame countries,
in order to fliare the fpoil. In a ft.ott time, however,
Belgius met with fuch a total defeat, t.hat. his army
was almoft entirely deftroyed ; upon which Brennus
haftened to the fame place. His army at firft confill-
ed of I jO,coo foot and 15,000 horfe : but two of his
principal OL.ccrs rivo'ud, and carried off 20,000 men,
with uli uJ intoTlnaccj where, having

joined L . i;:izL'd uti Byzantium and the

weiTern . 1 : pintis, making the adjacent parts

tributary to ilitm. — To retrieve this lofs, Brennus- fent
for frefti I'upplies from Gaul ; and Ka\ ing inc.reafed liis
army to 153,000 foot, and upwards of 60,000 horfe,
he entered Macedonia, defeated the general who op-
pofcd him, and ravaged the ^vhole country. He next
marched towards the ftraits of Thermopyl*, with a
defign to invade Greece; but was ftopped by the
forces fent to defend that pals againft him. He paf-
fed the mountains, however, as Xerxes had formerly
done ; upon wliich the guards retired, to av'oid being
furrounded. Brennus then having ordered Acicho-
rius, the next to him in command, to follow at a di-
ftance with pan, of his army, marched with the bulk
of the forces to Delphi, in order to plunder the rich
Mifcrable temple there. This enterprife proved exceedingly un-
fate 01 tie fortunate : a grfat nimiber of his men were deftroyed
army. by a dreadful ftorm of hail, thunder, and lightning ;

another part of his army was deftroyed by an earth-
quake •, and the remainder, fomehow or other, ima-
gining themfelves attacked by the enemy, fought a-
gainft each other the whole night, fo that in the morn-
ing fcarce one half of them remained. The Greek
forces then poured in upon them from all parts j and
that in fuch nw&bers, that tliough Acichorius came

Gaul.

aded by

[ 460 ] G A U

up in due time with his forces, Brennus found hirafelf
unable to make liead againft the Greeks, and was de- *■
feated ^vith great flaughter. He himfelf was def-
perately wounded ; and fo diftieartened by his misfor-
tune, that, having aflembled all his chiefs, he advifed
them to kill all the wounded and difabled, and to make
the beft retreat they could ; after which he put an end
to his own life. On this occafion, it is (iiid that 20,coo
of thefe unhappy people were executed by their own
countrymen. Acichorius then fet out with the re-
mainder for Gaul ; but, by being obliged to march
through the country of their enemies, the calamities
they met v.ith by the way were fo grievous, that not
one of them reached their own country. A juft judge-
ment, fay the Greek and Roman authors, for their fa-
crilegious intentions againft Delphi.

Ihe Romans having often felt the effecls of the f^
Gaulifli ferocity and courage, thought proper at laft, T
in order to humble them, to invade their country, ^aiis.
Their firil fuccefsful attempt. v,-as about 118 years be-
fore Chrift, under the command of Ouintus Marcius,
furnamed Rex. He opened a tvay betwixt the Alps and
the Pyrenees, \vhich laid the foundation for conquer-
ing the \vhole country. This was a work cf immenle
labour of itfelf, and rendered ftill more diriicult by the
oppofition of the Gauls,, efpecially ihofe called the
St.tni, who lived at the foot of the Alps* Thefe peo-
ple, finding themfelves overpowered by the confular ar-
my, fet (ire to their houfes, killed their wives and chil-
dren, and then threw themfelves into the tlames. Af-
ter this Marcius built the city of Narbonne, ^vhich be-
came the capital of a province. His facceffor Scaurus
alfo conquered (ome Gaulilh nations ; and in order to
facilitate the fending troops from Italy into that coun-
try, he made fevcral excellent roads between them,
which before were almoft impafljble. Thefe fucceffes
gave rife to the invafion of the Cimbri and Teutones ;
an account of whofe .unfortunate expedition is given
mider the articles CiMRRi, Rome, Teutones, &c.

From this time, the Gauls cealed to be formidable
to the Romans, and even feem to have been for fome
time on good-terms with them.: At laft, however,
the Helvetii kindled a war with the republic, ^vhich
brought Gaifar over the Alps,' and ended in the total ,
fubjeftion of the country. Orgetorix ivas the firft Surniifing
caufe of it ; who had engaged a vaft number cf his '""ctefs of
countrymen to burn their towns and villages, and to T"''"' '■^-
go in fearch of new conquefts. .Tulius Caefar, to whofe
lot the whole coutitry of Gaul had fallen, made fuch
hafte to come and fupprefs them, that he was got to
the Rhone in eight days •, broke down the bridge of
Geneva, and, in a few days more, finiftied the famed
wall between that city and Mount Jura, now St Claude,
which extended fcventeen miles in length, was fixteen
feet high, fortified with towers and caftles :.t proper
djftances, and a ditch that ran the whole length of
it. If his own arcouat of it may be relied upon, he
did not fet out till the beginning of April ; and yet
this huge work was finiftied by the ides or 1 3th of the
month ; fo that, fubtra.cling the eight days he was a-
coming, it muft have been all done in about five days ;
a prodigious work, confidcring he had but one legion
there, or even though the whole country h^ad given

hira aftiftance. Whilft this ^vas doing
forcements he wanted were coming,

and the rein-
he amufed the
Helvetii,

G A U

C 461 ]

G A U

Gju! Helvetij, who had fent to demand a paffage through
^"~*~~~' the country of the Allohroges, till he had got his re-
inforcements ; and then flatly refufcd it to them :
whereupon a dreadful battle enfucd j in which they loll
one hundred and thirty thouland men, in fpite of all
their valour j belides a number of prifoners, among
%vhora were the wife and daughter of Orgetorix, the
leader of this unfortunate expedition. The reft fub-
mitted, and begged they might be permitted to go
and fettle among the ^dui, from whom they original-
ly fprung ; and, at the requelt of tliefe lall, were per-
mitted to go.

The Gauls were conllantly in a fiate of variance w ith
one another •, and Cx-far, who knew how to make the
moft of thefe intelline broils, foon became the protec-
tor of the oppreiTcd, a terror to the oppreuTor, and the
umpire of all their contentions. Among thofe who
applied to him for help, were his allies the ^Tldui ; a-
gainft whom Arioviftus, king of the Germans, had joined
with the Arxerni, who inhabited the banks of the Loire,
had taken the country of the Sequani from thern, and
obliged them to fend hoftages to him. Cajfar torth-
Avith fent to demand the rellitution of both, and, in an
intervieiv which he foon after obtained of that haughty
and treacherous prince, was like to have fallen a facri-
fice to his perfidy : upon which he bent his whole
pov.er againft him, forced him out of his ftrong in-
trenchments, and gave him a total overthrow. Ario-
villus efcaped, with ditf.cuky, over the Rhine ; but his
two wives, and a daughter, with a great number of
Germans of dillinclion, fell into the conqueror's hand.
Cajfar, after this fignal victory, put his army into win.
g ter quarters, whilll he went over the Alps to make the
A s'" tra! neceflary preparations for the next campaign. By this
confederacy time all the Belgse in general were fo terrified at his
hfm" fuccefs, that they entered into a confederacy againll

the Romans as their common enemy. Of this, Labi-
enus, who had been left in Gaul, fent Ca^far notice ;
upon which he immediately left Rome, and made
Juch difpatch, that he arrived upon their confines in
about fifteen days. On his arrival, the Rhemi fubreit-
ted to him ; but the reft, appointing Galba king of
the Suelfiones general of all their forces, which a-
mounted to one hundred and fifty thoufand men,
inarched direflly agaiuft him. Csefar, who had feized
on the bridge of the Axona, now Aifne, led his light
y horfe and infantry over it ; and ^vhilil the others ivere
7T)e Gauls encumbered in croffing that river, made fach a terrible
defe?.i;d flaughter of them, that the river was filled with their
iiuoUec^ dead, inlbmuch that their bodies ferved for a bridge to
" ' ' thofe who efcaped. This new viftory ftruck fuch ter-
ror into the reft, that they difperfed themfelvcs ; im-
mediately after which, the Suefllones, Bellovaci, Am-
biones, and ferae others, fubmitted to him. The Ner-
vii, indeed, joined with the Atrebates and Veroman-
dui againft them ; and having firft fecured their wives
and children, made a vigorous re.lftance for fome time ;
but were at length defeated, and the grcateft part of
them flain. The relt, with their ^vives and old men,
Jurrendered themfelves, and were allowed to live in their
ov,n cities and towns as formerly. The Aduatici were
next fubdued ; and, for their treachery to the conquer-
or, were fold for flaves, to the number of 50,000.
Youn^ CralTus, the fori of the triumvir, fubdued like-
v>ife fcven other nalions, and took polTefllon of their ci-

ties ; which not only completed the conquefi of the Eel- Gm\.

gx, but brought feveral nations from beyond the Rhine * '

to fubniit to the conqueror. The Veneti, or ancient
inhabitants of Vannes in Brittany, who had been like-
wife obliged to lend hoftageis to the conqueror, were, in
the mean time, making great preparations by fca and
land to recover their liacrty. Cxfar, then in Illyri-
cum, v.as forced to equip a fleet on the Loire ; and ha-
ving given the command of it to Brutus, went and de-
feated them by land, as Brutus did by lea ; and having
put tiieir chief men to death, fold the relt for flaves.
The Unelii, with Veridorix their jchief, together with
the Lexovii and Aulerci, were about the fame time fub-
dued by Sabinus, and the Aquitani by Craffus, with the
lofs of 30,o;o men. There reraained nothi.ig. but the
countries of the Morini and Meaapii to be conquered of
all Gaul. Cafar marched hirafelf againft them : but
he found them fo well intrenched in their inacceftibh-
, fortrefles, that he contented hiralelf with burning and
ravaging their country ; and having put his troops into
winter quarters, again palled over the Alps, to have a
more watchful eye on fome of his rivals there. He was,
however, foon after obliged to come to defend his Gaui-
ifli conquerts againft fome nations of the Germans, who
were coming to fettle there, to the number of 400,000.
Thefe he totally defeated, and then refolved to cany his
conquering arms into Germany ; but for an account of
his exploits there, fee the article GERMAsy. g

Upon his return into Gaul, he found it labouring un-The Gauls
der a great famine, which h."J caufed a kind of univcr-'<^"l^ ''"'
fal revolt. Cotta and Sabinus, who were left in thcj'^^^"
country of the Eburones, now Liege, were betrayed
into an ambulh by Ambiorix, one of the Gaullfti chiefs,
and had moft of their men cut off. The Aduatici had
fallen upon Q. Cicero, who was left there v\-itii one le-
gion, and had reduced him to great ftraits : at the fame
time Labienus, with liis legion, was attacked by Indu-
tioraarus, at the head of the Rhemi and Senones ; but
had better luck than the reft, and by one bold fally
upon them, put them to flight, and killed tlieir general.
Ca;far acquired no fmall credit by quelling all thefe re-
volts ; but each victory luft the lives of fo many of his
troops, that he ivas forced to iiavc recourfe to Pompey
for a freili fupply, who readily granted liim two of his
own legions to fecure his Gaulilh conquefts.

But it was not long before the Gauls, ever refllefs ^ fecond
under a foreign yoke, raifed up a new revolt, and o- revolt,
bliged him to return thither. His fear left Pompey
(hould gain the afledions of the Roman people, had
obliged him to ftrip the Gauls of their gold and iikx r,
to bribe them over to liis interell ; and this gave no
fmall handle to thofe frequent revolts which happened
during his abfence. He quickly, however, reduced
the Nervii, Aduatici, Menapii, and Treviri ; the laft
of whom had raifed the revolt, under the command of
Ambiorix : but he found the tlame fpread much farther,
even to the grcateft part of the Gauls, who had chofen
Vercingetorix their generaliftinio. Ciefar was forced
to leave Infubria, whither he had retired to watch the
motions of Pompey, and. in the midll of winter and
fnow, to repafs the Alps into the province of Narbonnt.
Here he gathered his fcaltered troops with all poflible
fpeed ; and, in fpite of the hard weather, bciicgcd and
took Noviodunum, now Noyons ; and defeated Vercin-
getorix, who wa? come to rhr relief of that place. He

G A U [ 46

r.Mt '.3ok tie city of Avaricum, now Boarges, one of
' I'ne llrojigeft in Gaul, and which had a warriibn of
40,000 men ; of whom he made fucli a dreadful flaugh-
ti-T, that hardly 800 efcapcd. Whilft he was befieging
Gergovia, tlie capital of the Arverni, he was informed
that the Nitiabriges, or Agenois, were in arms; and
that the i^dui were fending to Vercingetorix 13,000
men, which they were to have fent to reinforce Ctelar.
Upon tliis news, he left Fabius to carry on the fiege,
and marched againft the NA\^. Thefe, upon his ap-
proach, fubmitted, in appearance, and were pardoned •,
but foon after that whole nation ■ rofe up in arms, and
murdered all the Italian troops in their capital. Ca:far,
at this, ^vas in great ftraits ^vhat meafures to take ; but
refolved at length to raife the fiege of Gergovia, and at
once attack the enemy's camp, which he did with lome
iiiccefs j but when he thouglit to have gone to Noviodu-
iium, or Noyons, where his baggage, military chefl,
&c. were left, he heard that the ^dui had carried it
off, and burnt the place. Labienus, juftly thinking
that Cafar would want his afliftance in the condition
lie now was, went to join him, and in his way defeated
a Gaulifh general named Camulogerius, who came to
oppofc his march ; but this did not hinder the revolt
from fpreading itfeif all over Celtic Gaul, whither Ver-
cingetorix had fent for fre(h fupplies, and, in the mean
time, attacked Csefar ; but was defeated, and forced to
retire to Alefia, a ftrong place, now Alife in Burgun-
dy, as is fuppofed. Hither Cafar haftened, and be-
ficged him ; and having drawn a double circumvallation,
with a defign to Harve him in it, as he was likely to
have done, upon that account rcfufed all offers of a fur-
render from him. At length, the long expefted rein-
forcement came, confifting of 160,000 men, under four
generals : thefe made feveral fruitlefs attacks on Caefar's
trenches ; but were defeated in three feveral battles,
which at length obliged Vercingetorix to furrender at
difcretion. Ca:far ufed all his prifoners with great fe-
verity, except the j^dui and Arverni, by whofe means
he hoped to gain their nations, which were the moft
potent of Celtic Gaul : nor was he difr.ppointed ; for
lx)th of them fubmitted to him, and the former received
him into the capital, where he fpent the winter, after
he put his army into winter quarters. This campaign,
?s it proved one of the hardcft he ever had, fo he gain-
ed more glory by it than any Roman general had done
before : yet could not at all by this procure from the fer-
vile fcnate, now wholly dedicated to his rival, a pro-
longation of his proconfullhip ; upon which he is report-
ed to have laid his hand upon his fvvord, and faid, that
that rtiould do it.

He was as good as his word ; and the Gauls, upon
their former ill fuccefs, refolving to have as many fepa-
rate armies as provinces, in order to embarrafs him the
more, Ciefar, and his generals Labienus and Fabius,
were forced to fight them one after another ; which
they did, howei'er, with fuch fuccefs, that, notwith-
ftanding the hardnefs of the feafon, tlicv fui)dued the
Bituriges, Carnutes, Rhemi, and Bellovaci, with their
general Correus, by which he at once quieted all the
Belgic provinces bordering on Celtic Gaul. The next
who followed were the Treviri, the Eburones, and the
Andes, under their general Dumnacus. The laft place
-which held out againfl him was Uxcllodunum ; which
•was defended by the two laft afting generals of the
J

2 ] G A U

Gauls, Drapes the Senonian, and Luterius the Cadur- -Cau!.
cean. The place being ftrong and well garrifoned, ""—v— — '
Csefar was obliged to march thither from the fartheft
part of Belgic Gaul ; and foon after reduced it, for
want of water. Here again he caufcd the right hands
of all that were fit to bear arms to be cut oiT, to deter
the reft from revolting afrefli. Thus was the conquellGa,,!''^^^^
of Gaul finilhed from the Alps and Pyrenees to thecedtoa
Rhine, all which vail traft was noiv reduced to a Ro- "omiin
man province under the government of a prietor. Du-P''-'^'"^-
ring his feveral expeditions into Gaul, Citfar is faid to
have taken 800 cities ; to have fubdued 300 different
nations ; and to have defeated, in ieveral battles, threo
millions of men, of whom one million were killed,
and another taken prifoners. — The hillory of the coun-
try, from the time of its conqueft by the Romans to
the prefent, is given under the articles Rome and
France. j^

The Gauls anciently were divided into a great num- Cliarafler,
ber of different nations, which were continually at v,-zx^<^- of the
with one another, and at variance among themfelves. *"'^'"''
Cieliir tells us, that not only all their cities, cantons, *" '"■'
and diftrifts, but even almofl all families, were divided
and torn by factions ; and this undoubtedly facilitated
the conqueft of the whole. The general charafter of
all thefe people was an exceiTive ferocity and love of
liberty. This laft they carried to fuch an extreme,
that either on the appearance of fervitude, or incapa-
city of aftion through old age, wounds, or chronic
difeafes, they put an end to their own lives, or pre-
vailed upon their friends to kill them. In cities, when
they found themfelves fo ftraitly befieged that they
could hold out no longer, inllead of thinking how to
obtain honourable terras of capitulation, their chief
care very often was to put their wives and children to
death, and then to kill one another, to avoid being led
into ilavery. Their excefftve love of liberty and con-
tempt of death, according to Strabo, very mucli facili-
tated their conqueft by C*far ; for pouring tlieir nume-
rous forces upon fuch an experienced enemy, as Caefar,
their want of conducl very foon proved the ruin of the
whole.

The chief diverfion of the Gauls was hunting ; and
indeed, confidering the vaft forefts ivith which their
country abounded, and the multitude of wild hearts
which lodged in them, they were under an abfolute
necelftty to hunt and dellroy them, to prevent the
country from being rendered totally uninhabitable.
Befides this, however, they had alfo their hippodromes,
horfe and chariot races, tilts and tournaments ; at all
of which the bards aflifted with their poems, fongs, and
miifical inftruments. — For an account of their religion,
fee the article Druid.

The Gauls were exceftively fond of feafting, in
which they were very profufe j as, like all other north-
ern nations, they ^vere great lovers of good eating and
drinking. Their chief liquors were beer and wine.
Their tables were very low. They arc but little bread,
which was baked tlat and hard, and eafily broken in
pieces : but devoured a great deal of tleih, boiled, roaft-
ed, or broiled ; and this they did in a very flovenly
manner, liolding the piece in their hands, and tearing
it with their teeth. What they could not part by this
way, they cut with a little knife which hung at their
girdle. When the company was numerous, the Corij-

A U

Gju'anit's ^Zi-i*, or chief of the feaft, wlio was cither one of th.e
II richert, or nobleO, or braveft, fat in the niicidle, vpith
^^ the mafter of the houfe by hi> fide ; the reft took their
places next according to their rank, havin,^ their fcr-
vants holding their fhields behind them. Thcfe fcafts
feldom endeJ without bloodlhed ; but if by chance the
feall proved a peaceable one, it was generally accompa-
nied not only with raufic and fongs, but likewife with
dances, in which the dancers were armed cap-a-pee,
"and beat time with their fwords upon their ihields. On
certain feflivals they were wont to drefs themfelves in
the Ikins of bealb, and in that accompany the procrf-
fions in honour of their deities or heroes. Others dref-
fed themfelves in mafquerade habits, fome of them very
indecent, and played feveral antic and immodeft tricks.
This lart cu^om continued long after their converfion
to Chriftianitv.

GAULANITIS, or GAUI.o^^TIs (Jofephus) ; in
yjncienl G.-crraphij, according to the different manner
of writing the capital, Gaitlan or Gaii/on ; the extreme
part of Balhan to the fouth, and bordering on the tribe
of Gad. It was didded into the Superior, which to
the eaft extended to Arabia ; and into the Inferior,
which lay on the lake ot Genefaretli, (.Iofephu>).

GAULON, or Golan, the capital of the Gaukni-
tis Superior ; a Levitical city and place of refuge, (Mo-
fes, Jolhua.)

GAULOS, in Ancient Geographu, a fmall ifland of
Sicily, in the African fea, adjoining to Melite or Mal-
ta ; with commodious harbours ; a colony of Phnenici-
ans, with a cognominal town. Gaulonitoe, the people,
(Infcription). Now called Go%o, five miles to the well
of Malta.

GAULTHERIA, a genus of plants belonging to
the decandria clafi ■, and in the natural method ranking
under the i8th order, Bicornes, See Botany In/rv,

GAUNT-Beli.ied, in the manege, is faid of a horfe
wl ofe belly (krinks up toivar.is his flanks.

GAUNTLET. See Gantlet.

GAUNTLOPE, pronounced Gauntlet, a military
puniihment for felony, or fome other heinous offence.

In ve/Jels of war, it is executed in the following man-
ner. The whole ihip's crew is difpofed in two rows,
llanding face to face on both fides of the deck, fo as to
form a line whereby to g^o foriuard on one fide, and re-
turn aft on the other ; each perfon being furnifhed with
a fmall twifted cord, called a knittle, having two or
three knots upon it. The delinquent is then ftripped
naked above the waill, and ordered to pafs forward
between the two rows of men, and aft on the other
fide, a certain number of times, rarely exceeding three ;
during which every perfon gives him a ftripe as he runs
along. In his paffage through this painful ordeal, he
is fometimes tripped up, and very f verely handled
while incapable of procf eding. This puniihment, which
is called running the gauntlet, is feldom inthcled, except
for fuch crimes as will naturally excite a general anti-
pathy among the feamcn : as, on fome occafions, the
culorit would pafs without receiving a fingle blow, par-
ticularly in cafes of mutiny and fedition, to the punifli-
ment of which our failors feera to have a conftituiional
averfion.

In the land fervice, when a foldier is fentenced to run
the gauntlope, the regiment is drawn oat in two ranks
facing each other ; each foldier, having a fwitch in his

[ 463 ]

GAY

hand, lailies the criminal as he runs along naked from Gi
the waift upwards. While he runs, the drums beat at J
each end of t'le ranks. Sometimes he runs tliree, five, '
or feven time;, according to the nature of the offence.
The major is on horfeback, and takes care that each
foldier do » his duty.

GAVIES, or Gaurs. See Gabres.
_ GAVOTTA, or Gavotte, is a kind of dance, the
air of which has two brifk and lively drains in common
time, each of ivhich ftrains is twice played over. The
firft has ufually four or eight bars ; and the fecond con-
tains eight, tivelve, or more. The firft begins with a
minim, or two crotchets, or notes of equal value, ar.d the
hand rifing ; and ends with the fall of the hand upon
the dominant or mediant of the mode, but never upon '
the final, nnkfs it be a rondeau : and the laft begins
with the rife of the hand, and ends with the fall upon
the fir.al of the mode.

Tembi di GyiroTTA, is when only the time or move-
ment of a gavotte is imitated, without any regard to
the meafures or num!)cr of bars or ftrains — Little airs
are often found in fonatas, which have this phrafe to
regulate their motions.

G AURA, a genus of plants belonging to the oiElan-
dria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 17th order, Cahjcanthem^. See EoTANY Index.

GAUSE, or Gav.se, in Commerce, a very thin,
flight, tranfparent kind of fluff, woven fometimes of
filk, and fometimes only of thread, — To warp the
filk for making of gaufe, they ufe a peculiar kind of
mill, upon which the filk is wound : this mill is a
wooden machine about fix feet high, having an axis
perpendicularly placed in the middle thereof, with fix
large wings, on which the fdk is wound from off the
bobbins by the axis turning round. When all the
filk is on the mill, they ufe another inflrument to wind
it off again on two beams : this done, the filk is paffed
through as many little beads as there are threads of
filk ; and thus rolled on another beam to fupply the
loom.

The gaufe loom is much like that of the common,
weavers, though it has feveral appendages peculiar
to itfelf. See Loom.

There are figured gaufes ; fome with flowers of gold
and filver, on a filk groimd ; thefe laft are chiefly
brought from China.

GAY, John, a celebrated Englifli poet, defcendcd
from an ancient family in Devonftiire, was born at
Exeter, and received his education at the free fchool
of Barnftaple in that county, under the core of Mr
William Rayner. — He was bred a mercer in the
Strand ; but having 3 fmall fortune, independent of
bufinefs, and conCdcring the attendance on a ftiop as
a degradation of thofe talents which he found himfcif
poffeffed of, he quitted that occupation, and applied
himfelf to other views, and to the indulgence of his
inclination for the Mufes. In 1712 we find him fecre-
tary, or rather domeflic fteward, to the duchtfs of
Monmouth, in which flation he continued till the be-
ginning of the year 1714 ', at which time he accompa-
nied the earl of Clarendon to Hanover, whither that
nobleman was defpatchcd by Queen Anne. In the lat-
ter end of the fame year, in confcquence of the queen's
death, he returned to Enoland, where he lived in the
higheft eftimation and intimacy of friendfliip with

many

GAY

[ 464 ]

G A 2

ir/3r,y peiTor.s of the firft diftinifHon botli in rank, and
" abilities. — He was even particularly taken notice of by
(^iieen Caroline, then princefs of Wales, to whom he
had the honour of reading in manufcript his tragedy of
the Capihes ; and in 1 7 26 dedicated his Fah/er, by
pertniifion, to the dulce of Cumberland.-»-From this
countenance ihown to liim, and number'els promi'.cs
umde him of preferment, it was reafonable to fuppofe,
t'.ir.t he would have been genteelly provided fer in fome
otlice fuitable to his inclination and abilities. Inftead
of which, in 1727, he was offered the place of gentle-
man ulhev to one of the young princefles ; an office
which, as he looked on it as rather an indignity to a
man whofe talents might liave been fo much better em-
ployed, he thought proper to reflife ; and fome pretty
warm renionlbances were made on the occaCoe by his
-fincere friends and zealous patrons the duke and du-
chefs of Qiieenlherry, \vhich terminated in tliofe two
noble perfonages withdrawing from court in difgult.
Mr Gay's dependencies on the promifes of the great,
and the difappointments he met with, he has figu-
ratively defcribed in his fable of the Hare with triamj
friends. However, the very extraordinary fuccefs he
met with from public encouragement made an ample
amends, both with refpecl to fatisfaftion and emolu-
ment, for thofe private difappointments. — For, in the
feafon of 1727-8, appeared his Beggar''s Opera; the
vaft fuccefs of which \vas not only unprecedented, but
almoft incredible. — It had an uninternipted run in
London of 6^ nights in the firft feafon, and was re-
newed in the enluing one with equal approbation. It
fpread into all the great towns of England •, was play,
ed in many places to the 3Cth and 40th time, and at
Bath and Briltol 50 ; made its progrefs into Wales,
Scotland, and Ireland, in wiiich laft place it was afted
for 24 fucceffive, nights ; and laft of all it was perform-
ed at Minorca. Nor was the fame of it confined to the
reading and reprefentalion alone, for the card table
and drawing room Ihared ^vith the theatre and clofet
in this refp'cft j the ladies carried about the favourite
fongs of it engraven upon their fan mounts ; and fcreens,
and other pieces of furniture were decorated with the
fame. In fliort, the fatire of this piece was fo ftriking,
io apparent, and fo perfeflly adapted to the tafle of all
degrees of people, that it overthrew the Italian opera,
that Dagon of the nobility and gentry, which had fo
long feduced them to idolatry, and which Dennis, by
the labours and outcries of a whole life, and many other
writers by the force of reafon and retleftion, had in vain
endeavoured to drive from the throne of public tafte.
The profits of this piece were fo very great, both to the
author and Mr Rich the manager, that it gave rife to a
quibble, which became frequent in the mouths of many,
viz. Tliat it had made Rich gay, and Gay rich ; and it has
been afferted, that the author's own advantages from it
were not lefs tlian 20Dol. In confequence of this fuc-
cefs, Mr Gay was induced to write a fecond part to it,
which he entitled Pollij. But the difguft fubfifting be-
tween him and the court, together with the mifrepre-
I'cntations made of him as having been the author of
ionie difafFecied libels and feditious pamphlets, occafion-
cd a prohibition and fupprefiion of it to be fent from the
lord chamberlain, at the very time when every thing
ivas ill rcadinefs for the rehcarfal of it. A very con-
iiderablc funi, however, accrued to- him, from the pub-
2

lication of it afterwards in quarto. — Mr Gay wrote fe- O.n',
vcral other pieces in the dramatic waiy, and m-iny very ^^^■f*^,
valuable ones in verfe. Among the latter, his Trivia, '
or the 'Art oflValking the Streets of London, though his
firft poetical attempt, is far from being the kail confi-
derable, and is what recommended him to the eiteem
and friendfliip of Mr Pope : but as, among his drama-
tic ^vorks, his Beggar's Opera did at iirft, and perhaps
ever will, ftand as an tmrivalled mafterpiece, fo, among
his poetical works, .his Fables hold the fame rank of*
eilimation ; the latter having been almoft as univerfally
read as the former was reprefented, and both equally
admired. Mr Gay's diipoiit-ion was fvreet and affable,
his temper generous, and his converfation agreeable and
entertaining. But he had one foible, too frequently- in-
cident to men of great literary abilitit s, and which fub-
jefted him at times to inconveniencies which otherwife.
he needed not to h*ve experienced, viz. an excels of in-
dolence, without any knowledge of econonr.-. So that,
though his emoluments were, at fome periods of his life,
very confiderable, he was at others greatly ftraitened in
his circuniftances ; nor could he prevail on himfelf to
follow the advice of his friend Dean Swift, ■ivhom we
find in many of his letters endeavouring to perfuade him
to the purchafing of an annuity, as a referve for the exi-
gencies that might attend on old age. — Mr Gay chofe
rather to throw himfelf on patronage, than lecure to
himfelf an independent competency by the means point-
ed out to him ; fo that, after having undergone many
vicilTitudes of fortune, and being for Ibme time chiefly
fupported by the liberality of the duke and duchefs
of 5)ueenll>erry, he died at their houfe in Burlington
gardens, in December 1732. He was interred in
Wertminfter Abbey, and a monument ereded to his
memory, at the e.xpence of his aforementioned noble
benefaftors, with an infcription exprelTive of their re-
gards and his oivn deferts, and an epitaph in ^eik by
Mr Pope.

GAZA, Theodore, a famous Greek in the 15th
century, was born in 1398. His country being invad-
ed by the 'I'urks, he retired into Italy ; where he
at firft fupported himfelf by tranfcribing ancient au-
thors, an employment the learned had frequent re-
courfe to before the invention of printing. His un-
common parts and learning foon recommended him to
public notice j and particularly to Cardinal Beflarion,
who procured him a benefice in Calabria. He was
one of thofe to whom the revival of polite literature
in Italy was principally owing. He tianflated from
the Greek into Latin, Ariftotle's Hiftory of Animals,
Theophrallus on Plants, and Hippocrates's Apho-
rifms; and from the Latin into Greek, Scipio's Dream,
and Cicero's Treatife on Old Age. He wrote feveral
other works in Greek and Latin ; and died at Rome in

Gaz.a., in Ancient Geography, a principal city and
one of the five fatrapies of -the Philiftines. It was fitu-
ated about 1 00 ftadia from xVt Mediterranean, on an
iirtificial mount, and ftrongly walled round. It was
dcftroyed by Alexander the Great, and afterwards by
Antiochus. In the time of the Maccabees it was a
ftrong and ftourilhing fity •, but was dcftroyed a third
time by Alexander Janna^us. At prefent it has a mi-
ferable appearance. The buildings are mean, both as
to the form and matter. Some remains of its ancient
grandeur

G A Z [

grandeur appetr in the handfome pill;ii« of Parian
marble whicli fupport fome of the roofs ; while others
are difpofeJ of here and there, in JiiTerent parts of al-
moft every beggarly cottage. On the top of the hill,
at the north-eall corner of the town, are the ruins of
large arches funk low into the earth, and other foun-
dations of a rtatcly building, from whence fome of
the baihaws have carried off marble pillars of an in-
credible fize. The cartle is a contemptible ilrufture,
and the port is ruined. E. Long. 34. 55. N. I.:it.
31.28.

GAZE HOUND, or Gajl-hound, one that makes more
ufe of his fight than of li!s nofe. Such dogs are much
ufed in the north of England : they are fitter in an
open champaign country than in buQiy and woody
pl.ices. If at any time a well-taught gaze-hound takes
a wrong way, he will return upon a Signal, and begin
the chafe afrelh. He is alfa excellent at fpying out the
fattefl of a herd ; and having feparated it from the reft,
will never give over the purfuit till he has worried it to
death.

GAZEL, in Zoology, a fpecies of C.\PRA. See
1\Ia:.IMALIA Index.

GAZETTE, a newfpaper, or printed account of
the tranfaftions of all the countries in the known world,
in a loofe iheet or half Iheet. This name is with us
co-fined to that paper of news publilhed by authority.
The word is derived from gaz.etta, a Venetian coin,
■which was the ufual price of the firil newfpaper printed
there, and which was afterwards given to the paper it-
felf.

The firft gazette in England was publifhed at 0.\-
ford, the court being there, in a folio half Iheet, No-
vember 7. 1665. On the removal of the court to Lon-
don, the title was changed to the London Gazette.
The Oxford gazette was publifhed on Tuefdays, the
London on Saturdays : and thefe have continued to be
the days of publication ever fince.

GAZNA, a city of Afia, once much celebrated,
and the capital of a very extenfive empire ; but which
is now either entirely ruined, or become of fo little
confideration, that it is not taken notice of in our
books of geography. The city was anciently an em-
pory and fortrefs of Sablellan, not far from the confines
of India. During the vail and rapid conquefts of the
Arabs, all this country had been reduced under their
fabjedion. On the decline of the power of the caliph.s,
however, the vaft empire eftabHl'ied by Mahomet and
his fucceflbrs was divided into a number of independent
principalities, moft of which were but of (liort duration.
In the year of the Hegira 384, anfwering to the 994th
of the Chriflian era, the city of Gazna, with fome part
of the adjacent country, \vas governed by Mahmud
Gazni •, who became a great conqueror, and reduced
under his fubjeftion a confiderable part of India and
nioft of Perfia.

This empire continued in the family of Mahmud
Gazni for upwards of 200 years. None of his fuc-
celTors, howeicr, were poflelTcd of his abilities ; and
therefore the extent of the empire, inflead of increaf-
ing, ivas vei-y confiderably dimiuillicd foon after Mah-
Trud'-> death. The .Seljuks made themfelves matters of
KhDr::ran, and could not be driven out ; the greatell
part of the Perfian dominions alfo fell oft" •, and in the
r47th year of the Hegira, the race of Gazni fultans

Vol. IX. Part II.

465 ] G A Z

1 was entirely fet afide by one Gauri, wh.o conquered
i Khofru Shah the reigning prince, and bellowed *;''

dominions on his own nephew Gayathoddin Moham-
, mcd. Thefe new fultans proved greater conquerors
than the former, and extended their dominions farther
than even Mahmud Gazni himfelf had done. They
did not however, long enjoy the fjvereignty of Gazna j
for in 1 218, .lenghiz Khan having conquered the
greatell part of China and almoll all I'artary, began
to turn his arms v ^Iward ; and fet out againft the
fultan of Gazna at the head of 700,000 men.

To oppofe this formidable army, Mohammed, the
reigning fultan, could muflcr only 400,000 men ; and,
in the firft battle, J 60,000 of his troops are faid to have
perilhed. After this viftoiy, Jenghiz Khan advanced ;
Mohammed not daring to rifli a fecond battle, the lofs
of which would have been attended with the entire
ruin of his kingdom. He therefore diflributed his
army among the ftrongeft fortified towns lie had in his
dominions ; all of which Jenghiz Khan took one after
another. The rapid progreis of his conquefts, i
deed, almoft exceeds belief. In 12 19 and 1220, he
had reduced Zamuk, Nur, Bokhara, Otrar, Saga-
nik, Uzkant, Alftialh, Jund, Tonkat, Khojend, and
Samarcand. Mohammed, in the mean time, fled firft
to Bokhara ; but on the approach of .lenghiz Khan's
army, quitted that place, and fled to Samarcand.
When this laft city was alfo in danger of being invcft-
ed, the fultan did not think proper to truft himfelf in
it more than in the other, though it was garrifoned by
1 1 0,000 of his braveft troops ; and therefore lied
through byways into the province of Ghilan in Pevfia,
ivhere he took refuge in a ftrong fortrefs called EJlabad.
But being alfo found out in this retreat, he fled to an
illand in the Cafpian fea caUed Ahifkun ; where he
ended his days, leaving bis empire, fuch as it was, to
his fon Jaloloddin.

The new fultan was a man of great bravery and ex-
perience in ^var ; but nothing ivas able to ftop the pro-
grefs of the Moguls. In 1220 and 1221, they made
themfelves mafters of all the kingdoms of Karazim and
Khorafan, committing everywhere fuch mafTacres as
were never heard of before or fince that time. In the
mean time .Taloloddin alTerabled his forces with the
utmoft diligence, and defeated two detachments of the
MogHl army. This happened while Jenghiz Khan
was befieging Bamiyan ; but anfwered little other pur-
pofe, than fcrving to bring upon that city the terrible
deftruiSlion of which an account is given under the ar-
ticle Bamiyan. Immediately after the reduction of
that city, Jenghiz Khan marched towards Gazna ;
which was very ftrongly fortified, and where he expell-
ed to have found Jaloloddin. But he had left the
place 13 days before; and, as Jenghiz Khan's array
was much reduced, he might perhaps iiave flood his
ground, had it not been for an accident. He had
been lately joined by three Turkifti commanders, each
of whom had a body of 10,000 men under his com-
mand. After his victories over the Moguls, thefe
olTicers demanded the greateft fhare of the fpoils ;
which being refufed, they feparated themfelves from
the fultan. He ufed his utmoft endeavours to make
them hearken to reafon ; and fent feveral meflages
and letters to them, reprefenting the inevitable ruin
which muft attend their reparation, as Jenghiz Khan
3 N wat

G A Z

[ 466 ]

G A Z

Gaznj. ivas r.dvancing agaiiift them with his whole army. At
■~~v— I a': they were perfuaded to lay afide their animofi-
ties : but it was now too late ; tor Jenghiz Khan, be-
ing informed of what pafled, detached 60,000 horfe
to prevent their joining the fiiltan's army ; who, find-
ing himfelf deprived of this powerful aid, retired to-
^vards the river Indus. When he was arrived there,
he flopped in a place where the ftream was moft rapid
and tlie place con-fined, with a view both to pre-
vent his foldiers from placing a ly hopes of fafety in
flight, and to hinder the whole Mogul army from at-
tacking him at once. Ever fmce his departure from
Gazna he had been tormented wilh a colic : yet, at a
time when he fuffered raort, hearing that the enemy's
vanguard was arrived at a place in that neighbourhood
called Herder, he quitted his litter, and, mounting a
horfe, marched with forae of his cholen foldiers in the
night ; furprifed the Moguls in their camp ; and hav-
ing cut them almoft all in pieces, without the lofs of
a lingle man on his fide, returned with a confiderable
booty.

Jenghiz Khan, finding by this that he had a vigi-
lant enemy to deal with, proceeded with great circum-
Ipeftiou. When he came near the Indus, he drew out
his army in battalia : to Jagatay, one of his fons, he
gave_ the command of the right wing •, to Oktay,
another fon, he gave the command of the left : and
put himfelf in the centre, with 6000 of his guards.
On the other fide, Jaloloddin prepared for battle like
one who had no relource but in viftory. He firft fent
the boats on the Indus farther ofFj referving only one
to carry over his motl:er, wife, and children : but un-
luckily the boat fplit when they were going to embark,
To that they were forced to remain in the camp. The
Icltan took to himfelf tlie command of the main body
of the army. His left wing, drawn up under flielter
cf a mountain ^vhich hindered the whole right wing
of the Moguls from engaging at once, was command-
ed by his vizir ; and his right by a lord named y^r/ii/i
Ma/eh. This lord began the fight ; and forced the
enemy's left wing, notwithftanding the great difparity
of numbers, to give ground. The right wing of the
Moguls likewife wanting room to extend itfelf, the ful-
lan made ufe of his left as a body of referve, detaching
from thence fome fquadrons to the aflillance of the
troops who Aood in need of them. He alio took one
part of them with him when he went at the head of
his main body to charge that of Jenghiz Khan ; which
he did with fo much refolution and vigour, that he not
only put it in diforder, but penetrated into the place
where Jenghiz Khan had originally taken his ftation :
but that prince, having had a horfe killed under him,
was retired from thence, to give orders for all the
troops to engage.

This difadvantage had like to have loft the Moguls
the battle ; for a report being immediately fpread that
the enemy had broken through the main body, the
troops were fo much difcouraged, that they would cer-
tainly have fled, had not Jenghiz Khan encouraged
th-m by riding from place to place in order to fliow
himfelf. At laft, however, Jaloloddin's men, who
were in all but 30,000, having fought a whole day
wirh ten times their number, were feized with fear
and fled. One part of them retired to the rocks which
were on the Ihore of the Indus, where the enemy's horfe

could not follow them ; others threv.- themfelves into
the river, where many were drowned, tliough fome had '
the good fortune to crofs over in fafety; while tlie reft
furroimding their prince, continued the fight through
defpair. The fultan, however, confidering that he
had fcarce 7000 men left, began to think of providing
for his own faYety : therefore, having bidden a final
adieu to his mother, wife, and children, he mounted a
frefti horfe, and fpurred him into the river, v,hich he
eroded in fafety, and even flopped in the middle of it
to infult Jenghiz Khan, who was now arrived at the
bank. His family fell into the hands of the Moguls ;
who killed all the males, and carried the women into
captivity.

Jaloloddin being now fecurely landed in India, got
up into a tree in order to preferve himfelf from wiUl
beafts. Next day, as he walked melancholy among
the rocks, he perceived a troop of his foldiers, with
fome officers, three of whom proved to be his particu-
lar friends. Thefe, at the beginning of the defeat,
had found a boat in which they had failed all night,
with much danger from the rocks, (helves, and rapid
current of the river. Soon after, he faw 300 horfe
coming towards him ; who informed him of 4000 more
that had efcaped by fwimming over the river ; and
thefe alfo foon after joined the reft. In the mean time
an officer of his houfehold, named Jamalarra%ad,
knowing that his mafter and many of his people were
efcaped, ventured to load a very large boat with arms,
provifions, money, and fluff to clothe the foldiers ;
ivith which he crofled the river. For this important
fervice Jaloloddin made him fteward of his houfehold,
and furnaraed him the C ho/en or the G/onj of the Faith.
For fome time after, the fultan's aSairs feemed to go
on profperoully : he gained fome battles hi India ; but
the princes of that country, envying his profperity,
confpired againft him, and obliged him to repafs the
Indus. Here he again attempted to make head againft
the Moguls ; but was at laft defeated and killed by
them, and a final end put to the once mighty empire
of Gazna.

The metropolis was reduced by Otkay ; who no
fooner entered the country in which it was fituated,
than he committed the moft horrid cruelties. 7 he
city Tvas well provided with all things neceffary for
fuftaining a fiege ; had a flrong garrifon, and a brave
and rcfolute governor. The inhabitants, expefling
no mercy from Jenghiz Khan, who they knew had
fworn their ruin, were relolved to make a defperate
defence. They made frequent fallies on the befiegers,
feveral times overthrew their works, and broke above
too of their battering rams. But one night, after an
obllinate fight, part of the city walls fell down ; and
a great number of Moguls having filled up the ditch,
entered the city fword in hand. The governor per-
ceiving all was loft, at the head of his braveft foldiers
ruflied into the thickeft of his enemies, where he and his
followers weic all flain. However, Gazna was not en-
tirely deftroycd, nor were the people all killed ; for
after the maflacie had continued for four or five hoars,
Otkay ordered it to ceafe, and taxed thofe who were
left alive at a certain rate, in order to redeem themfelves
and the city. It does not, however, appear that after
this time the city of Gazna ever made any confiderable
figure. — It was taken by the Moguls in the year i 222.
GELRES.

G E D

[ 4^7 ]

G E D

GEBRES. See Gabres.

GECCO, in Natural HiJIory, a name given by the
Indians to their terrible poifon, which Ivills when mixed
with the blood in ever fuch a fraall quantity. They
fay that this gecco is a venomous froth or humour
vomited out of the mouths of their moft poifonous fcr-
pents ; ivhich they procure in this fatal ftrength, by
hanging up the creatures by the tails, and whipping
them to enrage them : they colleft this in proper vcf-
fels as it fails ; and when they would ufe it, they either
poifon a weapon with it, or wounding any part of the
flefli introduce the fmalleft quantity imaginable into it ;
and this is faid to be immediate death.

GECKO. See Lacerta, Erpetology Index.

GED, William, an ingenious though unfuccefsful
artift, who ivas a goldfmith in Edinburgh, deferves to
be recorded for his attepnpt to introduce an improve-
ment in the art of printing. The invention, tirft
praclifed by Ged in 1 7 25, was fimply this. From any
types of Greek or Roman, or any other character, he
formed a plate for every page, or iheet, of a book, from
which he printed, inftead of ufmg a type for every let-
ter, as is done in the common way. This was firll
praftifed, but on blocks of wood, by the Chinefe and
Japanefe, and purfued in the firll effays of Coder the
European inventor of the prefent art. " This improve-
ment (fays James Ged the inventor's fon) is principal-
ly confiderable in three moft important articles, viz.
expence, correftnefs, beauty and uniformity."

In July 1729, William Ged entered into partner-
fliip with William Fenner, a London ftationer, who
was to have half the profits, in confideration of his
advancing all the money requifite. To fupply this,

Mr John James, then an architect at Greenwich (who under M. M. Burc and de Sauvent, at the college of
built Sir Gregory Page's houfe, Bloomthury church, Navarre, and Lavocat at the Sorbonne was his He-

in order to procure for his children as liber;il an oduca- C->'<lf5-

tion as poffible. Both father and mother were of *

the catholic perfuafion, and the only book of confe-
quence which the former had in his library was an
Englilh tranilation of the bible, in which young Ged-
des was inllruacd with fuch care and attention, that he'
was able to give an account of the hiflory of it before
he had reached the eleventh year of his age. The firft
inrtruflions he received, after thofe of his parents, were
communicated by a fchool-millrefs in the vicinity, by
whom he was fo much dillinguilhed, that it became the
firft mental gratification which, in liis own opinion, he
ever felt. He was next put under the tuition of a
young man from the city of Aberdeen, who had been
engaged by the laird for the education of his own chil-
dren ; and afterwards went to a place called Scalan, in
the Highlands, where thofe were to be trained up who
deligned to devote themfelves to the catholic priefthood,
and to finifli their education at fome foreign univerfitv.
Here it was, in this obfcure retreat, that Geddes laid
the foundation of that intimate acquaintance with the
learned languages, by which he was fo eminently di-
ftinguiftied in the fubfequent part of his life. He went
to the Scots univerfity at Paris in the year 1758, and
foon after began the ftudy of rhetoric in the college of
Navarre. By the ftrength of his genius and his inde-
fatigable attention, he was foon at the head of this clafs,
although he had to contend wth two veterans,- and be-
came the faveurite of Vicaire the profelTor, whofe friend-
(hip lafted to the clofe of life.

Inftead of entering into the philofophical clafs at the
ufual time, he ftudied that fubjecl at home, in order to
facilitate his theological ftudies, on which he entered

'Stz Print
Ur and
fin. M^g.
X. 267.

&c.) was taken into the fcheme, and afterwards his
brother Mr Thomas James, a letter founder, and James
Ged the inventor's fon. In 1 730, thefe partners ap-
plied to the univerfity of Cambridge for printing Bibles
and common prayer books by blocks inftead of fingle
types ; and, in confequence, a leafe was fealed to them,
April 23. 1731. In their attempt they funk a large
fum of money, and finiihed only two prayer books •, fo

that it v.as forced to be relinquiftied, and the leafe was fituation was moft agreeable to his literary purmits
afterivards given up. Ged imputed his difappointment 1 ' ■ '■ • > ■-

to the villany of the prefsmen, and the ill treatment of
his partners (which he fpecifies at large), particularly
Fenner, whom John James and he were advifed to profe-
cute, but declined it. He returned to Scotland in 1736,
where he gave his friends a fpecimen of his perform-
ance, by an edition of Salluft. But being ftill un-
fuccefsful, and having failed in obtaining redrefs from
Fenner, who died infolvent, he was preparing again to
fet out for London, in order to join with his fon James
as a printer there, when he died Oftober 19. 1749. Gcd's
fon attempted unfuccefsfully, in 1751, to revive this in-
vention; Me!Trs Tilloch and Foulis about the year 1782
praftifed it on a fmall fcale at Glafgow ; and of late
years many beautiful editions of the claffics have been
printed in this w ay by Didot of Paris. *

GEDDES, Alexander, a learned Scots catholic
divine and eminent bible critic, was bom in the parilli
of Ruthven in Banffshire, in the year 1737. His pa-
rents were refpeflable, although not opulent. His fa-
ther was a farmer, who deemed no trouble too great,

brew preceptor. So great, or rather alfonilhing, was
his progrefs, that Profeflbr Lavocat urged him ftrong-
ly to continue at Paris ; but his fiienJs prevailed with
him to return to his native country in 1764. His firft
charge as a prieft was in a catholic chapel in the
county of Angus, from which he removed to Tra-
quair in 1765, and became chaplain to the earl of that
name, where he remained for about three years. This

he had unlimited accefs to a very extesfive library,
which greatly affifted him in the profecution of his dar-
ling ftudies. He left the earl's houfe in the year 1768,
and returned to Paris, where he devoted his time during
the following winter to the perufal of books and manu-
fcripts in the king's libraries, making large cxtracls
from fcarce copies, particularly fuch as were in the
Hebrew- tongue.

In the fpring of 1769, he returned to his native
country, and became paftor of a congregation at Auch-
inhalrig in Banffshire, where he was for fome time in-
volved in pecuniary difficulties, out of which he was
extricated by the liberality of the then duke of Norfolk.
Thcfc were occafioncd by the debts he incurred in
building a new chapel for his Hock, and in making the
parfon's houfe one of the neateft and moft convenient in
Scotland. With the view of bettering his circum-
ftanccs he commenced farmer ; but as he had to borrow
money to ftock his farm, and as the crops failed for three
fucceffive feafons, he was under the neceflity of abandon-
ing this fcheme in a much poorer ftate than when he
3 N 3 firft

G E D

[ 468 ]

G E D

firft projected it. But his unwearied exertions, joined
to the aiTiftance 01 friends, again relieved him, and he
\v?.s enabled 10 diicharge every claim againlt him of a
pecuniary nature in an honourable manner.

In the yea* 1779 he ref:gned his paftoral charge at
Auchinhalrig, -n liich was a heavy ftroke to the mem-
bers of his congregation, as the zeal and diligence with
which he dilcl.nrged the duties of his miniflerial func-
tion had endeared him to all. He was alio jutlly
I Aeemed for his attention to the inftruftion of youth.
Next year the univcrfity of Aberdeen conferred on him
the degree of LL. D. a literary honour which .was
never bellowed on any Roman-catholic by that body
fiuce the RefoiTnation. He afterwards went to Lon-
don, that he might profecute his favourite ftudies with
greater facility, and give the ivorld his Engliih tranf-
iation of the Old and New 'I'cilament, to which he had
turned his attmtion for a number of years. He oPiici-
ated for fome months after his arrival in the imperial
arabaflador's chapel in Dukc-llreet, till the term of
eafter 1782, at which time it was fuppreffed by order
of the emperor Jofepli II. after which DrGeddes leenis
to have declined entirely tUt exercife of his clerical
fiindions.

No foouer had the deGgn of Mr Geddcs, relative to
a new tranflation of the Bible been made public, than
he met with formidable oppofition from his Catholic
brethren,; an event which the doctor with good reafon
feems to have anticipated. His o^vn words on this oc-
cafion were ; " I expect not exceffive profits from excef-
iive exertion. 1 trull I fhall never want meat, and
clothes, znAJire; to a philofophical and contented mind,
what more is neceflary ?" He was many years em-
ployed in preparing this important work for the prefs,
before he had any profpeft of adequate fuccefs. In ad-
drefling the Engliih Catholics on the fubjedl of his tranf-
lation, he has thcfe memorable words : " At any rate,
I do what I think it my duty to do, and do it fairly and
openly. In the following pages ye will find neither
palliation nor difguife. I pour out my fcntiments with
the fame fmcerity as if I were before the tribunal of
Him xvho is to judge the living and the dead. Mif-
take I may, but prevaricate I never will." He difco-
vered this noble fpirit in every action of his life, and in
all his tranfaftions and intercourfe with mankind, al-
ijiough he did not conciliate the regard of thofe who
could have bellowed upon him the mod effeilual af-
Cftance.

After fpending much of his life in biblical ftudies,
he met with a long and cruel interruption, of which he
thus fpeaks : " I had but little hope of ever living in a
fituatlon to refume them, when Providence threw me
into the arms of fuch a patron as Origen himfelf might
have been proud to boall of — a patron, who, for theie
ten years pall, has, with a dignity peculiar to himfelf,
itfForded me every conveniency that my heart could de-
fire towards the carrying on and completing of my ar-
duous work."

It is needlefs to inform the public, that the patron to
whom the learned doftor here alludes was Lord Petre.
For this munificence continued through the whole of
his life, and even beyond it by his latter will, Chriftians
of every denomination will feel fentiments of gratitude,
when they are qualified to make a true eftimate of the
advantages of free and impartial enquiry.

In the year 1 79 1, the firft volume of his tranflation CctHo.
was publilhed, dedicated to his patron Lord Petre, con- ^— v—
taining the firlt fix books of the Old Teitaraent. Soon
after th;s volume made its appearance, three apoltolic
vicars, calling themiclves the bilhops of Rama, Acan-
thos and Ceniunae, iflued a paftoral letter, addreffed to
their refpedive tlocks over which they prefided, warn-
ing them againft the reception of Dr Geddes's tranfla-
tion. In his reply to the bilhop of Centurise we find
thefe %vcrds : " Perhaps, my lord, you wilh to have an-
other occafion of exercifing your epifcopal authority,
and of playing with cenfures as children do with a new
ball. — I wilh your lordfhip much joy of the bauble ; but
however, my lord, beware of playing too often with it.
Read St Chrj'fortom on Ecclefiaftical Cenfures, and
learn from him a little nlore moderation. Permit an
old priell to tell you, that it is a very great ornament in
a young hijhop. As to myfeli", my lord, I am not afraid
of your threats, and Ihall laugh at your cenfures as
long as I am confcious that I deferve them not. — Yuu
cannot hinder me firom praying at home ; and at home
I will pray, in defiance of your ccniiiie, as often as I
pleafe. The chief Bilhop of our fouls is always accefii-
ble ; and through him I can, at all times, have free ac-
cefs to the Father, who ^rill not reject me, but for vo-
luntary unrepented crimes. In the panoply of con-
fcious innocence, the ^vliole thunder of the Vatican
would in vain be levelled at my head."

The fecond volume of his tranflation, owing to a va-
riety of internaptions, did not make its appearance till
the year 1 797, to which was prefixed a dedication to
her royal highefs the duchefs of Gloucefter, as an
" early, fpontaneous, and liberal encourager of the
work." In this volume the doftor gives up, and boldly
combats, the abfoiute infpiration of fcripture, believing
that the Hebrew, like all other hillorians, wrote from
fuch human documents as they could find, and were of
confequence liable to fimilar miftakes. This latitude of
thinking naturally led the doilor to give up as fabulous,
and ^vhoUy unworthy of the divine philanthropy, every
command, precept, and injunftion, which appeared un-
worthy even of liuman authority. He denied of confe-
quence, that the command given to deftroy the Canaan-
ites could have God for its author. His volume of Cri-
rical Remarks was publilhed in 1800, in which he en-
ters into an able vindication of his ovm theory, which
rather increafed than diminiflied the number of his ene-
mies, for as he wrote to pleafe no party, he forefaw that
he would have enemies in every party, and fo it hap-
pened.

Dr Geddes was a man of e.ttenfive literatme, uncom-
mon liberality of thinking, the friend of all mankind ;
a man of integrity, honour and benevolence ; in the
itrifteft fenfe of the word, a truly genuine Catholic,
and whofe love of truth was fo invincible, that nei-
ther hopes nor fears could induce hira to con-
ceal it.

His profpeflus of a new tranflation of the Bible in
4to was publiflied in 1 786, and a letter to the bilhop
of London on the fame fubjecl in 1787. His pro-
pofals were printed in 1788. As a controverfial wri-
ter, Dr Geddes was eminently diftinguifhed by his let-
ter to Dr Prieftley, in defence of the divinity of Je-
fus Chrift, and by one to a member of parliament, on
the expediency of a general repeal of the penal fta-

tute?

G E H

[ 469 ]

GEL

tales which have a refpefil to religious opinions. In
the fpring of the year i Soo, he publillied an apology
for the Rom?.n Catholics of Great Britain, in which
he zealoufly defended his peculiar tenets, but dilpiaycd
a conjcaendablc raodcvation, \vben he me.nione 1 the in-
jdries ^to -which he himfelf and brethren were fubjecled
by the coatimiauce of ptrfecuting laws ; and, when he
argued in bcli-alf 'of abolilhing all legal difabilities, lie
dilcovered the foundcft logical underflanding.

We Ihall dole our fliori account of this great man in
the -.vordi of one who was well acquainted with him, and
fjliy qualified to appreci^.te his merits. " It mull be
bnientcd, that, in the death of Dr Geddes, the world
l-.as loft the fervices of a man, who by liis acute and
penetrating genius — his %'ario',.s, profound, and exten-
five erudition — his deep refearch — his indefatigable ap-
plication— and his independent, dignified, and unfetter-
ed fpiiit, riling fuperior to the prejudices of education ;
nobly difdaining the Ihackles of fyftem ; fpuming the
petty temporizing arts of unmanly accommodation ;
and fettincr at defiance all the terrors of malignity.

for which reafon, as they had no proper term in their C-
language to fignify hell, they made ufe of that ol gehcnna N
or gelihtiwn, to denote a fire uncxtinguiChable. , 1,1

GELA, in Ancient Geografiliy, a city of great ex-
tent on the fouth of Sicily, taking its name from the ri-
ver Gelas, which waflics it. It was built by colonifts
from Rhodes ar.d Crete, 45 ycar< after the building of
Syiacufe, or in the third year of the 22d Olympiad, 690
btilire Chritl ; originally called Lindii, from the colo-
nills of LinJi/.t, a city of Rhodes, who fettled there
firlh Notv Terra Nuova, and the river called Fin me di
Terra Nuova. The people were called Geloi^ Gitenjer,
and Celani. The city Gela, after having flood 408
years, was deftroyed by Phintias, tyrant of Agrigentum ;
and the inhabitants were removed to a new city, called
Plum ins after his name.

GELATINA, jelly. See Jelly.

GELATINOUS, among the phyficians, is applied
to any thing approaching to th.e glutinous coniillence
of a jelly.

GELD, in the Englifh old cuftoms, a Saxon word

bigotry, and intolerance, was fupereminejitly qualified fignifying money, or tribute. It alfo denoted a com-

for the great, laborious, and important work in which
he had, for a long feries of years, been engaged, of giv-
ing an Englilh verfion of the venerable literary remains
of facred antiquity, the fcriptures of the Old and New
Teftament. During his life, this work did not meet
vrith encouragement adequate to the magnitude of the
defign ; or, it may be added, to the merit of the exe-
cution. In this lall rcfpeft, it will be matter of fur-
prife to all who are competent to judge of the nature
of luch an enterprife, how much has been done, and

penfation for forae crimes committed : Hence ivergeld,
in their ancient laws, was ufcd for the value of a man
flain -, and orfgeld, of a heart.

GELDENHAUR, Ger.a.rd, in "LaXm Geldenha-
rius, an hiijorian and Proteftant divine in the i6th
century. He was a native of Nimeguen, and fludied
clallical learning at Deventer. He went through his
courfe of philofophy at Louvain, where he contraft-
ed a very ftri£l; friendlhip with feveral learned men,
and particularly with Erafmus. He became reader
iith what uncommon ability and fuccefs. It everywhere and hiftorian to Charles of Auftria, and afterwards to
difplays the Ikilful hand of a mafter." Maximilian of Burgundy. At length he embraced

He had corrected and prepared his tranilation for the Protertant religion ; taught hiftory at Marpurg,
the prefs up to the hundredth and eighteenth pfalni, and afterwards divinity till his death, in 1 542. He

ihen he was feized with a moil painful and excrucia-
ting diilemper, which put a period to his ineftimable
life on the 26th of February 1802. The learn';d world
will unqueftioirably have caufe to lament, that Dr Ged-
des was arretted by the hand of death in the midft of
his career, unle!s that unexpeded phenomenon, an-

WTote, I. Hiftory of Holland. 2. Hiftory of the Low
Countries. 3. Hiftory of the bifliops of Utrecht; and
other works.

GELDERLAND. See Guelderland.

GELDERS. See GuELDERS.

GELDING, the operation of caftrating any animal.

other Geddes, lliould make his appearance, and happily See C.\stration, Farriery Inde:
£nifh what his extraordinary predeceflbr conduced fo -^-^^ ••^•^ -- _ o ,^

far with fuch aftoniiliing abilities ; — but, rara avis in

GEHENNA, a fcripture term wliich has given fome
pain to the critics. It occurs in St Matthew, v. 22.
29. 30. X. 28. xviii. 9. xxiii 15.33. M^^k ix. 43. 45. 47.
Luke xii. 5. James iii. 6.

The authors of the Louvain and Geneva verfions re-
tain the word gehenna as it ftands in the Greek •, the
like does M. Simon : the Englilh tranflators render it
by hell and hell Jire, and fo do the tranflators of Mons
and Father Bohour.*.

The word is formed from the Hebrew gehinnom, i. e.
" valley of Hinnom." In that valley, which was near
Jerufalcra, there was a place named Tofiliet, where fome

GELE'E, Claude. Sec Claude.

GELENHAUSEN, a fmall imperial town of Wet-
teravia in Germany, with a caftle built by the emperor
Frederic I. E. Long. 8. 13. N. Lat. 50. 20.

GELLENIUS, Sigismund, a learned and excellent
man, born of a good family at Prague, about the year
1498. Erafmus conceiving an efteem for him at Ba-
lil, recommended him to John Frobenius as a correc-
tor for his printing-houfe ; which laborious charge
he accepted, and had a great number of Hebrew,
Greek, and Latin books to correfl : he alfo tranflatcd
many works himfelf from the Greek into Latin ; and
publillied a ditlionary in four langusges, Greek, La-
tin, German, and Sclavonian. Profitable and honour-
able employments were offered him in other places ;

Jews facrificed their children to Moloch, by making but nothing could tempt hira to quit his peaceful fitua-

them pafs through the fire. King Jofias, to render this tion at Bafil. He died in 1555. All his tranflations

place for ever abominable, made a cloaca or common are highly efteemed.

iewer thereof, where all the filth and carcafes in the GEHNOTTE, or Grus. See Tetrao, Orni-

city were caft. thology Index.

The Jews obferved farther, that there was a continual GELLERT, Christian Furchtegolt, was boni

five kept up there, to burn and confuinc thofe carcafes ; at Haynichen, in July 1715, near Freybcrg, where

hi'--

GET.

[ 470 3

GEM

■^llf "', his faliicr was a clergyman. He i^'ai exti-sordinary pro-
'•-''''• fc-flbr of philofophy at Leipfic, and a diftiiiguilhe'd wri-
ter among the Germans. When but 13 years of age
he diicovcred a poetical genius ; but having none to
guide his taile for this kind of compofition, he was led
to imitate Gunther, Neukerch, and Hanke, men of in-
different abilities. He ftudled theology at Leipfic in
1734, and returned home at the expiration of four
years, wlien he commenced jiublic Ipeaker ; but his
timid difpofition pre%'ented him from fhining as an ora-
tor in the pulpit. The delicacy of his conltitution for-
bidding him to afpire after extenfive learning, he con-
fined himfelf to the acquifition of that which might ren-
der him ufeful. He was much refpecled for his Crft at-
tempts iii poetry, called Amufements of Reafon and Wit,
ivhich appeared in 1742.

The labour \vhich he found requifite for the compofi-
tion of fermons, inclined him to lay afide the clerical
profelTion, and devote himfelf wholly to the inftruftion
of youth, in which he not only diffufed knowledge
through the minds of his pupils, but alfo'infpired them
with the love of religion and virtue. He was made
A. M. in 1744, and publilhed the firft volume of his
fables in the eiifuing year. His " Swedidi Countefs''
was the firll German romance deferving of notice. He
gave the world the fecond part of his fables in 1748,
although two years before this period he was much af-
flicted with hypochondriacal affeftions. In 1751, he
was folicited to accept the office of extraordinary pro-
feflbr of philofophy, together with a decent falary,
^vhich was augmented on the termination of the war.

Affailed by unconquerable lownefs of fpirits and con-
firmed melancholy, he ftill exhibited the fame patience,
refignation, and univerfal philanthropy as he had ever
iliewn, and which excited the admiration of the enemy
during the war. His fufferings continued to increafe in
feverity, and at laft terminated his exiftence on the
13th of December 1769. He contributed much to the
improvement of the talle and morals of his country-
men, and their gratitude for his fervices made them
deeply lament his lofs. His praife was refotmded by
every voice, his likenefs was call in gypfum, and
moulded in ^vax ; it was engraved on copper, and re-
prefented in fculpture and painting.

It is faid of this amiable man and captivating writer,
by Kutner, who wrote the lives of German authors,
that it will probably be a century before the appearance
of another poet, fo fully qualified to excite the love and
admiration of his cotemporaries, and obtain fuch a
powerful influence over the tafte and way of thinking
of all defcriptions of men. If it would indicate too
much partiality to call him a genius of the firft clafs, he
certainly was a moft agreeable and fertile writer ; the
poet to whom religion and virtue are deeply indebted ;
an able reformer of public manners, and fonder of af-
fording confolation, than of plunging into defponden-
cy. Kutner gives him a moft excellent and enviable
charafter, in thefe words : " As long as the Germans
fliall undcrftand their prefent language, will the works
of Gcllert be read ; and his character will be honour-
ed while virtue is known and refpecled."

GELLI, John Baptist, an eminent Italian writer,
was bom of mean parents at Florence, in the year 1 498.
He was bred a taylor, fome fay a fiioemaker j but had
fuch an extraordinary genius, that he acquired feveral

languages, and made an uncommon progrefs in the belles Gellibranrt
lettres : and though he continued always to work at his II
trade, became acquainted ^vith all the \vits and learned """' ■
men at Florence, and his merit was univerfally known.
He was chofen a member of the academy there, and
the city made him a burgefs. He acquired the higheft
reputation by his works, ^vhich are, I . /. Cafirici del
Bollaio, quarto ; which contains ten dialogues. 2.
La Circe, oilavo. This, which alfo contains ten dia-
logues, and treats of human nature, has been tranf-
lated into Latin, French, and Englilh. 3. Dilferta-
tions in Italian on the poems of Dante and Petrarch.
4. Tlie comedies of La Sporia and La Errore ; and o-
ther ivorks. He died in I ^63.

GELLIBRAND, Henry, a laborious aftrono-
nier of the 17th century, was born in 1597. Though
lie \vas not %vithout good views in the church, yet he
became fo enamoured with mathematical ftudies, that
on the death of his father he became a ftuJent at Ox-
ford, contented himfelf with his private patrimony,
and devoted himfelf Iblely to them. On the death of
Mr Gunter, he was recommended by Mr Briggs to
the trullees of Grelham college, for the aflronomical
profcflbrftiip there ; to which he was eJefted in 1627.
His friend Mr Briggs dying in 1630, before he had
finilhed his Trigonometria Britannica, it was finiflied by
Gellibrand at his requeft. He wrote feveral other
things, chiefly tending to the improvement of naviga-
tion ; and died in 1636.

GELLIUS, AuLUS, a celebrated grammarian who
lived in the 2d century under Marcus Aurelius and
fome fucceeding emperors. He wrote a collection of
obfervations on authors, for the ufe of his children ;
and called it NoSes Atticce, becaufe compofed in the
evenings of a winter he fpent at Athens. The chief
value of it is for preferving many fafts and monu-
ments of antiquity not to be found elfewhere. Cri-
tics and grammarians have beftowed much pains on this

GELLY. See Jelly.

GELO, or GeloN, a fon of Dinomenes who
made himfelf abfolute at Syracufe 484 years before
the Chriflian era. He conquered the Carthaginians
at Himera, and made his oppreflion popular by his
great equity and moderation. He reigned feven years,
and his death was univerfally lamented at Syracufe.
He was called the father of his people, and the patron
of liberty, and honoured as a demigod. His brother
Hiero fucceeded him. See Syracuse.

GEM, in Natural Hijlortf, a common name for all
precious ftones ; of which there are two clalTes, the pel-
lucid and femipellucid.

The bodies compofing the clafs of pellucid gems are
bright, elegant, and beautiful foflils, which are found
in fmall detached maffes, extremely hard, and of great
luftre.

The bodies compofing the clafs of femipellucid gems,
are ftones naturally compound, not inflammable or folu-
ble in water, found in detached maffes, and compofed
of cryftalline matter debafed by earth : however, they
are but nightly debafed ; and are of great beauty and
brightnefs, of a moderate degree of tranfparency, and
are ufually found in fmall mafles.

The knowledge of gems depends principally on ob-

fer\'ing their hardnefs and colour. Their hardnefs is

commonly

GEM [

commonly alloned to (land in the following order :
- The diamond the hardelt of all ; then the ruby, fap-
phire, jacinth, emerald, amethyft, garnet, cameol,
chalcedony, onyx, jafper, agate, porphyry, and marble.
This difference, however, is not regular and conftant,
but frequently varies. Good cryftals may be allowed
to fucceed the onyx ; but the whole family of me-
tallic glafly tluors feems to be Itill fofter. — In point of
colour, the diamond is valued for its tranfparency, the
ruby for its purple, the fapphire for its blue, the eme-
rald for its green, the jacinth for its orange, the
amethyrt carneol for its carnation, the onyx lor its
tawny, the jafper, agate, and porphyry, for their ver-
milion, green, and variegated colours, and the garnet
for its trnnfparent blood red.

All thefe gems are fometimes found coloured and
fpotted, and fometimes quite limpid and colourlefs. In
this cafe the diamond cutter or polilher knows ho.w to
diftinguilh their different fpecies by their different de-
grees of hardnefs upon the mill. For the cutting or
polilliing of gems, the fine powder of the fragments
of thofe that are next in degree of hardnefs is always
required to grind away the fofter ; but as none of
them are harder than the diamond, this can only be
poliihed by its o\vn powder.

Cronftedt obferves of gen« in general, that tlie co-
lour of the ruby and emerald are faid to remain in the
fire, while that of the topaz dies off: hence it is ufual
to bum the topaz, and thence fubltitute it for the dia-
mond. " Their colours ("fays our author^ are com-
monly fuppofed to depend upon metallic vaptjurs ; but
may they not more juftly be fuppofed to arife from a
phlogiffon united with a metallic or fome other earth ?
becaufe we find that metallic earths which are perfectly
well calcined give no colour to any glafs : and that the
manganefe, on the other hand, gives more colour than
can be afcribed to the fmall quantity of metal which is
to be extracted from it." M. Magellan is of opinion,
that their colour is owing chiefly to the mixture of
iron which enters their compofition ; but approves the
fentiment of Cronftedt, that phlogifton has a Ihare in
their produdlion, it being well known that the calces
of iron when dephlogifticated produce the red and
yellow colours of marble, and when phlogillicated to
a certain degree produce the blue or green colours.

With regard to the texture of gems, M. Magellan
obferves, that all of them are foliated or laminated,
and of various degrees of hardnefs. Whenever the
edges of thefe laminae are fenfible to the eye, they have
a fibrous appearance, and reflcft various fliades of co-
lour, which change fucceflively according to their an-
gular pofition to the eye. Thefe are called by the
French chaloyantes ; and what is a blemifli in their
tranfparency, often enhances their value on account of
their fcarcity. But when the fubftance of a gem is
compofed of a broken tvxlure, confilling of various
fets of lamina; differently inclined to each other, it
emits at the fame time various irradiations of different
colours, which (ucceed one another according to their
angle of pofition. This kind of gems has obtained the
name of opals, and are valued in proportion to the
brillancy, beauty, and variety of their colours. Their
crvitallization, no doubt, depends on the fame caufe
■V,' ich produces that of fait--, cailhs, and metals, which
is treated of uader the article Crysi„\i-lizatiok. The

471 J

G E M

following table lliows the component parts of gems ac- ^
cording to the analyfis of Bergman and M. Achard j
the letter B prefixed to each denoting Bergman's ana-
lyfis, and A that of Achard.

Argil.

snic.

Calc. 1

flOll.

Red oriental ruby,

B 40

39

9

10

Ditto,

■A-37-J

42.J

' 9

11

Blue oriental fapphire,

B 58

35

2

Ditto,

A 58

33

6

3

Yellow topaz from Saxony,

B 46

39

8

6

Green oriental emerald.

B 60

24

8

6

Ditto,

A 60

*3

10

7

Yellow brown orient, hyacinth,

B 40

25

20

«3

Ditto,

A 42

22

20

16

Tourmalin from Ceylon,

B 39

37

IS

9

Ditto from Erafil,

B 50

34

?

Ditto from Tyrol,

B 42

40

12

6

Garnet from Bohemia,

A 30

48

II

10

But later analyfes Ihew that the component parts arc
different from the above, particularly the colouring
matters which are here afcribed to iron. See Mine-
ralogy.

The chryfoprafe from Kofeinitz in Silefia was like-
wife analyzed by M. Achard ; who found that it con-
tained 4j6 grains of filiceous earth, 73 of calcareous,
fix of magnelia, three of copper, .and two of iron. " This
(fays M. Magellan) feems to be the only gem that con-
tains no argillaceous earth."

Imitation or Counterfeiting of Gems in Glafs. The
art of imitating gems in glafs is too confiderable to
be paffed without notice : fome of the leading compo-
fitions therein we (hall mention upon the authority of
Ncri and others.

Thefe gems are made of paftes j and are noway in-
ferior to the native ftones, when carefully made and
well poliihed, in brightnefs or tranfparence, but want
their hardnefs.

The general rules to be obferved in making the paftes
are thefe: 1. That all the veffels in wi.ich they are
made be firmly luted, and the lute left to dry before
they are put into the fire. 2. That fuch veffels be
chofen for the work as will bear the fire well. 3. That
the po^vders be prepared on a porphyry Itone ; not in
a metal mortar, which would communicate a tinge to
them. 4. That the juft proportion in the quantity of
the feveral ingredients be nicely obferved. 5. That
the materials be all well mixed ; and, if not fufficient-
ly baked the firll time, to be committed to the fire
again, without breaking the pot j for if this be not
obferved, they will be full of bliilers and air blad-
ders. 6. That a fmall vacuity be always left at the top
of the pot, to give room to the fwelling of the ingre-
dients.

To make pafte of extreme hardnefs, and capable of
all the colours of the gems, with great ludre and beau-
ty.— Take of prepared cryftal, ten pounds j fait of
polverine, lix pounds ; fulphur of lead, two pounds :
mix all thefe well together into a fine powder ; make
the whole with common water into a hard parte ; and
make this parte into fmall cakes of about three ounces
weight each, with a hole made in their middle ; dry
them in the fun, and afterwards calcine tbem in the
llraitcft part of a rotter's furnace. After this, pow-
der'

G E M

[ 472 ]

GEM

Gf.u. d(r tliem, and levigate tlicm to a perfect finenefs on a

— » f orpiiyry ilone, and fet this powder in pots in a glals

furnace to purify for three days : then caft the whole
intownter, and afterwards return it into the furnace,
where let it ftand 15 days, in which time all foulnefs
and blifters will difappear, and the pafte will greatly
refemble the natural jewels. To give this the colour
ol the emerald, add to it brafs thrice calcined ; for a
fea green, brafs limply calcined to a rednefs ; for a
fappliLre, add zaftcr, with manganefe ; and for a to-
paz, manganefe and tartar. AH the gems are thus
imitated in this, by the fame way of working as the
making of coloured glaffes ; and this is fo hard, that
they very much approach the natural gems.

The colour of all the counterfeit gems made of the
feveral paftes, may be made deeper or lighter accord-
ing to the work for which the ftones are defigned ; and
it is a neceffary general rule, that fmall ftones for rings,
&c. require a deeper colour, and large ones a paler.
Befides the colours made from manganefe, verdigris,
and zaffer, which are the ingredients commonly ufed,
there are other very fine ones which care and ikill
may prepare. Very fine red may be made from gold,
.^nd one not much inferior to that from iron ; a very
fine green from brafs or copper ; a Iky colour from
filver, and a much finer one from the granates of Bo-
hemia.

A very Angular and excellent way of making the
pafte to imitate the coloured gems is this : Take a
quantity of faccharum faturni, or fugar of lead, made
with vinegar in the common way ; fet it in fand, in a
glafs body well luted from the neck downwards ; leave
.the mouth of the glafs open, and continue the fire 24
hours ; then take out the fait, and if it be not red but
yellowifti, powder it fine, and return it into the veffel,
and keep it in the fand heat 24 hours more, till it be-
comes as red as cinnabar. The fire muft not be made
fo ftrong as to melt it, for then all the procefs is fpoil-
ed. Pour dirtilK-d vinegar on this calcined fait, and
feparate the folution from the dregs ; let the decanted
liquor ftand fix days in an caithen veflel, to give time
for the finer fediment to fubfide ; filter this liquor,
and evaporate it in a glafs body, and there will remain
a moft pure fait of lead ; dry this well, then diffolve it
in fair water ; let the folution ftand fix days in a
glazed pan ; let it fubfide, then filter the clear folu-
tion, and evaporate it to a yet more pure white and
fweet fait ; repeat this operation three times ; put the
now perfcftly pure fait into a glafs veffel, fet it in a
fand heat for feveral days, and it will be calcined to a
fine impalpable powder of a lively red. This is called
the fulfthur of lead.

Take all the ingredients as in the common compo-
jition of the paftes of the feveral colours, only inlf ead
of red lead, ufe this powder ; and the produce will well
reward the trouble of the operation, as experience has
often proved.

A pafte proper for receiving colours may be readily
made by well pounding and mixing fix pounds of white
fand clcanled, three pounds of red lead, two pounds of
purified pearl-a(hes, and one pyund of nitre. A fofter
pafte may be made in the fume manner, of fix pounds
of white fand clear.fcd j red lead, and purified pearl-
alhes, of each three pounds ; one pound of nitre, half
« pound of borax, and three ounces of arfenjc, For

common ufe a pound of common fait may be iubili- C-.
luted for the borax. This glafs will be very fofc, and «
will not bear much wear if employed for rings, buckles,
or inch imitations of ftones as are expotcd to mucl>
rubbing j but for ear-rings, ornaments worn on the
breaft, and thofe little ufed, it may laft a conliderable
time.

In order to give pafte different colours,, the procefs
is as follows : For

Ameihijjl. Take ten pounds of either of the com-
pofitions defcribed under Colouring of Gijiss, one ounce
and a half of manganefe, and one drachm of zaffer ;
powder and fufe them together.

Blaci. Take ten pounds of either of the compofi-
tions juft referred to, one ounce of zaffer, fix drachms
of manganefe, and five drachms of iron, highly calcined j
and proceed as before.

Blue. Take of the fame compofition, ten pounds ;
of zaffer, fix drachms ; and of manganefe, two drachms :
and proceed as with the foregoing.

Chriffolite. Take of either of the compofitions for
pafte above defcribed, prepared without faltpetre, ten
pounds, and of calcined iron five drachms ; and purfue
the fame procefs as with the reft.

Red Curnelian. Take of the compofitions mention-
ed under Colouring of Glass, two pounds ; of glafs of
antimony, one pound ; of the calcined vitriol called
fcarlel ochre, two ounces ; and of manganefe, one drachm.
Fufe the glafs of antimony and manganefe with the
compofition ; then powder them, and mix them with
the other, by grinduig them together, and fufe them
with a gentle heat.

While Cornelian. Take of the compofition juft re-
ferred to, two pounds ; of yellow ochre well waftied,
two drachms ; and of calcined bones, one ounce. Mix
them, and fufe them with a gentle heat.

Diamond. Take of the white fand, fix pounds ; of
red lead, four pounds •, of pearl alhes, purified, three
pounds ; of nitre two pounds ; of arfenic five ounces ;
and of manganefe, one fcruple. Powder and fufe
them.

Eagle-marine. Take ten pounds of the compofition
under Glass ; three ounces of copper highly calcined
w ith fulphur ; and one fcruple of zaffer. Proceed as
before.

Emerald. Take of the fame compofition with the
laft nine pounds ; three ounces of copper precipitated
from aquafortis ; and two drachms of precipitated iron.
See Emerald, Mineralogy Index.

Camel. Take two pounds of the compofition under
Glass ; tivo pounds of the glafs of antimony, and two
drachms of manganefe. For vinegar garnet, take of the
compofiti(,n for pafte, defcribed in this article, two
pounds •, one pound of glafs of antimony, and half an
ounce of iron, highly calcined : mix the iron with the
uncoloured pafte, and fufe t'nem : then add the glafs
of antimony powdered, and continue them in the heat
till the whole is incorporated.

Gold or full Yellow. Take of the compofition for
pafte ten pounds ; and one ounce and a half of iron
ftrongly calcined j proceeding as with the others.

Dce/i Purple. Take of either of the compofitions for
pafte, ten pounds ; of manganefe, one ounce ; and of
zaffer, half an ounce.

Ruby, Take one pound t)f either of the corapofi-

GEM [47

tions for pafte, and f.vo drachms precipitate of gold by
■ tin ; powder the pafle, and grind the calx of gold with
it in a glafs, flint, or agate mortar, and then fufe them
together. A cheaper ruby palle may be made with
half a pound of either of the above compoAtions, half a
pound of glafs of antimony, and one drachm and a half
of the calx of gold j proceeding as before.

Sapphire, lake of the compofition for parte, ten
pounds ; of zaffer, three drachms and one fcruple ; and
of the calx CaJJii, one drachm. Powder and fufe them.
Or the fame may be done, by mi.xing «ith the paile
one-eighth of its weight of fraalt.

Topax. Take of the compofnions under Glass
ten pounds, omitting the faltpetre ; and an equal
quantity of the Gold-col jiired hard Glah. Powder
and fufe them. See Topaz, IMineralogy Index.

Turquoife, Take of the compofition for blue pafte
already defcribed, ten pounds ; of calcined bone, horn,
or ivory, half a pound. Powder and fiife them.

Opaque "while. Take of the compofition for pafte
ten pounds ; and one pound of calcined horn, ivory,
or bone ; and proceed as before.

Semitranfparent white, like opal. See Ofal, Mik-
ERALO&Y Index.

To the above we (hall add the following receipts and
proceiTes, contained in a memoir by M. Fontanieu of
the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, and faid to
have met with much approbation.

I. Of the Bafes. Although the different calces of lead
are all adapted to produce the fame effect in vitrifica-
tion J yet M. Fontanieu prefers lead in fcales, and
next to that minium, as being the moft conllantly
pure. It is neceffary to fift through a filk fieve the
preparations of lead one wilhes to make ufe of hi the
vitrification, in order to feparate the grolTer parts, as
alfo the lead found in a metallic ilate when white lead
in Icales is employed.

The bafe of factitious gems is calx of lead and rock
ctyftal, or any other ftone vitrifiable by the calces al-
ready mentioned. Pure fand, flint, and the tranfpa-
rent pebbles of rivers, are fubllances equally fit to make
glafs : but as it is firft neceffary to break the maffes
of cryftal, ftones, or pebbles, into fmaller parts ; fo
by this operation particles of iron or copper are fre-
quently introduced, and to thefe duft or greafy matters
are alfo apt to adhere. Our author therefore begins by
putting the pounded cryftal or pebbles into a crucible,
which he places in a degree of heat capable of making
the mafs red hot ; he then pours it into a wooden bowl
filled with very clear water ; and (liaking the bowl
from time to time, the fmall portions of coals furniihed
by the extraneous bodies fwim on the furface of the
water, and the vitrifiable earth, with the iron, &c.
refts on the bottom. He then decants the water ; and
having dried the mafs, he pounds it, and fifts the powder
through the fineft filk fieve : he then digefts the pow-
der during four or five hours with marine acid, fliaking
the mixture every hour. After having decanted the
marine acid from the vitrifiable earth, he wafhes the
latter until the water nq longer reddens the tincture of
tumfol. The faid earth being dried, is paffed tlirough
a filk fieve, and is then fit for ufe. Nitre, fait of tar-
tar, and borax, are the three fpecies of falls that enter
with quartz and the fevsial calces of lead into M. Fon-
Unieu's vitrifications.
Vol. IX. Part II.

G E IM

Much of the fuccefs in the art of making colotired <"!«>•
ftones depends on the accurate proportion of the lub- """"* —
ftances made ufe of to form the cryftal which ferves as
a bafe to the factitious ftones. After having tried a
great variety of receipts, our author found they might
be reduced to the following.

1. Take two parts and a half of lead in fcales, one
part and a half of rock crjftal or prepared flints, half
a part of nitre, as much borax, and a quarter part of
glafs of arfenic. Thefe being well pulverized and
mixed together, are to be put into a HefTian crucible,
and fubmittcd to the fire. \Mien the mixture is well
melted, pour it into cold water : then melt it again a
fecond and a third time ; taking care, after each melt-
ing, to throw it into frefti cold water, and to feparate
from it the lead that may be revived. The fame cru-
cible fhoiild not be ufed a fecond time, becaufe the
glafs of lead is apt to penetrate it in fuch a manner as
to run the rifk of lofing the contents. One muft alfo
be careful to cover the crucible well, to prevent any
coals getting into it, which would reduce the calx of
lead, and fpoil the compofition.

2. Take two parts and a half of white cerufe, one
part of prepared iiints, half a part of fait of tartar,
and a quarter part of calcined borax : melt the mixture
in a HeiTian crucible, and then pour it into cold water ;
it is then to bs melted again, and w^aflied a fecond
and a third time, the fame precautions being obferved
as for the firft bafe.

3. Take two parts minium, one part rock cryf-
tal, half a part of nitre, and as much fait of tartar :
this mixture being melted, muft be treated as the for-
mer.

4. Take three parts of calcined borax, one part of
prepared rock cryftal, and one part of fait of tartar ;
thefe being well mixed and melted together, muft be
poured into warm water : the water being decanted
and the mafs dried, an equal quantity of minium muft
be added to it ; it is then to be melted and wafhed feveral
times as direfted above.

5. That called by our author the Mayenee ha/e, and
which he confiders as one of the fineft cryftalline com-
pofitions hitherto known, is thus compofed : Take
three parts of fixed alkali of tartar, one part of rock
cryftal or flint pulverized : the mixture to be well
baked together, and then left to cool. It is afterwards
poured into a crucible of hot water to diffolve the
frit j the folution of the frit is then received into a
ftone-ware pan, and aquafortis added gradually to the
folution till it no longer effervef.ts : this water being
decanted, the frit mult be walhed in warm water till it
has no longer any tafte : the frit is then dried, and
mixed with one pilrt and a half of fine cerufe or white
lead in fcales ; and this mixture muft be well levigated
with a little diflilled water. To one part and a half
of this powder dried add an ounce of calcined borax ;
let the whole be well mixed in a marble mortar, then
melted and poured into cold water as the other bafes
already defcribed. Thefe fufions and lotions having
been repeated, and the mixture dried and powdered,
a I2tli part of nitre muft be added to it, and then
melted for the laft time ; when a very fine cryftal will
be found in the crucible.

6. As a compofition for fumifhing very fine white
Itoiies : Take eight oimces of cerufe, three ounces of

3 O rock

G E M

rock cry Hal pulverized, two ounces of borax finely
powdered, and lialf a grain of inanganefe : having
melted nnd walhed this mixture in the manner direfted
above, it will inoduce a very fine white cryftal.

II. Of the Colours. The calces of metals, as already
obfefved, are the fubftances employed to colour fafti-
tious gems ; and on the j-rcparation of thefe calces
depends the vividnefs of their colours.

a. From Gold.l To obtain the mineral purple
known by the name a'i precipitate ofCaJius, M. Fonta-
nieu employs the following different proceiTes.

I. Diflolve fome pure gold in aqua regia, prepared
v.ith three parts of precipitated nitrous acid and one
p^rt of marine acid ; and to hallen the diffolution, the
ir.atrafs fhould be placed in a fand bath. Into this
folution pour a folution of tin in aqua regia. _ The
mixture becomes turbid, and the gold is precipitated
with a portion of the tin, in the form of a reddifli pow-
lier ; which, after being wallied and dried, is called
precipitate of CaJius.-^'Vhe aqua regia employed to
diffolve the tin is compofed of five parts of nitrous
acid and one part of marine acid : to eight ounces
of this aqua regia, are added fixteen ounces of diftilled
v.ater. Some leaves of Malacca tin, about the fize and
ihicknefs of a fixpence, are then put into this diluted
•iqua regia, till it will diffolve no nwre of them : which
operation our author obferv«s, requires commonly twelve
or fourteen days; though it might probably be haflened
by beating the tin flill thinner, and then rolling it into
the farm of a hollow cylinder, or turning it round into
Tpiral convolutions, and thus expofing a greater extent
of furface to the aftion of the menftruum. lx\ order to
prepare mere readily the precipitate of Caflius, M. Fon-
tanieu puts into a large jug eight ounces of folution of

tm, to which he adds four pints of diftilled water : he
afterwards pours into this metallic lye fome folution of
gold, drop by drop, taking care to Itir the whole with
a glafs tube : when the mixture becomes of a deep
purple colour, he ceafes dropphig the folution of gold j
and in order to hallen the precipitation of the mineral
purple, pours into the mixture a pint of frelh urine.
Six or feven hours after, the precipitate is collefled at
the bottom of the veffcl : the fluid is then decanted ;
and the. precipitate, walhed once or twice, is dried till
it becomes a brown powder.

2. Pour into a veffel of fine tin with a thick bottom
four ounces of the folution of gold ; three minutes
after add two pints oi diftilled water. Let this mix-
ture ftand in the tin veffel during feven hours, taking
care to ftir it every hour with a glafs tube ; afterwards
pour it into a conical glafs jug, and add to it a pint of
new urine : the mineral purple is foon precipitated,
and then is to be walhed and dried.

3. Diftil in a glafs retort placed in a bath of
afhes, fome gold diffolvcd in aqua regia, made with
three parts nitrous and one part marine acid ; when
the acid is paffed over and the gold contained in the
retort appears dry, leave the veffel to cool, then pour
into it fome new aqua regia, and proceed to dillil as
before. Replace the aqua regia twice upon the gold,
and diflil the fame. After thefe four operations, pour
by little and little into the retort fome oil of tartar
fer deliquiuin, which vnW occafion a brifk cffcrvefcence :
when this ceafes, diftil the mixture till it becomes dry,
•«nd then put fome warm' water into the retort.

474 ] GEM

Shake the ivhole and pour it into a cucurbit, when a (
precipitate is depofited, the colour of which is fome- ^~"
times brown and fometimes yellow : After having
walhed this precipitate, dry it. Oiu- author fays, this
mineral purple was much fuperior to the foregoing,
fmce two grains of it only were fufficient to an ounce
of the baie, whilft it required of the other two a 20th
part of the bafe. And he adds, that he found a means
of exalting the colour of the precipitate of Caflius, by-
putting to it a fixlh part of its weight of glafs of an-
timony finely powdered, and of nitre in the proportion
of a drachm to eight ovmces of the bafe.

bf From Silver.^ The oxide of filver, being vitrified,,
produces a yellowilh gray colour. This oxide enters
only into the compofition of the yellow artificial dia-
mond and the opal. M. Fontanieu introduces it into
the bafe in the form of luna cornea.

In order to prepare it, he diredls to diffolve the fil-
ver in precipitated nitrous acid, and afterwards to
pour into it a folution of fea fait : a white precipitate
is obtained ; which, being walbed and dried, melts
very readily in the fire, and is fnon volatilized if not
mixed with vitrifiable matters. To make the yellov/
diamond, 25 grains of this luna cornea are put to an
ounce of the fourth bafe : the dofe of filver may be di-
miniftied according to the ftiade of yellow that one
ivilhes to procure.

c, From Copper.^ The oxide of copper imparts to
white glafs the fineft green colour ; but if this metal
be not exaifily in a ftate of oxide, it produces a browniih
red colour. Mountain blue verdigris, and the reUjue of
its diflillation, are the different preparations of copper
which oiu: author employs to make the artificial eme-
ralds.

d. From Iron.'] Although it has been afferted
that the oxides of iron introduce a very fine tranfpa-
rent red colour into white glafs, M. Fontanieu could
only obtain from it a pale red a little opake. The
oxide of iron that lie employed \va9 in the proportioti
of the 20th part of the bafe.

There are feveral ways of preparing the oxide of
iron called crocus Martis, or faffron of Mars. In ge-
neral, it is neceffary that this metal be fo far oxidated
that the magnet ceafes to attraft it : thus one may
ufe the fcales of iron found upon the bars of the fur-
naces, which ferve to diftil aquafortis. By digefting
filings of fteel with diftilled vinegar, then evaporat-
ing and replacing the vinegar 10 or 12 times upon
thefe filings and drying them alternately, an oxide of
iron is obtained, which muft be fifted through a
filk fieve, and then calcined. The oxide of iron thus
obtained by the vinegar, our author fays, only in-
troduced into his bafes a green colour inclining to a
yellow.

By the following procefs a faffron of Mars of the
fineft red colour is obtained : Let an ounce of iron fil-
ings be diffolved in nitrous acid in a glafs retort, and
diftilled over a fand bath to drynefs. After having
replaced the acid or the dry oxide, and rcdiftillcd it a
fccond and a third time, it is then edulcorated with
fpirits of wine, and afterwards waflicd with diftilled
water.

From the Magnet.'] It is neceffary to calcine the

magnet before it be introduced into the vitrifications

Having therefor

torrefied the magnet durirtg two
hours,

GEM

[ 475 ]

GEM

hours, ll muil be waihed and dried. It is only employ-
ed in the compolltion of the opal.

J\ From Cobalt.'] The oxide of cobalt is only proper
to iiUroduce a blue colour into glafs ; but this feraime-
tal is rarely found free from iron and bifmuth, and there-
fore it is firil necellary to feparate them from it. This
is done by calcining the ore of cobalt in order to dii-
engage the arfenic ; afterwards the oxide mult be di-
flilled in a retort with lal ammoniac, and the iron
and the bifmuth are found fublimed with this fait.
Tlie dillillation mull be repeated ^vith the fal ammo-
niac till this fait is no longer coloured yellow. The
cobalt which remains in the cornute is then calcined
in a potlberd, and becomes a very pure oxide ; which
being introduced into the bafe, in the proportion of
a Qoodth part, gives it a very fine blue colour, the in-
tenlity of which may be increafed at difcretion by the
addition of oxide of cobalt. In order to prepare black
enamel referabling that which is called black agale of Ice-
land J melt together a pound and a half of one of the
ba^s, two ounces of the oxide of cobalt, two ounces of
frociis Mortis prepared with vinegar, and two ounces
of manganefe.

g, From Tin.'] The oxide of tin, which is of a white
rolour, renders opake the glafs with which it is melted,
and forms white enamel. For this purpofe, calcine the.
putty of tin j then i-. alh and dry it, and lift it through
a filk. fieve. Take fix pounds of the fecond bafe, the
fame quantity of the calcined putty of tin, and 48
grains of manganefe.

k. From yimimonij.] Antimony is only fufceptlble
of vitrification in a certain ftate of oxidation, and then
it produces a reddilh or hyacinth coloured glafs ;
but if the antimony be in a ilate of abfolate calx,
fuch as the diaphoretic antimony, then it is no longer
vitrifiable, and may be fubllituted for oxide of tin to make
white enamel. M. Fontanieu introduces the glafs of an-
timony in the compofition of artificial topazes. For the
orietitaJ topaz, he takes 24 ounces of the firft bafe, and
five drachms of the glafs of antimony. To imitate the
topaz of Saxony, he adds to each ounce of the bafe five
grains of the glafs of antimony. For the tcpa^i 0/ Bra-
zil, he takes 24 ounces of the firft bafe, one ounce 24
grains of glafs of antimony, and 8 grains of the preci-
pitate of Cajiiis.

i. From Manganefe.'] This minei-al employed in a
fmall quantity, renders the glafs whiter ; a larger
quantity produces -a very fine violet colour, and a
ilill larger dofe of it renders the glafs black and
opake.

There are two ways of preparing manganefe. 1 . The
moft fimple confifts in expofing it to a red heat, and
then quenching it with dilHUed vinegar ; it is after-
wards dried and powdered, in order to pafs it through
a filk fieve. 2. Haudiquer de Blaucour defcribes the
fecond manner of preparing the manganefe, proper to
furnilh a red colour, and names it fufihle nan-'anefe.
Take of manganefe of Piedmont one pound ; torrefy
and pulverize it ; then mix it with a pound of nitre,
sind calcine the mixture during 24 hours j afterwards
wafh it repeatedly in warm water, till the water of the
lyes has no longer ^ny tafte j dry the manganefe, and
mix with it an equal weight of fal ammoniac ; levigate
this mixture ^on a ilab of porphyry with oil of vitriol
diluted with water to the ftrength of vinegar. Dry the

mixture, and introduce it into a cornute j diftil by a
graduated fire ; and when the fal ammoniac is fublimed '
weigh it, and add to the mi.\.ture an equal quantity.
Then dillil and fublime as before, and repeat the opera-
tion fix times, being carefiil at each time to mix the fal
ammoniac and the manganefe upon the porphyry with
diluted oil of vitriol.

At Tournh.'.ult in Bohemia, there is fild a fufible
glals of a yellow colour, very like that of the topaz of
Brazil, which, when expofed to a degree of fire in a cu-
pel fuihcient to redden it, becomes of a very fine ruby
colour, more or lefs deep according to the degree of
fire to which it has been expofed. Our author aflayed
this glafs, and found it to cwntain a-great deal of lead,
but was not able to difcover any gold in it.

III. Of the different degrees ofjire neceffary for Faili-
tious Gems. Our author obfervesj that there are three
degrees of heat very different in their energy. The fire
kept up in the wind furnaces In the laboratories of che-
mifts, is lefs aftive than that whofe effeft is accelerated
by the means of bellows ; and a fire fupported by wood,
and kept up during 6d hours without interruption, pro-
duces lingular effeils In vitrification, and renders the
glafs finer and lefs alterable.

When recourfe is had to the fofge, in order to ope-
rate a vitrification, it is neceffary to turn about the
crucible from time to time, that the mafs may melt
equally. Some coal alfo Ihould be replaced, in pro-
portion as it confumes towards the nozel of the bel-
lows ; for %\'ithout this precaution, we Ihould run the
rilk of cooling the crucible oppofite to the flame, and
probably of cracking it, when all the melted mafs run-
ning among the coals would be totally loll. Though
this is the readiell way of melting, it Ihould not be em-
ployed out of choice -, for the crucible often breaks, o:
coals get into it, which may reduce the lead to the me-
tallic flate.

'I'he wind furnac.e is either fquare or round. A
fmall cake of baked clay or brick, of the thicknefs of
an inch, is placed upon the grate ; and upon this cake
is placed the crucible, liirrounded with coals. The
degree of heat produced by this furnace is much lef^
. than that of the forge : but in order to fucceed in the
vitrification, M. Fontanieu recommends the ufe of a
furnace defcribed by Kunckel, of which, the interior
part is fo difpofed, that we may place crucibles at
three different heights ; and the name of chambers is
given to thofc Heps upon which the crucibles are pla-
ced.

It is obvious, that the degree of heat cannot be equal
in the faid three chambers. In the firft or loweft cham-
ber the heat is greateft, afterwards in the next, and laft-
ly, in the higheft. We Ihould begin by placing the
crucibles according to their fize, in thefe different cham-
bers ; by which means the bcft effeft in vitrification is
produced.

In order to condu£l the fire ^vcll, only three billets
of white wood ftiould be put into the furnace at a time
for the firft 20 hours, four billets at a time for the
next 20 hours, and fix billets for the laft 20 hours ; in
al! 60 hours. The furnace is then left to cool, care
being taken to flop the air holes with feme lute ; and
in about 48 hours after, when the kili> is quite cold,
the crucible is to be withdrawn.

IV. The Compofitions. 1. For the white diamond :

3 O a Take

GEM

[ 476

GEM

Take tVie bafe of Mayence. This cryftal is very pure,
and has no colours.

2. For the yellow diamond : To an ounce of the
fourth bafe, add for colour 25 grains of luna cornea or
JO grains of glafs of antimcny.

3. For the emerald : i. To 15 ounces of either of the
bales, add for colour one drachm of mountain blue and
iix grains of glafs of antimony ; or, 2. To an ounce of
the fecond bafe, add for colour 20 grains of glafs of
antimony and three grains of calx of cobalt.

4. For the fapphire : To 24 ounces of the Mayence
bafe, add for colour two drachms 46 grains of the cal.x
of cobalt.

5. For the amethyft : To 24 ounces of the Mayence
bafe, add for colour four drachms of prepared mauganefe
and four grains of precipitate of CalTius.

6. For the beryl : To 24 ounces of the third bafe,
add for colour 96 grains of glafs of antimony and four
grains of calx of cobalt.

7. For the black agate : To 24 ounces of either of
the bafes, add two ounces of the mixture diredled
above in par../".

8. For the opal : To an ounce of the third bafe, add
for colour 1 o grains of luna cornea, two grains of mag-
net, and 26 grains of abforbent earth.

9. For the oriental topaz : To 24 oimces of the firft
or third bafe, add for colour five drachms of glafs of
antimony.

10. For the topaz of Saxony ; To 24 of the fame
bafe, add for colour fix drachms of the glafs of anti-
mony.

1 1 . For the topaz of Erafil : to 24 ounces of the
iecond or third bafe, add for coloiu- one ounce 24
grains of the glafs of antimony and eight grains of pre-
cipitate of Caffius.

12. For the hyacinth : To 24 ounces of the bafe
made with rock cryftal, add for colour Hvo drachms 48
grains of glafs of antimony.

13. For the oriental ruby : i. To 16 ounces of the
Mayence bafe, add for colour a mixture of two drachms
48 grains of the precipitate of Caflius, the fame quan-
tity of crocus Martis prepared in aquafortis, the fame
of golden fulphur of antimony and of fufible manganefe,
with the addition of two ounces of mineral cryftal : or,
2. To 20 ounces of the bafe made with tlint, add half
an ounce of fufible manganefe and two ounces of mine-
ral cryftal.

14. For the balafs rubby : i. To 16 ounces of the
Mayence bafe, add the above colouring powder, but di-
minilhed a fourth part ; or, 2. To 20 ounces of the bafe
made with flints, add the fame colouring powder, but
with a fourth lefs of the manganefe.

The /aSiilioui gems are eafily dlftinguiftied from the
natural, by their foftnefs and fufibility ; by their folu-
bility in acids ; by their caufmg only a fmgle refrac-
tion of the rays of light ; and in many cafes, by their
fpecific gravity, which exceeds 2.76 in all precious
gems of the firft order, as the diamond, ruby, fap-
phire, &c.

Imilation of j^ntujue Gems. There has been at dif-
ferent times a method praftifcd by particular pcrfons
of taking the imprtlTions and figures of antique gems,
•with their engravings, in glafs of the colour of the ori-
ginal gem. Thij has always been eftccraed a very va-

luable method, and greatly preferable to the more or- Gem.

dinary ones of doing it on fealing wax or brimftone j v—

but, to the misfortune of the world, this art being 3
fecret only in the hands of fome particular perfons
who got their bread by it, died with them, and every
new artirt was obliged to re-invent the method ; till
at length Mr Homberg having found it in great per-
fection, gave the whole procefs to the world to be no
more forgotten or loft ; and fmce that time it has been
very commonly praftifed in France, and fometimes in
other places.

Mr Homberg was favoured in his attempts with all
the engraved gems of the king's cabinet ; and took fuch
elegant imprelfions, and made fuch e.xaci refemblances
of the originals, and that in glafies fo artfully tinged
to the colour of the gems themfelves, that the nicell
judges were deceived in them, and often took them for
the true antique ftones. The counterfeit gems alio
ferve, as well as the original ones, to make more co-
pies from afterwards ; fo that there is no end of the
numbers that may be made from one ; and there is
this farther advantage, that the copy may be eafily
made perfeft, though the original thould not be fo,
but Ihould have fuftajned fome damage from a blow or
otherwife.

The great care in the operation is to take the im-
prelTion of the gem in a very fine earth, and to prefs
down upon this a piece of proper glafs, foftened or
half melted at the fire, fo that the figures of the im-
prelfion made in the earth may be nicely and perfeftly
expreiTed upon the glafs. In general, the whole pro-
cefs much refembles that of the common founders.
But ^vhen it is brought to the trial, there is found a
number of difficidties which were not to be forefeen,
and which would not at all affedl the common works of
the founder. For his purpofe, every earth ^nll ferve that
is fine enough to receive the impreffions, and tough
enough not to crack in the drying : thefe all ferve for
their ufe, becaufe the metals which they caft are of a
nature incapable of mixing with earth, or receiving it
into them, even if both are melted togther, fo that
the metal always eafily and perfeftly feparates itfelf
from the mould ; but it is very difficult in thefe cafts
of glafs. They are compofed of a matter which differs
in nothing from that of the mould, but that it has
been run into this form by the force of fire, and the
other has not yet been fo run, but is on any occafion
ready to be fo run, and will mix itfelf infeparably
with the glafs in a large fire : confequently, if there
be not great care ufed, as well in the choice of the
glafs as in the manner of ufing it, when the whole is
finilhed there will be found great ditliculty in the fe-
parating the glafs from the mould, and often this
cannot be done without wholly deftroying the im-
preflion.

All earths run more or lefs eafily in the fire as they
are more or lefs mixed with faline particles in their na-
tural formation. As all falts make earths run into
glafs, and as it is neceffary to ufe an earth on this oc-
cafion for the making a mould, it being alfo neceffary
to the perfeflion of the experiment that this earth
fhould not melt or run, it is our bulinefs to fearch out
for this purpofe fome earth which naturally contains
very little fait. Of all the fpecies of earth which Mr
Homberg examined on this occafion, none proved fo

much

GEM [

""■ much diveftcd of Hilts, or fo fit for die purpofc, a;
V— - common tripela, or Tripoli, ufed to poHih glafs and
ftones. Of this earth there are two common kinds :
the one reddilh, and compofed of fevcral flakes or ftra--
ta ;the other yellowilh, and of a fimple llruc'^ure. Thefe
are both to be had in the Ihops. The latter kind is
from the Levant ; the former is found in England,
France, and many other places. The tripela mull be
chofen foft and fmooth to the touch, and not mixed
with fandy or other extraneous matter, Th'.- yellowilli
kind is the beft of the two, and is commonly called
VeiieHan tripoli. This receives the imprefTions very
beautifully •, and never mixes with the glafs in the ope-
ration, which the red kind fometimes does. Mr Rom-
berg ufually employed both kinds at once in the fol-
lowing manner : hrft powder a quantity of the red
tripela in an iron n-.ortar, and fifting it through a fine
Ceve fet it by for ufe ; then fcrape with a knife, a
quantity of the yellow tripela into a fort of powder,
and afterivards rub it till very fine in a glafs mortar
xviih a glafs peftle. The finer this po'.vder is, the finer
ivill be the imprelTion, and the more accurately perfeft
the caft. The artificer might naturally fuppofe, that
the beft method to obtain a perfeft fine powder of this
earth would be by waftiing it in water ; but he muft
be cautioned againft this. There is naturally in this
yellouilh tripoli a fort of unfluofity, which when it is
formed into a mould keeps granules together, and
gives the whole an uniform gloffy furface : no^v the
waftiing the powder takes away this unftuofity ; and
though it renders it much finer, it makes it leave a
granulated furface, not this fmooth one, in the mould ;
and this muft render the furface of the caft lefs fmooth.

When the two tripelas are thus fcparately powder-
ed, the red kind muft be mixed with fo much w-atcr
as will bring it to the confiftence of pafte, fo that it
may be moulded like a lump of dough between the
fingers : this pafte muft be put into a fmall crucible
of a dat ftiape, and about half an inch or a little more
in depth, and of fuch a breadth at the furface as is a
little more than that of the ftone whofe impreflion is
to be taken. The crucible is to be nicely filled with
this pafte lightly prefled down into it, and the fur-
face of the pafte muft be ftrew-ed over with the fine
powder of the yellow tripela not wetted. When this
is done, the ftone, of which the impreflion is to be taken,
muft be laid upon the furface, and preffed evenly down
into the pafte with a finger and thumb, fo as to make
it give a ftrong and perfeft impreflion j the tripela is
then to be prefled nicely even to its fides with the
fingers, or with an ivory knife. The ftone muft be thus
left a few moments, for the humidity of the pafte to
moirten the dry powder of the yellow tripela which is
ftrewed over it : then the ftone is to be carefully raifed
by the point of a needle fixed in a handle of wood j and
the crucible being then turned bottom upwards, it will
fall out, and the impreflion will remain very beautifully
on the tripoli.

If the fides of the cavity have been injured in the
falling out of the ftone, they may be repaired ; and the
crucible muft then be (et, for the palle to dry, in a place
where it will not be incommoded by the duft.

The red tripoli being the more common and the
cheaper kind, is here made to fill the crucible only to
lave the other, which alone is the fubftance fit for.ta-

477 ] ^ OEM

the king the ImpreiHon. When the ftune is taken o.it,
it muft be examined, to fee whether any thing be Iodised
in any part of the engraving, bccaule if there be any
of the tripela lcft_ there, there will certainly be fo much
wanting in the impreflion. When the crucible and
pafte are dry, a piece of glafs muft be chofen of a pro-
per colour, and cut to a fize proper for the figure;
this muft be laid over the mould, but in fuch a'man.
ner that it does not touch the figures, otherwife it
would fpoil them. The crucible is then to be brought
near the furnace by degrees, and gradually heated till
it cannot be touched without burning the lingers ; then
it is to be placed on the furnace under a muifle, fur-
rounded with charcoal. Several of thele fmall cru-
cibles may be placed under one muffle ; and ivhen they
are properly difpofed, the aperture of the muffle flioulJ
have a large piece of burning charcoal put to it, and
then the operator is to watch the procefs, and fee when
the glafs begins to look bright : this is the fignal of
its being fit to receive the impreflion. The crucible
is then to be taken out of the fire ; and the hot glafs
muft be prefled down upon the mould with an iron in-
ftrument to make it receive the regular imprelTion :
as foon as this is done, the crucible is to be fet at the
fide of the furnace out of the way of the wind, that
it may cool gradually without breaking. When it is
cold, the glafs is to be taken out, and its edges fnould
be grated round with pincers, which will prevent its
flying afterwards, which is an accident that fometimeS
happens when this caution has been omitted, cfpecially
when the glafs is naturally tender. The different co-
loured glaffes are of different degrees of hardnefs, ac-
cording to their compofition J but the hardell to melt
are always the beft for this purpofe, and this is knowa
by a few trials.

If it be defired to copy a ftone in relief which ij '
naturally in creu.v, or to take one in creux whicli is ■
naturally in relief, there needs no more than to lake
an impreflion firft in \vax or fulph'^r, and to mould
that upon the pafte of tripela inftead of the ftone itfelf j
then proceeding in the manner before direded, the
procefs will have the defired fucccfs.

A more fimple and eafy method than the above, is
by taking the cafts in gypfum, or plafter of Paris as
it is commonly called. For this purpofe, the gypfum
muft be finely pulverized, and then mixed with clear
water to the confiftence of thick cream. This is pour-
ed upon the face of the gem or feal of %vhich the im-
preflion is wanted, and which muft be previoufly moift-
ened with oil to facilitate the feparalion of the call j
and in order to confine the liquid plafter, it is only ne-
cefliiry to pin a flip of oiled paper round tire fides of
the feal by u-ay of a cap or rim. When the plafter is
dry, it is to be taken off, and fet before the mouth of
the furnace, in order to free it entirely from moifture ;
when it is fit to be ufed as a matrix in the fame way as
that formed with the tripoli earths. Only no crucible or
other receptacle is at all nectfi':tTy ; the cafts being formi-
ed like fo many fmall cakes lialf an incli thick, and thus
put into the furnace with bits of glafs upon tliem.
The glafs, after coming to a proper he.it, is prelfcd
Aow-Vi upon the mould with an iron I'/atula to receive
the defired impreflion, the prefliire requifite being
more or lefs according to the fizc of the ftone. This
method has been lo.ig praftifcd very fucccfshilly, anri

with 1

GEM

r 478 ]

GEM

\vuh Tio Tinall emolument, by that Ingenious feal engra-
'ver Mr Deuchir of Edinburgh. The only refpeft in
^vliich it is inferior to the other more operofe and ex-
jienfive methods, confi'.ls in the chance of air bubbles
arifing in pouring on the plafter ; which chance, how-
ever, is lefs in proportion to the finenels of the gyp-
fum employed. When air bubbles do occur, the calls
may be laid afide, as it is fo eafy to replace them.

The application of partes to multiply and preferve
the imprelTions of camaieux and intagUos, is an object
very interefting to artills and to antiquaries, as well as
to men of learning and tafte in the fine arts.

This art, though only lately reftored in any degree
of perfection, is of very conflderable antiquity. The
great prises which the ancients paid for the elegant
gems engraved by the celebrated Greek artifts, could
not but early fuggeft to them the idea of multiplying
thc'r numbers, by taking oiF their impreiTions in wax,
in fulphur, in plafter, or in clay; but more particularly
in coloured giafs, or that vitrified fubllance commonly
called pofte.

As the imprefllons on pafte are durable, and imi-
tate the colours and brilliancy of the original Hones,
they ferve the fame purpofes as the gems themfelves.
This art was therefore pradlifed not only by the
Greeks, but by all the nations who cultivated Grecian
talfe.

Many of the fineft gems of antiquity are now loft,
and their impreffions arc to be found only on ancient
partes. Great therefore is the value of thefe partes.
Numerous coUeftions of them have been formed by
the curious. Inftances of this are found in the Flo-
rentine Mufseum, in Stofch's work on ancient gems
with infcriptions, in Winckelmann's defcription of
Stofch's cabinet, and in the noble colleftion of Mr
diaries Townley in London.

The art of taking impreffions of gems feeme not to
have been altogether loft even in the Gothic ages ;
for Heraclius, who probably lived in the ninth century,
and wrote a book T)e coiaribus e; arlibus Romar.{,ru7n,
teaches in very plain though not elegant term? how to
make them. Indeed, fome of the few perfons who then
foflefled this art, taking advantage of the ignorance
of the times, fold partes for original gems. Thus the
famous emerald of the abbey of Reichnaw near Con-
ftance, although a prefent made by Charlemagne, Is now
found to be a piece of glafs. And thus the celebrat-
ed emeiald vafe in the cathedral of Genoa is likewife
found to be a piece of pafte (a). The Genofe got
this v;ife at the taking of Cefarea in the year iioi as
an equivalent for a large fum of money ; nor was any
impolition then fufpefied, for in the year 13 19 they
pawned it for i2Comerks of gold.

But this ingenious art, re-.-ived indeed in Italy in the
time of Laurence of Medici and Pope Leo X. was not
cultivated in an extenfive manner till the beginning of
the prefent century, when M. Homberg reftored it, as
already mentioned. In this he i» faid to have been
greatly aflifted and encouraged by the then duke of

Orleans regent o? France, who ufed to amufc himfelf
with that celebrated chemift in taking ofi" imprefllons in •■
pafte from the king of France's, from his own, and
other colleftions of gems.

According to the French Encyclopedifts, M. Cla-
ch.mt the elder, an engraver of fome note, who died at
Paris in 1781, learned this art from his royal highnefs,
to whole houfehold his father or he. feenis to have be-
longed. Mademoifelle Feloix next cultivated this art,
and it is believed ftiil carries it on. She had been taught
by her father, who in quality of gar^on de charrtbre to
the regent had o.*ten aflifted in the laboratory of his
mafter, ^vhere he acquired this knowledge. Her col-
lection conlifts of I Sod articles.

Baron Stofch, a Pruftian, who travelled over Europe
in queft of original engraved ftones and impreffions of
ancient gems, for the elegant work which he publilhed
and Picart engraved {b), was well acquainted with this
art. He had taught it to his ftrvant Chriftian Uehn,
who fettled at Rome, where he made and fold his well
known fulphur impreffions and partes. He had col-
leiSled 2500 articles. Dolce has arranged them in a
fcientific order, atid given a defcriptive catalogue of
them.

It was cliiefly from Dehn's colledion that the tafte
for fulphurs and paftes has become fo univerfal. They
are great objefls of ftudy, and often require much learn-
ing to explain them. They have unqueftionably ferv-
ed to extend and improve the art of engraving on
ftones ; and have been of infinite ufe to painters, to
ftatuarie*, and to other artifts, as well as to men of
claffical learning and fine tafte.

It is very difficult to take off impreffions, and per-
feflly to imitate various-coloured cameos. It cannot
be properly done in wax, fulphur, plafter, or glafs or
one colour only. The difficulties arifiug from their fize
and form, and from the various nature of the different
forts of glafs ^vhich do not ^vell unite into diflerent
ftrata, are very numerous : nor could the completeft
fuccefs in this chemical and mechanical branch of the
art produce a tolerable cameo. Irapreflions or imita-
tions, if unaffifted by the tool of the engraver, do net
fucceed : becaufe the undercutting and deep work of
moft of the originals require to be filled up with clay
or wax, that the moulds may come off fafe without in-
juring them. Hence the imprefllons from thefe moulds
come off hard and delfitute of delicacy, ftiarpnefs, and
precillon of outline, 'till the underworking of the
moulder is cut away. But Mr Relffenftein at Rome,
by his genius, perfeverance, and the affiftance of able
artifts, has overcome thefe difhcv-hies ; and has had the
fatisfaftion of fucceeding, and producing variegated
cameos which can hardly be diftinguLhed from the ori-
ginals.

Mr Lippart of Drefden, an ingenious glazier, and an
enthufiaft in the fine arts, pradifed this branch not un-
fuccefsfully ; but not finding fufficient encouragement
for his partes of coloured glafs, or perhaps from local
dilhcultics in making them well and cheap, he aban-
doned

fA) See M. de la Condamine's Diff. in Memoir, de I'Acad. Roy. de Pari^, 1757.

[b) Gemmae antique coloratK, fculptorum norainibus infignitse, cere incifa: per Bernaidu%Picart. Amftclo-

1724, folio.

G E M [ 479

He fubftitutcd in its place impreflions fini

G E M

doned this art.
' of fine white alabafter or felenite plallcr. Such im
prelVions, when carefully foaked in a folution of white
Callile foap, tlien dried, ami rubbed over with a foft
bruth, take a \-ery agreeable poIiiTi. They (liow the
work perhaps to better advantage than red or white
fulphurs do ; but they are not fo durable, and are liable
to be defaced by rubbing.

Of thefe iraprelTions Mr Lippart publiflied three
different collections, each of them containing looo
articles ; and to the merit of having increaled the num-
ber of Madamoifelle Feloix and Chrilliano Dehn's
colle(ftions, which are all inferted in his, he added
that of employing two learned Germans to arrange
and defcribe them. The firft thoufand were arran-
ged and defcribed by the late Profeffor Chrilt at Leip-
i'x, and the fecond and third thoufand by ProfeiTor
Heine at Goettingen. Nor did Mr Lippart flop here :
but to make the ftudy of antiquity more eafy and ac-
ceptable to artifts, he fele(5led out of the whole collec-
tion of 3333, a fmaller one of 2030 of the beft and
more inftructive fubjeifls, of which he himfelf drew up
and publilhed a defcription in German.

But of all the artifts and ingenious men who have
taken imprelTions of engraved gems in fulphur and in
parte, no one feems to have carried that art to fuch
perfection as Mr James TalTie, a native of Giafgow,
who refided in London from the year 1766 till his death.
His knowledge in various branches of the fine aits,
particularly in that of drawing, naturally led him to
it. The elegant portraits which he modelled in wav,
and aftenvards moulded and caft in pafte, and which
entirely refemble cameos, are well known to the pub-
lic.

Mr Taffie, profiting of all the former publications of
this fort, and by expence, induftry, and accefs to many
cabinets in Er,gland and other kingdoms to which
former artifts had not obtained admilTion, was enabled
to increafe his colleftion of impreflions of ancient and
modem gems to the number of above 1 5,000 articles.
It is the greateft colleclion of this kind that ever ex-
ifted ; and ferves for all the purpofes of artifts, anti-
quaries, fcholars, men of tafte, and even philofophers.
The great demand for his partes was perhaps owing in
the beginning to the London jewellers, who introduced
them into fafluon by fetting them in rings, feals, brace-
lets, necklaces, and other trinkets.

The reputation of this coUeftion having reached the
emprefs of Ruffla, (he was pleafed to order a complete
fet ; which being accordingly executed in the beft and
molt durable manner, were arrar>ged in elegant cabinets,
and are now placed in the noble apartments of her im-
perial majefty's fuperb palice at Czarlko Zelo.

Mr Talfie, in executing this commiflion, availed him-
felf of all the advanta^L'cs which the improved ftate oi
chemiftry, the various ornamental arts, and the know-
ledge of the age, feemcd to afford. The impreffions
were taken in a beautiful white enamel compofition,
which is not fubjeift to ihrink or form air bladders ;
which emits fire when ftruck with fleel, and takes a

poliili ; r.nd which (hows every ftroke and touch 01
the artift in higher perfection than any other fub-
llance. When the colours, mixed colours, and nature ^
of the rcfpective originals, could be afcertained, they
were imitated as completely as art can imitate them ;
inforauch that many of the palte intaglios and cameos
in this collection are fuch faithful imitations, that
artifts thcmfetves have owned they could hardly be
diftinguiOied from the originals. And when the co-
lour and nature of the geros could not be authenticated,
the paftes were executed in agreeable, and chiefly tranf-
parent, colours ; conftant attention being beftowed to
preferve the outlines, extremities, attributes, and in-
fcriptions.

It was the learned Mr Rafpe (from whom this ac-
count (c) is taken) who arranged this great collection,
and made out the defcriptive catalogue. His arrange-
ment is nearly the fame with that of the late Abbe
Winkelmann, in his defcription of the gems which be-
longed to Baron Stofch. But as modern Viorks were
inferted in this coUeftion, he found it neceiTary to
make a few alterations, and added fome divifions to
thofe of M. Winkelmann, as will appear from the fol-
lowing confpeftus, with which we ihall conclude this
detail.

I. Ancient Art and Engravings.

Egyptian hieroglyphics, facred animals, divinities,
priefts.

Bafilidian, Gnoftic, and other lalifmans, &c.

Oriental and barbarous ancient and modern engra-
vings.

Greek and Roman original copies, and imitations
(the Etrufcan are claffed with the Greek works.)

A, Mythology or fabulous age. Gods, inferior dK
vinities, religious ceremonies.

B, Heroic age before the fiege of Troy.

C, Siege of Troy.

D, Hiftoric age. Of Carthage, Greece, Rome, fub-
jects unknown.

E, Fabulous animals and chimeras.

F, Vafes and urns.

II. Modern Art and Engravings.

A, Religious fubjefls.

B, Portraits of kings and fovereigns.

C, Portraits of illullrious men in alphabetical order.'

D, Portraits unknown.

E, Devices and emblems.

F, Cyphers, arms, fupporters, and medley of modem
hiilory.

GEMAPPE, a village of Auftrian Huinault, three
miles weft-by-fouth of Muns, rendered memorable for a
victory which the French under General Duraourier
obtained over the Auftrians, Nov. 5. 1792; in which
the carnage on both fides was fo dreadful, that three
coal pits in the vicinity were filled up with the de.id
bodies of men and horfes.

GEM-'i.RA, or Ghemara, the fecond part of the

The

(c) Account of the prefcnt ftate and arrangement of Mr James Taflie's coUe^ion of paftes and iraprcfljon,
from ancient and moitia gems, by R. C, Rafpe, London, 1786, Svp.

GEM

II
Gtminiani

The word fiir» gemara, is comm
denote a fupplemeut ; but in ftriclnefs it rather figi)
complement, perfection: being formed of the Cliaklee
133, gemar, or ghemer, " to fiiiifti, perfect, or complete
any thing."

The rabbins ctill the Pentateuch fimply the law :
the firft part of the Talmud, ^^•hich 15 only an expli-
cation of that la^v, or an application thereof to parti-
cular cafes, with the decifi'->ns of the ancient rabbins
th.ereon, they call the Mifckr.a, i.e." fecond law:" and
the fecond part, which is a more extenfive and ample
explication of the fame law, and a colleclion of deci-
fions of the rabbins poilerior to the Mifchna, they call
Gdnara, q. d. " perfe<51ion, completion, finiiliing ;"
becaufe they efteem it the finiihing of the law, or an
explication beyond which there is nothing farther to be
defired.

The Gemara is ufually called fimply Talmud, the
common name of the whole work. In this fenfe we
fay, there are two Gemaras or Talmuds ; that of Je-
rufalem and that of Babylon : though in ftriflnefs the
Gemara is only an explication of the Mifchna, given
by the Jewilh dodlors in their fchools : much as the
commentaries of our fchool divines on St Thomas, or
tlie m'.fter of the fentences, are an explication of the
v.-ritirigs of tbofe authors.

[ 480 ]

GEM

A commentary, Monf. Tillemont obferves, was wrote gratify this

only fuppofed to ment. In the year 1714 he came to England ; where Genii
in a Ibort time he fo recommended himfelf by his ex- "~"
quifite performance, that all who profefled to love .md
underftand mufic were captivated with hearing him. —
Many of the nobility laid claim to the honour of !■ .Ing
his patrons; but he feemed chiefly to attach hi ufelf.
to Baron Kilmanfegge, chamberlain to King George I.
as eleftor of "Hanover, and a favourite of th^i prince.
In 1 7 16, he publilhed and dedicated to his patron 12
fonatas a violino violone e cembalo: the Hrft fix with
fugues, or double flops as they are vulgarly called ;
the laft with airs of various meafures, fuch as alle-
mandes, courantes, and iiggs. This publication vvas
fo well relilhed by the baron, that he mentioned Ge-
miniani to the king as an excellent performer ; in con-
fequence of which our mufician had the honour to jier-
form before his majefty, in concert with the celebrated
Handel, who played on the harpfichord. But thou;<h
Geminiani was exceedingly admired, yet he had not
a talent at aflbciating mufic with poetry, nor do we
find that he ever became a public performer : he
was therefore obliged to depend for his fubfiftence
on the friendlhip of his patrons and the profits which
accrued to him from teaching. He had alfo the
misfortune to be an enthufiaft in painting ; and the
verfatility of his temper was fuch, that, in order to

on the Mifchna, by one Jochanan, whom the Jews
place about the end of the fecond century : but Fa.
Morin proves, from tJie work itfelf, wherein mention
b made of the Turks, that it was not wrote till the
time of Heraclius, or about the year 620 ; and this is
what is called the Gemara, or Talmud of Jerufalem,
v.hich the Jews do not ufe or efteem much becaufe of
its obfcurity.

They fet a much greater value on the Gemara, or
Talmud of Babylon, begun by one Afa; difcontinued
for 73 years, on occafion of the wars with the Saracens
and Perfians ; and finillied by one Jofa, about the clofe
of the feventh century. See Talmud.

Though the name Talmud, in its latitude, includes
both the Mifchna and the two Gemaras, yet it is pro-
perly that of Afa and Jofa alone which is meant under
that name. This the Jews prize above all their other
writings, and even fet it on a level with Scripture it-
felf : in efFeft, they conceive it as the word of God,
derived by tradition from Mofes, and preferved with-
out interruption to their time. R. Jehuda, and after-
wards R. johanan, R. Afa, and R. Jofa, fearing the
traditions fliould be loft in the difperfion of the "jews,
colle(^ed them into the Mifchna and the Gemara. See
Caraites and Raebinists.

GEMINI, in ^■'IJronomy. the TWINS ; a conftellation
or fign of the zodiac, the third in order, rcprefentlng
Callor and Pollux ; and it is marked thus, n . The
ftars in . the fign Gemini, in Ptolemy's catalogue, are
55 ; in Tycho's, zy, in Hevelius's, 38: in the Britannic
Catalogue. 85.

GEMINIANI, a celebrated mufician and compofer,
■was born at Lucca in the year i68c. He received his
firft inftruclions in mufic from Aleffandro Scarlatti ;
and after that became a pupil of Carlo Ambrofio Lu-
nati, furnamcd // Gobbo, a mort celebrated performer
on the violin ; after uhich he became a difciple of Co-
relli, and under him finifhed his ftudies or. that inftf a-

he not only fufpended his ftudies,

id neglefted to exercife his talents, but involved him-
felf in debts. In K727, he was offered the place of
mafter and compofer of the ftate mufic in Ireland j
but this could not be conferred on a Catholic, and Ge-
miniani refufed to change his religion : upon which it
was given to Matthew Dubourg, a young man who
had been one of his pupils, and vsas a celebrated per-
former on the violin. Geminiani then fet himfelf to
compofe parts to the opera quiuta of Corelli ; or, in
other words, to make concertos of the firft fix of his
folos. This work he completed, and, with the help
of a fubfcription, at the head of ^vhich were the names
of the royal family, publilhed in 1726. In 1732, he
publiihed his opera feconda, ivhich contains a celebrated
minuet that goes by his name. He publiflied many
other pieces, the profits of which did not much mend
his ciicumftances ; but this perhaps ivas owing to his
rambling difpofition and enthufiaftic fondnefs of paint-
ing. He was alfo an utter ftranger to the bufinefs
of an orcheftra, and had no idea of the labour and
pains necefiary in the inftruflion of fingers for the per-
formance of mufic to which they were ftrangers. The
confequence of this was, that a concerto fplrltuale, which
he had advertifed for his own benefit in 1748, failed in
the performance. The audience, hoivever, compaffion-
ated his diftrefs, and fat very filent till the books were
changed ; when the performance was continued with
compofitions of the author's own, and which he exe-
cuted in fuch a manner as was never forgot. The
profits aiifing from this performance enabled him to
take a journey to Paris ; where he ftaid long enough
to get plates engraven for a fcore of folos, and the parts
of two operas of concertos. About the year J 751; he
returned to England, and advertifed them for fale. — ■
In 1 761 Geminiani went over to Ireland; and was
kindly entertained there by Mr Matthew Dubourg,
who had been his pupil, and was then mafter of the
king's band in Ireland. This perfon through the

courfe

G E M [ 4^

Cfmrr.?.- colli fe of his lite h;id ever been difpofed to render him

^ V friendly offices ; and it was but a Ihort time after Gc-

miniani's arrival at Dublin that he uas called upon to
do him the lall. It appeai-s tliat Geminiani had fpent
many jears in compiling an elaborate treatifc on mufic,
%vh!ch he intended for publication ; but foon after h.ij
arrival at Dublin, by the treachery of a female ier-
vant, who, it was laid, was recommended to him for
no other end than that (he mlj^ht fteal it, it was con-
veyed aivay, and could not be recovered. The grest-
ncfs of this lofs, and his inability to repair it, made a
deep impreflion on his mind ; and, as it is conjeclured,
haltened liis end ; at leafl he furvived it l;ut a ftiort
time, ending his days on the 17th of September 1 762.
The following lilt compriles the whole of his publica-
tions, except two or three articles of fmall account :
Twelve folos for a violin, (jpera prima ; fix concertos
in feven parts, opeia feconda ; (ix concertos in (even
parts, opera terza ; twelve folos for a violin, op%:)a
tjiiaria ; fix folos for a violoncello, opera quinta ; l\;e
lame made into folos for a violin ; iix concertos from
his opera qiiarta ; llx concertos in eight parts, opera
Jlltima i rules for playing in tafte ; a treatile on good
tade ; the art of playing the violin ; \ 2 fonatas from
his firll folos, opera vndecima ; Ripieno parts to ditto •,
lefTons for the harpfichord ; Cuida Armonka ; fupple-
rrjent to ditto ; the art of accompaniment, two books ;
his firft tW'O operas of concertos in fcore ; and the En-
rl.aiited Foreft. — Of his folos the opera prima is efteeni-
ed the bcrt. Of his concertos fome are excellent, others
of them fcarce pafs the bounds of mediocrity. The
fixth of the third opera not only furpaifes all the reft,
but, in the opinion of the bell judges of harmony, is
the fineft inftrumental compofition extant.

GEMMA, or Bud, in Botany, a compendium or
epitome of a plant, feated upon the (Icm and branches,
and covered with fcsles, in order to defend the tender
rudiments enclofcd from cold and other external injuries,
'ill, their parts being unfolded, they acquire ftrength,
and render any further protection unneceflary.

Buds, together with bulbs, which are a fpeties of
buds generally feated upon or near the root, conftitute
that part of the herb called by Linna'US hijhernocula ;
that is, the winter quarters of the fiiture vegetable : a
very proper appellation, as it is during that fevere
feafon that the tender rudiments are proteded in the
manner jull mentioned.

Plants, confidered in analogy to animals, may pro-
perly enough be reckoned both viviparous and ovipa-
rous. Seeds are the vegetable eggs ; buds, living
tctufcs, or infant plants, which renew the fpecies as
certainly as the feeds.

Buds are ])laced at the extremity of the young flioots,
rjid along the branches, being fixed by a fhort foot-
lialk upon a kind of brackets, the remainder of the
ii.-avcs, in the wings or angles of which the buds in
(;i:cflion were formed the preceding year. They are
iometimcs placed fingle ; fonietimes two by two, and
thofe eitlier oppolite or alternate j ibmetimcs colleded
ill greater numbers in whirls or rings.

With relpecl to their conftruftion, buds are com-
].o(itd of fe\eral parts artificially arranged. Externally,
\\efiiid a number of fcales that are prctly hard, fre-
quently armed with hairs, hollowed like a fpocn, and
placed over each other like tiles. Thefe fcales are

Vol. IX. Part II,

GEM

fixed into tke inner plates of the baik, of whiih ihey '
appear to be a prolongation. Their ufe is to defend'"
the internal parts of the bud •, which, being unfolded,
ivill produce, fome, flowers, leaves, and llipulx' ; others,
footdalks and fcales. All thefe parts, ivhile they re-
main in the bud, are tender, delicate, folded over each
oilier, and covered with a thick clammy juice, which
is fometimes rofinous and odoriferous, as in the taca-
mahac tree. This juice ferves not only to defend the
more tender parts of the embryo plant from cold, the
affaults of infeds, and other external injuries ; but
likcwife from excefTive perfpiration, which, in its
youn;; and infant ftate, would be very deilrutlive. It
is confpicuous in the buds of horfe chefnut, poplar, and
willo^v trees.

In general, we may diflinguifli three kinds of buds ;
that containing the flower, that coiitaining the leaves,
and that containing both flower and leaves.

The firrt, teimed gemma Jlorlf'tra, and by the French
houton a Jieur or a fruit, contains the rudiments of one
or feveral flowers, folded over each other, and fuiTound-
ed with fcales. In feveral trees, this kind of bud
Is commonly found at the extremity of certain fmall
branches, which are Ihorter, rougher, and kTs gar-
niihed with leaves, than the reft. The external fcales
of this fpecies of bud are harder than the internal ;
both are furniftied with ha'rs, and in general more
f.vellid than thofe of the fecond fort. The bud con-
taining the flower too is commonly thicker, ftiorter, al-
moft fquxre, Icfs uniform, and lefs pointed ; being ge-
nerally terminated obtufely. It is called by Pliny
ocu'us gemmae ; and is employed in tliat fpecies of
grafting called inoculation, or budding.

The fecond fpecies of bud, viz. that containing the
leaves, termed gemma folif era, and by the French houton '
d feuilles cr a hois, contains the rudiments of fcverul
leaves, which are varioully folded over each other, and
outwardly furrounded by fcales, from which the fmall
ftipulae that are feated at the foot of the young branches
are chiefly produced. Thefe buds are commonly more
pointed thaii the former fort. In the hazel nut, how-
ever, they are perfeflly round ; and in horfe chefiiut,
very thick.

The third fort of bud is fmaller than either of th«
preceding -, and produces both flowers and leaves,
though not always in the fame manner. Sometimes
the flowers and leaves are unfolded at the fame time.
This nwde of the flower and leaf bud is termed by
Linnaeus gemma folifera et Jiorifera. Sometimes the
leaves proceed or emerge out of this kind of bud upon
a fmall branch, which afterwards produces flowers.
This mode of the flower and leaf bud is termed by
\j.nr\«\i% gemma folifera fiorif era, and is the moil com-
mon bud of any.

Such buds as produce branches adorned only with
Icavcf , are called barren ; fuch as contain both leaves
and flowers, fertile. From the bulk of the bud we
may often with eafe foretel whether it contains leaves
only, or leaves and flowers together, as in cherry and
pear trees.

Neither the buds produced on or near the root,
called by fome authors luriones, nor thofe produced or
the trunk, and from the angles or wings of the leaves,
contain, in ftricl propriety, an entire delineation of the
plant J fincc the roots are wanting j and in various
3 P buds,

GEM

[ 482 ]

GEN

buds, as we have feen, flioots are contained with
leaves only, and not with flowers : but as a branch
may be confldcred as a part firailar to the whole plant,
and, if planted, would in procefs of revegetation ex-
hibit or produce roots and Howers, we may in general
allow, that the bud contains the whole plant, or the
principles of the %vhole plant, which may be unfolded
ad libitum i and thus rcfem'jles the feed, in containing
a delineation of the future plant in embryo: for al-
though the bud wants a radicle, or plumula, of wliich
the feed is pofielTed, yet it would undoubtedly form
one, if planted in the earth. But as the medullary
part adhering to the bud is too tender, and by the
abundance of juice flomng into it from the earth would
be difpofed to putrefaclion, the buds are not planted
in the foil, but generally inferted within the bark of
another tree j yet placed fo that the production of the
marrow, or pith, adhering to them, may be inferted
into the pith of the branch in which the fiflure or cleft
is made ; by which means there is a large communica-
tion of juice. This propagation by gems or buds,
called inoculation, is commonly practifed ivith the firll
fort of buds above defcribed.

From the obvious ufes of the buds, we may colleft
the reafon why the Supreme Author of nature has
granted this fort of protedlion to moft of the trees that
are natives of cold climates : and, on the other h;ind,
denied it to fuch as, enjoying a warm benign atmo-
iphere, have not the tender parts of their embryo
fhoots expdfed to injuries and depredations from the
feverities of the 'weather. Of this latter kind are the
plants of the following lifl ; fome of them very large
trees •, others fmaller woody vegetables, of the (hrub
and under-ihrub kind : Citron, orange, lemon, caflava,
mock orange, blad apple, fiirubby fwHilow wort, alater-
nus, Ihiubby geraniums, bcrry-be;^ring alder, Chrili's
thorn, Syrian mallow, boabab or Ethiopian four
gourd, jurticia, mild fena, the acacias and fenfuive
plant, coral tree, ftinking bean trefoil, medicago, cle-
anlier, viburnum, fumach, ivy, tamarifk, heath, Barba-
does cherry, lavatera, rue, ihrubby nightfliades, Guinea
henweed, cyprefs, lignum vitae, and faviiie, a fpecies of
juniper.

On annual plants, whofe root as well as ftalk perifhes
after a year, true buds are never produced ; in their
Aead, however, are produced fmall branches, like a
little feather, from the wings of the leaves, which
wither without any fiuther expanfion if the plants climb
and have no lateral branches ; but if, either by their
own nature or from abundance of fap, the plants be-
come branched, the ramuli juft mentioned obtain an
increafe fimilar to that of the whole plant.

The fame appearance obtains in the trees of warm
countries, fuch as thofe enumerated in the above lift, in
Yrhich a plumula. or fmall feather, fends forth branches
without a fcaly covering j as, in fuch countries, this
tender part requires no defence or proteflion from cold.
A fcaly covering then is peculiar to buds, as it protedls
the tender embryo enclofed from all external injuries.
When we therefore fpeak of trees having buds that are
naked or without fcales, our meaning is the fame as if
we luid faid that they have no buds at all.

Tl.e ,uJs that are to be unfolded the following
yc.-!i, break lorth from jhe evolved buds of the prefent
jear, in fuch a manner as to put on the appearance

of fmall eminences in the wings or angles of the leaves. Gemmati
Thefe eminences or knots grow but little during the H

fummerj as, in that feafon, the fap is expended on the ^IlI^^IH!
increafe of the parts of the plant : but in autumn,
when the leaves begin to wither and fall off, the buds,
placed on the wings, increafe ; and the embryo plant
contained in the hud is fo expanded, that the leaves and
flowers, the part- to be evolved the following year, are
diftinftly vifible. Thus in horfe chefnut the leaves, and
in cornel tree the tlo^vers, are each to be obferved in
their refpeclivfc buds.

As each bud contains the rudiments of a plant, and
would, if fe'parated from its parent vegetable, become
every way fimilar to it ; Linnitus, to Ihow the wonder-
ful fertiliry of nature, has made a calculation, by \vhich
it appears, that, in a trunk fcarce exceeding a fpan in
breadth, io,COO buds (that is, herbs) may be produced.
What an infinite number, then, of plants might be raifed
from a very large tree I

GEMMATiO, from gemma, " a bud;" a term ufed
br Linnaeus, expreflive of the form of the buds, their
origin, and their contents. It includes both thofe pro-
perly called buds, and thofe which are feated at the
roots, ftyled bulbs.

As to the origin of buds, they are formed either of
the footrtalks of the leaves, of ftipulae, or of fcales of
the bark. Their contents have been already difcovered,
in the preceding article, to be either flowers, leaves, or
both.

GEMONI^ SCAL.=E, or Gradus Gemo^/ii, among
the Romans, was much the fame as gallows or gibbet
in England. — Some fay they were thus denominated
from the perfon who raifed them ; others, from the
firft criminals that fuffered on them ; and others, from
the verb gemo, " I figh or groan."

The gradus gemonii, according to Publius Victor or
Sextus Rufus, was a place railed on ievera! Iteps, from
whence they precipitated their criminals ; others re-
prelent it as a place whereon cfrcnders were executed,
and aftenvards expofed to public view. The gemonice
Jcclie were in the tenth region of the city, near the
temple of Juno. Camillus firft appropriated the place
to this ufe, in the year of Rome 358.

GENDARMES, or Gens d'armes, in the French
armies, a denomination given to a feleft body of horfe,
on account of their fucceedlng the ancient gendarmes,
who were thus called from their being completely
clothed in armour-, (fee Hcots Gendarmes, infro.')
Thefe troops were commanded by captain lieutenants,
the king and the princes of the blood being their
captains ; the king's troop, befides a captain-lieute-
nant, had two fublieutenants, three cnfigns, and three
guidons.

Grand Gbkd^hmes, latterly were a troop compofed
of 250 gentlemen-, the king himfelf w-as their captain,
and one of the firft peers their captain-lieutenant, who
had under him two lieutenants, three enfigns, three
guidons, and other officers.

Small Gendarmes, were the Scots gendarmes, the
queen's, the dauphin's, the gendarmes of Anjou, Bur-
gundy, the Englilh and Flemiih gendarmes, having
each a captain lieutenant, iub-lieutenant, enfign, guidon,
and quartcr-mafter.

Scots Gendarmes, were originally inftittited by

Charles VII, of France, about the middle of the 15th

centuryj

GEN

century, and formed a part of his guard
■ llation alfo tliey acted under other princes. It was their
prerogative to take precedence of all the companies of
the gendarmerie of France ; and, on particular occa-
fions, they even preceded the two companies of the
king's ir.oufquetaires. The Tons of the Scottilh mo-
narchs were the ufual captains of this company ; and,
after Mary's acceffion to the throne, its command
belonged to them as a right. It was thence that
James VI. made a claim of it for his fon Prince Henry.
This honour, and its emoluments, were alfo enjoyed
by Charles I. and the next in command to this prince
was Louis Stuart duke of Lennox. George Gordon
marquis of Huntly fucceeded the duke of Lennox in
tlie year 1624, and took the title of captain or com.-
mander in chief when Charles I. mounted the Englifh
throne. It is not certain whether Charles II. was e%'er
captain of this company ; but it was conferred on his
brother the duke of York, who was captain ot the
Scots gev.darmcs till the year 1667, when he refigned
his cora-.nllTion into the hands of the French king.
Since that time no native of Great Britain has enjoyed
this command. See Scots Guards.

All the different gendarmeries are now aboUihed, in
conlequence of the reforming fyftems that have lately
taken place in France.

GEXDER, among grammarians, a diviCon of nouns,
or n.ames, to ditlinguilh the two fexes.

This was the original intention of gender : but after-

[4^3] GEN

ivhich that the candidates produce their genealogy, to fliow Cere.-.'
that they are noble by fo many defcents. S'"^''^'

GENEALOGICA ARBOR, or Tr^e of Confavsui- 2Z^^
nitij, fignihes a genealogy or lineage drawn out under
the figure of a tree, with its root, ftock, branches,
&c. The genealogical degrees are ufually rcprefented
in circles, ranged over, under, and afide each other.
This the Greeks called 77r/«7«/7/i7, a word fignifying
crown, garland, or the like. See the articles Con-
sanguinity and Descent, and the plates there referred

GENEP, a ftrong towni of Germany, in the circle
of Weftphalia, fubjeit to the king of Pruflla. E. Long.
4. 29. N. Lat. 51. 42.

GENERAL, an appellation given to whatever be-
longs to a whole genus.

Gexer.1l AJJ'embly. See ASSEMBLY.

General Charge, in Zow. See Charge to enter
Heir.

General Terms, among logicians, thofe which are
made the figns of general ideas. See Logic and Me-
taphysics.

General Warrant. See Warrant.

General of an Army, in the art of War, he who
commands in chief. See the article War, where his
oifice and duties are particularly explained.

General of the ArtilUnj. See Ordnance.

General of Horfc, and General of Foot, are pofls
next under the general of the army, and thcle have up-

wards other words, which had no proper relation either on all occafions an abfolute authority over ail the horfe
to one fex or the other, had genders affigned them, and foot in the army.

rather out of caprice than reafon ; which is at length
eftablilhed by cullom. Hence genders vary according
to the languages, or even according to the words in-
troduced from one language into another. Thus, Vriir
in Latin is feminine, but arbre in French is mafculine ;
and dens in Latin is mafculine, but dent in French is
feminine.

Adjutant General, one who attends the general,
aflifts in council, and carries the general's orders to
the army. He dillributes the daily orders to t-.s ma-
jors of brigade. He is likewife charged with the ge-
neral detail of the duty of the army. The majors of
brigade fend every morning to the adjutant general
an exa6t return, by battalion and company, of the

The oriental languages frequently negleft the ufe of men of his brigade. In a day of battle the adjutant

genders, and the Perfian language has none at all.

The Latins, Greeks, &c. generally content them-
felves to exprefs the different genders by different ter-
minations ; as bonus equus, " a good horfe ;" bona equa,
" a good mare," &c. But in Englifli we frequently
go further, and exprefs the diTerence of fex by differ-
ent words : asboar, fow; boy, girl; buck, doe; bull,
cow ; cock, hen ; dog, bitch, &c. — We have only
about 24 feminines, diftinguillied from the males, by
the variation of the termination of the male into efs ;
of which number are abbot, abbefs ; count, countefs ;
aclor, aclrefs ; heir, heirefs ; prince, princefs, &c.
ivhich is all that our language knows of any thing like
genders.

The Greek and Latin, befides the mafculine and fe-
Tij:nine, have the neuter, common, and the doubtful
gender ; and likewife the epicene, or promifcuous,
uhich under one fingle gender and termination includes
both the kinds.

GENEALOGY, an enumeration of a feries of an-
ceflors ; or a fummary account of the relations and al-
liances of a perfon or family, both in the direft and col-
lateral line.

The word is Greek, '/>«E«A«y;ic ; which is formed of
-/:t«?, " race or lineage," and A«y«;, " flifcouHe."

In divers chapters and military orders, it is required.

general fees the infantry dra\\m up ; after which, he
places himfelf by the general, to receive any orders
which may regard the corps of which he has the de-
tail. In a fiege, he orders the number of workmen
demanded, .and figns the ivarrant for their payment.
He receives the guards of the trenches at their ren-
dezvous, and exatnines their condition ; he gives and
figns all orders for parties. He has an orderly fer-
jeant from each brigade of infantry in the lire, to
carry fuch orders as he may have occafion to fend from
the general.

Lieutenant General, is the next in command after
the general ; and provided he (liould die or be killed,
the order is, that the oldeft lieutenant general ihall take
the command. This office is the firft military dignity
after that of general. One part of their function is,
to affift the general with their council : they ought
therefore, if poffible, to poffefs the fame qualities v i-h
the general hiraftlf ; and the more, as they often com-
mand armies in chief.

The number of lieutenant generals has been mul-
tiplied of late in Europe, in proportion as the armies
have become numerous. They ferve cither in the field,
or in fieges, according to the dates of theii commiffions.
In battle, the oldeft commands the right wing of the
army, the fccond the left wing, the third the centre,
3 P 2 ;lic

G E N

[ 484 ]

GEN

the fourth the right wing of the feconJ line, the fifth
' the left wing, the fixth the centre ; and fo on. In
fitgcs, the lieutenant generals always command the
right of the principal attack, and order what they judge
proper for the advancement of the f;ege during the 24
hours they are in the trenches : except the attacks,
which they arc not to make without an order from the
general in chief.

Lieutenant Geksral of the Ordnance. See Ord-
nance.

Lieutenant General of ylrtillcrij, is, or ought to
be, a very great mathematician, and an able engineer ;
to know all the powers of artillery ; to underftand the
attack and defence of fortified places, in all its different
branches ; how to difpofe of the artillery in the day of
tattle to the bell advantage ; to conduct its march and
retreat ; as alfo to be well acquainted with all the nu-
merous apparatus belonging to the train, and to the la-
boratory, &c.

Major Gekeral, the next officer to the lieutenant
general. His chief bulinefs is to receive orders from
the general, or in his abfence from the lieutenant gene-
ral of the day ; which he is to dillribute to the b.agade
majors, with whom he is to regulate the guards, con-
voys, detachments, &c. On him reds the whole fa-
tigue and detail of duty of the army roll. It is the ma-
jor general of the day who is charged with the encamp-
ment of the army, who places himfelf at the head of it
when they march, who marks out the ground of the
camp to the quartermafter general, and who places the
new guards for the fafety of the camp.

The day the army is to march, he diflates to the
field officers the order of the march, which he has re-
ceived from the general, and on other days gives them
the parole.

In a fixed camp he is charged with the foraging,
with reconnoitring the ground for it, and polling the
efcorts, &c.

In fieges, if there are two feparate attack, the fe-
cond belongs to him ; but if there is but one, he takes,
either from the right or left of the attack, that which
the lieutenant general has not chofen.

When the army is under arms, he afliUs the lieute-
nant general, whofe orders he executes.

If the arni;^ marches to an engagement, his poll is at
the head of the guards of the army, imtil they are near
tiiough to the enemy to rejoin their different corps ; af-
ter which he retires to his own proper poft : for the
major generals are difpofed on the order of battle as the
lieutenant generals are ; to whom, however, they are
fubordJnate, for the command of their divifions. The
major general has one aid-de-camp, paid for e.tecuting
his orders.

General is alfo ufed for a particular m.arch, or
beat of drum ; being the firft which gives notice, com-
monly in the morning early, for the infantry to be in
readinefs to march.

General is likewife an appellation by which officers
in law, in the revenues, &c. are diilinguifhed ; as, at-
torneij general, folicitor general, Sic. receiver general,
comptroller general, &c. See ATTORNEY, &c.

Gener.'^l is alfo ufed for the chief of an order of
monks, or of all the houfes and congregations efla-
bliihed under the fame rule. Thus we fay, the general
of the Francifcans, Ciilertians, Sic.

GENERALISSIMO, called alfo captain general,Geat,i[y.
and fimply general, is an otficer who commands all the "^^
military powers of a nation ; who gives orders to all the „ " .
other general officers j and receives no orders himfelf
but from the king.

M. Balzac obl'erves, that the cardinal de Richelieu
firft coined this word, of his own abfolute authority,
upon his going to command the French army in Italy.

GENERATE, in Ah/ic, is ufed to fignify the ope-
ration of that mechanical power in nature, which every
found has in producing one or more different founds.
Thus any given found, however iimple, produces along
with itfelf, its odtave, and two other founds extremely
lliarp, viz. its twelfth above, that is to fay, the odave
of its fifth ; and the other the feventecnth above,
or, in other words, the double odave of its third
major.

Whether we fuppofe this procreation of founds to
refult from an aptitude in the texture ind magnitude
of certain particles in the air, for conveying to our
ears vibrations that bear thofe proportions, one to ano-
ther, as being determ.ined at once by the partial and
total ofcillations of any mufical firing ; or from what-
ever economy of, nature we choofe to trace it j 'the
power of one found thus to produce another, when in
aflion, is faid to generate. The fame word is applied,
by Signior Tarthii and his followers, to any two founds
which, fimultaneoully heard, produce a third.

GENERATED, or Gemted, is ufed, by fome
mathematical writers, for w'hatever is produced, either
in arithmetic, by the multiplication, divifion, or ex-
traftion of roots ; or in geometry, by the invention of
the contents, areas, and fides ; or of extreme and mean
proportionals, without arithmetical addition and fub-
traftion.

GENERATING line, or figure, in Geometnj,
is that which, by its motion of revolution, produces any
other figure, plane or folid. See Genesis.

GENERATION, in Physiology, the act of procre-
ating and producing a being fimilar to the parent. See
Anatoaiy, N° 157.

Generation of Fijhes. See CoMPARAtifE Anatomy,
N" ^04, and Ichthyology.

Generation of Plants. See Botany.
Generation of LifeBs. See Comparatu-e Anatomy,
p. 312, and Entomology, p. 234.

Pans of Generation. See Anatomy, N" 157.
Generation, in Mathematics, is ufed for formaiion
or produiSlion. Thus we meet with the generation of
equations, curves, folids, &c.

Generation, in Theology. The Father Is faid by
fome divines to have produced his Word or Son from
all eternity, by \vay of generation ; on which occaiion
the word generation raifes a peculiar idea : that procef-
fion, which is really effefted in the way of imderftand-
ing. Is called generation, becaufe in virtue thereof, the
Word becomes like to him from whom he takes this ori-
ginal ; or, as St Paul expreffes it, is the figure or image
of his fubftance, i. e. of his being and nature. And
hence it is, they fay, that the fecond Pcrfon in tlie Tri-
nity is called the Son.

Generation is alfo ufed, though fomewhat impro-
perly, for genealogy, or the fcrles of children iffucd
from the fame ftock. Thus the gofpel of St Matthew
commences with the book of the generation of Jefus

Chrift.

GEN

[ 485 ]

GEN

i C'nrlft, &c. The latter and more accurate tr.inilators,
iultead oi general ion ufc the v;otA genealogy.

Gknzration is alio ufed to llgnify a people, race,
or nation, cfpecially in the literal tranflalions of the
Scripture, where the word generally occurs wherever
the Latin h^s gensratlu, and the Greek yttiTig. Tlius,
" A wicked and perverle generation feeketh a fign,"
Sic. " One generation palVcs away, and another Com-
eth," &c.

Gexeratios is alfo ufed in the fenfe of an age, or
the ordinary period of man's lite. Thus we fay, " to
the third and fourth generation." In this fenfe hirtori-
atis ufually reckon a generation the fpace of 33 years or
thereabouts. See Age.

Herodotus makes three generations in a hundred
years ; which computation appears from the latter au-
thors of political arithmetic to be pretty juft.

GENERATOR, in Ahjic, figniaes the principal
found or founds by which others are produced. Thus
the lowed C for the treble of the harpfichord, befides
its oclnve, will ftrike an attentive ear with its twelfth
above, or G in alt, a.id with its feventeenth above, or
£ in alt. The C, therefore, is called their genarator,
the G and E its produSs or harmonics. But in the
approximation of chords, for G, its octave below is
fubftituted, which contlitutes a fifth from the generator,
or loA-ell C ; and for E, is likewile fubitituted its fif-
teenth below, which, with the above-mentioned C, forms
a third major. To the lowelf notes, therefore, exchan-
ged for thofe in alt by fubftitution, the denominations
of produils or harmonics are likewife given, whilll the
C retains the name of their gcneratur. But ftlU accord-
ing to the fyllem of Tarthii, two notes in concord,
which when founded produce a third, may be termed
\\\e. concurring generators of that third. (See Genera-
tion Harrnoniqiie, per A'l. Rameau ; fee alfo that deline-
ation of Tartini's fyltem called The Power and Princi-
ples of Harmony.)

GENERICAL name, in Natural Hljlory, the word
ufed to fignify all the fpecies of natural bodies, which
agree in certain elTcntial and peculiar charaflers, and
t!;erefore all of the fame family or kind ; fo that the
word ufed as the generical name equally expreffes every
one of them, and fome other words expreffive of the
peculiar qualities or figures of each are added, in order
to denote them fmgiy, and make up what is called the
fpecific name. See Botany and Natural Hi/lonj.

GEx\ESI3, the firlt book of the Old Tellament,
containing the hillory of the creation, and the lives of
the finl patriarchs.

The book of Genefis Hands at the head of the Pen-
tateuch. Its author is held to be Mofes : it contains
the relation of 2369 years, viz. from the beginning of
the world to tiie death of Jofeph. The Jews are for-
bidden to read the beginning of Gencfis, and the begin-
ning of Ezekiel, before 3c years of age.

Tiie Hebrews called this book Bere/chitJt, becaufe it
begins with that word, which in their language figni-
fies in ftrincipio, or " in the beginning." The Greeks
gave it the name Genefit, rmrif, q. d. produclion, ge-
neration, becaufe it begins with the hillory of the pro-
duclion or generation of all beings.

This book, befides the hillory of the creation, con-
tains an account of the original innocence and fall of
man ; the propagation of mankind ; the rife of religion )

the general defe£lion and corruption of the world ; the Ccn
deluge ; the reftoration of the world ; the divifion I

and peopling of the earth ; and the hittory of the ""'"
firll patriarchs to the death of Jofeph. It was eafy
for Mofes to be fatisfied of the truth of what he deli-
vers in this book, becaufe it came down to him through
a few hands ; for from Adam to Noah there was one
man, viz. Mcthufelah, who lived fo long as to fee thera
both : in like manner Shem convcrfed \Wth Noah and
Abraham ; Ifaac with Abraham and Jofeph, from
whom the records of this book might eafily be convey-
ed to i\Iofes by Amram, who wai contemporary with
Jofeph.

Gen'Ksis, in Geometry, denotes the formation of a
line, plane, or folid, by the motion or flux of a point,
line, or iurface. See Fluxions.

The genefis or formation, c.gr. of a globe or fphere,
is conceived by fuppofing a fcmicircle to revolve upon
a right line, dravm from one extreme thereof to the
other, called its axis, or axis of circumvolution : the
motion or revolution of that femicircle is the genefis of
the fphere, &c.

In the genclis of figures, Sec. the line or furface that
moves is called the defcribent ; and the line round which,
or, according to which, the revolution or motion is
made, the dirigent.

GENET, Genket, or "jennet, in the manege, de-
notes a fmall-fized well-proportioned Spanilh horfe.

To ride a la genette, is to ride after the Spaniih fa-
fliion, fo rtiort, that the fpurs bear upon the horfe's
flank.

GENETHLIA, in antiquity, a folemnity kept in
memory of fome perfon deceafed.

GENETHLIACI, in AJlrologij, perfons who erect
horofcopes, or pretend to foretel what fiiall befal a mau
by means of the liars which prefided at his nativity.
The word is formed of the Greek -finiM, origin, gene-
ration, nativity.

The ancients called them Chaldeei, and by the gene-
ral name mat/iematici : accordingly, the feveral civil and
canon laws, which we find made againll the mathemati-
cians, only rcfpect the gentthiiaci or aftrologers.

They were expelled Rome by a formal decree of the
fenate ; and yet found fo much prote6lion from the
credulity of the people, that they remained therein
unmolelled. Hence an ancient author fpeaks of them
as hominum genus quod in civitate ncjira Jernper et veta-
httur et relinehitur.

GENETTE, in Zoology. See Viverra, M.\m-
malia Index.

GENEVA, a city of Switzerland, on the confines
of France and Savoy, fituated in 6° E. Long, and
46° I 2' 9" N. Lat. It Hands on the banks of the river
Rhone, jull at the place where the latter iflues from
the lake which takes its name from the city ; and part
of it is built on an ifland in the river. It is handfome,
well fortified, and pretty large ; the (Ireets in general
are clean and well paved, but the principal one is en-
cumbered with a row of ftiops on each fide between
the carriage and foot-path. TJie latter is very wide,
and protected from the weather by great wooden pent-
houfes projecting from the roofs ; which, though very
convenient, give the flrcet a dark and dull appear,
ance. The houfes are generally conllrudled of frec-
flonc, with bafement-; of liraeltone ; the gutters, fpouts^,

ridges, .

GEN

[ 4S6 ]

GEN

riJges, ar.J out-.vard ornaments, being made of tinned
' iron. Some of them have arched «alks or piazzas in
front. The place called TreUle is very agreeable, be-
ing planted uith linden trees, and commanding a fine
profpeft of the lake, with feveral ranges of rocks rifing
behind one another, fome covered with vineyards and
herbage, and others with fnow, having openings be-
tween them. Immediately below Geneva the Rhone
is joined by the Arve, a cold and muddy ftream rifing
among the' Alps, and deriving a confiderable part of its
waters from the Glaciers. The Rhone is quite clear
and tranfparent, fo that the muddy v.ater of tlie Arve
Ts diftinguilhable from it even after t!:ey have tlowed
for feveral miles together. There are four bridges
over the Rhone before it joins the Arve •, and from it
the city is fupplied with water by means of an hy-
draulic machine, which raifes it lOO Paris feet above
its level. The principal buildings are, I. The maifon
de ville, or tomihoufe, a plain ancient edifice, \\\\h.
large rooms, in which the councils afifemble, and pub-
lic entertainments are held ; and in one of them a week-
ly concert is held by fubfcription during the winter.
The afcent to the upper (lory is not by fteps but a
paved acclivity : ^vhich, however, is fo gentle, that
horfes and mules can go up to the top. 2. The
church of St Peter's, formerly the cathedral, is an an-
cient Gothic building, with a modern portico of feven
large Corinthian columns of red and white marble from
Roche. The only thing remarkable in the infide is
the tomb of Henry duke of Rohan. 3. The arfenal is
in good order, and fupplied with arms fufhcient for
I 2,000 men. There are many ancient fuits of armour ;
and the fcaling ladders, lanthorns, hatchets, &c. ufed by
the Savoyards in their treacherous attempt on the city
in the year 1 60 2, to be afterwards noticed, are here pre-
ferved. The magazines contain 1 1 o cannon, befides
mortars. 4. The hofpital is a large handfome building,
by which and other charities near 4000 poor people
are maintained. 5. The fortifications on the fide of Sa-
voy are of the modern conftruftion, but are command-
ed by fome neighbouring grounds. On the fide of
France they are old fafluoned, and at any rate are ra-
tlier calculated to prevent a furprife than to fuftain a re-
gular ficge. There are three gates, towards France,
Savoy, and Switzerland ; and the accefs to the lake is
guarded by a double jetty and chain.

The territory belonging to this city contains about
feven fquare leagues, and is divided into nine pa-
rilhes ; the town is by far the moll populous in S\vit-
zerland, having about 30,000 inhabitants, of whom,
however, jcoo are generally fuppofed to be abfent.
It has a fmall diftrift dependent on it, but this
does not contain above i6,coo. The adjacent coun-
try is extremely beautiful, and has many magnificent
views arifing from the different pofitions of the nume-
rous hills and mountains with regard to the town 'and
lake. The inhabitants were formerly dillinguiflied in-
to four clalTes, viz. citizens, burgclTes, inhabitants, and
natives ; and fince the revolution in 1782, a fifth clafs
named domicilius, has been added, who annually
receive permifTion from the magiilrates to refide in the
city. The citizens and burgclTcs alone, however, are
admitted to a (hare in the goveniment ; thofe called
inhabitants are ftrangers allowed to fettle in the town
with certain privileges ; and the natives are the fons of

thofe inhabitants, who polTefs additional adv.mtages. Gcnevs
The people are very aftive and induftrious, carrying on ~^~v~"
an e.xteniive commerce. i

This city is remarkable for the number of learned ^'*'*°f
men it has produced. The reformed doctrines of reli-p^'"'"^ '
gion were very early received in it, being preached
there in 1533 by William Farel and Peter Viret of
Orhe, and afterwards finally ertabiilhed by the celebra-
ted John Calvin. Of this reformer Voltaire obferves,
that he gave h!s name to the religious doctrines firft
broached by others, in the fame manner that Americus
Vefputius gave name to the continent of America,
which hud formerly been difcovered by Columbus. It
was by the alTiduity of this celebrated reformer, and
the inlluence that "oe acquired among the citizens,
that a public academy was firft eftal.liihed in the citv,
^vhere he, Theodore Eeza, and fome of the more emi-
nent firft reformers, read leftures with uncommon fuc-
ccfs. The intolerant fpirit of Calvin is ivell known j
but little of it now appears in the government of Ge-
neva ; on the contrary, it is the moft tolerating of all
the ellates in Sivitzerland, being the only one of them
which permits the public exercife of the Lutheran re-
ligion. The advantages of the academy .at Geneva are
very confpicuous among the citizens at this day, even
the lower clafs of them being exceedingly well inform-
ed ; fo that, according to IMr Coxe, there is not a city
in Europe where learning is fo generally diffufed. " I
received great fadsfaclion (fays he) in converfing even
with feveral tradefmen upon topics both of literature
and politics ; and was aitoniftied to find in this clafs
of men fo uncommon a Ihare of knowledge ; but the
wonder ceafes when ^ve are told that all of them were
educated at the public academy." Ir this feminary
the indurtry and emulation of the ftudents are excited
by the annual dillribution of prizes to thofe who di-
ftinguilh thcmfelves in each clafs. The prizes confift
of fmall medals, but are conferred with fuch folemnity
as cannot fail to produce a linking efFeft on the minds
of youth. There is alfo a public library to which the
citizens have accefs, and which undoubtedly tends
greatly to that univerfal diffufion of learning fo re-
markable among the inhabitants. It was founded by
Bonnivard, remarkable for his fufferings in the caufe of
the liberties of his country. Having been a great an-
tagonift of the dukes of Savoy, againft whom he af-
fcrtcd the independence of Geneva, he had the mis-
fortune at lalf to be taken prifoner, and was imprifon-
ed for fix years in a dungeon below the level of the
lake, in the caftle of Chillon, which llands on a rock in
the lake, and is connected with the land by a draw-
bridge. In 1 536 this caftle was taken from Charles III.
of Savoy by the canton of Berne, aflilled by the Gene-
vans, who lurniilied a frigate (their ivhole naval force)
to befiege it by water. Bonnivard Avas now taken from
his dungeon, where by conllant walking backward and
forward, his only amufement, he had worn a hollow
in the floor which conlifted of folid rock. Bonnivard
confidercd the hardftiips he had endured as ties which
endeared him to the city, and became a principal pro-
moter of the reformation by the mild methods of per-
fuafion and inftruclion. He clnfed his beneEictions by
the gift of his books and manufcripts, and bequeathing
his fortune towards the eftablilhment and fupport of
the feminary. His works, which chietly relate to the

hiftory

GEN

[ 487 ]

GEN

Gtrtvj. hiilory ot Geneva, are ilill preferved ^vith great care
"""■""^ and reverence. The library contains 25,000 volumes,
ivith many curious manufcrijits, of which an account
lias been publiilied by the reverend M. Senncbier the
librarian, who has likewife dillinguilhcd himfelf by fe-
veral literary works. Meffrs Bonnet, Sauffure, Mallet,
and De Luc, are the other moft dillingullhed literary
geniufes of which Geneva can boall. The lall is par-
ticularly remarkable for the perfeclion to which he has
brought the barometer, and which is now fo great,
, that very little feems poffible to be done by any body

Account of elfe. His cabinet merits the attention of naturalitls,
De Luc's as containing many rare and curious fpecimens of fof-
cabinet. jj,^^ ^^j^j^j^ ^^^.^.^ ^^ illullrate the theory of the globe.
It may be divided into three parts : I . Such as enable
the naturalift to compare the petrifaftions of animals
and vegetables with the fame bodies wich are ftill
knoim to exill in our parts of the globe. 2. To com-
pare thefe petrifactions of animals with the fame bo-
dies which are known to exill in different countries.
3. To confiJer the petrifactions of thofe bodies which
are no longer known to esiil. The fecond part com-
prehends the Hones under three points of view: i.
Thofe of the primitive mountains, which contain no
animal bodies ; 2. Thofe of the fecondary mountaij.s,
which contain only marine bodies ; 3. Thofe which
contain terrellrial bodies. The third part contains the
lavas and other volcanic productions ; which are dilfin-
guifhed into two clafles : I. Thofe which come from
volcanoes now aClually burning ; 2. Thofe from ex-
3 tinguilhed volcanoes.

Hiftory and !„ the time of Charles tlie Great, the city and ter-
nien["t' "'"T "^ Geneva made part of his empire ; and, under
Geceva. ^'^ iucceflors, it became fuijcft to the German empe-
rors. By reaion of the imbecility of thefe princes,
however, the billiops of Geneva acquired fuch autho-
rity over the inhabitants, that the emperor had no o-
ther means of counterbalancing it than by augmenting
the privileges of the people. In thefe barbarous ages
alfo the biihops and counts had conftant difputes, of
which the people took the advantage ; and by fiding
fometimes %vith one, and fometimes %vith the other,
they obtained an extenfion of their privileges from
both. The houfe of Savoy at length purchafed the
territory, and fucceeded the counts with additional
power : againrt them therefore the billiops and people
united in order to reiift their encroachments ; and, du-
ring this period, the government was ftrangely com-
plicated, by reafon of tlie various preteniions of the
three parties. The counts of Savoy, however, had at
kit the addrefs to dilTolve the union between the bi-
ihops and citizens, by procuring the epifcopal fee for
their brothers, and even their illegitimate children ; by
which means their power became gradually fo exten-
five, that towards the commencement of the 1 6th
century, Charles III. of Savoy (though the govern-
ment was accounted entirely republican) obtained an
alraoll abfolute authority over the people, and exer-
ciled it in a moll unjuft and arbitrary manner. Thus vio-
lent commotions look place ; and the citizens became
divided into two parties, one of which, viz. the pa-
triots, were llykd Eidger.offi'n or confederates ,- the
partifans <;f Suvoy being difgraced by the appellation
of Mnvielucs or (laves. The true period of Gene-
van liberty may thcrefoie be confidered as commencing

with the treaty concluded with Berne and Fribifl'g in Gcncv
the year 1526; in confequence of which the duke '~"~<'~
was in a fliort time deprived of his authority, the bi-
lliop driven from the city, and the reformed religion and
a republican form of government introduced. A long
war commenced with Savoy on this account ; but the
Genevans proved an overmatch for their enemies by
their own bravery and the allillance of the inhabitants
of Berne, In 1584, the republic concluded a treaty
with Zurich and Berne, by which it is allied to the Siviis
cantons. The houfe of Savoy made their laft attempt
againft Geneva in 1602, when the city was treach-
erouliy attacked in the night time during a profcimd
peace. Two hundred foldiers had fcaled the walls,
and got into the town before any alarm was given ;
but ihey were repulfed by the defperate valour ot a few
citizens, who perilhed in tlie encounter. A petard had
been fjltened to one of the gates by the Savoyards ;
but the gunner was killed before it could be difchar-
ged. The war occafioned by this treachery was next
year concluded by a folemn treaty, which has ever
lince been obferved on both lides : though the inde-
pendence of Geneva was not formally acknowledged by
the king ol Sardinia till the year 1754.

The reftoration of tranquillity from without in
confequence of the above treaty, was hotvever fooii
followed by the tlaraes of internal difcord, fo com-
mon in popular governments ; fo that during the
whole of the laft century the hiilory of Geneva af-
fords little more than an account of the liruggles be-
twixt the arillocratical and popular parties. About
the beginning of the prefent century the power of the
grand council was become almoit abfolute ; but in
order To reltrain its authority, an edict was procured
in 1707 by the popular party, enabling, that every
five years a general council of the citizens and burgh-
ers (hould be fummoned to deliberate upon the af-
fairs of the republic. In confequence of this law a ge-
neral alTerably was convened in 1712; and the very
firil acl of that afl'embly was to abolilh the edid by
which they had been convened. A proceeding fo ex-
traordinary can fcarcely be accounted for on the prin-
ciples of popular ficklencfs and inconilancy. Rouf-
feau, in his Mifcellaneous Works, afcribes it to the
artifices of the magiftrates, and the eqtiivocal terms
marked upon the billets then in ufe. For the quelHon
being put, " Whether the opinion of the councils for
abolilhing the periodical affcmblies ihould pafs into a
law ?" the words approbation or rejaciion, put upon the
billets by which the votes were given, might be inter-
preted either way. Thus, if the billet was chofen on
which the ivord approbation was written, the opinion
of the councils which rejected the alVemblies was ap-
proved ; and by the ivord rejcSlicn, tlie periodical al-
iembly was rejefled of courfe. Hence leveral of the
citizens complained that they had been deceived, and
that they never meant to rejedl the general alVcmbly,
but only the opinion of the councils.

In confequence of tlie abolition of tlic general af-
fcmblies, the power of the ariftocratical party was
greatly augmented ; till at length the inh.abitants exert-
ing themlelves with uncommon (pirit and perfeverance,
found means to limit the poiver of the magillrates, antl
enlarge their oivn rights. In 1776, as .Mr Cox informs
us, the govcrnajent might be conlidered as a mean be-
twixt

GEN

t 488 ]

GEN

•: ..cva. tuixt that of the ariftocratical and popular cantons of

' « Switzerland. The incmbevs of the fenate, or little

f . council of 25, enjoyed in their corporate capacity fe-
the ." vcrn- veral very coniiderable prerogatives. By them halt the
inert in members of the great council were named ; the princi-
i77«. pal magillrates were fupplied from their owiv body ;

they convoked the great and general councils, delibe-
rating previoufly upon every queflion which was to be
brought before thefe councils. They were veiled alfo
Tvitb the chief executive power, the adrainiflration of
finances, and had in a certain degree the jurifdi6lion
in civil and criminal caufcs. Moll of the fmaller pods
were likcA-ife filkd by them •, and they enjoyed the
fole privilege of conferring the burgherthip. TJiefe,
and other prerogatives, however, were balanced by
thofe of the great council and the privileges of the ge-
neral council. The former had a right to choofe, the
members of the fenate from their own ho:^y ; receiving
appeals in all caufes above a certain value, pardoning
criminals, &c. beiides which they had the important
privilege of approving or rejecfing whatever was pro-
pofed by the fenate to be laid before the people.

The general council or afferably of the people is
compofed of the citizens and burghers of the town ;
their number in general amounting to 1500, though
ufually not more than 1 2OO were prefent •, the remain-
der refiding in foreign countries, or being otherwife
abfent. It meets twice a-year, choofes the principal
magiflrates, approves or rtjecls the laws and regula»
tions propofed by the other councils, impofes ta.xes,
contra6ls alliances, declares war or peace, and nomi-
nates half the members of the great council, &c. But
the principal check to the power of the fenate arofe
from the right of re-e/eflion, or the power of annually ■
expelling four members from the fenate at the nomi-
nation of the fyndics or principal magiftrates, and from
the right of reprefentation. The fyndics are four in
number, chofen annually from the fenate by the gene-
ral council ; and three years eiapfe before the fame
members can be again appointed. In choofing thefe
magiftrates, the fenate appointed from its own body
eight candidates, from whom the four fyndics were
to be chofen by the general council. The latter, how-
ever, had it in their power to reiei5l not only the firft
eight candidates, but alfo the whole body of fenators
in fucceffion : in which cafe, four members of the fenate
rt-tired into the great council : and their places were
fdled by an equal number from that council. With
regard to the power of reprefentation, every citizen
or burgher has the privilege of applynig to the fenate
in order to procure a new regulation in this refpeft,
or of remonllrating againft any aft of the magiftracy.
To thefe remondrances the magiftrates were obliged to
give an explicit anfwer ; for if a fatisfaftory anfwer was
not given to one, a fecond was immediately prefented.
'l"he reprefentation was made by a greater or fmalkr
number of citizens according to the importance of the
5 point in queftion.

Account of Since the 1776, liowever, fcveral changes have taken
the rev jIu- place. This right of re-eleSlion, ^vhich the ariftocratical
1782'" party were obliged to yield to the people in 1768, foon
proved very difagreeable, being confidered by the former
as a kind of oltracifm ; for which reafon they catched
at every opportunity of procuring its abolition. They
were Il0^v diflinguifbed by" the title of negatives,
2

while the popular party had that of re(<refe>itants ; and
th.e point in difpute was the compilation of a new code *"
of laws. This meafure the negatives oppoicd, as
fuppofiiig that it would tend to reduce their preroga-
tives 5 while, on the otlier hand, the reprefentants ufcd
their utniolt endeavours to promote it, in hopes of
having their privileges augniented by this m,eans. At
iaft in the month of .lanu;iry 1777, the negatives were
obliged to comply with the demands of their antago-
nifls ; and a committee tor forming a new code of laws
was appointed by the concurrence of the little, great,
and general councils. The committee was to lafl for two
years, and the code to be laid before the three councils
for their joint approbation or rejeclion. A fketch of
the firft part of the code was prefented to the httle and
great councils on the firft of September 1779, that
they might profit by their oblervations before it was
prefented to the general council. Great difputes a-
rofe ; and at length it was carried by the negatives that
the code fhould be rejected and the committee dilTolv-
ed. The oppofite party complahied of this as un-
conftitutional, and violent difputes enfued ; the ilTue of
which was, that the great council offered to compile
the code, and fubmit it to the decilion of the public.
This did not give fatisfaftion to the popular party,
who confidered it as infidious : the contentions revived
with more fury than ever, until at length the negatives
fuppofing, or pretending to fuppofe, that their coun-
try w-as in danger, applied to ,the guarantees, France,
Zurich, and Berne, entreating them to proteft the
laws and conftitution. This was produCfive of no
good effeft ; fo that the negatives found no other me-
thod of gaining their point than by fowing dilTenfion
among the different clafies of inhabitants. The^7;(7-
tives were difcontented and jealous on account of many
exclufive privileges enjoyed by that clafs named citi-
zens : they were befidcs exafperated againlf them for
having, in 1770, banilhed eight of the principal na-
tives, who pretended that the right of burgherihip be-
longed to the natives as well as to the citizens, and
demanded that this right ought to be gratuitoully
conferred inftead of being purchafed. The negatives,
in hopes of making fuch a coniiderable addition to
their party, courted the natives by all the methods
they could think of, promifing by a public declaration
that they were ready to confer upon them thofe privi-
leges of trade and commerce which had hitherto been
confined exclufively to the citizens. The deligns of the
negatives were likewife openly favoured by the coiut
of France, and defpatches were even written to the
French refident at Geneva to be communicated to the
principal natives who fided with the ariftocratic parly.
The attorney-general, conceiving this mode of interfe-
rence to be highly unconftitutional, prefented a fpirited
remonftrance ; by which the French court were fb muclt
difpleafod, that they procured his depofition from his
office •, and thus their party was very confiderably in-
creafed among the natives. The reprefentants were
by no means negligent in their endeavours to conciliate
the favour of the fame party, and even promifed what
they had hitherto oppofed in the Ifrongeft manner,
viz. to facilitate the acquifition of the burgherdiip,
and to beftow it as the recompenfe of induftry and
good beha\iour. Thus two parties were formed a-
mong the natives themielves ; and the diflenfions be-
coming

GEN

[ 489 ]

GEN

Geneva, coming every day worfe aijd worfc, a general infurrcc-
'-—'/— tion took place on the 5th of February 1781. A dif-
pute, accompanied ^vith violent reproaches, having
commenced betwixt two neighbouring and oppofite
parties of natives, a battle would have immediately tak-
en place, had it not been for the interpofition of the
fyndics on the one fide, and the chiefs of the reprefenS
tants on the other. The tumult was beginning to fub-
fide, when a difcharge of mufquetry was heard from the
arfenal. Some young men who Tided with the nega-
tives, having taken pofleffion of the arfenal, had fired
by miflake upon feveral natives of their own party, and
had killed one and wounded another. This was con-
fidered by the reprefentants as the fignal for a general
infurreclion, on which they inflantly took up arms
and marched in three columns to the arfenal ; but
finding there only a few young men who had raftily
fired without orders, they permitted the refl to retire
without moleftation. In the opinion of fome people,
however, this affair was preconcerted, and the repre-
fentants are faid to have been the firft aggreffors.

The reprefentants having thus taken up arms, were
in no hafte to lay them down. Tiiey took polTeflion
of all the avenues to the city ; and their committee be-
ing fummoned next morning by the natives to fulfil
their engagements with refpeft to the burgherlhip,
they held feveral meetings with the principal negatives
on that fubjeft, but vithout any fuccefs : for though
the latter readily agreed to an augmentation of the
commercial privileges of the natives, they abfolutely
refufed to facilitate the acquifition of the burgherlhip.
The committee, however, embarraiTed and alarmed at
the number and threats of the natives, determined to
abide by what they had promifed ; drew up an edift
permitting the natives to carry on trade, and to hold the
rank of officers in the military affociations ; and con-
ferred the burgherlhip on more than 1 00 perfons taken
from the natives and inhabitants, and even from the
peafants of the territory. This was approved by the
three councils ; the negatives, dreading the power of
their adverfaries, who had made themfelves mailers of
the city, not daring to make their appearance.

Thus the popular party imagined that they had got
a complete viiftory ; but they foon found themfelves
deceived. They were prevailed upon by the deputies
from Zurich and Berne (who had been fent to conci-
liate the diiferences) to lay down their arms ; and this
was no fooner done, than the fame deputies declared
the edifl in favour of the natives to be null and illegal.
The fenate declared themfelves of the fame opinion ;
and maintained, that the aiTent of the councils had
been obtained only through fear of the reprefentants
who were under arms, and whom none at that time
durft oppofe. The reprefentants, exafperated by this
proceeding, prefented another remonllrance on the
18th of March 1782, fummoning the magiftrates once
more to confirm the edift ; but a month afterwards
received the laconic anfwcr, that " government was
neither willing nor able to confirm it." The natives,
now finding themfelves difappointed in their favourite
objefl at the very time they had fuch ftrong hopes of
obtaining it, behaved at firft like frantic people ; and
thefe tranfports havini; fubfided, an univerfal tumult
took place. The moft moderate of the popular party
endeavoured in vain to allay their fury, by difpcrfing
Vet. IX. Part II.

themfelves in different quarters of the city ; and the Genf-ri.
citizens, finding themfelves at laft obliged cither to — v~— '
abandon the patty of the natives or to join them open-
ly, hadily adopted the latter meafure ; after which, as
none could now oppofe them, the officers of the repre-
fentants took poffcllion of the town, and quelled the
infurredion. Various negotiations were carried on
with the negatives in order to prevail upon them to
ratify the edict, but without fuccefs ; on which a
few of the magiflrates were confined by the popu-
lar party along with the principal negatives ; and
as they juftly expedled the interference ot France on
account of what they had done, they refolved to
prolong the confinement of the prifoners, that they
might anfwer the pnrpofe of holtages for their own
fnfety. In the mean time the body of citizens, deceiv-
ed by the pretences of the popular party, afted as if
their power was already eftabliftied and permanent.
In confequence of this, they dcpofed feveral members
of the great and little councils, appointing in their
room an equal number of perfons who wen; favourable
to the caufe of the reprefentants. 'I'he great council
thus new modelled, executed the edift for conferring
the burgherdiip upon a number of the natives •, and
appointed a committee of fafety, compofed of eleven
members, with very confiderable authority. By this
committee the public tranquillity was re-ellablifhed ;
after which, the fortifications were ordered to be re-
paired •, and the people were buoyed up by the moft
dangerous notions of their own prowef-, and a confi-
dence that France either durft not attack thtm or did
not incline to do fo. In confequence of this fatal er-
ror, they refufed every offer of reconciliation which
was made them from the other party ; until at laft
troops were difpatched agalnft them by the king of
Sardinia and the canton of Berne ; and their respec-
tive genera's, Meffrs de la Marmora and Lentulus,
were ordered to aft in concert with the French
commander, M. de Jaucourt, who had advanced to
the frontiers with a confiderable detachment. The
Genevans, however, vainly puffed up by a confi-
dence in their own abilities, continued to repair their
fortifications with indefatigable labour ; the peafants
repaired from all quarters to the city, offering to mount
guard and work at the fortifications without any pay ;
women of all ranks crowded to the walls as to a place
of amufement, encouraging the men, and even aflift-
ing them in their labour. The befiegers, however,
advanced in fuch force, that every perfon of difcem-
ment forefaw that all refiftance would be vain. The
French general JaScourt, on the 29th of June 1782,
defpatched a meffage to the fyndics ; in which he in-
filled on the following humiliating conditions : I. That
no perfon fiiould appear on the llreets under pain of
military punilhment. 2. Tiiat a certain number of
citizens, among whom were all the chiefs of the re-
prefentants, (liould quit the place in 24 hours. 3. That
all arms lliould be delivered to the three generals.
4. That the depofed magiftrates ftiould be inftantly
re-eftablifhed : And, laftly, That an anfwcr ftiould be
returned in two hours. By this meffage the jieople
were thrown into the utmoil defpair ; and all without
exception refolved to periili rather than to accept of
terms fo very difgraceful. They inftantly hurried to
the ramparts with a view of putting their refolution
3^

C E N

[ 490 ]

GEN

NciV COQ.

ftitulioii c
Rablilhcd,

in force •, but in the mfean tinie the fyndics found
means to obtain from the generals a delay of 24 hours.
During this inter\-al, not only men of all ages prepared
for the approaching danger, but even women and chil-
dren tore the pavement from the ftveets, carrj'ing the
Hones up to the tops of the houfes, mth a view of
rolling them do^vn upon the enemy in cafe they Qiould
force their way into the town. About 80 women
and girls, dreffed in uniforms, oflFered to form them-
fclves into a company for the defence of their country.
The committee of fafety accepted their fervices, and
placed them in a barrack fecured from the cannon of
the beiiegeis. The negatives were greatly alarmed at
this appearance of defperate refinance ; and fome of
the moll moderate among them endeavoured, but with-
out fuccefs, to cITeft a reconciliation. At the hour
in which it was expei^cd that the attack would begin,
the ramparts were fijled with defenders ; and though
the molf zealous of the popular party had -calculated
only on 3000, upwards of 5000 appeared in the pub-
He caufe. The French general, however, juftly alarm-
ed for the prifoners, who were noiv in imminent dan-
ger, again prolonged the period propofed for the ca-
pitulation. By thefe repeated delays the ardour of the
defendants began to abate. The women firft began to
figure to therafelves the horrors of a town taken by
affanlt, and given up to an enraged and licentious lol-
diery ; many timid perfons found means not only to
difguife their own fears, but to infpire others with
them luider the pretence of prudence and caution : at
hft the committee of fafety themfelves, who had fo
ilrenuoufly declared for hcflilities, entirely changed
their mind. Being well apprized, however, that it
\vould be dangerous for them to propofe furrendering
in the prefent temper of the people, they affembled the
citizens in their refpeflive circles, reprefenting, that
if the city (hould be attacked in the night, it would
be no longer poffible to convene them : for which rea-
fon they recommended to them that each circle fliould
nominate fevetal deputies with ftiU authority to decide
in their ftead •, adding, that they ought rather to ap-
point thofe perfons wlio from their age and refpeclable
charafter were capable of aflilling their country by
their advice, while others \vere defending it by their
valour. Thus a new council, compofed of about loa
citizens, was formed 5 in which the chiefs, by various
inanoeuvres, firft intimidating, and then endeavouring
to perfuade the members of tbe neceflity of furrender-
ing, at lall found means to take the thoughts of the
people entirely off the defence of the city, and engage
them in a fcheme of general emigration. A decla-
ration was drawi\ up to be delivered to the fyndics v.ith
tbe keys of the city, the chiefs fummoncd the princi-
pal officers from their polls, ordered the cannon of
feveral batteries to be rendered unfit for fervice, and
at laft took care of themfelves by quitting the town.
The people were in the utmoft defpair ; and left the
town in fuch multitudes, that when the Sardinians
entered it in the morning, they found it almoft de-
ferted. This was followed by the reftovation of the
former magiftrates, a complete fubjeftion of the po-
pular party, and the eftablilhment of a military go-
vernment.

The changes which took place on this occafion were
as follow : 1. An abolition of the right of re eledion.

2. The abolition of that right by which the general
council nominated half the vacancies in the great coun-
cil. 3. The right of remonftraling was taken from
the citizens at large, apd vefted in 36 adjunfis, who
might be prefent in the great council the firft Monday
of every month. They enjoyed a right of reprefenta-
tion, and in confequence of that had a deliberative
voice ; but on the whole were fo infignificant, that
they were nicknamed Les Images, en " The ihadows."
4. The introduction of the grabeau, or annual con-
firmation of the members of the fenate and of the great
council, vefted entirely in the latter. By this law
part of the authority both of the fenate and general
council was transferred to the great council ; and hf
fubjefting the fenate to this annual revifion, its power
was greatly leffened, and it was made in faft depend-
ent upon the general councils. 5. The circles or clubs
in which it was cullomary to convene the citizens, and
all public affemblies whatever, were prohibited ; and
fo rigoroully was this carried into execution, that the
fociety of arts was '. prohibited from meeting. 6.
The militia were aboliihed j firing at marks, even
with bows and arrows, was prohibited •, and the tmvn,
inftead of being guarded by the citizens, was now put
under the care of 1000 foreign foldiers, ^vhofe colonel
and major were both to be foreigners. Thefe troops
were to take an oath of fidelity to the republic, and of
obedience to the great council and the committee of
war : but were under the immediate command and in-
fpeclion of the latter, and fubjecl to the fuperior con-
troul of the former. 7. No pcrfon was permitted to
bear arms, whether citizen, native, or inhabitant. 8.
Several taxes were impofed without the confent of the
general council ; but in time to come it was pro^^ded,
that every change or augmentation of the revenue
(hould be fubmitted to that body. 9. Several priW-
leges ^nth regard to trade and commerce, formerly pof-
fefled by the citizens alone, ■were now granted both to
citizens and inhabitants.

It is not to be fuppofed that this revolution would
be agreeable to people who had fuch a ftrong fenfe of
liberty, and had been accuftomed to put fuch a value
upon it, as the Genevans. From what has been already
related, it might feem reafonable tp conclude, that an
almoft univerfal emigration would have taken place :
but after their refentment had time to fubfide, moft of
thofe who fled at firft, thought proper to return ; and,
in the opinion of Mr Coxe, not more than 600 finally
left their country on account of the revolution in
1782. The emigrants principally fettled at Bruffels
and Conftance, where they introduced the arts of
printing linens and watchmaking. Soon after the re-
volution, indeed, a memorial, figned by above 1000
perfons of both fexes, all of them either poflefled of
fome property or verfed in trade or manufaftures, was
prefented to the earl of Temple, then lord lieutenant
of Ireland, exprefling a defire to fettle in that kingdom.
The propofal met with general approbation •, the Irifti
parliament voted jccccl. towards defraying the c.x-
pences of their journey, and affording them a proper
fettlcmcnt in the illand. Lands were purchafed for
80C0I. in a convenient fituation near Waterford 5 part
of New Geneva was aftUally completed at the expcnce
of lo.occl. > a charter was granted with very con-
fideiable privileges ; the flandard of gold was alteri

e,i

S.h,

n,e rl

fetf!

inn a

nun.

,;k r of

Ge..

cvaus

GEN [49

ed for tne accommodation of the watch manufaiSlures ;
' and the foundation of an academy laid upon an ufeful
and liberal plan. Seven Genevans landed in Ireland
in the month of July 178^ : but when the nation had
expended near 30,000!. on the fchcme, it was fud-
denly abandoned. This feems principally to have been
owing to the delays neceffarily occafioned in the exe-
cution of iuch a complicated plan ; and in fome degree
alio by the high demands of the Genevan commiflion-
ers, who requited many privileges inconfillent with
the laws of Ireland. By thefe delays the Genevans,
whofe character feems not ta be fierfeverance, ^vere indu-
ced to abandon the fcheme, and return to their former
place of refidence. Even the few who had already landed,
though maintained at the public expence, were diicon-
tented at not finding the new tov\-n prepared for their
reception •, and as thofe among the propofed emigrants
who poiTefled the greateft ihare of property had already
withdrawn their names, the remainder did not choofe
to remain in a country where they had not capital fuf-
ficient to carry on any confiderable trade or manufac-
ture. A petition was then prefented by the Gene-
van commiflioners, requefting that io,oool. of the
50,0001. voted might be appropriated to the form-
ing a capital : but as this had been voted for other
purpofes, the petition was of courfe rejefled ; in con-
fequence of which, the Genevans relinnuilhed the fet-
tlement by an addrefs, ?.nd foon after quitted the
illand.

The people of Old Geneva, though returned to their
former place of abode, were far from being inclined to
fubmit to the yoke with patience. They were obliged
to pay heavy taxes for maintaining a military force ex-
prefsly calculated to keep themfelves in iabjeftion : and
fo intolerable did this appear, that in a few years every
thing feemed ready for another revolution. The fuc-
cefs of this feemed more probable than that of the for-
Tner, as France was not now in a condition to inter-
fere as formerly. The general ferment foon rofe to
Iuch a height, that government was obliged to call in
the aid of the military to quell a tumult which hap-
pened in the theatre. This produced only a tempo-
rary tranquillity •, another tumult took place on the
26th of January 1789, on account of the publication
of an edidl nailing the price of bread a farthing per
pound. On this the people inllantly rofe, plundered
the bakers fliops : and next day a carriage loaded with
bread and efcorted by foldiers was plundered in its
way to the dillribution office. Tlie fohiiers fired on
the populace, by which one man was killed and ano-
ther wounded : but the tumult ftill increaliiig, the
foldiers were driven away ; and the body of the decea-
fed was carried in a khid of proceffion before the town
houfe, as a moimment of the violence and opprelllon
of the ariftocratic party. The magiHratcs in the mean
time fpent their time in deliberation, inftead of taking
any eiTecIual method of quelling the inhirrectiun. The
people made the befl ufe of tlie time afforded tliem by
this delay of the magiftrates •, they attacked and car-
ried two of the gates, dangerouily wounding the com-
manding officer as he attempted to allay the fury of
both parties. At laft the magiltratcs defpatclied againft
them a confiderable body of troops, whom they thought
the infurgfints w ould not have the courage to refill ;
but in this they found themfelves deceii-ed. The

I ] GEN

people had formed a ftrong barricade, behind wliich G'-'''
they played oft' two fire pumps filled with boiling wa- ~^
tcr and foap lyes againft the extremities of two bridges
which the military had to crofs before they could at-
tack them. The commanding officer was killed and
fcvcral of his men wounded by the difcharge of linali
arms from windows ; and the pavement was carried up
to the tops of houfcs in order to be thrown down uport
the troops if they Ihould force the barricades and pe-
netrate into the llreets. The tumult in the mean time
continued to increafc, and was in danger of becoming
univerfal ; when the magillrates, finding it would be im-
polTible to quell the infurgents without a great effufion
of blood, were reduced to the necellity of complying
with their demands. One of the principal magiftrate-.
repaired in perfon to the quarter of St Gcrvais, pro-
claimed an edift for lowering the price of bread, grant-
ed a general amnefty, and rcleafed all the infurgents
who had been taken into cuftody. Thus a momen-
tary calm ^vas produced ; but the leaders of the infur-
reftion, fen!ible that the raagiftratcs were either unable
or unwilling to employ a fulticient force againft them,
refolved to take advantage of the preftnt opportunity
t© procure a new change of government. A new in-
furredion, therefore, took place on the 29th of the
month, in ivhich the foldiers were driven from their
ports, difarmed, and the gates feized by the people.
The magiftrates then, convinced that all oppofillon
was fruitL-fs, determined to comply with the demands
of their antagonifts in their full extent j and the arif-
tocratical party fuddenly changing their fentiment.':,
renounced in a m.oment that fyftem to which they had
hitherto fo obftinately adhered. On the application
of the folicitor general, therefore, for the recovery of the
ancient lihtrties of the people, the permifilon of bear-
ing arms, re-eftabliftiment of the militia, and of their
circles or political clubs, the removal of the garrilbn
from the barracks, and the recal of the reprefciitants
who were banilhed in 1782; thefe moderate demands
were received with complacency^ and even fatisfaiElion(
The preliminaries were fettled without difliculty, and
a new edict of pacification was publilhed under the
title of MuJifications a I'' Edition de 1 78 2, and approv-
ed by the fenate, great council, and general council.
So great was the unanimity on this occafion, tiiat the
modifications were received by a majority of 1321
againft 52. The pacification was inftantly followed by
marks of friendlliip betwixt the two parties \vhich had
never been experienced before j the ions of the prin-
cipal negatives frequented the circles of the burghers j
the magift rates obtained the confidence of the people ;
and no monument of the military force fo odioui to
the people will be allowed to remain. " The bai^racks
of Jie town houfe (fays I\Ir Coxc) are already eva-
cuated, and will be converted into a public library, the
new barracks, built at an enormous jxptnce, and more
c.dcul.-ited for the garrifon of a powerful and defpotic
kingdom than for a fmall and free commonwealtli,
will be converted into a building for the univerli^i
The reformation of the ftudies, wliich have fcarcc-
ly received any alteration fiiicc the time of Calv!."-,
is now in agitation. In a word, all things feepi at
prefent to confpire for the general ^oo4 ;• and it is
to be lioped that both parties, fliocked'at the rePal-
leclion of paft troubles, will contiuuc on as friendly
3 Q 2 ""^'"'i

GEN

[ 49

terms ss the jealous nature of a free conflitution will
' admit."

Geneva, as well as the whole of Switzerland fell a
viiflira to French rapacity in 1802. The following ob-
fervations, made by a traveller on the fpot, afford us
fome information of the confequences of this event to
Geneva, of its degraded ftate, and of the manners of the
inhabitants.

" The population of Geneva is about 24,000 : more-
over it contains at prefent between 1200 and 1400
French troops: the parties intermix but little, and have
had r.o difputes, although they certainly regard each
other with an eye of jealoufy. The Genevans do the
French foldiers the juflice to fay, that they have de-
meaned themfelves in a very becoming manner during
their refidence here : they acknowledge themfelves to
be a conquered people, and dare not open their mouths,
except to an Englifliman, againft the treacherous in-
vaders of their country, and deflroyers of their liber-
ties.

" You are too well verfed in the hiftory of this peo-
ple to require being told, that, notwithftanding their
prefent humiliated condition, Freedom is the goddefs
they woriliip ; and that, had there been any poflibility
of lecuring her from violation, they would gladly have
bled before her altars. Ho\vever various has been their
fuccefs, in the different revolutions which have agitated
this fecludcl Hate, the Genevans have uniformly evin-
ced a courage which awed their enemies, and a deter-
mined bravery in defence of their rights, which in fhew-
ing that they prized them highly, gave proof that they
were worthy to enjoy them.

"The territory of Geneva is comprehended in the De-
partment du LeTNan, which department contains about
] 6 fquare leagues of land ; its population is eflimated at
609,000 perfons. It is divided into three cantons or
hundreds, the largefl of which has Geneva for its capital,
and contains about 7^,000 fouls, of which 10,000 only
are Genevans, 20,000 are French, and the remainder
are Savoyards. The prefet, as in all the other depart-
ments, is appointed by the Firft Conful, durante bene-
placito. The care of the high roads and public walks,
public finances, executive julfice, military affairs, and
paffports, are under his immediate direction. All mili-
tary appointments are given to Frenchmen : one gene-
ral commands the town, and another the country. At
the firil moment of the revolution all the old magif-
trates were difplaced, and fince that time the civil of-
ficers have been elefted by the citizens at large, confe-
quently fome are Frenchmen, and fome Genevans : the
prefent mayor is one of the latter: he is a gentleman of
great refpedability, and is much efteemed by both par-
ties. Whenever a new code of la^vs (hall be eflablifh-
ed in France, its operations will be extended over the
territory of Geneva j but at prefent the people here re-
tain their old laws with Ibme trilling alterations only,
rather the form than the fubllance : thus, the guillotine
is new fubilituted for the gallows, and the puniftiments
in general, without varying the degree, are intlifted ac-
cording to the French manner.

" In their treaty with France, the Genevans flipula-
ttd, that their hofpital (hould not be oblige^ to receive
French foldiers : this hofpital was founded in the early
^art of the lafl century, by fome of the richell citizens,
ami h fo mA fuppoitetl by legacies, and by annual fub-

2 ] GEN

fcriplions, that the fund enables the direftors to expend Geneva,
two thoufand louis a year. In contempt of his treaty, """V"""
Bonaparte has infilled on the adralllion of French fol-
diers, for whofe accommodation, however, he promifed to
pay a certain fum [>er diem : in contempt of his promife,
again, he has withheld the payment ! An hofpital,
hov.ever, is now preparing at Carouge, a village in
Savoy, between Geneva and Grange Colonge, for
Frenchmen, to which, it is expected, the foldiers will
be removed in May or June. Here is alfo a general
hofpital, once the nunnery of St Clair ; it was founded,
together with many other ufeful inflitutions, by that ce-
lebrated reformer, John Calvin, who fled from the per-
fecution of Francis I. and found an afylum in Geneva.
The revenue arifuig from the ellates of this hofpital has,
till within thefe laft few years, been comraenfurate with
its expences ; but, for fome time back, it has been
found neceffary to colledl almoft an additional fourth,
in order to fupply its difburfements : twice in the year
the treafurer goes round to every houfe, and folicits the
charitable contribution of its inmates.

" Prior to the laft revolution, I leani, that 600,000
French li^resj difcharged all the public expences : with
this very trilling fum were paid the falaries of the ma-
giftrates, of the matter of the to^\Ti, of the mailer of
the country, the expences of the academy, of repair-
ing the roads, of cleaning and lighting the town ; in
fhort, thefe 600,000 livres were fuflicient to defray all
the ordinary expences of the government. Since that
too-memorable event, the citizens of Geneva have been
affeffed to the amount of 1,500,000 livres, the falaries
of the inferior magiftrates are in arrears, the roads are
not kept in good repair, the town is very dimly lighted,
and the ftreets, a few of the principal ones excepted,
are left with all their dirty honours thick upon them !
The inhabitants go fo far as to alTert, that, in confe-
quence of the negleft which the public drains have fuf-
fered, they have been affected with fevers and other ill-
nelTes to which they had hitherto been ftrangers.

" I underltand, that the revenue of Geneva, fince it
has been annexed to the republic of France, arifes
chiefly from the following fources. — An excife duty is
laid on all provifions (wheat excepted), on wine and
merchandife of every defcription, which is brought in-
to Geneva : the annual produce of this tax is about
1 20,000 French livres; a land tax ; a tax on doors and
window's •, a tax on the fale of eltates ; a heavy tax on
the collateral inheritance of an eftate — where the inhe-
ritance is lineal and immediate, the tax is moderate.
To thefe taxes or contributions, as they are called, mult
be added /a contribution mobiltere, which is a fmall tax
on perfonal property, and produces annually about
75,000 livres. The colle6tors of thefe taxes are ap-
pointed by the Firft Conful, and are paid very highly
for their trouble : the prefet, and all the principal pub-
lic ofticers, are very regularly paid, but thofe in a fub-
ordinate fituation feldom get above one-fhird of theit-
Itipends.

" Divorces feem to be obtained here with too much
facility. But, in the firft place, as to marriages, they
murt be celebrated, according to the French law, be-
fore the mimicipality, at the maifon de ville. Mar-
riage in France, you know, is merely a civil ceremony,
the parties being obliged to fwear before an appointed
magiftrate, that they are of age, and that they hava
confcntcd

GEN

* Month .

Ml'- tSo

confented to become man and wife. The Genevans,
however, do not confider this ceremony as futficifnt :
but, as our Gretna Green couples, on their return to
Britain, think it neceiTary, after tiie fervour of paflion
is abated, and tlie mercury is fallen, in the animal tlier-
mometer, fomething lower than blond heat, to have the
holy rites performed with the Ibleranity prefcribed by
law ; fo the Genevans, in addition to the civil ceremo-
ny prefcribed by the laws of the republic of France,
voluntarily conform to the religious ordinance of their
own church. That a man fliould be able to obtain a
divorce from the wife who is unfaithful to his bed, is
highly reafonable : but here, if a woman leaves her
hufhand, and refufes to return to his habitation, after
being fimimoncd by him for that purpofe, he can repu-
diate her for difobedience. This doubtlefs was ground-
ed on the prcfumption, that, if a woman fled from her
hulhand, and refilled his folicitation to return, it could
only be for the purpofe of cohabiting with feme other
man : but an advantage is taken of this prcfumption j
and now, when the parties, for whatever reafons, are
defirous of being divorced, tlie wife, with the know-
ledge and confent of her hufband, generally goes into
Switzerland, where (he remains fix months, during
which time the huftand fummons her to return, ihe re-
fufes, and at the end of that term a divorce is declared
between them."*

GtNEFA Lake. This lake is in the (hape of a
crefcent ; along the concave fide of which Mr Coxe
travelled 54 miles. Switzerland forms the hollow, and
Savoy the convex part j the greatell breadth being
about 1 2 miles. The country on the fide of Savoy is
full of high and craggy mountains j but from Geneva
to the environs of Laufanne it llopes to the margin of
the lake, and is very rich and fertile. The banks rife
confiderably in the neighbourhood of Laufanne, and
form a moil beautiful terrace, with a rapid defcent a
few miles beyond the town. A plain begins in the
neighbourhood of Vevay, which continues tor a great
way beyond the end of the lake, but contra6ling to-
wards the water by the approach of the mountains.
The lake itfelf appears at a dillance of a beautiful blue
colour, and the water is very clear and tranfparent.
Near Geneva the coaft of the lake abounds with peb-
bles j between that city and Laufanne it is fandy ;
from thence to Chilon it is bounded by hard calca-
reous rocks ; and the extremity of the fhort is a marfh
formed by mud coUecled from the river Rhone. The
^reatell depth of this lake found by iVI. de Luc is 160
fathoms. Here the birds called tlpf>el grebes make their
appearance in December, and retire in February to
other places where they breed. They make floating
nerts of reeds ; but as the lake of Geneva affords none
of thefe, they are obliged to migrate to other places
where they grow. Their Ikins are much elleemed,
and fell for i 2s. or 14s. eaqj). The lake of Geneva,
like all others fituated between mountains, is fubject
to fudden florms.

GtNXVA, or Gin, among dlftillers, an ordinary malt
fpirit, diftilled a fecond time, with the addition of fome
juniper berries.

Originally, the berries were a idcd to the malt in the
grinding ; fo that the fpirit thus obtained was flavour-
ed with the berries from the firft, and exceeded all that

[ 493 ]

GEN

could be made by any other method. At prefent, they Gei.evieve
leave out the berries entirely, and give their fpirits a . II .
flavour by dillilling them with a proper quantity of oil ^y"' ■
of turpentine •, which, though it nearly refembles the
flavour of juniper berries, has none of their valuable
virtues.

GENEVIEVE, fathers or religious of; the name of
a congregation of regular canons of the order of St Au-
gufline, cllablilhed in France.

The congregation of St Genevieve is a reform of
the Augulline canons. It was begun by St Charles
Faure, in the abbey of St Vincent de Senhs, of which
he was a member, in the year 1618,

In the year 1634, the abbey was made eledive •, and
a general chapter, compofed of the fuperiors of i ^
houfes who had now received the reform, chofe F.
Faure coadjutor of the abbey of St Genevieve, and
general of the whole congregation. Such were its be-
ginnings.

It has fince increafed very much, and it now confiftj
of above a liundred monafteries ; in fome whereof the
religious are employed in the adminiflration of the
parilhes and hofpitals : and in" others, in the celebra-
tion of divine fervice, and the inflrudlion of ecclefiaftics-
in feminaries for the purpofe.

The congregation takes its name from the abbey of
St Genevieve, which is the chief of the order, and
whofe abbot is the general thereof. The abbey itfelf
took its name from St Genevieve, the patronefs of the
city of Paris, who died in the year 512. Five years
after her death, Clovis ereifled the church of St Ge-
nevieve, under the name and invocation of St Peter,
where iier relicks are dill, or were till lately preferved,
her ihrine vifited, and her image carried with great
proceflions and ' ceremonies upon extraordinary occa-
(ions, as when fome great favour is to be entreated of
heaven.

GENGIS KHAN, the renowned fovereign of the
Moguls, a barbarous and bloody conqueror. See
JJiNGHiz Khak, and [HiJIorij of the) Moguls.

GENIAL, an epithet given by the Pagans to cer.
tain gods who were fuppoled to prefide over genera-
tion.

The genial gods, fays Feilus, were earth, air, fire, and
water. The twelve figns, together with the fun and
moon, were fometimes alfo ranked in the number.
> GENII, a fort of intermediate beings, by the Ma-
homfetans believed to exift between men and angels.
They are of a groffer fabric tlian the latter, but much
more ailive and po.verful than the former. Some of
them are good, others bad, and they are capable of
future falvation or damnation like men. The orientals
pretend that thefe genii inhabited the world many
thoufand years before the creation of Adam, under
the reigns of feveral princes, who all bore the common
name of Solomon ; that falling at length into an al-
raoll general corruption, Eblis was fent to drive them
into a remote part of the earth, there to be confined ;
and that fome of that generation dill remaining were by
Tahmurath, one of the ancient kings of Perfia, forced
to retreat into the famous mountain of Kaf; of whofe
fucceirions and wars they have many fabulous and ro-
mantic (lories. . They alio mule feveral ranks and de-
grees amopg this kind of beings (if they are not rather
diffcreut

GEN

r 494 1

GEN

Gcniog'ofli diffaent fpecles') •, fome being abfolutely called Jiti ;
II. fome Peri, or fairies j fome Div, or giants; and others
. '"""• Tacivins, or fates.

GENIOGLOSSI, in yinatomy. See Anatomy,
TahL- »f the Mu fries.

GENIOHVblDiEUS, in Anatomy. Ihid.
GENIOSTOTvIA, a genus of plants, belonging to
the pentandria clafs. See BoTAKY Index.

GENIPPA, a genus of plants, belonging to the
pentsndna clafs, and in the natural method ranking un-
der the 30th order, Contortce. See BoTAXY Index.

GENISTA, BROOM, or DYERS v;eed, a genus of
plants, belonging to the diadelphia clafs ; and in the
natural method ranking under the 3 2d order, Papillona-
ceae. See BoTANY bidex.

GENITAL, an appellation given to whatever be-
lonp's to the parts of generation. See Anatomy,
N°'io7, 108.

GENITES, among the Hebrews, thofe defcend-
ed from Abraham, without any mixture of foreign
blood.

The Greeks diftinguiihed by the name of genites
fuch of the Jews as were iffued from parents, who, du-
ring the Babylonifli captivity, had not allied with any
gentile family.

GENITIVE, in Grsmmar, the fecond cafe of the
declenfion of nouns. The relation of one thing conli-
dered as belonging in fome manner to another, has oc-
cafioned a peculiar termination of nouns called the ge-

Ttitivecafe; but in the vulgar tongues they moke ufe who took a pleafure in perfecuting
of a fign to cxprefs the relation of this eafe. In Eng-
iilli they prefix the particle of, in French de or du, &c.
Though in ftriclncfs there are no cafes in either of
thefe languages ; inafmuch as they do not exprefs the
different relations of things by different terminations,
but by additional prepofitions, which is otherwife in
the Latin.

GENIUS, 3 good or evil fpirit or daemon, whom
the ancients fuppofed fet over each perfon, to direft
his birth, accompany him in life, and to be his guard.
See DAEMON.

Among the Roman.', Feftus obferves, the name ge-
nius was gi\'en to the god who had the power of do-
ing all things, deum qui vim ohtineret reriim omnium
gerendarum ; which Voffius, de Idol, rather choofes to
read genendarum, who has the power of producing all
things ; by reafon Cenforinus frequently ufes gerere for
gignere. . " . . . "

Accordingly St Auguflin, de Civilate Dei, relates,
from Varro, that the genius was a god who had the
power of generating all things ; and prefided over them
when produced.

Feftus adds, that Aufuftlus fpake of the genius as
the Son of God, and the Father of men, who gave
them life ; others, however, reprefented the genius as
the peculiar or tutelary god of each place ; and it is
certain, the lall is the moft ufual meaning of the word.
The ancients had their genii of nations, of cities, of
provinces, &c. Nothing is more common than the
following infcription on medals, CEVtus voptili ROM.
" the genius of the Roman people ;" or CENio pop.
ROM. " to the genius of the Roman people. In this
fenfe genius and lar were the fame thing ; as, in effeft,

Cenforinus and Apulius athr
and p£N.VT{;s.

they were. See Lares

The Platonirts, and other eaftern philofophers, fup- (
pofcJ the genii to inhabit the vaft region or extent of ~
air between earth and heaven. They were a fort of
intermediate po^vcrs, who did the office of mediators
between gods and men. They were the interpreters
and agents of the gods ; communicated the wills of
the deities to men ; and the prayers and vows of men
to the gods. As it wa« unbecoming the majelly of the
gods to enter into fuch trifling concerns, tliis became
the lot of the genii, whofe nature was a mean between
the two ; who derived immortality from the one, and
paffions from the other ; and who had a body framed
of an aerial matte*. Moll of the philofophers, how-
ever, held, that the genii of particular men were born
wiih them, and died ; and Plutarch attributes the
ceafing of oracles partly to the death of the genii.—
See Oracle.

The heathens, who confidered the genii as the guar-
dians of particular perfons, believed that they rejoiced
and were afflifted at all the good and ill fortune that
befel their wards. They never, or very rarely, ap-
peared to them ; and then only in favour of fome per-
fon of ettraordinary virtue or dignity. They likewife
held a great difference between tha genii of different
men ; and that fome were much more powerful than
others : on which principle it was, that a wizzard in
ylppian bids Antony keep at a diftance from Oftavlus,
by reafon Antony's genius was inferior to and flood in
awe of that of Oflavius. There were alfo evil genii,
men, and bringing
them evil tidings : fuch was that mentioned by Plu-
tarch which appeared to Brutus the night before the
battle of Philippi. Thefe were alfo called larvae and
lemures. See Larv;e and Lemures.

Genius, in matters of literature, &c. a natural ta-
lent or difpofition to do one thing more than another ;
or the aptitude a «ian has received from nature to per-
form well and eafily that which others can do but in-
differently and with a great deal of pains.

Ta know the bent of nature is the moft important
concern. Men come into the world with a genius de-
termined not only to a certain art, but to certain parts
of that art, in which alone they are capable of fuccefs.
If they quit their fpherc, they fall even below medio-
crity ill their profeflion. Art and induftry add much
to natural endowments, but cannot fupply them where
they arc wanting. Every thing depends on genius.
A painter often pleafes without obferving rules ; whift
another difpleafes though he obferves them, becaufe he
has not the happinefs of being born with a genius for
painting,

A man bom with a genius for'^commanding an army,
jmd capable of becoming a great general by the help
of experience, is one whofe organical conformation is
fuch, that his valour is no obliruftion to his prefence
of mind, and his prefence of mind makes no abate-
ment of his valour. Such a difpolition of mind cannot
be acquired by art : it can be poffcffed only by a per-
fon Tvho has brought it with him into the world. What
has been faid of thefe two arts may be equally applied
to all other profeffions. T4ie adminiftration of great
concerns, the art of putting people to thofe employ-
ments for which they are naturally formed, the ftudy of
phyfic, and even gaming itfelf, all require a geniu.t.
Nature has thought fit to make a diftribution of her

talents

GEN f

talents among men, in order to render them lioccfrary
to one another ; the wants of men being the very link
' link of fociety : flie has therefore pitched upon parti-
cular perfons, to give them aptitude to perform rightly
fome things which ihe has rendered importible to
others; and the latter have a greater facility granted
them for other things, %\hich facility has been refufed
to the former. Nature indeed has made an unequal
dillribution of her bleflings among her children ; yet
flie has dilinherited none ; and a man diverted of all
kinds of abilities, is as great a phenomenon as an uni-
verfal genius.

From the diveriity of genius the difference of incli-
nation arifes in men, whom nature has had the precau-
tion of leading to the employments for which (he de-
figns them, with more or lefs impetuofity in propor-
tion to the greater or Icffer number of obltacles they
have to furmount in order to render themfelves cap-
able of anfwering this vocation. Thus the inclina-
tions of men are fo very different, becaufe they follow
the fame mover, that is, the impulfe of their genius.
This, as with the painter, is what renders one poet
pleafing, even when he trefpaffes againft rules ; while
others are difagreeable, notwithflanding their Itrict
regularity.

The genius of thefe arts, according to the abbe du
Bos, confifts in a happy arrangement of the organs of
the brain ; in a juft conformation of each of thefe or-
gans ; as alfo in the quality of the blood, which dif-
pofes it to ferment, during exercife, fo as to furnilh
plenty of fnirits to the fprings employed in the func-
tions of the imagination. Here he fuppofes that the
corapofer's blood is heated ; for that painters and poets
cannot invent in cool blood ; nay, that it is evident
they muft be rapt into a kind of enthufiafm when
they produce their ideas. Arillotle mentions a poet
who never wrote fo well as when his poetic fury hur-
ried him into a kind of frenzy. I'he admirable pic-
tures we have in Taffo of Armida and Clorinda were
drawn at the expence of a difpofition he had to real
madnefs, into which he fell before he died. *' Do you
imagine (fays Cicero), that Pacuvius wrote in cold
blood ? No, it was impolTible. He muft have been
infpired with a kind of fury, to be able to write fuch
admirable verfes,"

GENOA, a city of Italy, and formerly capital of a
republic of the fame name, fituated in E. Long. 9. 30.
N. Lat. 44. 30. — By the Latin authors it is very fre-
quently, though corruptly called Janua ; and its pre-
fent territories made part of the ancient Liguria. The
era of its foundation is not known. In the time of
the fecond Punic war it was a celebrated emporium ;
and having declared for the Romans, was plundered
and burnt by Mago the Carthaginian,

It was after
wards rebuilt by the Romans ; and with the reft of
Italy continued under their dominion till the decline
of the weftem empire in 476. Soon after, it fell un-
der the power of Theodoric the Oftrogoth ; who having
deflated the ufurper Odoacer, became king of Italy.
This happened in the year 498 ; and in a fliort time,
the Goths being almoft entirely fubducd by Belifarius
the emperor Juilinian's general, Genoa was reannexed
to the Roman empire. In 638, it was plundered and
bunit by the Lombard.^, whofe king Protharis ereflcd
it into a provincial dukedom.

495 ] GEN

y The Lombards cot^tinued mnflers of GcnoA till the C.cm

year 774, when they were conquered by Charles the ^

Great, fon to Pepin king of France. He reduced
Liguria to the ancient bounds fettled by Augullus,
and ereiK'd it into a marquifute : appointing his rela-
tion Audemarus the firft count or margrave. Genoa
at this time being diftinguiihed for its wealth and po-
puloufnefs, began to give its name to the whole coall ;
and continued Under the dominion of thefe counts for
about 100 years, till the race of the Pepins became en-
tirely extinft in Italy, and the empire was transfeired
to the German princes. — In the year 935 or 936,
while the Genoefe forces were abfent on lome expedi-
tion, the Saracens iiirprifed the city, which they plun-
dered and burnt, putting to death a great number of
the inhabitants, and carrying others into Captivity.
Having embarked their captives, together with an im-
menfc booty, they fct fail for Africa; but the Ge-
noefe immediately returning, purfued the invaders ;
and having entirely defeated them, recovered all the
captives and booty, and took a great many of the ene-
my's fhips.

About the year 950, the Franks having lofc ail au-
thority in Italy, the Genoefe began to form themfelves
into a republic, and to be governed by their own ma-
giflrates, who were freely elefted, and took the name
of Confuls. In order to fupport their independence,,
they applied themfelves witli great affiduity to com-
merce and navigation ; and being apprehcnlive that
fome of the German emperors, who frequently entered
Italy a.s invaders, might renetv their pretenfions to their
ftate, they confentcd to acknowledge Berengarius III.
duke of Friuli, who had been elefted emperor by a
party of Italian nobles. Berengarius, who had much
ado to maintain himfelf in his new dignity, endeavour-
ed by his conceflions to enlarge the number of his
friends and adherents ; and accordingly made no diffi-
culty to confirm the new republic in all its rights and
privileges. After this the Genoefe began to extend
their commerce from Spain to Syria, and from Egypt
to Conftant'nople ; their veffels, according to the cu-
ftom of thefe times, being fitted for fighting as well as
merchandife. Having thus acquired great reputation,
they were invited in 1017, by the Pifans,. who had
likewife formed themfelves into a republic, to join \vith
them in an expedition againit Sardiwa, which had been
conquered by the Moors. In this expedition they were-
fuccelsful ; the illand was reduced ; but from this time
an enmity commenced between the two republics, which
did not end but with the ruin of the Pifans.

The firlt war with Pifa commenced about 30 years- •
after the Sardinian expedition, and lafted iS years i
when the two contending parties having concluded
a treaty of peace, jointly fent their forces againit the
Moors in Africa, of whom they are faid to have killed
loo.ooD. The Genoefe were very aflivc in the time
of the crufades, and had a principal ihare in the tak-
ing of Je-ufalem. They alio waged Confidcrable wars
ivith the Moors in Spain, of whom they generally got
the better. They alfo prcviiilcd againft the neighbour-
ing dates; and, in 1220, had enlarged their territories
beyond the Hurts of the Apennines, fo that the rcit
of Italy looked upon them with a jealous eye : but in
13:1 the factions which had for a long firae reigned
if. the city, notwithltanding all its wealth a:id power,
induced

GEN [496

Genoa, indaceu tlie inhabitants to fubmit themfelves for 20 ii
'-~~^~-~' years to the dominion of Henry VII. emperor of Ger

many. That emperor, however, died
and the vicar he had left foon after 1

Auguft 13 1 2 J

to Pifa,

ug-

on wliich the dilTenfions in Genoa revived with greater
fary than ever. In 13 17, a quarrel happened between
the families of Spinola and Doria ; which came to
fuch a height, that both parties fought in the ftreets
for 24 days without interraiflion, raifed battering en-
gines againft each other's houfes, and filled the city
with blood. At laft the Spinols quitted the city, and
retired to their territories in the Apenniiie mountains.
The civil war continued till the year 1331 ; when,' by
the mediation of the king ot Naples, it was concluded,
that all exiles fhould return to the city ; that the re-
public (hculd be governed by the king's vicar ; and
•all the offices of the ft ate be equally divided between
the ■ Guelfs and the Gibellines, the t^vo contending
parties.

By this ruinous war, the coaft of Genoa, formerly
adorned with palaces and vineyards, was now reduced
to the appearance of a barren wafte. So great was
the general defolation, that, according to Petrarch,
the fpeftators ^vho failed along were ilruck with afto-
nifhment and horror. Villani, a coteraporary author,
relates, that it was fuppofed by the learned, that
greater exploits had not been performed at the fiege of
Troy ; and that the lofles each party had fuftained
would have been fufficient to have purchafed a king-
dom, the Genoefe republic being in his time the
richeft and moft powerful ftate in Chriftendom. The
annalift Stella informs us, that, before the war, the
moft extravagant profufion and luxury prevailed among
the Genoefe : but that, towards the end, many noble
families were reduced to indigence and poverty ; fo
that, about 100 years after, it became falhionable for
the nobles to live in a plain manner, without any lho^v
or magnificence.

I" 1336, both parties, fufpending their mutual ani-
mofities, fent two fleets of 20 galleys each into the
German ocean, to the afliftance of the king of France,
who was engaged in a war with Edward III. king of
England. This naval expedition proved the caufe of
a moft remarkable revolution in the Genoefe govern-
ment. The failors of the fleet, thinking themfelves
injured by their oflicers, whom they accufed of de-
frauding them of their pay, proceeded to an open mu-
tiny ; and, having expelled the admiral, and other com-
manders, feized the galleys. The king of France be-
ing chofen arbitrator, decided in favour of the ofRcers,
and imprifoned 16 of the chiefs of the mutineers. Up-
on this feveral of the failors left the fleet, and return-
ed to Genoa ; where they went round the coafts, re-
peating their mutinous complaints, which were great-
ly hearkened to, upon a falfe report that the mutineers
who had been imprifoned were jjroke upon the wheel.
The faftious fpirit increafed j and at laft the Genoefe
infiftcd in a tumultuous manner for having an abbot of
their own choofing, and 20 of the people with the con-
fcnt of the captains of the republic aflembled for that
puipofe. While the mob were impatiently expefting
their decifion, a mechanic, generally accounted a fool,
mounted a wooden bench, and called out that one
Simon Bucanigrce fliould be chofen abbot. This be-

1 GEN

ing inflanlly echoed by the populace, he was firft de-
clared abbot, then lord, and at laft riide of Genoa.

This new expedient did not at all anfwer the pur.,
pofe. The diiTcnfions continued as violent as ever,
notwithftanding the power of the new magilirates ;
and by thefe perpetual divifions the republic was at
laft fo much weakened, that in 1390 the king of France
was declared lord of Genoa. Under the French go-
vernment, however, they foon became exceedingly
impatient; and, in 1422, the dulce of Milan obtained
the fovereignty. With this fituation they were equally
difpleafed, and therefore revolted in 1436. Twenty-
two years after, finding themfelves preited by a power-
ful fleet and army feat by Alphonfo king of Naples,
they again conferred tlie fovereignty of their ftate
upon the king of France. In 1460, they revolted
from the French ; and, four years after, put themfelves
again under the proteftion of the duke of Milan : from
whom they revolted in 1478. He was again declared
fovereign of the republic in 1488 ; and, 11 years after,
the city and territories of Genoa were conquered by
Louis XII. of France.

The almoft unparalleled ficklenefs of the Genoefe
difpofition was not to be correfted by this misfortune.
They revolted in 1506 ; but next year were again fub-
dued by Louis. Six years after, they again revolted ;
and in 15 1 6, the city was taken and plundered by the
Spaniards. In 15 28, Andrew Doria, a Genoefe ad-
miral in the fervice of the French, undertook to ref-
cue his country from the dominion of foreign princes,
and reftore it to its liberty. Knowing well the fickle
difpofition of his countrymen, he took all occafions of
exciting difcontents among thera againft the govern-
ment. He perfuaded them, that the French (who had
again obtained the fovereignty) had left them only a
ihadow of liberty, while they pretended to proteft
them from their enemies. To the nobihty he repre-
fented the difgrace of iuffering the government to be
vefted in the hands of foreigners lefs worthy of autho-
rity than themlelves. Thus he foon formed a ftrong
fadion, and formed his plan ; for the execution of
which he took the moft proper time, namely, when
almoft three-fourths of the French garrifon had been
carried oS by the plague. He advanced with 500
men ; and his friends having opened the gates of the
city to him, he feized the principal pofts, and thus be-
came matter of it without drawing his fword. The
garrifon retired to the forts, where they foon after ca-
pitulated, and being driven out of the city, Doria re-
eftablifhed the ancient form of government. See Do-

KIA.

The republic hath fince continued to preferve her
liberty, though greatly fallen from her ancient fplen-
dour, and now become a very inconfiderable ftate. In
1684, the Genoefe had the misfortune to fall under
the refentment of Louis XIV. at which time the city
was almoft deftroyed by a formidable bombardment.
In the year 1688, it was bombarded by Admiral Byng,
and forced to capitulate ; but there were at that time
no views of making a permanent conqueft of the city.
In 1730, the ifland of Corfica revolted from the Ge-
noefe, and could never attenvards be reduced by them ;
for which reafon it vvas fold to the French, who in the
year 1770 totally redticed it.

The

GEN

[ 497 1

GEN

The Genoefe territories extend along tliat part of
the Mediterranean fea, commonly called the gulf of
Genoa, about ij2 miles ; but their breadth is verj' un-
equal, being from eight to about 2 0 miles. Where
they are not bounded by the fea, the following Hates
and countries, taking tliem from welt to eaft, are their
boundaries, viz. Piedmont, Montfcrrat, Milan, Placen-
tia^ Parma, the dukedom of Tufcany, and the repub-
lic of Lucca. This traft, though a great jiatt of it
is mountainous, and fome of that barren enough, yet
produces plenty of excellent fruit, good pallure, wood,
garden (tuff, and mulberry trees, with wme wine and
oil, but little com. What they want of the laft, they
have either from Lombardy, Sicily, or Naples.

Genoa flands on the coall of the Mediterranean fea,
at the bottom of a little gulf, partly on the flat, and
partly on the declivity, of a pleafant hill j in confequence
of which, it appears to great advantage from the fea.
It is defended on the land fide by a double \vall, which
in circumference is about ten Italian miles. Two of
the ilreets conGft entirely of a double ftraight row of
magnificent palaces. The others, 'though clean and
well paved, are crooked and narrow. The palaces of
the nobility are almoft all of marble, and many of them
are painted on the cutfide. That there Ihould be fuch
a profufion of marble here, is not to be wondered at,
as the neighbouring hills abound with it. The city
contains a vail number of palaces, churches, and con-
vents, and feveral hofpitals. The palace where the
doge reiides, and where the great and little council,
and the two colleges of the procuratori and governa-
tori affemble, is a large ftone building in the centre of
the city : but it contains fome fine paintings in frelco ;
two ftatues of Andrew and John Doria in white mar-
ble ; and an arfenal, in which are faid to be arms for
thirty-four thoufand men, with a (hield, containing
one hundred and twenty piilol barrels, and thirty-three
coats of mail, \vhich, it is pretended, were worn by
ns many Genoefe heroines in a croifade. Of the
churches, the fineft are thofe of the Annunciation, St
Mary Carignan, St Dominic, and St Martha. In the
cathedral is a dilh made of a fingle emerald. All the
inhabitants here, except the principal ladies, who are
carried in chairs, walk on foot, on account of the nar-
rnwnefs or fteepnefs of the fireets. The fortifications
of the city, towards the fea, are remarkably llrong.
There are two fine llone bridges over the rivers Bon-
zerva and Bifagno, the firft whereof wa(hes the well,
and the other the eaft fide of the city, within which
there is alfo a furprifing flone bridge joining two hills.
The harbour, though large, is tar from being fafe ;
but no care or expence have been fpared to render it
as fafe and commodious as poflible. The wind to
uh.ich it is mod expofed, is that called Labeccio, or the
ibuth-weft. The place where the republic's galleys
lie, is called the Darfena, where are a great number
of Turkilh flaves. On a rock, on the welt fide of the
harbour, is the fanal or lighthoufe, a high tower, on
the top of which is a lanthorn, containing thirty-fix
lamps. The trade of Genoa is chiefly in velvets, da-
maiks, plulh, and other filks, brocades, lace, gloves,
f.veetmeats, fruits, oil, Pannefan cheefc, anchovies,
and medicinal drugs from the Levant ■, but the bad-
nefs of the harbour, and the high price of commodi-
ties, greatly checks the commerce. In 1751, Genoa

Vol. IX. Part II.

was declared a free port for ten years, under certain
reftridlions : in that called Form Franco, any merchant "
may have a warehoufe, and import or export goods
duty free ; but fuch as are difpofed oi in the city, or
on the continent, are taxed pretty high. The nobili-
ty are allowed to trade in the wholefale way ; to carry
ou velvet, filk, and cloth manufactures ; and to have
{hares in merchant Ihips : and fome 01 them, as the
Palavicini, are actually the greateft merchants in Ge-
noa. Ani;ther very profitable article of trade carried
on by them is banking, and dealing in bills of ex-
change. A new academy ot painting, iculpture, civil
and militai-y architeilurc, was inllituted here in 1751.
One may walk the ftrects of Genoa in the night ^vith
the greateft fafety, which is more than can be faid of
many cities in Italy. Exceliive fplendour and luxury
are, in feveral refpe<Si?, rellrained by falutary laws.
No beggars are permitted to alk alms in Genoa, and
the inns are better than thofe at Turin. When a fin-
gle perlbn is buried, a kind of garland of all forts of
artificial flowers is placed on the coffin. The Genoefe
in general are elteemed crafty, indultrious, and inured
to labour above the other Italians.

Amidfl: the political con\'ulfions which agitated Eu-
rope, in confequence of the unexampled French revolu-
tion, it was fcarcely to be expected that Genoa would
efcape the (hock. Accordingly in the year 1 798, by
the force and intrigues of the French republicans, its
political conftitution was totally fubverted, and changed
into what was afterwards denominated the Ligurian Re-
public, which was to be governed in a manner fimilar to
that of their own, and the country alfo was divided into
departments. As the preceding campaign had termi-
nated in favour of the combined powers, and left them
in the poffeflion of every important place in Italy, this
only excepted, the capture of it became an objeift of the
utmoft confequence to the contending parties. To re-
gain it was the higheit ambition of the houfe of Auf-
tria, while the retaining of it was matter of folicitude to
the French republic. The reafon is obvious. The con-
qucit of it reltored to the emperor of Germany the
poffeflion of all Italy, gave him the means of refuming
his former pofitions in the Maritime Alps, and reir.-
forcing his former pofition on the Rhine. To the
French it was a place of the utmofl confequence, be-
caufe while they were enabled to retain it in their own
hands, they could cafily favour the operations of their
army in Switzerland, or their entrance into Italy by the
defiles of Piedmont.

As the allies were fully determined on its conqueft
for the reafons already afligned, as well as for others of
an inferior nature and magnitude, it is but candid to ad-
mit that the general by ivhom it \vas defended had in-
numerable difficulties to Itruggle with, and obllaclcs to
furmount. When Maflena fucceeded Championet, the
army was reduced to the moft melancholy fituation.
Confined during the winter feafon to the bleak fummits of
the Apennines, it was reduced in numbers more than
one half, and a conltant prey to famine and difeafe.
To add to the difficulties which everywhere prefented
therafelves to Maflena, the higher clafliss of the Genoefe
looked upon the French only as the deftroyers of their
rank, commerce, and political importance ; in confe-
quence of which they fecretly aided every meafure by
which they might be driven from the country. Inftead
3R of

GEN

[ 498 ]

GEN

GcnGng of 6o,0C3 men which he was promifed, Maflena had no
II , . more than 20,000 after all his unwearied exertions, and
en 1 e ^. 1. ^^ j^|^ tliefe he had to defend an extent of country from
I\Iouut Cenis to the frontiers of Tufcany. He wifely
difmifled all the former generals, independent of their
merit, becaufe the foldiers afTociated with them the idea
r^l' former mifery and difgrace. In addition to the fu-
perior flrength of the Aufirian army, Maflena found a
formidable infurreclion raifed againft him in the eaflem
territory of the Genoefe republic. The pafTige by fea
was obitrucled by the Britilh fleet, and his expefled
fuccours from Marfeilles only reached him in part. As
he could not meet the army in the field by which he
ivas blockaded, his only alternative w-as to remain in
Genca, every moment in dread of perilhing by famine,
if not fpeedjly relieved.

In the mean time, the Auftrian army had nothing to
do during the winter hut to remain in a flate of obfcr-
vation ; the diftrefs to which the republican general was
reduced was unfpeakably great. After enduring a
number of hardlhips with the moft undaunted fortitude,
and finding the city no longer tenable, a principle of
humanity for his dillreffed arm.y and the flarving inha-
bitants induced him to furrender.

In the progrefs of fubfequent hoflilities the French
again obtained poflfeflion of it, and it is now ( 1 806) fub-
jcft to the dominion of a brother of Bonaparte's, who
has afliimed the title of king of Italy.

GENSING. See Panax, Botany Index.

GENTIANA, Gentian, a genus of plants belong-
ing to the pentandria clafs; and in the natural method
ranking under the 20th order, Rolacex. See Botany
In,!ex.

GENTILE, in matters of religion, a Pagan, or
worlhipper of falfe gods.

The origin of this word is deduced from the Jews,
who called all thofe ^vho were not of their name c""i3
gojim, i. e. genles, ^vhich in the Greek tranflations of
the Old Teilament is rendered t» iha. ; in which fenfe
it frequently occurs in the New Teftament ; as in
Matth. vi. 32. " All thefe things the nations or
Gentiles feck." Whence the Latin church alfo ufed
gemes in the fame fenfe as our Gentiles, efpecially in the
New Teftament. But the uord gentes foon got another
fignification, and no longer meant all fuch as were not
Jews ; but thofe only who were neither Jews nor Chri-
ftians, but followed the fuperftitions of the Greeks and
Romans, &c. In this fenfe it continued among the
Cbriftian writers, till their manner of fpeech, together
with their religion, was publicly and by authority re-
ceived in the empire ; when gentiles, from gentes, came
into ufe : and then both words had two Cgnifications,
viz, in treatifes or laws concerning religion, they fig-
nified Pagans, neither Jews nor Chriftians ; and in
civil affairs, they were ufed for all fuch as were not
Rqmans.

Gr.NTlLE, in the Roman law and hiftory, a name
which fometimes expreffes what the Romans otherwife
called barbarians, whether thfy were allies of Rome
or not : but this word was ufed in a more particular
fenfe for all ftrangers and foreigners not fubjecl to the
Roman empire.

GENTILESCHI, Horatio, an Italian painter,
was bom at Pifa in 1563. After having made him-
fclf famous at Florence, Rome, Genoa, and other parts

of Italy, he removed to Savoy •, from ^vhence he went Ce
to France, and at lafl, upon the invitation of Charles I.'^'-'"
came over to England. He ivas well received by
that king, who appointed him lodgings in his court,
together wth a confiderable falary ; and eraployed
him in his palace at Greenwich, and other public
places. The moft remarkable of his performances in
England, were the ceilings of Greenwich and York
houfe. He did alfo a Madona, a Magdalen, and Lot
with his two daughters, for King Charles ; all ^rhich
he performed admirably well. After the death of the
king, when his colleftion was expofed to fale, nine
pictures of Gentilefchi were fold for 600I. and are
now faid to be the ornaments of the hall in Marlbo-
rough houfe. Plis moft efleemed piece abroad was
the por'ico of Cardinal Bentivoglio's palace at Rome.
He made feveral attempts in face painting, but with
little fuccefs ; his talent lying altogether in hiftories,
v\^th figures as big as the life. He was much in favour
with the duke of Buckingham, and many others of
the nobility. Aft^r I 2 years continuance in England,
he died here at 84 years of age, and was buried in the
queen's chapel at Somerfet-houfe. His print is a-
mong the heads of Vandyke, he hawing been drawn
by that great mafter. He left behind him a daughter,
Artemijia Gentilefchi, who was hut little inferior to
her father in hiftory painting, and excelled him in
portraits. ,

GENTILIS, Albericus, profeffor of civil law at
Oxford ; an Italian by birth. He had quitted Italy
mth his father, on account of religion. He wrote
feveral works ; three books, in particular, De jure belli,
which have not been unferviceable to Grotius. He
died at London in 1608.

Gentilis, Scipio, brother to the former, and as
celebrated a civilian as he, forfook his native country
that he might openly profefs the Proteftant religion.
He ^vas counfellor of the «ity of Niu:emberg, and pro-
fefibr of law with uncommon reputation. He was a
great humanift ; and in his leftures, as well as books,
mixed the flowers of polite learning with the thorns of
the la-iv. He died in 16 1 6.

GENTLEMAN. Under this denomination are
comprehended all above the rank of yeomen f where- f *
by noblemen are truly called gentlemen. "»««

A gentleman is ufually defined to be one, who,
without any title, bears a coat of arms, or whofe an-
ceftors have been freemen : and by the coat that a
gentleman giveth, he is known to be, or not to be, de-
fcended from thofe of his name that lived many hun-
dred years fince.

The word is formed of the French gentilhomme ; or
rather of gentil, " fine, fa(hionable, or becoming ;" and
the Saxon man, q. d. honejlus, or honejio loco nalus. —
The fame fignification has the Italian genlilhuomo, and
the Spanifti hidalgo, or hijo dalgo, that is, the fon of
fomebody, or a perfon of note. — If we go farther
back, we ftiall find gentleman originally derived from
the Latin gentilis homo ; which was ufed among the
Romans for a race of noble perfons of the fame name,
born of free or ingenuous parents, and whofe ancef-
tors had never been flaves or put to death by law.
Thus Cicero in his Topics, " Gentiles font, qui inter fe
eodemfont nomine, ab ingenuis oriundi, quorum majorum
iiemofervitutemfervlvit, quica/iite non/unt diminuti, &c.
— Some

e Com-
,lty.

GEN [

I, — Some hold that it was formed from gentile, i. e. pa-
gan j and that the ancient Franks, who conquered
Gaul, which was then converted to Chriftianity, were
called gcnti/cs by the natives, as being yet heathens. —
Others relate, that towards the declenfion of tl;e Ro-
man empire, as recorded by Ammianus Marcellinus,
there were two companies of brave foldiers, the one
called gentiles, and the other fcutarii ; and that it
was hence we derive the names gentleman and efquire.
See EsQi'iRE. — This fentiment is confirmed by Paf-
quire, ivho fuppofes the appellation gentiles and eciiyers
to have been tranfmitted to us from the Roman fol-
diery ; it being to the gentiles and fcutarii, wlio were
the braveft of the foldiery, that the principal benefices
and portions of lands were aligned. See Eekefice.
— The Gauls obfer\-ing, that during the empire of the
Romans, the fcutarii and gentiles had the beft tene-
ments or appointments of all the foldiers on the fron-
tiers of the provinces, became infenfibly accuftomed to
apply the fame names, genlilhommes and ecuyers, to fuch
as they found their kings gave the bell: provifions or
appointments to.

Gestleman Ujher of the Black Rod. See Rod.

Gentlemen of the Chapel i officers whofe duty and
attendance is in the royal chapel, being in number 32.
Twelve of them are priefts 5 the other 20, commonly
called clerks of the chapel, affift in the pertormance of
divine fervice. One of the firll I 2 is chofen for con-
feflbr of the houfehold ; whofe office is to read prayers
every morning to the houfehold fervants, to ^'ifit the
fick, examine and prepare communicants, and admi-
nifter the facrament. One of 20 clerks, well verfed in
mufic, is chofen firll organilt, who is mafter of the
children, to inftruil them in mufic, and whatever elfe
is neceffary for the fervice of the chapel ; a fecond is
likewife an organift ; a third, a lutanift ; and a fourth
a violiil. There are like%vife three vergers, fo called
from the filver rods they carry in their hands ; being
a ferjeant, a yeoman, and groom of the veftry ; the
firft attends the dean and fubdean, and finds fur-
plices and other neceflaries for the chapel ; the fecond
has the whole care of the chapel, keeps the pews, and
feats the nobility and gentry ; the groom has his at-
tendance within the chapel door, and looks after it.

GENTOOS, in modem hiftory, according to the
common acceptation of the term, denote the profeflbrs
of the religion of tlie brarains or brachmans, ^vho in-
habit the country called Htndo/lan, in the Eaft Indies,
from the word flan, a " region," and hind or hindoo ;
which Ferilhtah, as we learn from Colonel Dow's tranf-
lation of his hiftory, fuppofes to have been a fon of
Ham the fon of Noah. It is obferved, however, that
Hindoo is not the name by ivhich the inhabitants ori-
ginally ftyled thcmfelves; but according to the idiom
of the Shanfcrit which they ufe, jumbodeep, ixoxxijum-
boo, a " jackall," an animal common in their coun-
try ; and deep, a large portion of land furrounded by
the fca ; or bhertekhunt, from khunt, i. e. " a conti-
nent," and iherrhut, the name of one of the firll In-
dian rajahs. It is alfo to be obferved, that they have
aJuraed the name of Hindoos only fince the era of the
Tartar government, to diftinguifh themfelves from
their conquerors the MuITuImans. The term Gentoo or
Gent, in the Siiaufcrit dialccl, denotes <7/jj/7m/ in gene-
ral, and in its njore confined fenfc mankind, and is nc •

4.99 ] GEN

ver appropriated particularly to fuch as follow the doc-
trines of Brama. Thefe are divided into four great "
tribes, each of which has its own fepurate appellation j
but they have no common or collective term that com-
prehends the whole nation under the idea affixed by
the Europeans to the word Gentoo. Mr Hall-.ed, in
the preface to his tranflation of the Code of Gentoo
Laws, conJL-aures, that the Portuguefe, on their firlt
arrival in India, hearing the word frequently in the
mouths of the natives, as applied to mankind in gene-
ral, might adopt It for the domeftic appellation of the
Indians themfelves, or perhaps tlxlr bigotry might
force from the wo:d Gentoo a fanciful allulion to gen-
tile or Pagan. The Hindoos, or Gentoos, vie with
the Chinefe as to the antiquity of their nation. They
reckon the duration of the world by four jogues, or
diftlncl ages •, the firft the Suttee jogue, or age of
purity, which is fald to have laded about 3,200,000
years ; during which the life of man was 100,000
years, and his ftature 21 cubits: the fecond, the Tir-
tah jogue, or the age in which one-third of mankind
were reprobate ; which confifted of 2,400,000 years,
when men lived to the age of 10,000 years : the third,
the Dwaper jogue, in which half of the human race
became depraved, which endured to 600,000 years,
when men's lives were reduced to 1000 years : and
fourthly, the Collee jogue, in ^vhich all mankind were
corrupted, or rather diminilhed, which the word collee
imports. This is the prefent era, which they fuppofe
will fubfift for 400,000 years, of which near 5000 are
already paft ; and man's life in tliis period is limited to
100 years. It is fuppofed by many authors, that moft
of the Gentoo Jhajlers, or fcriptures, were compofed
about the beginning of the Collee jogue : but an ob-
jection occurs againft this fuppofitlon, viz. that the
(liafters take no notice of the deluge ; to which the
brarains reply, that all their fcriptures were written
before the time of Noah, and the deluge never extend-
ed to HIndoilan. Neverthelefs, it appears from the
fliafters themfelves, that they claim a much higher an-
tiquity than this ; inllances of which are recited by
IMr Halhed.

The doctrine of tranfmlgration is one of the diflin-
guithing tenets of the Gentoos. With regard to this
fubjecl, it is their opinion, according to Mr Holwell,
that thofe (ouls which have attained :o a certain de-
gree of purity, either by the innocence of their man-
ners or the fevcrlty of their mortifications, are removed
to regions of happinefs proportioned to their refpec-
tive merits ; but that thofe who cannot fo far furmount
the prevalence of bad example, and the powerful de-
generacy of the times, as to deferve fuch a promotion,
are condemned to undergo continual punllhment in the
animation of fucceffive animal forms, until, at the (la-
ted period, another renovation of the four jogues (hall
commence, upon the dllTolution of the prefent. They
imagine fix different fpheres above this earth ; the
higheft of which cM'iAfuttee, is the refidence of Bra-
ma, and his particular favourites. This fphere is alfo
the habitation of thofe men who never uttered a falfe-
hood, and of thofe women who have voluntarily burn-
ed themfelves with their hu(bands ; the propriety of
v.hlch practice is exprefsly enjoined in the code of the
Gentoo laws. This code, printed by the Ead India
Company in 1 776, isa very curious coUeflion of Hiii-
3 R 2 doo

GEN

[ 500 ]

GEN

Gentco?, doo jurlfprudence, which was fele£led by the mofl ex-

Gtnu- peiicnced pundits or lau»yers from curious originals in

. '"""• , the Shanfcrit language, who were employed for this

purpofe from May 1773 to February 1775; after-

ivards tranllated into the Perlian idiom, and then into

the Engliih language by Mr Halhed.

The fevcral iuflitutes contained in this colle(Sion are
inter\voven with the religion of tht Gentoos, and re-
vered as of the higheft authority. The curious reader
will difcover an aftonifhing fimllarity between the in-
ilitutes of this code and many of tlie ordinances of
the Je'.viih law : between the character of the bramins
or priefts, and the Levites ; and between th.e ceremo-
ny of the fcape goat under the Mofaic difpenfation,
and a Gentoo ceremony called the a/hummed jug, in
which a horfe anfwers the purpofe of the goat. Many
obfolete culloms and ufages alluded to in many parts
of the Old Teftament, may alfo receive illuftrations
from the inflitutes of this code. It appears from the
code, that the bramins, who are the priefts and iegifla-
tors of the country, have refigned all the fecuiar and
executive power into the hands of another caft or tribe ;
End no bramin has been properly capable of the magi-
ftracy fince the time of the futtce jogue. The only pri-
vilege of importance which they have appropriated to
themfelves, is an exemption from all capital punifhment :
they may be degraded, branded, imprifoned for life, or
lent into perpetual exile ; but it is everywhere exprefsly
ordained, that a bramin ihall not be put to death on any
account whatfoever.

We have already obferved, that the Hindoos are di-
vided into four great and original tribes, which accord-
ing to the Gentoo theology, proceeded from the four
different members ef Brama, the fuppofed immediate
agent of the creation under the fpirit of the Almighty.
Thefe tribes are the Bramins, which proceeded from his
mouth, and v.'hofe ofhce is to pray, read, and inftruft ;
the Chehteree, which proceed from his arms, whofe of-
fice is to draw the bow, to fight, and to govern ; the
Bice, proceeding from the belly or thighs, who are to
provide the neceffaries of life by agriculture and traffic ;
and the Soonder, from the feet, which are ordained to
labour, ferve, and travel.

Fe^v Chriftians, fays the tranflator of the Gentoo
code, have exprefled themfelves with a more becoming
reverence of tHi grand and impartial defigns of Provi-
dence, in all its wroks, or with a more extenfive cha-
rity towards all their fellow creatures of every profef-
lion, than the Gentoos. It is indeed an article of faith
among the Bramins, that God's all mcrcifial power
would not have permitted fuch a number of different re-
ligions, if he had not found a pleafure in beholding their
varieties.

GENUFLEXION, (of genu, " knee," and pBo
" I bend,") the aft of bowing or bending the knee ;
or rather of kneeling down.

I'he Jefuit Rofweyd, in his Onomafticon, (hows, that
genuflexion, or kneeling, has been a very ancient cuftom
in the church, and even under the Old Teftament dif-
penfation ; and that this pradHce was obferved through-
out all the year, excepting on Sundays, and during the
time from Eafter to Whitfuntide, when kneeling was
forbidden by the council of Nice.

Others have (hown, that the cuflom of not kneeling
on Sundays had obtained from the time of the apoftles,

as appears from St Irenseus, and TertiUlian ; and the
Ethiopic church, fcrupuloufly attached to the ancient '"
ceremonies, ftill retains that of not kneeling at divine
fervice. The Ruffians efteem it an indecent pollure to
worfliip God on the knees. Add, that the Jews ufually
prayed ftanding. Roftveyd gives the reafons of the
prohibition of genuflexion on Sundays, &c. from St Bafil,
Anaftafius, St Juftin, &c.

Baronius is of opinion, that genuflexion was not efta-
blifiied in the year of Chrill 58, from that paffage in
Afts XX. 36. where St Paul is exprefsly mentioned to
kneel down at prayer ; but Saurin (hows, that nothing
can be thence concluded. The fame author remarks,
alfo, that the primitive Chriftians carried the praftice of
genuflexion fo fur, that fome of them had worn cavities
in the floor where they prayed : and Si Jerome relates
of St James, that he had contradled a hardnefs on his
knees equal to that of camels.

GENUS, among metaphyficians and logicians, de-
notes a number of beings which agree in certain ge-
neral properties common to them all : fo that a ge-
nus is nothing elfe but an abflraft idea, expreffed by
fome general name or term. See Logic and Meta«
PHYSICS.

Genus, is alfo ufed for a charafter or manner appli-
cable to every thing of a certain nature or condition :
in which fenfe it ferves to make capital divifions in di-
vers fciences, as medicine, natural hiftorj', &c.

Genus, in RItctoric. Authors diftinguifti the art
of rhetoric, as alfo oration or difcourfes produced there-
by, into three genera or kinds, demonftrative, delibera-
tive, and judiciary. To the demonftrative kind belong
panegyrics, genethllacons, epithalamiums, funeral ha-
rangues, &c. To the deliberative belong perfuafions,
diffuafions, commendations, &c. To the judiciary kind
belong defences and accufations.

Genus, in Medicine. See Medicine, under the
Nofologij.

Genus, in NAlural Hi/Ionj, a fubdivifion of any clafs
or order of natural beings, ivhether of the animal, ve-
getable, er mineral kingdoms, which agree in certain
common charafters. See Natvrai Hijiory.

Genus, in Muftc, by the ancients called genus me/odice,
is a certain manner of dividing and fubdividing the prin-
ciples of melody ; that is, the confonant and diffonant
intervals, into their concinnous parts.

The moderns confidering the oflave as the moft
perfeil of intervals, and that whereon all the concords
depend, in the prefent theory of mufic, the divifion of
that interval is confidered as containing the true divifion
of the whole fcale.

But the ancients went to work fomewhat different-
ly : the diateffaron, or fourth, ^vas the leaft interval
which they admitted as concord ; and therefore they
fought fir(i how that might be moft conveniently di-
vided ; from whence they conftituted the diapente and
diapafon.

The diateffaron being thus, as it were, the root and
foundation of the fcale, what they called iht genera,
or kinds, arofe from its various divifions ; and hence
they defined the genus modulandi to be the manner of
dividing the tetrachord and difpofing its four founds as
to fucceffion.

The genera of mufic were three, the enharmonic,

chromatic, and diatonic. The Hvo firft were varioufly

fobdivided ;

GEO

[ 501 ]

GEO

Ge. ff: c

Geocentric fubdivided ; and even the lall, though that is commonly
'J reckoned to be without any ipecies, yet different authors

have propofed different diviiions under that name, with-
out giving any particular names to the Ipecies as was
done to the other two.

For the characters, ice. of thefe ftveral genera, fee

ESriARMOMC, CHROM.\TIC, and DlATOSIC.

GEOCENTRIC, in ^jlronomy, is applied to a pla-
net, or its orbit, to denote it concentric with the earth,
or as having the earth for its centre, or the fame centre
wilh the earth.

GEOFFRj^A, a genus of plants belonging to the
diadf Iphia clafs, and in the natural method ranking un-
der the 3 2d oxi.tr ^Fapiiwnaceis. See Botany and
Materia Mf.dica Index.

GEOFFREY of Movmoxjth, biihop of St A-
faph, called by our ancient biographers Gallofridus
Alunumenteiijis. Lcb.ud conjeftures that he was educa-
ted in a Benedictine convent at Monmouth, where he
was born ; and that he became i
Bale, and after him Pits, call him
mouth ; and it is generally afferted that he was made
biihop of St Afaph in the year 115 1 or 1152, in the
reign of King Stephen. His hitT:ory was probably fi-
nilhed after the year 1 138. It contains a fabulous ac-
count of Britilh kings, from the Trojan Brutus to
the reign of CadwaUader in the year 690. But Geof-
frey, whatever cenfure he may deferve for his credu-
lity, was not the inventor of the liories he relates. It
is a tranflation from a manufcript written in the Bri-
tilh language, and brought to England from Armo-
rica by his friend Gualter, archdeacon of Oxford.
But the achievements of King Arthur, Merlin's pro-
phecies, many fpeeches and letters, were chielly his
oivn addition. In excufe for this hillorian, Mr Whar-

while profecuting the ftudy of medicine, he had confer- Gejffior..
ences at his father's houle with Caflini, du Verney, <^'=°g''''?'''-
Homberg, and other men of diflinguilhed eminence. '•^'" .
At Montpellier he attended the ledures of the moft
able profeiibrs of phyQc, and afterwards vifited the fouth
of France, carefully viewing every objei't deferving of
his attention. He accompanied count de Tallard to
England in 1698, where he became acquainted with
the chief men of fcience, and was made a member of
the Royal Society. He next went into Holland, and
in 1700 he attended the abbe de I^ouvois in a tour to
Italy. He was, on his return, made bachelor of raedi--
cine in 1702, and, in two years after, he was created
M. D. One of his thefes was on the queftion, " An
hamiiu! primordia vermis f'''' which was tranflated into
French ior the fake of fome ladies of exalted rank, by
whom it was deemed interelling.

Geoffroy did not haftily commence the praftice of
medicine, continuing the profecution of his iludies in re-
nonk of that order. tirement for fome years. He never appeared anxious to
rchdeacon of Mon- pufli himfelf forward, although his knowledge made
him be often confulted by feveral gentlemen of the fa-
culty. He was fo concerned for the recovery of hi«
patients, that it gave him an air of melancholy, which
at lirft alarmed them, till they became acquainted with
the caufe. He was, in 1709, made profeffbr of phyfic
by the king to the Royal College, vacant by the death
of the celebrated Tournefort. He began with leftures
on materia medica ; and in 1712, M. Fagon rellgned
to him the chemical chair : on both which topics Geof-
froy ledured with unwearied afllduity. He was twice
chofen to the office of dean by the faculty of Paris, and
he filled a place in tlie Royal Academy of Sciences,
from the year 1699. His health at lalt yielded to his
toils, and he died in January, 1731. He is known to

ton judiciouily obferves, that fabulous hillories were the chemical world by his table of affinities, far fupe.

then the falhion, and popular traditions a recommenda-
tion to his book.

GEOFFROY, Stephen-Francis, a phyfician emi-
nent for his chemical and botanical knowledge, was
born at Paris in the year 1672, where his father kept
an apothecary's lliop, and had been feveral times in the
magiilracy. He received a liberal education j and,

to any which had appeared before his time. His
greateft work was his Hiilory of the Materia Medica,
which, in an unfinilhed Hate, was publiilied after his
d«ath in ttie year 1 741, in 3 vols 8vo.

GEOGRAPHICAL .mii.e, the fame with the fea
mile 5 being one minute, or the 60th part of a degree
of a great circle on the earth's furface.

GEOGRAPHY.

JNTRODUCTION,

/GEOGRAPHY is that part of knowledge which
^'-'^ defcribes the furface of the earth ; its diviiions,
extent, and boundaries ; the relative pofitlon of the fe-
veral countries and places on the globe, and the man-
ner?, culloms, and political relations of their inhabi-
tants. The word is Greek, ysmyjas?!*, from y? or yta,
terra, " the earth," and y^u.pu, fcribo, " I write." As
every thing that immediately contributes to the afcer-
taining of the fituation and limits of countries and places
on the furface of the earth, is within the province of
geography, this fcience includes the defcription and ufe
of globes, maps, and charts, with the methods of con-
llrudir.g them.

This fcience has been divided into Geogr.vi'HY pro-Divifion of-
perly fo called, or a defcription of the lands of theS*°S'"P*>7-
globe, and Hydrography, or a defcription of the wa-
ters ; but this divilion is of little confequencc, and is
now feldom employed. Geography has alfo been di\-id-
ed into general and particular, terms which are va-
rioudy underllood by different writers on the fubjeft.
By Varenius, one of the oldell and bell modem WTiters
on general geography, general or univerfal geography-
is ufed to denote that part of the fubjed which coniiders
the earth in general, and explains its affeftions as a ier-
reftrial globe, without attending to its arbitrary divifion
into different regions j and by particular or fpecial geo-
graphy, this writer underflands the defcription of the
particular regions of the earth : and he divides this lat-
ter into two parts; chorography, defcribing fome con-
llJerable

502
imrod-.i

GEOGRAPHY.

iiderable parts of the earth, as of the quarters, and lopo- fcience of Meteorology

» Vid. Pin.

Icrtont Geo-
grtjjtfjyf vol
i. p. 3.

grn/)/it/, defcribing a particular province or diftricV.

Geography may be conveniently divided into dejcrih-
t'lve geography, or that part of the fcience which de-
fcribes the form, limits, extent, and variety of furface
of diiferent countries, with the manners and cuftoms of
tlieir inhabitants ; and physical geography, or that part
\vhich teaches how to determine the fituations of difi'er-
ent places on the globe, and to lay down and delineate
their pofitions for the information of others. Defcrip-
tive geography is the more popular and entertaining
part of the fubjecl. It is ufually divided into ancient
or claffical geography, geography of the middle ages,
and modern geography. The firft branch of the fub-
jetl coniiders the ftate of the earth fo far as it was
known or difcovered at different periods, previous to
the fixth century of the Ghriflian era. The geography
of the middle ages extends from the fixth to the fif-
teenth century, and modern geography from the fif-
teenth century to the prefent time. One of the moft
ufeful fubdivifions of defcriptive geography is that em-
ployed by Mr Pinkerton, who confiders the geography
of the feveral countries which he defcribes under four
different heads. I . Hijlorical or progrejjive geography ;
in which he treats of the names, extent, original popu-
lation, progreffive geographical improvements, hiftori-
cal epochs and antiquities of the countries. 2. Poliltcal
geography ; under which he defcribes the religion and
ecclefiaftic inftitutions, government, laws, population,
colonies, military force, revenue, and political relations.
3. Civil geography, comprehending manners and cuf-
toms, language, literature, and the arts, education,
cities and towns, principal edifices, roads, manufaftures
and commerce. And, 4. Natural geography, compre-
hending an account of the climate and feafons, face of
the country, its foil, and ftate of agriculture, its rivers,
lakes, mountains, and forefts, and an enumeration of the
natural produflions and natural curiofities, which are
•ufually found within each diftrift*. Defcriptive geogra-
phy is fometimes ftyled political geography, while phy-
fical or general geography is called natural geogra-
phy.

xVmong the other departments of this ftudy we may
mention facred geography, or that ^vhich illulfrates the
facred ^vntings ; and ecclefiaftic geography, \\hich de-
fcribes the divifion of a country according to its church
government, as into archbifhoprics, biftioprics, &c.

Many writers of treatifes or fyftems of geography
give a detailed account of the hiftorical events and com-
mercial concerns of the feveral countries which they dc-
fcribe ; but we confider this as unneceffary in a pure
geographical work, as thefe departments belong rather
to History and Political Economy.

Some fyftematic writers on geography confidering the
term in a very comprehenfive view, as including a de-
fcription of the internal ftrudlurc of the earth, as well
as of its furface, have thought it neceffary to enter into
difcuffions refpeiSting the original formation of the
earth, and the minerals of which it is compofed. Hoiv
far they are right in this we Ihal) not pretend to deter-
mine. In this work, thefe fubjefts will be treated of
under the arlicles Geology and MINERALOGY.

Another fubjeft relative to the r.ffeftionsof the earth,
refpefls the phyfical and chemical changes that take
^lace in it? atmofphere. Thefe properly belong to the

aiid will be found under that I&titi<ii.c.
aiticle. . . , . ■ ,*'°"-.._,

We propofe in this article to offer only an introduc-
tory outline of defcriptive geography, as the feveral object of
quarters of the globe, and their fubdiviiions into em-tKis trea-
pires, kingdoms, and ftates, are defcribed as particu-'^'^-
larly as is compatible with the limits of this work, un- '
der the feveral articles to which they belong in the ge-
neral alphabet.

Our attention \n\\ be chiefly directed to phyfical geo-
graphy, efpecially that part of it ^vhich defcribes the
conifruflion and ufe of globes, maps, and charts.

4

Phyfical geography is properly a branch of mixed '''' P'ly^'^*!
mathematics, and its principles depend on geometry, 2^°°"^'^ '^'
and its kindred fciences, trigonometry and perfpedVive.
It is intimately connefted with aftronomy ; and as thefe
two fciences mutually illulfrate each other, they are
commonly taught at the fame time. The ph)-fical
chanj;es that take place on the earth, as far as it is con-
fidered in its general charader of an indivndual of the
folar fyftem, have been already explained under x\sTRO-
NO^iT ; and we Ihall have little here to add refpecling
them, except as they are modified by the fituation of
the obferver on different parts of the earth's furface.

The principles and practice of phyfical geography,
though flriftly dependent on pure mathematics, may
be, for the moft part, explained in a popular way, fo as
to be underftood by the generality of readers. This
popular view of the fubjecl we ftiall attempt in the pre-
fent article, throwing every thing that is purely ma-
thematical into the form of notes. It muft be evident,
however, that a reader who is converfant with mathe-
matics will ftudy phyfical geography to more advan-
tage ; and for this purpofe, it will be futficient to pof-
feis a moderate acquaintance with arithmetic, the ele-
l^ents of geometry, plane trigonometry, fpherics, and
perfpeftive. 5

It is fcarcely neceffary to enlarge on the importance ^'?'P°'^^""
or utility of geography. It is one of thofe fciences, tbe°j^ gi^os"-
kno^vledge of which is almoft coiiftantly required.
Without an acquaintance with the geography of the
countries that are the fcenes of the actions which he re-
lates, the hiftorian muft either be extremely concife» or
his narration muft be obfcure and unintelligible. Geo-
graphy affords the bcft illuftration of hiftory,. and is ■
equally neceffary to the hiftorian and his reader. To
the traveller, under which denomination we may clafs
the foldier, the failor, the merchant, as well as thofe
ivho travel for pleafure or curiofity, a previous know-
ledge of the countries, through which he is to pafs, is
always ufeful, and often indifpenfable. To the politi-
cian a comprehenfive knowledge of geography is of the
higheft importance. If he is ignorant of the extent,
form, boundaries, appearances, climate, &c. of the
country ^vith which he is at war, he will plan his hoftile
expeditions without effeft, and will fend his invading
armies only to perifti among the defiles of the enemy,
or to meet a more inglorious and deplorable fate from
the difeafcs of the climate.

Even, if we confider geography as a ftudy of mere
amufement and curiofity, it forms one of the raoft ra-
tional and interefting ftudies in which wc can engage.
Nothing can be more gratifying to the obferver of
mankind than to furvey the manners and cuftoms of va-
rious

Parti.

GEOGRAPHY.

riou? nations, and to compare the relative ftate of civi-
lization and improvement in countries widely remote
from each other. The ftudent of geography can lit in
his cloiet, and accompany the adventurous traveller in
fas toilforae journey, through

antres vaft, and deferts wild.

Rough quarries, rocks, and hills, whofe heads touch
heav'n '."

503

trace his progrefs over the bounJIefs ocean, and draw Hlilory.
from his narration a delightful fund of inftruftion and
amufement, free (except in Imagination) from thofe pe-
rils and hardihips, wliich the writer had undergone.

At the end of this article, we fliall offer a fev; re-
marks on the belt method of teaching and learning geo-
graphy. We muft now take a brief view of the ' '
and progrefs of the fcience.

origii

PART I. HISTORY AND PRESENT STATE OF GEOGRAPHY.

Jliftcry of ANhiftorical account of geov^rnphy ^< ould be extreme-
jeograj)!iy. ly interefting, as it would include, not only the pro-
greffive i.mprovements of the fcience, confidered as a
branch of mixed mathematics, but an account of the
fucceflive difcoveries of different parts of the earth that
have been made by the more civiliEcd communities.
Such an accoimt in detail, however, cannot be expecfed
here ; and we (liall confine ourfelves principally to a
curfory view of the geographical difcoveries of ancient
and modem nations, referving the progreflive improve-
ments of phyfical geography for thofe parts ot the arti-
cle to which they properly belong 5 as they \vould nei-
ther be fo interefting nor fo intelligible to a general
reader, before he has been made acquainted with the
> principles of the Icience.

0- •• As foon as mankind had formed themfelves into fo-

cietie;, and begun to eflablilh connexions wth their
neighbours, they ^vould find it neceffary to inform them-
felves of the polition of the countries which bordered on
their own ; and very foon their curiofity would lead
them to defire to form an acquaintance with the extent
of the country in ^vhich they lived, and with m.any
particulars refpecling thofe which were remote from
them. Thus, we fee that fcarcely had the fciences ari-
fen among the Greeks, before their philofophers began
to occupy themfelves in geographical purfuits. We are
told that Anasimander exhibited to his countrymen a
plan of Greece and the neighbouring countries, and in
this he -was imitated by his countr\-man Hecateus of ]\Ii-
letus. Of the nature of thefe ancient plans or maps,
and their progreiTive improvements, we fhaJI fpeak more
S at large hereafter,

nucovenes Commerce, and the tafte for adventures, which ufual-
r.id ^ '^7 accompanies it, were doubtlefs among the firft caufes
of geographical refearches ; but the Phoenicians are the
earlieft commercial people of ^vhofe difcoveries we have
any correft accounts. This people feem firft to have
inveftigated the coafts on the IMediterrauean ; and their
navigators, extending their voyages beyond this fea,
through the narrow channel which is now called the
Straits of Gibraltar, entered the Atlantic ocean, and
planted colonies in Iberia, a part of Spain, in the coun-
try of Thanlufh, which is probably the modem Anda-
Lifia, and upon the weftem Ihorcs of Africa.

The learned Bociiart, led by the analogy between
the Phoenician tongue, and the oriental languages, has
followed the tracks of the Phoenicians, both along the
fliores of the IMediterrauean, and thofe of the Atlantic.
Tiiefe analogies are not always furc guides ; but we can
icarcely, doubt that the city of Cadiz was a Phrenician
colony, and it is not likely that this was the only one
formed by that enterprifing people. 5,

In the time of .Solomon, Phoenician (hips, employed Situation of
by him, fet fail from a port in the Red fea, called ^P^"-
-Azion-Gaber, and paffmg from that fea through the
flraits of Babehnandel, carried on their commerce in
the Indian ocean. The country of Ophir, to which
they failed, muft have been at a confiderable diftance
fromithe Red fea, as we are told that a voyage thither
required three years. " The king (fays the author of
the firft book of Kings) had a navy of Tharfhifti, with
the navy of Hiram. Once in three years came the navy
of Tharlhilh, bringing gold and filver, ivory, and apes '
and peacocks." Some have placed Ophir upon the coaft
of Africa, where the modern Sofala Is fituated : Others
fuppofe it was a port in the illand of Ceylon, or in the
ifland of Sumatra, in which latter illand there is ftill a
place called Ophir. The gold duft and ivory brought
from thence, feem to Ihew that it was an African port. * Mcntutla ■
(See Ophir.) M. Montucla fuppofes that the Phoeni- •^i/'- ^''
cians muft even at this period have failed round the ^^"'^f-
continent of Africa, and that Ophir was fome place on'"""' "'"
the Gold Coaft (a). **• ^'.'J

Tlie Carthaginians, a Phoenician colony, imitated Carthagi.
their predeceffors. We know that they failed into ^he"'""-
Atlantic ocean, as far as the coaft of Cornwall in Eng-
land, whence they procured large qCiantitics of tin. The
fame people made feveral attempts towards a complete
furvey of the weftern coaft of Africa. Of thefe we
have an account only of one expedition, that of Hanno,
of which we have already given an account urider the
article AFRICA.

The Carthaginian navigators, if we may believe the
recital of Dlodorus Siculus, (lib. xv.) difcovered a coun-
try fituated in the Atlafttic ocean, which furnilhed all '
the neceffaries and conveniences of life. Some pretend,
that this country was America, but it is much more
probable that it was fome one of the Cape de Verd

illands.

(a) The moft celebrated writers who have fupported the opinion, that Ophir was a port in Africa, are Mon-
tefquieu, Bruce, and d'Anville. Dr Prideaux and M. Goffelin again contend, that Ophir M-as a port in Arabia
Felix, and the fame with 5'flieVj or Sheba j and their opinions have lately been ably fupported by Dr Vincent.
See Vincertl'i Perijilus of lue Erythrcan Sea, Part II.

504 G E O G R

Hillory. iilar.ds. The Cartliaginian fenate, fearful that the re-
^"''v— — lation of the fajlors who had difco%'ered fuch a country,
ini^l'.t be the means of producing frequent emigrations,
aref'aldto have ufed every endeavour to ftifle themsmo-
II rv of this expedition.
Circumra- ' Hiltory fpeaks of feveral voyages undertaken by or-
vigation cj ^^ pf j),g uj^gj of Egypt and of Perfia, for the purpofe
Affica. ^£ afcertaining the extent of Africa ; and Herodotus re-
lates that Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt, employed fome
Phoenician navigators to fail along the coart of Africa,
for the purpofe of taking a more exact furvey of it. See
Africa.

M. Goffelin, who has confidered the geography of
the ancients in a very learned differtation, maintains,
that the different paffages of ancient writers, who have
always declared that the Phoenicians and the Greeks
circumnavigated Africa, are not fuificieiit to prove the
certainty of fuch a voyage. The paffage in Herodotus
has been difcuffed by him at confiderable length, and he
feeras to have proved his relation to be nothing more
than a romance, founded on the hillorical knowledge
of the Egyptians. M. GoffeUn, however, admits,
that many ancient voyages took place from thofe coun-
tries in which geography had arrived at fome perfec-
tion ; and there are numerous arguments, proving that
all the (hores of the old continent had been failed
round. See Bai//t/'s Hijlory of 4ftronom'j, p. 307.
iz edit. 1775.
Voyage of Xerxes king of Perfia, according to Herodotus, gave
Satafpes. ^ fimilar commiflion about the year before Chrift 480,
to one of his fatraps named Satafpes, who had been
condemned to die. Satafpes entered the Atlantic
ocean through the ftraits of Gibraltar, and bending his
courfe towards the fouth, he coalled the continent of
Africa, till he doubled a cape which was called Syloco,
and which Riccioli confiders as the fame with the Cape
of Good Hope. He is faid to have continued his courfe
to the fouth for fome time, and then to have returned
home, afligning as a reafon for not proceeding further,
that he had encountered a fea fo full of herbage, that
his paffage had been completely obftrucled. This rea-
fon appeared fo ridiciUous to Xerxes, that he ordered
Satafpes to be crucified ; but in this fentence he appears
to have been rather too precipitate, as it is certain that
in feme latitudes there grows fuch a quantity of fea
weed, that a vcffel can fcarcely make way through it ;
as in that part of the fea which lies between the Cape
de Verd illands, the Canaries, and the coaft of Africa,
and is called by the Portuguefe the fea of Saragoffa.
This fliews that the relation of Satafpes may have been
correft, as he might think it dangerous to attempt pro-
I -t, ceeding where he found himfelf fo much entangled.
Sipedition Herodotus has commemorated another marine expe-
olScylax. ^\^[o^^ undertaken by Scylax, by order of Darius the
fon of Hyftafpes, and which probably took place about
the vear 422 B. C. Scylax embarked upon the river
Indus, the courfe of which he folloived to its mouth,
from whence he failed in the courfe of 30 months, ei-
ther into the Arabian gulf, or the Red fea. This Scy-
lax muft not be confounded with a na\'igator of the
fame n^me, who, at a later period, made a voyage of
14 inveftigation round the Red fea.
Geography The conquefts of Alexander the Great, if they add-
improv«d gj YmXc to the happinefs of mankind, had at leaft the
hy^Alexan. jjjyg^tjge ^f throwing confiderable light on the ftate of
2

A P H Y. Part I.

geography at that time, as they afforded to the Greeks K fto'jr.
a more perfeft knowledge of the river Indus, and of — ~v— ^
many parts of that vaft country which derives its name
from that river. Alexander does not icera to have pene-
trated to the Ganges, though his expedition led the way
to the knowledge of that river ; for foon after he went
as far as Palibothra, a town fituated on the river Indus,
at its confluence with another river coming from the
well. The followers of Alexander '.vent down the In-
dus, as far as its opening into the Indian ocean, where
they witneffed for the firlf time the phenomenon of the
flux and reflux of the fea, — a phenomenon which excit-
ed in them great aftonifhraent and terror. It was after
this that Alexander detached, about the year 327 be-
fore Chrill, t\vo of his captains, Nearchus and Onefi-
critus, to invelligate the coaft of the Indian fea. Near-
chus was ordered to return by the Red fea, and this he
effefled. Some fragments of his voyage have come
down to us, and upon thefe has been formed an excel-
lent work by Dr Vincent, entitled the " Periplus of
the Erythrean Sea." This learned and valuable work
is juif completed by the publication of the Second Part,
and affords much additional illuftration of the geogra-
phical information and commercial enterprifes of the an-
cients.

Oneficritus failed to the eaft, and if we may believe
the account that is left of his voyage, he gave us the
firil exaci information refpecling the ifland of Ceylon.
The meafure given by Oneficritus, of the extent of the
ifland which he inveftigated, viz. 7000 lladia, does not
correfpond to Ceylon, whether we confider the length
or circumference of the ifland, (iee Ci;ylon) ; and if
we take it as the meafure of the length, it more nearly
correfponds to that of Sumatra. The relations of Near-
chus and Oneficritus were extant in the time of Stra-
bo, by whom the latter is faid to exceed, in point of ex-
aggeration, all the other hiftorians of Alexander's ex-
pedition. At the fame time, it muft be acknowledged
that there are many things related by Oneficritus, as
quoted by Strabo, which Sufficiently agree with what
we know of India, and the produftions of that coun-
try ; for he fpeaks of the fugar cane, the cotton plant,
the bamboo, &c. 15

The kings of Egypt who fucceeded Alexander, took By'PtoIemy
confiderable interefl in the progrefs of geography. The I'n''2'i"-
fecond of thefe kings, Ptolemy Philadelphus, about the''
year 280 before Chrift, fent into India two ambaffadors,
Megarthenes and Daimachus, accompanied by the ma-
thematician Dionyfius. Mcgafthenes was fent to the
king of Palibothra on the banks of the Ganges, and
Daimachus to another Indian potentate. No account
remains of the proceedings of Dionyfius and Daima-
chus, but Mcgafthenes left an account of his journey,
which is frequently quoted by Strabo, by whom it is
confidered as a mixture of real adventures and impro-
bable exaggerations. Thefe quotations of Strabo are
certainly all that remain of the relation of Megailhcnes;
for the work publiflied under the name of Mcgafthenes
is a literary impofture, fimilar to the works of Berofus,
Manetho and Ctefius.

In the reign of Ptolemy Lathyrus, about 115 years i*
before Chrift, other expeditions were undertaken, for
the purpofe of failing round the continent of Africa.

Eudoxus and CyCcus having incurred the difpleafure
of Ptolemy, were fent on this voyage of difcovery.

They

Parti. GEOGRAPHY

Hiftory. Tliey paiTed through the llraits of Gibraltar, and cir-
^— v^— cuiBiiavigating Africa, returned by the Red fca. Lafl-

ly, in the reign of Ptolemy, furnamcd Alexander, about

90 years before Chrift, Agatarchides, who had been

the king's governor, was fcnt to take a complete furvey

of the Red lea, and wrote an account of liis voyage, of

which, however, there remain only a few extrafts that

are preferved by Photius, in his Bibliotheca, a work of
X7 ninth century.
■Vojage of '^'jjg extenfion of commerce feems always to have
^ been one of the principal objeds of thefe voyages of

difcovery. It is not furprifing, therefore, that the in-
habitants of Marfeilles, which was early celebrated as

a commercial cily, appear among the ancient naviga-
tors who laboured to extend geographical knowledge.

Two voyagers, Pythias and Euthymenes, undertook an

expedition about 3 20 years before the Chrillian sera.

Euthymenes entered the Atlantic through the ftraits of

Gibraltar, and turned towards the fouth, for the pur-

pofe of taking a furvey of the coaft of Africa. This is

all that we know of his route ; but Pythias fleered

northward, and after reconnoitring the coafts of Spain

and Gaul, failed round the illand of Albion, and ftretch-

ing llill farther to the north, difcovered an ifland which

is believed to be the modem Iceland, or the Thule of

the ancients, terrarum ultima Thule. Perhaps, how-
ever, this was only one of the Ferro iflands. Strabo,

who appears to have been prejudiced againft Pythias,

treats his relation as fabulous, founding his opinion

principally on the number of incredible clrcumflan-

ces that occur in his narration. Taking thefe cir-

cumftances, however, not according to their literal

meaning, but in a figitfative fenfe, they reprelent pretty

^vell the Hate of the fea and £ky in thefe countries which

are fo little favoured by nature. Pythias certainly fcems

to have been one of the nrfl Greek navigators who en-

,5 tered the Baltic.

Ancient We have thus traced the progrefs of geographical

geogra- difcoveries to very nearly the period which we afligned

phers. 3. jj^g limit of ancient geography ; and fliall now notice

very briefly fome of the principal fcientific geographers
of antiquity, whofe names or writings have defcended to
poflerity, and fhall afterwards give a fummary Iketch of
tlie knowledge which the ancients feem to have poiTefled
of the habitable globe.

As geography is a branch of knowledge intimately
conneded with geometry and aftronomy, it became an
object of conlideratiou with many of the ancient geo-
meters and aftronomers. We have already mentioned
the names of Anaximander of Miletus, and las coun-
tryman Hecateus. Strabo alfo notices Democritus,
Eudoxus of Cnidos, and Parmenides, to the laft of
whom he attributes the dixifjon of the earth into zones.
'I hefe were followed by Eratoflhenes, who lived about
240 years before the Chriftian a;ra, and Hipparchus,
ivho flourifhed about 80 years afterwards ; Polybius,
Gcminus, and Poflidonius. Eratoflhenes wrote three
books on geography, of which Strabo criticifes fome
paflages, though he frequently defends him againll Hip-
parchus, who often afFeds an oppofite opinion. Poly-
bius wrote on geography as well as hiflon.', and as well
as Gcminus and Poflidonius, is frequently quoted by
Strabo. Polybius and Gcminus argue with confidcrable
acutenefs for the polTibility of the torrid zone being in-
habited, a circumftance which was generally difbelieved
Vol. IX. Part II.

by the ancients j and they even adduce argtiments ^Jiich Hift jrj

are very plaufiblc, to prove that the climate of the >.~"

countries under the equator is more temperate than that
of thofe which are fituated nearer the tropics.

We muft not here omit a geographer and mathema-
tician who lived about the time ot Alexander the Great.
This was Dicearchus of Meflina, the difciple of Theo-
phraftus, who wrote a dcfcription of Greece in iambic
verfes, of which fome fragments yet remain. \Vhat ren-
ders this work moft remarkable is, that it contains the height
of feveral mountains meafured geometrically by Eicear-
chus. Thus, for inllance, the height of Mount ,Cyl-
lene is dated at 1 5 lladia, and that of Satabyce at about
14. Taking the lladium at p+i toifes, we have for the
latter of thefe heights, at moft 1400 toifes, whereas
many of the ancients afTigned 300, 400, or even 500
fladia, as the height of fome of their raoimtains.

With Dicearchus we may mention another geometer
noticed by Plutarch in his life of Paulus Emilius ; viz.
Xenagoras, a difciple of Arillotic, who alfo employed
himfeli' in meafuring mountains, and has alTigncd only
15 fladia, which is equal to about I417 toifes, as the
height of Mount Olympus. In fome of the later pe-
riods previous to the Chriftian asra, we find the names
of feveral geographers, as Artemidoras of Ephefus,
who wrote a geographical work in eleven books, of
which nothing remains ; Scymnus of Chio, author of a
delcription of the earth in iambic verfes, which rem;iinf
in a very mutilated (late ; Ifidorus of Charax, who left
a delcription of the Parthian empire, and Scylax of
Caryades, author of a voyage round the Mediterranean
fea, which is ftill extant. tj

The works of all thefe geographers, however, are Strabo.
trifling when compared with the geography of Strabo,
a work in 16 books, which has come down to us en-
tire. This is one of the moft valuable works of anti-
quity, both from the fpirit of difcuifion which runs
through it, and the number of curious obfervations
which the author has colleded of different geographers
and navigators who preceded him j and of whofe ivorks
nothing remains except thefe extrafts. Strabo lived in
the reigns of Auguftus and Tiberius, and was nearly 5,
cotemporary with Pomponius Mela. This latter gco- Pomponjci
grapher wrote a ^vork de fuu crhis,- which is little more Me'^-
than a bare fummary, though it is valuable, as it gives
us a Iketch of what was knov\Ti in his time ref-
peding the ftate of the habitable globe. Pomponius
Mela was followed by Julius Solenus, who has alfo
treated of geography in his Polyhiftor, a compilation
which is fufhciently valuable from the number of curious
obfervations which are thera coUcfled. m

Of all the ancient geographers, pofterity is moft in- Ptolemy,
debted to Ptolemy, who produced a work mucii more
fcientific than had ever before been written on this fci-
ence ; a geography in eight books, which muft ever be
tonfidered as one of the principal monuments of the la-
bours of its author. In this work there appear, for
the tirft time, an application of geometrical principles to
the conrtruftion of maps ; the different projeflions of
the fphere, and a diftribution of the feveral places on
the earth, according to their latitudes and longitudes.
This work muft have been the rtfult of a great many
relations both hiftorical and geographical, that had
been coUefled by Ptolemy. It has pafled through nu-
merous editions.

3 S Som*

505

5o6

G E O G R

Hiftory. Sometime after Ptolemy lived, Dionyfius the Afri-

' "^ ' can, commonly called the Periegdic, from the title of

J-. *.^ a work that he corapofed inverfe, containing a defcrip-
ihc"pcrie- t'o^ °^ ^'^^ world, ivhich may be confidered as one of
getic. the moft correft fyftcms of ancient geography, and was

by Pliny propofed to himfclf as a pattern. This work was
afterwards tranflated into Latin verfcs by Prifcian, and by
Avieniis, the latter of whom alfo ^vrote a defcription of
the maritime coalls in iambic verfes, of which there re-
main about 700. Among the lateft geographers of
this period are reckoned Marcianus and Agathemares,
of whom little is known, except that the latter was au-
jj thor of two books on geography.
Hudfon's The fcattered works of moft of thefe authors being

colleftion. difficult to procure, were coUefted by Hudfon into one
work, and publilhed by him in four volumes oftavo, in
the years 1698, 1702, and 1712, under the title of
Geo'grapklie veterts fcrlptores Grecue minofes; together
with a Latin tranllation and notes and diflertations on
In this work we find the

each by Dod^vell.
of Hanno, Scylax, Nearchus, Agatarchides, Arrian,
Marcianus, Dicearchus, Ifidore of Charax, Scymnus,
Agathemeres, Dionyfius the Periegetic, Artemidoru?,
Dionyfius of Bifance, Avienus, Prifcian, and fome frag-
ments of Strabo, of Plutarch, of Ptolemy, of Abulfeda,
and of Ulug Beg. This is a moll valuable collection,
and as it had become extremely fcarce, was a few years
ago reprinted at Leipfic.
24 The above is a hafty Iketch of the names and cha-

racters of moft of the geographical writers within the
period which we have affigned to the ancient hiftory of
the fcience. We fhall have occafion to make fome
further obfervations on the more eminent of thefe geo-
graphers in a future part of this article.
Geographi- With refpeft to the knowledge of the globe that was
cA know. polTefTed by the ancients, there have been various opi-
ledge of the nions ; fome have confidered them as very extenfively
ancients. acquainted \vith almoft every part of it, not excepting
fome portion of America ; while others have confined
their geographical knowledge within very narrow li-
mits. The following obfervations are chiefly dran-n
from M. Montucla, an eminent judge in every thing
that relates to the hillory of the mathematical fciences.
'^uro'e. -^^ '° ^^'^ knowledge which the ancients poflefled of

the habitable globe, it is certain that they were well
acquainted with Europe, or at leaft all that part of it
which had been made fubjecl to the Roman empire, as
far as the banks of the Rhine and the Danube. They
were tolerably well acquainted ivith Germany and Sar-
matia. They had fome knowledge of the Baltic fea, as
a fleet had been fent by Auguftus, which failed as far
as the peninfula then called the Cimbrian Cherfoneius,
the modern Jutland. The Baltic was at that time ce-
lebrated for the produftion of ambergrife. They had
acquired a knowledge of the ifland of Britain, from the
expeditions of Julius Ca;far, and Claudius ; but the
northern parts of this ifland, and the whole of Ireland,
were to them nations of rude, uncivilized fiwages. The
boundary of their knowledge of Europe to the north,
was the Thidc of Pythias, or Iceland ; at leaft if it is
certain, as is the general opinion, that this ifland is the
j_ ultmia Thule.
Afia. With refpeft to Afia, they feem to have furvey-

ed the country as far towards the eaft as the river
Ganges j and the imaenfe extent of country compre-

A P H Y. Parti

hended between the Indus and the Ganges, was called Hiftor/.

by them India on this fide the Gauges. Further on to- « '

wards the north of China, in the neighbourhood of the
mountains where thefe rivers derive their fource, they
placed feveral nations of people, of whom they related
the moft ridiculous fables. Beyond thefe, ftill more
towards the eaft, they placed the Seres, .and upon the
coart of the gulf, which Is now the bay of Cochin Chi-
na, called by Ptolemy the Great Bay, were fituated the
Sinas, fo called by Ptolemy, though they are not men-
tioned by Strabo, Pomponlus Mela, or Solinus. The
Seres were probably the Inhabitants of the northern
parts of China, and the Since, thole of the fouthern parts
of China, who very early occupied CochinChina, Ton-
quin, &c. countries which in the lequel they have en-
tirely fubjugated. They maintained a commerce by land
i\ith the Seres, and their route Is pointed out in one of
Ptolemy's maps. Beyond the Seres, according to Stra-
bo and Pomponlus Mela, lay between the Oriental
fea, though Ptolemy, for want of certain intelligence
refpecllng that part of Afia, confiders the point as un-
decided, and places there feveral unknown countries.
The ancients carried this extremity of Afia much far-
ther to the eaft than it is found to extend by modern
geographers ; for, according to them, the Seres and the
Since were fituated about the longitude of i 8o', while
the meridian of Pekln, or about the middle of the Chi-
nefe empire, reaches no farther than to 134°, reckoning
the longitude from the moft diftant of the Canary
iiiands, as was done by Ptolemy. To the north of the
Indus the ancient geographers placed the Scythians,
and Hyperboreans (the Tartars and Samoides of more
modern date) and fome other nations to an indefinite
extent, who were fuppofed to form on that fide an in-
furmountable barrier, having behind them an ocean of
ice, which was believed to communicate with the Caf-
plan fea, though this was at leaft at the diftance of 450
leagues.

The boundary of Afia, afligned by the ancients to
the fouth, was the Indian ocean, and they were ac-
quainted with Its communication with the Red fea, by
means of a ftralt, the figure of which is very ill ex-
prefled In their maps. This is alfo the cafe with the
Perfian gulf, with which they were acquainted, but
ivhich in the ancient maps has nearly the form of a
rhombus, one fide of which, towards the mouths of the
Indus, was pretty well known to them, but the fide
next the mouths of the Ganges is very Inaccurately de-
lineated, being continued nearly in a ftraight line. It
is even probable that the ifland which Ptolemy calls
Taprobana, was only the peninfula of India very much
disfigured in the delineation. ,3

The fituatlon of this ifland of Taprobana, fo cele- Situation
brated among the ancients, is a problem in geography of the ifland
that is yet unfolvcd. It is commonly fuppofed to l)e°f^^P^°"
the modern ifland of Ceylon ; but the dimenfions of it
as laid down by ancient geographers, render this fup-
pofitlon doubtful, and there are fome who rather be-
lieve it to be the modern Sumatra. The ancients had
alfo fome obfcure knowledge of the peninfula of Ma-
lacca, which they called the Golden CkerfoneJ'u.t, and
they leem to have examined the gulf formed by that
land, which Is now the gulf of Cochin China, or com-
monly called xhc gulf (jf Tonkin. It is fomewhat ex-
traordinary that they do not feera to have been ac-
quainted

Parti. G E O G R

Hiftory. qualnted with Java, Borneo, and that numerous group
" V of iflands v.liich form, in that quarter, the greatefl Ar-

chipelago in the world. It is equally Angular that the
Maldives had efcaped the obfervation of thefe naviga-
tors. This feems to prove that they never ventured out
into the open fea, but kept clofe along the lliore. Pto-
lemy indeed fays, that his illand of Taprobana was fur-
rounded with many hundreds of fmaller illands, to fome
of which he gives names ; ^ut all this is involved in
jp impenetrable obfcurity.
Africa. Of Africa, the ancients knew only thofe parts which

lay along the coall, and to a very fmall diftance in-
land, if we except Egypt, ivith \vhich they were well
acquainted, at leaft as far as the cataracls of the Nile,
and a little beyond them, as far as the iiland of INIeroe,
towards the 20th degree of north latitude. Their
knowledge of the coafts of x\.frica on the fide of the Red
lea, extended no farther than the (hores of that fea, ex-
cept that part which was dependent on Egypt ; the in-
terior of the country being inhabited by ferocious and
untraftab'.e people. They were flill lefs acquainted
ivith the countries ^vhich lay beyond the ftrait, and
Ptolemy appears to have given no credit to the navi-
gators who were faid to have failed round that part of
the world, for he has left the continent of Africa im-
perfetil towards the fouth. Strabo and Poraponius Mela
were, however, decidedly of opinion that Africa was a
peninfula, and that it was joined to the relt of the con-
tinent only by that narrow neck of land which is now
called the ifthmus of Suez. The ancients feem to have
liad no knowledge of thrit large and beautiful illand of
Madagafcar, tmlefs we fuppole that Ptolemy had fome
imperfetl acquaintance with it, under the name of the
ifland Menuthius. The coaft of Africa upon the Medi-
terranean fea, was once covered with towns, dependent
en the Roman empire, flourilhing and poliflied, while
it prefcnts at prefent nothing but a neft of pirates,
whom the jealoufy of the great commercial nations fup-

ports, to the difgrace and prejudice of civilized ftates.
Proceeding from the flraits of Gadez or Gibraltar, they
I'.ad become acquainted with the coaft as far as a cape
which they called Hefperion-Keras, probably the mo-
dem Cape de Verd, or the cape that lies a little to the
weft of it, though in the maps of Ptolemy it is thrown
a little back inland. The Fortunate illands, or the
Hefperides, at prefent the Canaries, better known by
fame than in reality, feem to have been the boundaries
of ancient geography to the w^eft, as the Seres and Si-
nae ivere to the eaft. It appears, however, that the
Cape de Verd iflands were not entirely unknown to the
ancients, and they are probably the fame with what
were then called the Gorgades or Gorgones, which
were fuppofed to be two days fail to the weft of He-
fperion-Keras.

" There is little doubt (fays Mr Pattefon) conrcra-
ing the names by ivhich moft of the principal countries
ot Europe were knov.n to the ancients ; nor is there
any difficulty in difpofing the chief nations, which an-
cient writers have enumerated in the foulh-weft part of
Alia or on the African coaft of the Mediterranean ; but
with the north and north-eaft parts of Europe, about
two thirds of Aila towards the fame quarters, and nearly
the fame proportion of Africa towards the fouth, they
appear to have been wholly unacquainted. Of America
they did not even fufpccl the cxiftence ; and if it ever

A P H Y. 507

happened, as fome writers have imagined, that Phce- Hiflory.
nician merchant ihips u-erc driven by ftorms acrofs the ' v ■'
Atlantic to the American ftiores, it does not appear that
any of them returned from thence to report the dif-
coverv.

" The names of provinces, fubdivifions, and petty
tribes, mentioned by ancient authors, in thofe countries
which were the chief fcenes of Roman, Grecian, or
Ifraeljtilh tranfad^ions, are almoft as numerous as in a
modern map of the fame countries ; and the fituations of
many of them can be very nearly affigned : but the li-
mits of each, or indeed of the ftates or nations to whicli
they belonged, can, in very few inftances, be precifely
fixed. Thus the fouthern boundaries of the Sarmata;
m Europe, cannot be afcertained within a degree at the
neareft ; and in France, neither the limits of the peo-
ple called the Belgas, Celtx, and Aquitani ; nor thofe
of the Roman divifions, viz. Belgica, Lugdunenfis,
Aquitania, N'arbonenfis, and the Province, can be laid
do^vn, in many places, but by a hardy conjecture. The
iame obfervation may be juftly applied to the Tarra-
conenfis, Lulitania, and Betica of Spain ; to the Cauci,
Catti, Suevi, &.c. of Germany ; and, above all, to the
Britannia prima et fecunda, and other divifions of xht* P^Ui/o«t
Roman government in Britain : of which not only the ^"•'•< Pa"
limits, but the fituations are ftill in difpute." • ' '• P^?* *7-

During the middle ages geography, as well as moftc "V^phy
other arts and fciences, leems rather to have gone back-of the raid-
wards than advanced. The weaknefs of the Romandle ages,
emperors, the relaxation of military difcipline, the
boundlefs paflios for luxury and pleafure, and the con-
tinual incurfions of the barbarous nations, while they
contributed to haften the fall of the weftern empire,
alfo accelerated the ruin of the arts. It feems as if
thefe deftruclive hordes of barbarians, the Goths, the
Huns, and the Vandals, had enveloped the whole world
in one profound and univerfal ignorance. This dark-
nefs, which overfpread the whole of Europe, did not per-
mit geography to make any advances for a very con-
fiderable time. There were indeed fome navigators
who inveftigated countries that were ftill little known,
but they were fo ignorant, that they afford us very little
new light. There was one named Cofmas, who made
a voyage to India, which procured him the name of
Indo-PJeuftes, and who gave an account of his voyage
under tlie title of Sacred Geography. This man \ras lb
egregioufly ignorant, as to believe that he had difco-
vered that the earth was a plane, and that the diverfitv
of the feafons, and the inequality of the days and
nights, were owing to a very high mountain fituated
to the north, behind which the fun fet to a greater or
lefs depth. ^,

The voyages of the Arabians to the Eaft Indies oifcovtr-
(fee the hiftory of Commerce), contributed to throwics ofthe
farther light on that extenfive part of the globe. Con- ^f>^ians.
querors of the countries on the Red fea, and enthufiaf-
tic propagators of their religion, they carried their
arms as far as tlic extremity of India. We fee them in
the 9th century extending to China ; and Rcnaudot has
publiftiedtwo of their narrations, in which «e can trace
with tolerable accuracy, the pbccs vifited by their au-
thors. The ifland of Serendib, fo celebrated in their
tales, is certainly the modern C<;)lon j for <///' or dil, in
the Malay language, fignities ijhnd, lb that Serendib,
fignifies the ifland of Sercn or Sclan. Farther, thefe
3 S 3 relations

GEOGRAPHY

33
Modem
difcoveries

relations <Io not give us as favourable an idea of the
Chinefe as we derive froin their own hiftory ; on the
contrary, if we may believe thefe Arabian travellers,
this people were, even at that time, in a-ftate not very
civilized. -

We are now arrived at the modem period of our
hiftory, daring which the moft important difcoveries
have been made, and our knowledge of the habitable
globe more than doubled. The difcoveries and im-
provements during this period are fo numerous, that it
will be impoflible to give here any thing more than
a chronological view of the moft remarkable, referring
for a detailed account of them to the geographical and
hiftorical articles in this work.

The tafte for voyages of difcovery began in Europe
foon after the revival of htcrature in the 15th century,
juft before the commencement of which, namely, in the
reign of Henry III. king of Spain, about the year
1395, the Canary iilands were moie fully iuiveyed than
at any former period.

1415. Prince Henry HI. Ton of John king of Por-
tugal, failed round the coail of Africa.

"14 1 7. The Caiiary iilands were liabdued by Bethan-
court, nephew cf the admiral of France.

1420. The ifiand of Madeira was examined by John
Gonfalvo and Triftan Vaz, two Portuguefe.

1446. Cape de Verd was difcovered by Dennis Fer-
nandez.

1487. The Cape of Good Hope was difcovered
by Barthelemi Diaz. The difcovery of this cape led
the way to that of the new world. This great event,
which gave a new flight to the genius of mankind, is
one of the moft important in the hillory of geography.
A particular account of this difcovery will be found
under the article America. The following are the
dates of the principal geographical difcoveries which
have taken place between that of Columbus, and the
voyages cf our celebrated navigator Cook.

1496. Florida, by Sebaftian Gabot, an Englilliman.

1498. The Indies, by Vafco di Gama.

1459. The river of Amazons, by Yanez Pinion.

1500. Brazil, by Alvarez Cabral, a Portuguefe.

1504. Newfoundland, by fome Normans.

1518. Mexico, by Ferdinand Cortes.

1519. The ftraits of Magellan, South fea, and
Phillippine iilands, by Ferdinand Magellan.

1525. Canada, by Jean Verrazan, a Florentine, fent
bv Francis I. of France. — Peru, by F. Pizarro of Spain.
1527. New Guinea, by Alvaro de Salvedra.
15:^4. Chili, by Diego Almagro.

California, by Ferdinand Cortes.

The iflands of Solomon, by Alvaro de Men-

'535-

1567.
doza.

1618.

1642.

1643.

1654.

1678.
governor

1700.

New Holland, by Zechaen.
Van Dieman's land, by Abel Janfen Tafman.
Brower's land.
New Zealand.

Louifiana, by Robert Cavelier de Lafalle,
of Frontiniac.
New Britain, by Dampier, an Engliftiman.

1739. Cape Circumciljon, contefted between the
French and Englifti. Said by Monlucla to be difco-
vered ! y two French veffels,

1767. The Ifland of Taiti, by WalUs, an Englifh-

Part I

1778. The Sandwich illand?, by Cock. H.llory.

Within this period there are reckoned 25 voyages ^
round the world, viz. thofe of Magellan, Drake, Ca- j^y,„t,ef ^f
vendifh, Noort, Spilburg, Leraaire, L'Hermite, Cle- voyages
pington, Carreri, SUelvack, Dampier, Cowley, Woodes '™""1 tl*'
Rogers, Le Gentil, Anfon, Wallis, Roggewein, Bou-^"^^ "'°'''^-
gainville, Sarville, Dixon, three voyages of Cook, La
Peyroufe, Marchand, Vancouver, and Pages.

Within thefe few years, very confiderable light has 35
been thrown on the ftate of our geographical know-
ledge, by feveral valuable voyages and travels that
have lately appeared. The difcoveries that have been
fucceflively made in the great South lea, and in other
parts of the world, efpecially the extcnfive illand of
New Holland, are now fo fully eftabiiihed, as to add
confiderably to the certainty'of our geographical know-
ledge j and the voyages of Cook, La Peyroufe, and Van-
couver, have afforded us more exaft furveys of the
coafts of thefe countries than we could, feme years ago,
have dared to hope for. The accounts of the late em-
baffies to' China, Tibet and Ava, afford many authentic
materials for a n:odern lyftem of geography, the place
of which mult have been fupplied by more remote and
doubtful information. From the latter of thefe accounts
we are become familiarly acquainted with an empire
(that of the Birmans), which a Ihort time ago was
Icarcely known (fee Asia, 81 — 152.) Our know-
ledge of Hindoftan and the neighbouring countries has
been greatly extended by the refearches of the Afiatic
Society, and fome other late works ; while our ac-
quaintance with the interior of Africa has been render-
ed lefs imperfed by the exertions of the African So-
ciety, and by the travels of Park, Broivn, and Bar-
row ; and the northern boundaries of America, even
as far as the fea which appears to furro und the northern
extremity of that vaft continent, have been more
fully difclofed by the journeys of Hearne and Mac-
kenzie.

The late voyage of Tumbull, however infignificant it
may be in other refpefts, has at leaft the merit of en-
larging our knowledge of the manners and pohticnl
tranfaflions of the South fea illanders, and of intro-
ducing to our acquaintance, in the perfon of Tamaha-
ma, the chief of Owhyhee, a fovereign, who, in am-
bition and defire of improvement, bids fair to vie with
Peter the Great ; and to transform a nation of favages,
to a civilized people. ,g

With all the advantages which geography has lately Prefent de-
received, the fcience is ftill far from being perfect •, and icfti of geo-
the exclamation which D'Anville is faid to have madeS^P'^y-
in his old age, " Ahl mes amis, il y a bien d'crreurs
dans la geographic" — ^/i! jny friends, there are a great
many errors in geography, may ftill be applied with con-
fiderable juftice. Many points in the fcience have
been but very lately afcertained. Thus, the extent
of the Mediterranean fea was almoft unknown at the
beginning of the I7lh century, although it is now al-
moft as exaiflly afcertained as that or any country in
Europe. In a book' publilhed by Gemma Frifius, de or-
bis divijione, in 1 530, we find the difference of longitude
between Cairo in Egypt and Toledo in Spain ftated
at 53" inftead of 35°, and other meafures of extent are
proportionally erroneous. Not many years ago there
was an uncertainty with refpeft to the extremity of the
Black fea and the Cafpian, to the amount of 3° or 4* j

and

G E

and fo lately as tlie year 1 769, the lonj^ltude of
Gibraltar and of Cadiz was not known within half a
degree.

l\Iany parts of the geography of Europe are flill
very defediive ; Spain and Portugal have been but ii

O G R A P H Y.

appear In the prefent maps, and in thofe publiilied half
a century ago, wilJ fcarcely recognil'e the countries to
be the lame. The great divilions indeed remain as be-
fore, but the boundaries of moll of them are entirely
changed. A number of independent dates, and in one

pcrfeclly explored, and European Turkey is (Hll lefs inltance, a large kingdom, have been fwalloucd up by
kncvvn. It may appearextraordinary.that v.e have yet the uiijuftifiable ambition of their more powerful neigh-

— boms, and their names may be blotted from the map
of Europe. The republics of Holland, of Sivitzer-
land, of Venice, are no more : the kingdoms of Po-
land and Sardinia have ceafed to exift ; the fuccefibr of
St Peter, who once gave laws to princes, and governed
Europe witli unbounded fway, is now a ^vretched exile.

no correiEt chart of the Britifh channel, though we are
affured by IMajor Rennel that this is the cafe ; and it
has been proved by the trigonometrical furveys of Bri-
tain that have yet been publitLed, that there are many
grofs errors in our bed county maps. \Vc have had oc-
caijon to remark that geography has fometimes been

retrogreflive, and there cannot be a greater proof of and his dominions are doomed to increafe the already
the truth of the obfervation, than that in a map of the overgrown power of defpotic upftarts. Whether the
Shetland iilands, pabllfhed not long ago, by Prefton, prefent generation of emperors and kings, erefled by

they are reprefented as too large by one third, both in
length and breadth, and their relstive politions are
very inaccurste, though in the maps of the fame iilands
publifhed before the year 1750, they are laid down
v.ith much greater accuracy, as appears from fur-
veys made by order of the late king of France, and
from the maps publiftied by Captain Donelly, and at
Copenhagen, in the year 1787.

In Alia we are imperfectly acqua?nted with Tibet,
and fome other central regions ; and even Periia, Ara-
bia, and Afiatic Turkey, are but little kno■n^l. Of
Aullralafia, or New Holland, and New Guinea, almoft
nothing is known except the coafts, and a great part of
them towards the fouth has been but imperfeclly ex-
plored. Of Polynefia, or the numerous iflands in
the South Pacific ocean, we are alfo very ignorant ;
and in the Pacific ocean, particularly towards the
fouth pole, many difcoveries probably remain to be
made.

Our ignorance of the central parts of Africa is no-
torious, and the improvement of our geographical
knowledge in that quarter has, for fome years, been a
favourite objef>. It may admit of doulit, however,
whether this objeft will be fpeedily attained, as the ob-
flacles to inveftigation in thofe inhofpitable tra£ls, feem
nearly inlurmountable by human prudence and courage.
Even the ihores of Africa have not been complete-

the mighty Napoleon, will remain as long as did the
dates on \\iiofe ruins they have been raifed, or are ra-
ther ephemeral productions, doomed to perilh at the let-
ting of that fun which now gives them life and vigour,
is a queftion which future e.'jperience alone can deter-
mine.

The limits prefcribed to this article do not permit us
to enter on a critical examination, or even a charac-
terise Iketch, of the geographical works that have ap-
peared in the modern period of the hiftory of the
iciencc ; and a bare enumeration of names would be
equally tirefome and unintereiting. Some of the beft
modern works will be mentioned in the fequel ; at pre-
fent we ihall conclude this Part in the words of an able
judge of the prefent (late of the fcience.

" The Spaniards and Italians (fays Mr Pinkerton)
have been dormant in this fcience ; the French works
of La Croix and others are too brief j while the Ger-
man compilations of Bufching, Fabri, Ebeling, &c.
are of a moft tremendous prolixity, arranged in the
moft tartelefs manner, and exceeding in dry names, and
trilling detail?, even the minutenefs of our gazetteers.
A delcrlption of Europe in 14 quarto volumes, may
well be contraited \vith Strabo's defcription of the
world in one volume : and geography feems to be that
branch of fcience, -in which the ancients have ellablilh-
ed a more cladical reputation than the moderns. Every

ly fiu^eyed, efpecially thofe towards the fouth and great literary monument may he faid to be erected by

eaft. compilation, from the time of Herodotus to that of

America has of laie been much more fully explored Gibbon, and from the age of Homer to that of Shake-

than at any former period ; but ftill the wellem parts of fpeare ; but in the ufe of the materials there is a widi

North America, and the central and fouthern regions of difference between Strabo, Arrian, Ptolemy, Paufanias,

South x\merica, are very little knoxvn ; and the Spaniili Mela, Pliny, and other celebrated ancient names, and

fettlements towards the north are fcarcely known, ex- modern general geographers ; all of whom, except

cept to their own inhabitants. d'Anville, feem under graduates in literature, witliout

The fcience of geography will probably be never
perfectly underftood, as, befides the numerous obltacles
which oppole the progrefs of the traveller, it Is^fcarce-
ly poflible that exafl: trigonometrical furveys of every
place and country, the only certain method of afcer-
taining their exaiS fituations and relative pofitions, can
be made.

Political geography mufl ever remain the moft un-
certain part of the fcience. New changes are perpetu-
ally taking place in the relations of neighbouring Itates,
according as ambition, tyranny, or commercial conveni-
ence dictates. Territory is transferred, by cclFion or by
conqueft, from one nation to another. Whoever will
Tompare the relations of tlie European ftates, as they

the diltinguiflied talents or reputation, which have ac-
companied almoft every other literary exertion. Yet
it may fafely be affirmed, that a produftion of real '
value in univerfal geography requires a wider extent
of various knowledge than any other literary depart-
ment, as embracing topics of the molt multifarious
defcription. There is, however, one name, that ot
d'Anville, peculiarly and juftly eminent in this fcience ;
but his reputation is chieriy derived from his maps,
and from his illuflrations of various parts of ancient
geography. In fpecial department; Goflelin, and o-
ther foreigners, have alfo been recently diltingnid;-
ed ; nor is it neceffary to remind tlie reader of the gn-it '
merit of Rennell and Mncent i.i our own country *." ''
PART^'

Pir.hr-

G E O G Pt A P H Y.
pra^>,cr. p^^j^^, jj_ PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF GEOGRAPHY.

510

Princip!

Fart 11.

^ Chap. I. Of the Surface, and General Divfions of

the Earth.

IT has been'fuppofed, by the lefs enlightened pnrt

of mankind in all ages, that the furface of the earth is

■nearly a plane, bounded on all fides by the Iky. It

was fhewn, however, in the article AsTROXOMT,

(N° 269 — 272) that the earth is of a fpherical figure,

.'.nd an account was there given of the manner in w hich

the true form of it was determined. Independently of

the confiderations there detailed, the fpherical figure of

the earth may be inferred, in a popular view, from the

-^ following fafts.

Proofs of I . When we (land on the fea-fliore, while the fea is

the fpht-ri- perfeftly calm, we eafily perceive that the furface of the

"' f"™ °f water is not quite plain, but convex or rounded ; and

if we are on one fide of a broad river'or arm of the fea,

ss the frith of Forth, and with our eyes near the water,

look towards the oppofite coall, we Ihall plainly fee

the water elevated between our eyes and the oppofite

ihore, fo as to prevent our feeing the land near the edge

of the water.

2. When we obferve a fliip leaving the fliore, and
going out to fea, we firft lofe fight of the Iiull, then of
the fails and lower rigging, and laflly of the upper part
of the marts. Again, when a Ihip is approaching the
fliOre, the firrt part of her that is ieen from the land is
the topmart, then the fails and rigging appear, and l:ift-
ly the hull comes gradually into view. Thefe appear-
ances can arife only from the fiiip's falling on a convex
furface j as, if the furface of the fea was plain, a fliip on
its firft appearance would be vifible, though veiy fmall,
in all its parts at the fame time, or rather the hull
xvould firft appear, as being moft diftinguifliable ; and,
in going out of fight, it would in the fame manner dif-
lippear at once, or the hull would be the laft part of
which u'e fiiould lofe fight.

3. Many navigators fent on voyages of difcovery,
liave, by keeping the fame courfe, at length arrived at
the port from which they fet out, having literally fail-
ed round the globe. This could not happen if the fea
were a plain,

4. When we travel to a confiderable diftance, in a
direftion due north or due fouth, a number of new flars
rucccffively appear in the heavens, in the quarter to
\vhich we are travelling ; while many of thofe in the
oppofite quarter gradually and fucceflively difappear,
and are feen no more till we return in a contrary direc-
tion.

5. In an eclipfe of the moon, which has been fliewn
(Astronomy, N° 199) to be owing to the obfcuration
of the moon's furface by the lliadow of the earth, the
boundary of the obfcured part of the moon is alivays
circular. Now, it is evident that no body, which is
not fpherical, can, in all fituations, caft a circular flia-

j^a doiv.
^Iagllltude The diameter of the earth is generally computed
otthe at 7958 miles, though Mr Vince makes it 7930,
'" ■ ucarcr the medium derived from a comparifon of the

polar with the equatorial axis. Taking this laft, there-
fore, as the mean diameter, the circumference will be
= 24,912 miles, and confequently the extent of the fu-
perficies will be i: 197,552,160 miles, of which it is
computed that at leaft two-thirds are covered with wa-
ter.

In the above computation no account is taken of the
mountains and other eminences on the furface of the
globe ; for, although thefe are of confiderable tfonfe-
quence in a geographical point of view, as they ccnfti-
tute the moft natural and remarkable boundaries of
countries, and by their influence on the foil and climate
of the different regions, contribute in a great degree to
form thofe ftiades of diftinftion which diverfify the in-
habitants of the feveral quarters of the earth, they are,
however, too trilling, when compared ^vith the diame-
ter of fo great a body, to make any fenfible error in the
calculation.

The furface of the earth is exceedingly diverfified, al-Di^^jjoju
moft everywhere rifing into hills and mountains, orofthe
finking into valleys •, and plains of any great extent are^ 'fth,
extremely rare. Among the moft extenfive plains, are
the fandy deferts of Arabia and Africa, the internal
part of European Ruflla, and a traft of confiderable ex-
tent in the late kingdom of Poland, now called Pruflian .
Poland. But the moft remarkable extent of level
ground, is the vaft platform of Tibet in Afia, which
forms an immenfe table, fupported by mountains run-
ning in every direftion, and is the moft elevated traft
of level country on the globe. The chief elevations or
mountains that occur, with their elevation, &c. will be 4-
mentioned under Geology. The greateft concavities Oceans,
of the globe are thofe which are occupied by the wa-
ters of the fea, and of thefe by far the largeft forms the
bed of the Pacific ocean, which ftretching from the
eaftem ftiores of New Holland to the weftern coaft of
America, covers nearly half the globe. The concavity
next in fize and importance, is that which forms the
bed of the Atlantic ocean, extending between the new
and the old worlds ; and a third concavity is filled by
the Indian ocean. Smaller colleiSions of water, though
ftill large enough to receive the name of oceans, fill up
the remaining concavities, and take the names of Arftic
and Antarctic oceans.

Smaller collcflions of water that communicate freely Seas.^'
with the oceans, are calledT^or, (vid. A ; fig. i ), and of pjatc
thefe the principal are the Meditenancan, the Baltic, CCXXX.
the Black fea, and the White fea. Thefe feas fome-
times take their names from the country near which
they flow j as the Irifti fea, and the German ocean.
Some large bodies of water, which appear to have no
immediate connexion with the great body of waters,
being everywhere furrounded by land, are yet called
ftas ; as the Cafpian fea.

A part of the fea running up within the land, fo asBiiysoc
to form a hollow, if it be large, is called a baij orguif*- •
S"(f> Jis the bay of Bifcay, gulf of Mexico : if fmall,
a creek, road, or haven.

When two large bodies of water comm"unicate by a 5, ,.3,1;"
narrow pafs between two adjacent lands, this pafs is

called

43

Part IL

GEOGRAPHY

called zjlrah oxjiraits (C, fip;. l.) as the flraits of Gib-
raltar,' the Itraits of Dover, oi Babelmandel, &c. The
water ufually riows through a ftrait with coniiderable
force and velocity, forming what is called a current,
and frequently tliis current always flows in the fame di-
recJion. Tliu?, in the flraits of Gibraltar there is a
conflant current from the Atlantic into the Mediter-
ranean, though the furface of the latter never feems to
be elevated beyond its ufual level. There is always a
current round Cape Finiilerre and Cape Ortegal, fetting
into the bay of Bifcay, and it has been difcovered by
Maior Rennel, that this current is continued in a di-
reftion N. W. by W. from the coaft of France to the
■weflward of Ireland and the Scilly iilands. Hence he
draws this ufeful prafiical inrtruciion for na\-igators
who are entering the Englilh channel from the Allan-
tic, viz. that they fliould keep no higher latitude than
48' 45', le:l they Ihould be carried by the current
upon the rocks of Scilly. For want of this necelTary
precaution, it is laid that many fliips have been loft on
thefe rocks.

A bodv of frelh water, entirely furrounded by land,
is called a lale^ loch, or lough (as D, fig. 1), with the
exception of the fea above mentioned ; as the lake of
Geneva, Lake Ontario, Lake Champlain, Loch Lo-
mond, 6ic.

This terra, or its fynonimes, loch or lough, is forae-
times applied to what is properly a gulf or inlet of the
fea, as Loch Fyne in Scotland, and Lough Swilly in Ire-
land.

A confiderable llream of water rifmg inland, and
running towards the fea, is called a river \ a fmaller
ftream of the fame kind is called a rivulet or brook.
Vid. E, fig. I.

The great extent of land which forms the refl of the
globe, is divided into Innumerable bodies, fome of which
are very large, but the majority extremely fmall. There
are three very extenfive tracls of country, which may
all be denominated continents, though only two of
them have hitherto been diftinguilhed by that appella-
tion. The :noft confiderable of thefe continents is what
has been called the old world, compriling Europe,
Afia, and Africa. The fecond comprehends North
and South America, or what has been denominated llie
nexu world, and is little inferior in extent to the former.
The third great divifion fotms the country called New
Holland.

A body of land entirely furrounded by water is called
an ijland, (vid. a, fig. I.) as Britain, Ireland, Jamaica,
Madagafcar, &c. According to the flricl meaning of this
definition, the large divifions jufl mentioned are illands ;
for it is almofl certainly afcertaincd, that the continent
of North America is everywhere bounded by the fea,
and it has long ceafed to be doubtful that New Holland
is in the fame circumftances, and it is generally called
the largeft illand in the word. But perhaps it would
be better to confine the term to thofe numbcrlefs fmaller
illands that appear above the furface of the waters.
When a number of fmaller idands are fituated near each
other, the whole afiemblage is commonly called a group
of illands, as i, h. The large aifemblagcs of illands
that have been difcovered in the South Pacific ocean,
have lately been comprehended under the name of
PolyneCa, conllituting a fixth divifion of the whole
earth ■■, the other five being Europe, Alia, ^yrica,

511

America, and the iflands of New Holland and New Principles
Guinea, under the name of Auftralafia. *"4

A body of land that is almoft entirely furrounded by . "'^"^*- ^
water is called a pcn'mfula, as c, fig. I . ; as the penin- j ,
fula of Malacca, the Morea, or Grecian Peloponnefus, Pecirfuh.
&c. Indeed the continent of Africa may ^e confidered
as a vaft peainfula, being united to Afia only by the
fmall illhmus of Suez.

The narrow neck of land which joins a peninfula to ifthmus.
the main land, or which connedls two trails of country
together, is called an iflhmu!, as d. The moft remark-
able iilhmufes are the ifthmus of Darien, connefling the
continents of North and South America, and the ifthmus
of Suez, joining Africa to Afia. 53

A narrow tracl of land ftretching far out into the Pf°oiontory
fea, being united to the main land by an illhmus, is ^^ ^^^^'
called a f>rcmon'.orij, and its extremity next the fea, is
called a ca[je ; as ef, fig. i. The moft remarkable
capes are the Cape of Good Hope, at the foulhem ex-
tremity of Africa •, Cape Horn at the fouthern extremity
of South America ; the North Cape at the northern ex-
tremity of Europe ; and Cape Talmara, at the northern
extremity of Aiia.

It may alTill the memory of the young geographer,
to compare together the above divifions of land and
water. We may remark that the large bodies of land,
called continents, correfpond to the extenfive trails of
water called oceans; that iflands are analogous to lakes;
peninfulas to feas or gulfs ; iilhmufes to ftraits ; pro-
montories to creeks, &.c.

The inhabited parts of the earth are calculated to
occupy a fpace of 38,990,569 fquare miles, of whidi
the four quarters into which the globe is ufually divid-
ed are fuppofed to have the following proportions;

Europe, 4,4^6,065

Afia, 10,768,823

Africa, 9,6j4,8c7

America, 14,110,874.

The whole population of the earth has been comput-
ed at 700,500,000 fouls; and of thefe

Afia is fuppofed to contain 500,000,000

Europe, 150,000,000

Africa, 30,000,000

America, 20,000,000

and Auftralafia and Polynefia, &c. 500,000

Hence the proportional number of inhabitants to
every fquare mile in each quarter is as follows:

In Afia \(>

Europe 34
Africa 3

America 3 to every two fquare miles.

Chap. II. Of the Conjh-uElhn and Ufe of the Globes.
Sect. I. Defcriplion and Ufe of the Terre/lrial Globes.

For the purpofe of reprefenting more accurately the Nature of
globe which we inhabit, geoj',;iphers_have long had re- the ghbes.-
courfe to fphtrical balls, on the face of which are
drawn the various di\ifions of the earth, and wliich arc
fitted up wth fuch an apparatus, as enables us to illuf-
trate and explain the phenomena produced by the mo-

55
Circles on
thf globtt.

Axis i

poles.

Equator or
equinodtial.

G E O G R

tior.5 of t!ie eartli, and the different fituations of its
various inhabitants. The ball thus prepared, is called
an artificial globe, and uhat we have defcribed is pro-
perly the terreftrial globe, fo called to dilUnguilh it from
anotlier of a fimilar form, and furniftied in a fimilar
manner, but the furface of which reprefents the various
alTcmblages of ftars or conftellations that appear in
the heavens, and therefore this is called the cclejhal
globe.

In order to afcertain the relative pofitions of places
and countries on the earth, certain circles are fuppofed
to be drawn on its furface, analogous to thofe which
wtte mentioned in Astronomy, as fuppofed to be
drawn in the heavens. As thefe circles are really re-
prefented on the artificial globes, it will be proper here
to confider a little more particularly their nature and
ufes.

As the earth turns about on an imaginary axis, once
in 24 hours, the artificial globe is furnilhed with a real
axis, formed by a wire paiiing through the centre, and
on ^vliich the globe revolves. The two extremities of
this axis are its poles, the one being called the north,
and the other l]\e/outh pole.

A great circle drawn on the globe, at an equal diflance
from both poles, is the equator or equinoflial line, and
reprefents on the globe a fimilar circle, fuppofed to be
drawn round the earth, and diflinguilhed by the fame
n^mes. By failors this is commonly called the line,
and when they pafs over that part of the water, where
it is imagined to be drawn, they often make ufe of va-
riovis fuperititious ceremonies. The two parts of the
globe into which it is divided by the equator, are called
the northern and fuuthern hemifpheres.

The equinoflial line on the earth palTes through the
middle of Africa, in the almoft unknown territories of
Macoco, and Monemugi, traverfes the Indian ocean,
palTes through the iflands of Sumatra and Borneo, and
the immenfe expanfe of the Pacific ocean ; then extends
over the province of Q^uito in South America, to the
mouth of the river Amazons.

As every circle is fuppofed to be divided into 360*,
fo the equator is thus divided on the artificial globe.

Through every 1 5° of the equator there is drawn on
the globe a great circle pafTmg through the poles.
Thefe circles are called meridians, becaufe when the
fan in his apparent courfe from eafl to weft reaches
the correfpoading circle in the heavens, it is noon on
that part of the earth over which the meridian is fuppo-
fed to pafs. Properly fpeaking, every place on the
earlh has its own meridian, though to prevent confu-
fion, thefe circles are dravt-n on the artificial globe,

A P H Y. Paitir.

only through every 15* of the equator. To fupply the fnncipies
place of the other meridians, the globe is hung in a '"^
Ihong brazen circle, which is called the brc%en nuri- ^''^'^"-"'•^
dian, or fometim.es only the meridian. The brazen ,.
meridian, like the equator, is divided into 36-°, but Brazen me.
thefe are marked by nineties on each quadrant, being ridian.
on one half of the meridlaa numbered from the equa-
tor to the poles, and on the other half from the poles
to the equator. On the. oppofite fide of the brazen
meridian there are two concentric fpaces, which are
divided into degrees correfponding to the months and
days of each month, the degrees being marked on con-
centric fpaces fronr. the north pole to about 23'" both
ways. The ufe of thefe divifions will appear here-
after (b). _ _ g^

Through every tenth degree of the meridians, there parallels
are drawn on the globe circles parallel to the equator, of latitude,
which, for a reafon that will appear prefently, are called
parallels of latitude.

Before we proceed in defcribing the other circles,
&c of the artificial globe, we fhall here make a few
remarks on the ufes of the equator, the meridians and
parallels (c). -

The equator ferves to meafure the diflance of one of latitude
place from another, either to the eaftward or weftward, and longi.
and this diflance is called the lengirude oi the place, tude.
The meridians ferve in like manner to meafure the dif-
tance of one place from another in a direft line north
or fouth of the equator, and the diflance of the place
thus meafured is called its latitude.

The longitude and latitude of places may be illuftrat-
ed in the following manner. Let P£F'(^ (fig. 3) repre-
fent the earth or the globe, (fuppofed to be tranfverfe)
whofe axis is PCP', the north pole being P, and the
fouth pole P' ; and let EAQR reprefent a circle paf-
fing through the centre C, in a direflion perpendicular
to the axis PP'. This circle correfponds to the equa-
tor, and it divides the earth of the globe into two hemi-
fpheres, EPQ^ being the northern, and EP'(J the
fouthern hemifphere. Let G, I, K, reprefent the fitua-
tions of three places on the furface of the globe, through
which let the great circles PKP', PIP', and
PGP', be drawn, interfering the equator EQ, in
n, m, a, refpedlively. The circles are the meridians of
the places K, I, G. As every circle is fuppofed to be
divided into 360*, there muft be pc" from each pole to
the equator. Hence the latitude of the place K is
meafured by the degrees of the arc intercepted betueen
K and n, and the latitudes of G and I are meafured by
the degrees of the arcs intercepted between G and a,
and I and m refpedkivtly. Thefe latitudes will be called

north

(p.) The meridians are properly only femicircles, reaching from pole to pole, and of thefe there are twenty-
four.

(c) In Geography, as in other fciences, there are two methods of conveying inftruftion. One is, to lay down
the principles of the Icience firft, and afterwards apply thefe to the praflice ef it ; the other method is, to combine
the ])rinciple3 and praftice in one view. The former is ufually conlidered as the more fcientific, but we are inclin-
ed to think that the latter is often to be preferred, as being kfs dry and tedious, efpecially to a general reader.
We have here, therefore, rhofen to explain the nature of latitude and longitude, and the problems refpefting them,
before completing the defcrlption of the globe. We ihall proceed in the fame manner, uniting as far as poflible,
the principles and pradice in one view. Making, therefore the terreftrial globe our text book, we ftiall thence
explain the principles of geography, raiher than detail thefe in a feparale feilion, and afterwards iUuftrate them by
the globe.

2

Partn. G E O G R

Prinfiptcs noitli Utituoe";, bccaufe the places lie in the northern
and heraifphcre. Let there be two other places, WV, in
^^"^'';"; the fouthern hcmilphere ; the latitude of W will be
mcalurcd by the degrees of the arc intercepted between
W and a ; and the latitude of V by the arc intercepted
between V and m ; and theie will be called fouth la-
titudes. Further, let the circle c, e, //, ■v, G, be drawn
parallel to the equator ; this circle is called a parallel
of latitude, and as it docs not pafs through the centre,
it is evidently lefs than the equator, or it is a fmall
circle. Now, all the arcs, fuch as R, e, a, G, &c. in-
tercepted between the parallel and the equator, mull be
equal, finee the circle is parallel to the equator •, and
hence every point in this parallel, or every place on the
earth through which it is fuppofed to pafs, has the fame
latitude.

Latitude is the fame all over the earth, being con-
ftantly meafured from the equator to the poles.

The longitude of a place is meafured by the degrees
of an arc of the equator, intercepted between fome par-
ticular meridian, and the meridian palling through the
place. Thus, (uppofe G to reprefent the particular
meridian, and m to reprefent the place whofe longitude
is required ; the longitude of ffi is meafured by the
arc OT fl of the equator, intercepted between a, the
point where the meridian of G meets the equator, and
m the point of the equator where it is cut by the me-
ridian of the place m. The particular meridian from
which we begm to reckon the degrees of longitude is
called the prime ox Jirjl meridian, and it is different in
different countries.

The method of eflimating the diftances of places by
longitudes and latitudes, is of confiderable antiquity, and
was employed by Eratofthenes, who firft introduced a
regular parallel of laiitude, which began at the ftraits
of Gil-.rahar, paffed eaftwards though the ifland of
Rhodes to the mountains of India ; ill the intermedi-
ate places through which it paffed being carefully not-
ed. Soon after drawing this parallel through Rhodes,
which was long confidered with a degree of preference,
Eratofthenes undertook to trace a meridian, paffmg
through Rhodes and Alexandria, as far as Syene and
Meroe. Pythias of IMarfeilleF, according to Strabo,
confidering the illand of Thule as the moft weftem
point of the then knoisii world, began to count the
longitude from thence, while Marianus of Tyre placed
their firft meridian at the Fortunate idands, or the Ca-
naries j but they did not determine which \vas the
weftermoft of thefe itlands, and confequently which
ought to ferve as a firft meridian. Among the Ara-
bians, Alfragan, Albategnus, NalTu- Eddin, and Ulug
Beg, alfo reckoned from the Fortunate illands ; but A-
bulfeda began to reckon his loi>.gitude from a meridian
1 o" to the eaft%vard of that of Ptolemy, probably be-
caufe it paffed through the weftem extremity of Africa,
where, according to him, were fituatcd the pillars of
Hercules ; or becaufe it paffed through Cadiz, which
was at that time rendered famous by the conquefts of
the Moors in Spain.

When the Azores were dlfcovered by the Portuguefe
in 1448, fome geographers made ufe of the ifland of
Terccra as their firQ meridian. Other geographers,
as Blaeii, father and fon, placed the firft meridian at
the Peak of Teneriffe, a mountain fo far elevated above
tte fea, that it may be eaCly known by navigators ;

Vol. IX. Part IL

A P H Y. si^

ivhile others have made the illand ot St Philip, one of Principles
the Cape de Verds, the firft meridian, becaufe they con- p^'l?.
ceived this to be the place where the magnetic needle ■ 'f

had no variation. For u long time it \vas cuftomary to
reckon the longitude in moll countries from the ille of
Ferro, one of the Canary iftcs ; but it is now cuftomary
for each nation to reckon the longitudu, either from
the metropolis of the country, or from the national ob-
fervatory fituated near it. Thus in France, Paris is the
firft meridian, and in Great Britain, the Royal Obier-
vatory of Green'.vich. As in fevcral good maps, the
ille of Ferro is fiill ulcd as a firft meridian, it may be
proper to remark, that the oblervatory at Greenwich gj
lies 17° 45' to the eaft of Ferro. Hence it is very Method of
eafy to reduce the longitude of Ferro to that of Green- '''=''"<:'"?
wichj for if the longitude required be eaft, "e haveJ°",^'J^^''^'.
only to fubtracl 17° 45' from the longitude of Ferro, [„jji(jijn, "
and the remainder is the longitude eaft from London ;
on the other hand, if the place be weft from Ferro, we
obtain the longitude weft from London by adding to
that of Ferro 17° 45'. if the place lies between Ferro
and London, its longitude from London will be ob-
tained by fubtra£ljng its longitude eaft from Ferro from
17*45. ^' '5 evident that by the reverfe of this me-
thod, we may reduce the longitude from London to
that of Ferro.

In the diagram referred to above, if G reprefent the
obfervatory of Greenwich, a will be the point from
which we begin to reckon the degrees of longitude,
and all places fituated to the eaft of a, fuch as R, m,
will have eaft longitude, nhile thofe fituatcd to the
weft, as «, will have weft longitude. In reckoning the
longitude, we fometimes number the degrees only as
far as 1 80°, but at other times they are numbered all
round the equator from the point a ; for inftance, i8o*,
till we come to a again ; hence reckoning in the di-
reflion a, R, m, we Ihould fiy that every place was hi
fo many degrees eaft longitude, while if we reckoned ia
the direftion n, E, we Ihould fay tliat all the places
had fo many degrees weft longitude all round the equa-
tor. To accommodate the globes to both thefe modes
of reckoning the longitude, the equator is ufuaUy divid-
ed both ways, in a continued fcries from o at the firft;
meridian to 360°.

It is evident, that as the parallels of latitude become
fraaller as they approach the poles, the arcs of thefe
parallels intercepted between the fame two meridians
will be alfo fmaller as we proceed from the e<]uator to
the poles, though in faft they confill of the fame abfo-
lute number of degrees. Hence it will be eafy to fee
that a degree of longitude muft be fmaller towards the
poles than at the equator, and muft become gradually
fmaller and fmaller till we arrive at the poles, where it
will be equal to nothing. Thus the arc G v. contains
the fame number of degrees as the arc a, m, though the
former arc is much fmaller than the latter. As a de-
gree of longitude is therefore different at every degree
of latitude, it becomes ncccffary to afcertain the rela-
tive proportion between the two ; and for this purpofe
the following table has been conftrufled, which ftiews
the abfolute mcafure of a degree of longitude in geo-
rraphical miles and parts of a mile for every degree of
latitude, taking the degree o£ longitude at the equator,
equal to 60 geographical miles.

3T

TABLE

514

Principles
Frartlce.

GEOGRAPHY.

TaELZ I. Siieii'in^ the length of a dtgree of longitude for every degree of latitude, in geogrcfhica! m.

Fart 11.

Principles

L?t.

Geo. miles.

|...

Geo. mi e.

La.

Geo. miles

Lat.

Geo.miks

L.t.

Geo. miles

Lat

Geo. miles

I

59.96

16

57.60

31

51-43

46

41.68

61

29.04

76

14.51

2

59-94

17

57-30

^2

50.88

47

41.00

62

28.17

77

13-50

S

59-92

18

57-04

33

50-32

48

4C.15

63

27.24

7«

12.48

4

59.86

19

56-73

34

49-74

49

39-36

64

26.30

79

11.45

")

59-77

20

56.38

3?

49-15

so

38.57

6?

25.36

80

10.42

6

59-67

21

56.00

36

48-54

5'

37-73

66

24.41

81

9-38

7

S9-S^

12

55.63

37

47.92

52

37-00

67

23-4f

82

8-35

8

59-40

2^

55-23

38

47.28

53

36.. 8

68

22.48

83

7-3i

9

59-20

24

54.81

39

46.62

54

35.26

60

21.51

84

6.28

10

59.og

2V

54-38

40

46.00

??

34-41

70

20.52

«9

^■2^

II

58.89

26

54.00

41

45.28

56

liSS

7'

19.54

86

4.18

12

58.68

27

53-44

42

44-95

57

32-67

72

>8.55

87

3-'4

I.^

98.46

28

53.00

43

43-88

5«

31-79

73

'7.54

88

2.C9

»4

58.22

29

^2.48

44

43.16

59

30-90 ,

74

•6.53
•5-52 1

89

1.05

'5

58.00

3 =

51.96

45

42.43

60

30.00

75

90

o.co

As it is often more convenient to eftimate degrees of longitude in Englifli flatute miles, we liave added tiic
following

Table II. S^eu'ing the length of a degree of longitude fur every degree of latitude, in Englijlj fatute miles.

Lat.

Eng. miles.

1 Lat.

Eng. miles.

Lat

Eng. miles.

Lat.

En=. m:Us.

Lat.

£ng. railef.

JLat.

Eng. miles.

0

69.2000

16

66 n92

32

58.6851

48

46.3038

64

30.3352

80

12.0166

I

69.1896

17

66.1760

33

58.0360

49

45-3994

^5

29.2453

81

10.8250

2

691578

18

65.8134

34

57-5696

50

44.48.1

66

28.1464

82

9.6306

^

69.1052

19

65.4300

35

56.6852

9'

43-5489

67

27.0385

8^

8-4334

4

69.0312

20

65.0265

30

55.0842

?2

42.6037

68

25.9230

84

7-2335

5

68.9363

1 21

64.6037

SS-^(>S9

53

41. 645 J

69

24-7992

8?

6.0315

6

68.8208

i 22

64.1609

38

54-5303

54

40.6751

70

13.6678

86

4.8274

7

68.6845

23

63.6986

39

SS-7788

SS

39.6917

71

22.5294

87

3.6219

8

68.5267

24

63-2177

4c

53.0100

56

38-6959

72

21.3842

88

24x51

9

68.3481

25

62.7167

4'

52.2259

57

37.6891

73

20.2320

89

1.2075

10

68.1489

26

63.1963

42

51-4253

58

36.6705

74

19-0743

90

0.0000

1 1

67.9288

27

61.6579

4S

50.6c 9 4

59

35,6408

79

17.9103

12

67.6880

. 28

61.1001

44

49-7783

60

34.6000

76

16.7409

>3

67.4264

29

60.5257

49

48.9313

61

335489

77

15.5665

14

67.1448

1 30

59.9293

46

48.0705

62

32.4873

78

'4-3874

>5

66.8424

59.3162

47

47.1944

f>3

31.4161

79

13.2041

_

^ ^f Kence it appears that the degrees of latitude are all
.^ equal, and that a degree of longitude at the equator •-

1 to equal to a degree of latitude, as each

th of

great circle. In the fecond of the above tables, a de-
gree of longitude at the equator is eftimated at 69.2
Znglilh miles, or about 69J. The length of a degree
in miles is ufually eilimated at 694, but this is too
much. Hence, to reduce degrees of latitude, and thofe
of longitude near the equator, to Englilh miles, it is
necelTaiy to multiply them by 69.2, or, if gicat accuracy
is not required, by 70.

«4 Problem I

Ptob,cm»
on Ijtiinde
and k.Hg
tiuie. _

To find the latitude and longitude of a
' given place,

ling the place be'ow the graduated edge of the

brazen meridian, and the degree of the meridian that
lies immediately over the place is m latitude. Obfervs
where the meridian cuts the equator, and that degree
will be the longitude of the place.

Example. To fnd the latitude and longitude of Edin-
burgh.— Bringing Edinburgh below the meridian, we
find over it nearly the 56th degree of north latitude
(55° 58'), and the point where the meridian cuts the
equator is nearly 3^ (3° 12' W. Long.) degrees wefl frcm
London.

N. B. The longitude and latitude of places cannot
be afcertained e^aflly by the globes, as thtfe are not
calculated to tliow the fractional parts of a degree ; but
they may be lound with fuilicient correclnels for ordi-
nary purpofes.

GoROLiARY I. I'he diflyricncc of latitude and lon-
gitude

Compu
tioD ot

lime.

Part II. G E O G R

Princip'.fs gituJe bctiveen two places i< found by fubtra61ing the
an;l Icfs troHi the greater, if they lie the fame way, i. e. north
Fradice. ^^ fouth, eait or well; or by adding the two together, if
jhey lie in a different direflion.

Cor. 2. Thofe places that have the fame latitude
with any given place are found, by bringing the
given place to the meridian, and obferviiig what places
pais under the lame degree, while the globe is turned
round.

Cor. 3. Thofe places which have the fame longitude
with a given place, are found by bringing the place to
the meridian, and obferving what other places lie under
the graduated edge, while the globe is at reft.

Problem II. T/ie latitude and longitude of a place
being given, to find the place itfelf on the globe.

Turn the globe till the given longitude comes under
the brazen meridian ; then mark the given latitude on
the meridian, and immediately below it is the place
required.

Example. What place is fituated in 48* 23' N. Lat.
and 4* 29' E. Long, from Greenwich ? j4nf, Breft in
France.

As the fun, in his apparent motion round the earth,
meafures a great circle in about 24 hours, or in one
hour paflfes over J^th of fuch circle, or 15"; it is evident
that all places which lie J 5° well of any meridian, mud
have noon or any other tinia of the day, an hour later
than thofe fituated under that meridian ; and that all
places which lie \f'eaJloi any meridian, mull have
the fame times of the day an hour fuoner. Hence, be-
caufe the meridians drawn on the gloljc make a differ-
ence of an hour each in the time of places, they are
lometimes called hour-circles ; and the longitude of
places is fometimes reckoned in time as well as in
degrees.

Degrees of longitude are reduced to hours and mi-
nutes, and V. V. by allowing an hour for every i j*, and
66 four minutes for every degree.
Horary cir- Though the meridians on the globe are fometimes
c.e5, called horary -circles, this name is generally confined to

a fmall brafs circle, which is adapted to one or each pole,
and graduated into twice twelve hours ; fo that an index
fixed to the axis, or the meridian, points out the leveral
hours of day and night as the globe revolves.

In globes of the old conftruilion the liour circles are
fixed on the outfide of the meridian, but this prevents
the meridian from being moved quite round, v.hich is
required in feme problems.

Mr Jofeph Harris, formerly allay-mafter of the mint,
contrived an ingenious method of remedying this incon-
venience. He placed two horary circles between the
meridian and the globe, one at each pole, and they were
fixed tightly between two brafs rollers, placed about the
axis, fo that when the globe was turned, they were
carried round with it, while the edge of the brazen
meridian ferved as an index to cut the horary divilions.
A globe, thus furniflied, fcrves univerfally and readily
for performing problems in both northern and fouthern
latitudes ; and alfo in places near the equator; whereas,
in globes of the old conilruclion, the axis and horary
circle prevent the brazen meridian from being moved
qiiitc rotnd in the horizon.

A P H Y. 5ts

The conllruflion of the hour circles was rendered Princii>l<:t
fomewhat more fimplc by Mr G. Wright of London.
In his globes, there are engraved two hour circles, one
at ea^h pole, on the map of the globe, each circle be
divided into a double let of 1 1 hours, as in the ufual
hour circles ; but here the hours arc numbered both to
the right and left. (See fig. 4.) The hour hand, or
;i,;!ex, is placed below the brazen meridian, in fuch a
■ivay that it may be moved at pleafure to any required
fiittji 'he circle, and remain there futhcieiitly ilcady
J u:ing the revolution of the globe on its axis, being
entirely independent of the pole. In this manner
le motion of the globe round its axis, carrying the
the lime is pointed out by the ftationary

:ircle.

hour I
inde

In the globes conftrufled by the late Mr George
Adams, the equator is made to anfwer the purpofe of
an hour circle, by means of a femicircular wire placed
in its plane, (lee Q^ F, fig. 5.) and carrying two indices
F, one on the eaftcrn, the other on the wellem, fide of
the brazen meridian. The mtthod of ufing thefe in-
dices will be Ihewn prefeatly. In thefe globes the
equator is alfo marked with twice i 2 hours, which in-
creafe from eall to weft, the hours to the weft of the
firll I 2 being afternoon hours.

Problem III. Tlu
find what h

anil place being eii'en, /^P™^'"^*
tiine.

it is at any other ph
Bji the ordinary globes

Br

the place at which the hour is given to the
meridian, and fet the index of the hour circle to the
given hour. Then turn the globe till the other place
comes under the meridian, and the index will now point
to the hour required.

N. B. Whtre there is no index, the edge of the me
vidian will in both cafes point out the hour.

/>, By Adams's globes.

Tlie fteps are here the rcverfc of the former. Bring
the place at which the time is required to thf
brazen meridian, and ^-.1 the index to tiie given hour.
Then turn the gljbe till the other place comes below
the meridian, and the index will fliew the time re-
quired.

N. B. In the ordinary globes, where the hour circle
is ulually marked with two fets of figures, it is proper,
in performing this problem, to make u'e of that fet
which increafes towards the right hand, obferving that
whichever XII. is fixed on for noon, the hours to the
rii^ht or eajl of this are hours P. M. and thofe to the
left or luejt are hours A. M. On Adams's globes the
contrary of this takes place, from the hours being
marked on the equator. They increa'e from eaft to
well, and, of courfe, thofe to the eaft of XII. are
morning hours, and thofe to the weft of it afternoon
hours.

Example I . When it is noon at London, what hoar
is it in tlie Society ifles ? Jtif. Two A. M.

Ex. 3. When it is 3 P. M. at Edinburgh, what
hour is it at Delhi in Hindooilun ? Anf. Tliirty minutes
pall eight P.'M.

3 T 2

pROELhM

8;i6

GEOGRAPHY.

Part IT.

«s

Aiitceci.

Problem IV. Havmg tie hour at any place given, t'j
Jind all tliofe places 'where it is noon.

a. By the ordinary globes.

Bring the given place to the meridian, and fet the
index to the given hour. Then turn the globe till tlie
index point to I 2 at noon, and the places then under
the meridian are thofe required.

/'. By Adams's globes.

Bring the given place to the meridian, and fet the
index to I3 at noon. Then turn the globe till the in-
dex (hall point to the given hour ; and all the places
then under the meridian have noon at that time.

Ex. I. It is now 30 min. paft 10. A.M. at Edin-
burgh ; In what places is it noon ? Anf. Near Stock-
holm ; at Dantzic, Breflaw, Prelburg, Vienna, Pofega,
Ragufa, Tareato, and the Cape of Good Hope.

Ex. It is now midnight at London •, Where is it
noon ? • Anf. In the north-eail parts of Afia, in the
middle of Fox ifles ; at the Friendly iHes (nearly), and
at the eaft cape of New Zealand.

From the diflerent fituation of places with refpeft to
latitude and longitude, the inhabitants of thefe places
received from the ancisnts denominations that are ftiU
retained.

Thus, thofe places which have the fame longitude,
or are Jkuated under the fame meridian, but are in op-
pofite latitudes, the one lying as many degrees to the
north of the equator as the other lies to the fouth of it,
are faid to be .xSTOfCi to each other. From this defi-
nition it is evident, that thofe places fituated under the
equator have no antceci.

The appearances arifing from the changes of the
heavenly bodies are different in the oppofue places.
Thus, I. The days of the one are equal to the nights of
the other, and vice verfa ; but they have noon, mid-
night, and all the other hours at the fame time.
2. They have contrary feafons at the fame time : when
it is fummer at one place it is winter at the other, and
fo of fpring and autumn. 3. The ftars that never fet
fip at one place, never rife at the other, and vice verfa.
*^ri(eci. Again, thole places that have the fame latitude, or

are under the fame parallel, but are in oppofite longi-
tudes, i. e. lie under oppofite arcs of the fame meridion-
al circle, or 1 80*^ from each other, are faid to be peri-
OECI to each other. Thofe places which may be fitu-
ated at the poles, have evidently no periceci.

The celellial appearances to the perioeci are as foUow.

1. The length of the day or night is the fame to both
places ; but the hours, though dillinguifhed by the
iame numbers, are contrary, noon at the one being mid-
night at tlie other •, and any hour in the forenoon at the
one being the fame of the afternoon to the other.

2. Both places have the fame leafons of the year at the
fame time. 3. The fame ftars that never rife or fet to
one place, alfo never rife or fet to the other. 4. The
heavenly bodies riie in the fame point of the horizon at
both places, and continue for the fame interval above or
below it.

Amipoiles. Laftly, Thofe places which are fituated direflly op-
pofite to each other, by a diftance equal to the diame-
ter of the earth, are faid to be ANTIPODES to each

other. If we conceive a line through the centre of the Principles
earth, and terminated in two points of its furface, thefe '"'.''
extreme points are antipodes to each other. Thus, the ^' .

city of Lima in Peru is nearly the antipodes to Siara in '
the Eaft Indies ; and Pekin in China has for its an-
tipodes Buenos Ayres in South America. Thefe
places are always in oppofite longitudes, and (except
under the equator) in oppofite latitudes.

The celeftial appearances to the antipodes are
thefe. I. The hours are contrary, as to the periaeci.
2. The days of the one are of the fame length with the
nights of the other ; hence the longelt day to one is the
ftiorteft to the other, and vice verfa. 3. They have
contrary feafons at the fame time. 4. Thofe ftars
which, at one place are always above the horizon, are,
to the other, always below it. 5 . When the heavenly
bodies are rifing at one place, they are fetting at its
antipodes, and vice verfa. For various opinions refpeft-
ing the antipodes, fee the article Antipodes.

The antipodes of any place are the perioeci to the an-
tceci of that place ; and the antoeci to their periueci.
This will accoimt for the method prefently defcribed of
finding the antipodes on the globe.

Problem V. To find the antosci to any given place. Problems.

Bring the given place to the meridian, and thus af-
certain its latitude. Then count from the equator to-
wards the oppofite pole as many degrees as are equal to
the latitude of the place ; and the point where this
reckoning ends is the place required.

Ex. I. Where are the antaci to the Cape of Good
Hope ? ylnf. At Malta nearly.

Ex. 2. What people are the an/ceci to the inhabi-
tants of Quebec in North America ? Anf. The inha-
bitants of Patagonia in South America.

Problem VI. To find the perioeci of any given place.

Bring the given place to the brazen meridian, and
fet the horary index to the upper XII. Then turn the
globe till the index point to the lower XII. The place
which is then below the meridian in the fame latitude
with that of the given place, is the fituation required.

Ex. 1. Where are fituated the /)fr/av ;' of Newcaftle
upon Tyne ? Anf In the Alcoulki or Fox illands.

Ex. 2. Required the perioeci to California in North
America. Anf Near the mouth of the river Indus.

Proble:m VII. Tofnd the antipodes to any given place.

Find the antceci of the given place (by Problem V.)
and then find the periaci oi the latter (by Problem VI.)
This laft is the place required.

Ex. I. It is required to find the antipodes of Lon-
don. Anf. The latitude of London is 51° 31' N. the
antoeci to this, or ji* 31' S. on the prime meridian, is
in the fouth Atlantic ocean ; the perioeci to this is in
180" W. Long, and 51° 31' S. Lat. a little to the
fouth of the iilands of New Zealand. The inhabitant*
of the fouthern illand of New Zealand are therefore
the neareft antipodes to London.

Several other circles bcfides thofe which we have
mentioned are defcribed on the artificial globe, and are
fuppofed to be drawn on the earth. Thefe we flialh
now proceed to defcribe, and explain their geographical

ufes.

TJle

Part II

74
Polar ci,
cles.

G E O G R

The Eclifitic (AsTROXOMY, N° 43.) is a great circle
drawn on the globe, crolTing the equator obliquely in
two points, called the equinoctial points. (ASTRONOMY,
N* 44.) This circle extends on each CJe of the equa-
tor to the latitude of 23' 28', and is divided into I 2
great parts correfponding to the 1 2 figns of the zodiac
(fee Astronomy, N" 5 2.), and marked with their cha-
raifters, and each iign is fubdivided into 50 degrees.
The ecliptic has alio its poles, which are two points
that are dillant 90" every way from the circle on each
fide. As the ecliptic declines from the equator 23"
iS', its poles are confequently diftant from thofe of the
equator, or of the globe, by the fame meafure. This
circle properly belongs to the celeftial globe, but as it
is extremely ufeful in performing many geographical
problems, it is always drav.n on both globes, and re-
quires to be noticed here, fmce it determines the po-
fition of feveral of the circles which we are about to
mention.

Through thofe two points of the ecliptic, where it
is at the greatell dillance from the equator, there are
drawn on the globes two circles parallel to the equator,
called tropics. That in the northern hemifphere is
called the Tropic of Cancer, as it palTes through the
fign Cancer ; and, for a fimilar reafon, that which is in
the fouthem hemifphere is called the Tropic of Capri-
corn. The two points through which they are drawn
are called foljlitial points. The imaginary line which
correfponds to the tropic of Cancer on the earth paffes
from near Mount Atlas on the weftem coaft of Africa,
pad Syene in Ethiopia : thence, over the Red fea, it
pafles to i\Iount Sinai, by Mecca the city of Mahomet,
acrofs Arabia Felix to the extremity of Perfia, the Eaft
Indies, China, over the Pacific ocean to Mexico, and
the illand of Cuba. The tropic of Capricorn takes a
much lefs interefting courfe, pafling through the country
of the Hottentots, acrofs Brafil, to Paraguay and Peru.

If the poles of the ecliptic be fuppofed to revolve
about the poles of the earth, they will defcribe two
circles parallel to the equator, and 23* 28' diifantfrom it.
Two fuch circles are drawn on the globes, and are call-
ed Folar Circles, that in the north being called the
yirciic Polar Circle, or merely the Arctic Circle, while
that in the fouth is called the Anterciic Polar Circle,
or AntarElic Circle.

^oth the tropics and the polar circles are marked on
the globes by dotted lines, to diHinguiih them from the
other parallels.

The meridional circles that pafs through the equinoc-
tial and folftitial points are called Colures ; the form-
er being called the EquinoBial and the latter the Soljli-
tial Colure.

For an account of the variety of day and night in
different parts of the globe, fee Astronomy, Part II.
ch. i. feft. 2.

By means of the tropics and polar circles, the earth
is fuppofed to be divided into five fpaces, to which the
ancients gave the name of Zones, or Belts. Thus the
fpace included between the two tropics was called the
Torrid Zone, becaufe it was fuppofed to be fo much
heated or roajled by the vertical fur, which there pre-
vails, as to be uninhabitable. The ancient teiins are
iiill occaQor.ally ufcd, but the ccuntrits between the

A P H Y. 517

tropics are now more commonly called the Intratropi- PiincipUs
cal Regions. The two fpaces included between each »"^
tropic and its correfponding polar circle were called P"'^'"'^'^-^
Temperate Zones, and were dilHnguilhed according to '

their pofition into Northern and Southern Temperate
Zones. Lattly, The fpaces between the polar circles
and the poles were called the northern and fouthem
Frigid Zones, and were fuppofed uninhabitable from ex-
ceffive cold. Thefe laft are ufually denominated the
Polar Regions.

The countries lying between the tropics are the Countries
greater part of Africa, the fouthem parts of Arabia, l'f'««"
the eallem and wellem peninfulas of India ; all thofe """ "°P'"'
clullers of iflands lying between the fouthem continent
of Aliaand New Holland, called the Sunda, Molucca,
Philippine, Pelew, Ladrone, and Carolina illands ; the
northern half of New Holland, New Guinea, New
Britain ; moll of the groups of iflands in the Pacific
ocean, as the New Hebrides, New Caledonia, the
Friendly and Society ifles, the Sandwich and Navigators
ifles ; the Weil India illands ; the greater part of South
America ; the Cape de Verd ifl:mds, and thofe of St
Helena, Afcenfion, St Matthew, and St Thomas. See
the map of the world in Plate CCXXXVI, or the plain
chart m Plate CCXXXVII.

All places fituated between the tropics have the fun
vertical twice in the year, at noon ; but the time of the ,

year when this happens is different in the different lati-
tudes ; at the equator, the fun is vertical when he is in
tne equinoilial points, or when he has no declination.
The inhabitants of the other inlratropical regions have
the fun vertical when his declination is equal to their
latitude, and on the fame fide of the equator. Thus,
the inhabitants of New Caledonia, about 20° S. Lat.
have the fun vertical when his decUnation is 20° S.
To illuilrate this, it will be fuihcient to obferve that,
as the ecliptic is that circle in the heavens in which the
fu;i is fuppofed to move, the fun's rays are perpendicu-
lar fuccelfively to every point of the earth which lies be-
low that point of the ecliptic in which the f.m happens
to be, and he will therefore be vertical to all the places
through which the ecliptic (continued to the- earth)
paffes fucceffively. ' g

The inhabitants of the torrid zone have their Ihadows Amphifcii.
at noon day fometimes to the fouth, i. e. when the fun's
declination is north, and fometimes to the north, i. e.
when the fan's declination is fouth. They were there-
fore called by the ancients Amphifcii, from afifi, about,
and (rx«,y7j<7(/o:f. See Amfhiscii and Ascii.

In the north temperate zone are fituated the whole of Countries
Europe except Lapland ; Barbary, and part of Egypt, in thctcm-
in Africa ; nearly the whole continent of Alia ; a great P'^^**' ^''"»'
part of North America ; the Azores, and the Canary
and Madeira illands.

h\ the fouth temperate zone lie the fouthern part of
Africa, the fouthern h?.lf of New Holland, New Zea-
land, and the fouthern part of South America.

In the temperate zones the fun is never vertical, and
the length of the days and nights differs much more
than in the torrid zone. 3^

The inhabitants of thefe regions have their Ihadows lUtcroicu.
at noon always in the fame direflion •, thofe in the
north temperate zone having them dir'Sv'TeJ to the

nfrth

G E O G R

r.orth, and tliofe w. the fouthern zone, toivards the
Ibuth. They were hence called by the ancients He-
terofdi. See Hkterosch.

'I'he countries that are fituated in the northern frigid
zone, are Lapknd, Spitzbcrgen, Nova Zembla, the
iioithem parts of Afia and America, and part of Green-
■ land.

No land has yet been difcovered within the fouth polar
circle, though it was long fuppofed that a large conti-
nent was fituated there, wh.icli was called Terra Ah-
Jlraiu Incognita. Our celebrated navigator Cook
made many attempts to penetrate the icy fields which
abound in thefe feas, in fearch of this imaginary con-
tinent, but without fuccefs, he having penetrated no
farther than 7 2°. See Cook's Di/coveries, N° 49. and

Within the polar circles the lun does not al-.vays rife
or fct every 24 hours as hi the other zones ; but for a
certain number of days in fummer he never fets, and for
a certain number of days in winter he never rifes j the
number of days during which the fun is prefent or ab-
fent increafing from the polar circles to the poles, fo
that at the poles he never fets for fix months, nor rifes
during a like period.

^^'hen the fun contimies above the horizon more
tlian 24 hours, the inhabitants of the polar regions have
their fiiadows call all around them •, and hence they
hsve been called Perifcii. See Periscii.

The ancients did not employ regtdar parallels of la-
titude, but they di^'ided the fpaces between the equator
and the poles into fnnall zones correfponding to the
length of the longeft day in each divifion. To thefe
fubdivilions they gave the name of climates, the fitua-
lion and extent of which they determined in the follow-
ing manner. As the day at the equator is exaftly j 2
liours throughout the year, but the longeft day in-
creafes as we approach the poles, the ancients made the
firft cKmate to end at that latitude where the lon_geft
day was 1 24- hours, which by obfervation they found to
be in tlie latitude of 8° 25'. The fecond climate ex-
tended to latitude 1 6* 25', where the longeft day is 13
hours, and thus a new climate extended, fo as to divide
the whole tract between the equator and the poles into
24 climates, in each of which the longeft day was long-
er by half an hour than in that nearer the equator,
'i'he ipace between the polar circles and the poles tliey
divided into fix climates, in each of which the length
of the longeft day increafed by a month, till at the
poles it was fix months long. Hence, the 24 climates
between the equator and the polar circles are called
Hour Climates ; and the fix between the polar circles
and the poles are called Month Climates. For further
particulars refpeiling tills ancier.t divifion of the
globe, and a table of the climates by Ricclolus, fee
Climate. As the table given under that article is
calculated only for the middle of each climate, and
neither mentions the breadth of each, nor is extended
to all the climates, we fliall here fubjoin one in which
are given the latitude at which each climate terminates,
its breadth in degrees, and the length of the longeft day
'it the parallel terminating each.

A P H Y.

Hovn. CiiMJTSs.

Climates.

Lati

ude.

Breadth.

Lor.geft Dajs

I

8"

25'

8»

25'

12I'

30m

II

16

25

8

•3

III

23

50

7

25

13

30

•IV

30

25

6

30

■14

V

36

28

6

8

14

30

VI

41

22

4

54

15

VII

45

29

4

7

15

30

VIII

49

fc

3

32

16

IX

J2

2

57

16

39

X

54

27

z

29

17

XI

^6

37

2

10

'7

30

XII

58

29

I

58

18

XIII

59

38

I

29

18

30

XIV

61

18

I

20

19

XV

62

25

I

7

19

3^

XVI

63

22

0

52

20

XVII

64

6

0

44

20

30

XVIII

64

49

0

43

21

XIX

65

21

0

32

21

30

XX

65

45

0

26

22

XXI

66

6

0

19

22

3°

XXII

66

20

0

'4

23

XXIII

66

28

0

8

23

30

XXIV

66

3'

0

3

24

MoNTB Climates.

Climates.

Latitude.

Breadth.

Longed Day.

I

II
III

IV

V
VI

67'-" 21'
69 48

73 37
78 30
84 5
90

5 35

5 55

I month.
6

As the divifion of the globe into climates, though pia«es'in
now almoft difufed, is of lervice in ft-.cwing the lengththe north*
of the longeft day in different countries, we fliall here'^''" *^''-
enumerate the principal places in each northern climate, "'■^'^'*
thefe being beft known and moft intereftlng.

I. 1 he Gold and Silver Coafts in Africa ; Malacca
in the Eaft Indies ; and Cayenne and Surinam in South
America.

II. Abyflinia in Africa ; Siam, Madras, and Pondi-
cherry, in the Eaft Indies •, the ifthmus of Darien ;
Tobago, the Grenades, St Vincent, and Barbadoes, in
the V/eft Indies.

III. Mecca in Arabia; Bombay, part of Bengal, in
the Eaft Indies ; Canton in China ; Mexico and the
bay of Campcachy, in North America ; and Jamaica,
Hifpaniola, St Chriftopher's, Antigua, Martinique, and
Guadaloupe, in the Weft Indies.

IV.

Partir. G E O G I

I'lin^ples IV. Egypt and the Canaries in Africa: DclVii, t!;e
^^n.l capital of the Mogul empire, in Afia ; niofi of the gulf
.^"'""' of Mexico, and Eaft Florida, in North America j and
the Havannah in the Welt Iiidiej.

V. Gibraltar; part of fhe Mediterranean fea; the
Earbary coaft in Africa; .Terufalem, Ifpahan, capital
of Periia, and Nankin, in China, in Afia •, and Cali-
fornia, New Mexico, Welt Florida, Georgia, and the
Carolinas in North America.

VI. In Europe, Liftan, Madrid, the iflands of Mi-
norca and Sardinia, and part of Greece or the Morea ;
in ASa. Afia Minor, part of the Cafpian fea, Samar-
cand, Pekin, Corea, and Japan ; and in North America,
Marj-land, Philadelphia, and WilliamlTjurgh in Virgi-

VII. In Europe, the northern provinces of Spain,
the focthern provinces of France, Turin, Genoa, Rome,
and Conftantinople ; in Afia, the rell of the Cafpian,
and part of 'J'artary ; and in North America, Bofton
and Neu- York.

VIII. Paris and Vienna, in Europe ; and New Scot-
land, Newfoundland, and Canada, in North America.

IX. London, Flanders, Prague, Drefden, Cracow, in
Europe ; the fouthern provinces of RulTia and the mid-
dle of Tartary in Afia ; and the northern part of New-
ioundland, in America.

X. Dublin, Yoik, Holland, Hanover, Warfaw ; the
Weil of Tartary, Labrador, and New South Wales, in
fforth America.

XL Newcaftle, Edinburgh, Copenhagen, and Mof-
Cow.

XII. Southern part of Sweden ; and Tobolfk in Si-
beria.

XIIL Stockholm ; and the Orkney ifles.

XIV. Bergen in Norway, and St Peterlturgh.

XV. Hudibn's flraits in North America.

XVI. Moll of Siberia •, and the fouthern parK of
Greenland.

XVII. Drontheim in Norway.

XVIII Part of Finland in the Rudian empire.

XIX. Archangel on the W^hite fea.

XX. Iceland.

XXI. Northern parts of RulTia in Europe, and Si-
beria in Afia.

XXII. New North Wales, in North America.

XXIII. Davis's ftraits, in North America.

XXIV. Samoieda in Afia.

XXV. Northern parts of Lapland.

XXVI. W^eft Greenland.

XXVII. Southern part of Nova Zembla.

XXVIII. Northern part of Nova Zembla.

XXIX. Spitzbergen.

XXX. Unknown.

The only parts of the terredrial globe that we have
yet to defcribe and illuflrate are the ^adrant t.f yilti-
tu(k, and the Wooden Hiri%on ,• and thefe it is neceffary

. A P H Y. 519

to explain, before we proceed to confider the remain- Priiiipits
ing problems performed with this globe. ^"^

Ihe ^mdrant of Altitude is a thin flexible (lip of ^Z^^
brafs, graduated into 90°, and made to fix en any part £6
of the brazen meridian by means of a nut and fcrew. *lua(lrant
Round this nut it moves on a pivot, and by its ilexibi-'''*'"'"^"''
lity may be applied clcfe to the furface of the globe.
The rjuadrant of altitude is ufed to meafure the di-
fiances of places from each other on the terrellrial
globe, and to afcertain the altitudes of the fun, ftar-:,
&c. on the celellial globe.

To r.ieafiire the dijiance between tH'O places on the
globe, nothing more is required than to (Iretch the gra-
duated edge of the quadrant between them, and mark
the number of degrees intercepted. Thefe reduced to
geographical, or to Englilh miles (Ijy N' 63.) give tht-
abfolute distance between the places. It is mod con-
venient to bring one of the places to the zenith, whici;
may be done by reftifying the globe for the .latitude
of that place as immediately to be explained, and then
to llretch the quadrant to the other place, the diftancc
marked, fubtrafted from ^z", gives the true diilance in
degrees. If the dillance required be greater than 90°,
it is proper to reiflify the globe for the antipodes of the
given places, and add the dillance obferved to 90° : the
fum is the dillance required.

It has been very generally Hated that the bearing of
one of the places from the other may be foimd by ob-
ferving, on the wooden horizon, in what pomt of the
compaf. the quadrant of altitude thus fixed in the zenith,
cuts ihc horizon. This is coniidered by Mr Pattcfon as
a miftake : " For (fays he) fuppoiing one of the places
to lie due eaft of the other, they are in the fame paral-
lel of latitude, and confcquently it is impolfible that
the prime vertical of either of them (that is, a circle
cutting the call and well points of the horizon, Ihodld
pafs through the other, unkTs they both lay under the
equator. A line Ihewing the bearings of places is call-
ed a rhumb line. The lines of north and fouth on the
globe, being meridians, and thofe of eall and w-ll, be-
ing parallels of latitude, arc confetiuently circles ; but all
the remaining rhumbs are a kind of fpiral lines." ^ g^

The globes are fupported by a v.ooden frame ending H'ooiUn
above in a broad tiat margin, on which is pailed a pa- horizon,
per marked with feveral graduated circles. This broad
margin is called the wooden horizon, and rcprefcnts the
rational horizon of the cnith, or the limit between the
vifible and the invifible hemifpheres. Oh the paper
v.ith which the wooden horizon is covered, are drawn
four concentric circles. The inncrmoft of thefe is -
divided into 360 degrees, divided into four quadrants.
The fccond circle is marked with the points of the com-
pafs, i. e. the four cardinal points, call, well, north, and
fouth, (d) each being lubLiivided into eight parts or
rhumbs, (fee Compass.) The circle ne.M to that jult
mentioned contains the twelve figns of the zodiac,
dillinguilhcd by their proper names and chiraclcrs j

and

(d) The cardinal points of the compafs are thus determined. The two joints in which the meridian of any
place when produced fo as to pafs through the neareil pole, cuts t*he horizon, (ufing this in an allronomical fenfe,
fee ASTROXO.MY,) arc the north and fcuth points; the former being that point where the meridian firft cuts the
horizon in the northern hemifphere, and the fouth, that where it firll meets the horizon in the fouthern heniifphere.
Again, the two points where a great circle, parting tbtou2h the zenith at right angks with Un meridian, (and

caUed.

GEOGRAPHY.

Part IT.

nd eacii fign is divided into 30 degrees.

The laft
JC to each

To rertify
the globe.

Obliqui
• fphere.

circle fliews the months and days correfp
%"; _

This wooden ring can reprefent the rjtional hovlzoa
of any place marked on the terrellrial globe only, when
that place is fituated in the zenith •, and the method of
bringing the place into this fituation is called reilifijhig
the globe.

Probleji VIII. To reaifij the g/'ihe according to the
latitude of any place.

Find the latitude of the place, (by Problem I.) and
fee whether it be north or fouth. Then elevate the
pole of the globe ^vhich is in the fame hemifphere wth
the latitude, as far above the wooden horizon as is
equal to the latitude ; bring the given place to the bra-
zen meridian, and it will be in the zenith.

Example. To redify the globe for the latitude of
Edinburgh. The latitude of Edinburgh is 55' 58' N.
therefore raife the north pole $f 58' above the horizon,
and bring Edinburgh below the brafs meridian.

It IS for the purpofe of more eafily reftifying the
globe, that one half of the brazen meridian is graduated
from the poles to the equator ; as, where this is not
done, it is neceffary to take the complement of the la-
titude, or the difference between it and 90°, which in
fome cafes requires a calculation.

The place being brought below the meridian, when
the pole is elevated to the proper degree, it is evidently
in the zenith, or 90° diftant every way from the hori-
zon. Thus, in the above example, if we count the de-
grees from that part of the meridian below which
Edinburgh is fituated, we (hall find that they amount
to 90° each way •, for counting from Edinburgh along
the meridian to the north pole, we have 34° 2' ;
which added to 55° 58' the elevation of the poles gives
90* on that fide. A^ain, counting from the fame point
of the meridian towards the foiithern part of the hori-
zon; we have 55° 58', as far as the equator, and 34°
2' from thence to the horizon, making, as before, 90°,
and as the graduated edge of the meridian is 90" both
from the eallern and wellern fide of the horizon, Edin-
burgh, in this fituation of the globe, is in the zenith.

When either of the poles of the globe is thus cle-
vated above the horizon, fo as not to be in the zenith,
the globe is faid to be in the pofition of an oblique
fphere, in which the equator and all its parallels are un-
equally divided by the horizon. This Is the moft com-
mon fituation of the earth, or it is the fituation which it
has v/ith refpeft to all its inhabitants, except thofe at the
equator and the poles. To the inhabitants of an ob-
lique fphere the pole of their hemifphere is elevated
above the horizon as many degrees as are equal to their
latitude, and the oppofite pole is deprefled as much be-
low the horizon, fo that the ftars only at the former
:ire feen ; the fun and all the heavenly bodies rife and
fet obliquely, the fealons are variable, and the days and
nights unequal. This pofition of the fphere is repre-
fcnted at fig. 6. where the equator EQ^, and the paral-

Prartice

lels cut the horizon HO obliquely, and the axis PS is Principle?
inclined to it. Hence this poiition Is called ohliqu

If the globe is placed in fuch a pofition that any ,

point of the equator is in the zenith, it is fald to be in .^
the pofition of a ri^yht or direB ffihtre, becaufe the equa- Riglit
tor and its paralU-ls are vertical, or over the horizon at fphere.
right angles. Tl.is pofition is fecn at fig. 7. where the
axis PS is in the plane of the horizon, and the equator
EQ^ is in a plane perpendicular to it. The inha-
bitants of fuch a fphere, which are the inhabitants of
the earth below tlie line, have no elevation of the poles,
and confequcntly no latitude : they can fee the ftars at
both poles •, all the ftars rife, culminate, and fet to
them ; and the fun always moves in a cturve at right
angles to their horizon, and Is an equal number of hours
above and below it, making the days and nights always
equal.

If the globe be fo placed that one of the poles is in Parallel
the zenith, and confequently the other in the nadir, it fphere.
is in the pofition of a parallel fphere ; fo called becaufe
the equator EQ^ (fig. 8.) coincides with the horizon,
and the pnrallels are of courfe parallel to it ; while all
the meridians cut the horizon at right angles. The in-
habitants of a fphere, in this pofition, have the greatefl
poflible latitude ; the ftars, which are fituated in the
hemifphere to which the inhabitants belong, never fet,
but defcribe circles all around ; while thofe of the con-
trary hemifphere never rife : the fun is above the hori-
zon for fix months, during which it is day, and is, be-
low the horizon for an equal interval, ivhen it is
night.

The wooden horizon is a neceffary part of the appa-
ratus of both globes ; but it has been fliewn, that in the
terreftrial globe, it can reprefent the rational horizon of
a place, only when the globe is reilified for the latitude'
of that place. In the celeftial globe, it rcprefents the
rational horizon in all pofitlons.

In Adams's globes there is a thin brafs femicircle
NHS (fig. 5.) that is moveable about the poles, and
has a fmall thin circle N Aiding on it. This femicircle
is graduated Into two quadrants, the degrees of which
are marked both ways from the equator to the poles in
the terreftrial globe : this femicircle reprefents a move-
able meridian ; and the fmall Aiding circle, which is
marked with a few of the points of the compafs, is
called a •uifible hori'&on, the ufe of which will appear
prefently.

Before we proceed to the remaining problems on the
terreftrial globe, it vAW be proper to take notice of fome
geographical principles that are connefted with the ho-

It is evident, that the extent of the fenfible horizon
of an oblervcr depends on the height of his eye above
the level furface of the earth. An eye placed on the
furface of the earth fees fcarcely any thing around it ;
but if it is elevated above that furface, it fees farther in
proportion to Its elevation, provided always that its
view is not obftrufted by intervening objefts. Thus, in
an extenfive plain, the eye can fee Farther, if elevated

called the prime vertical) cuts the horizon, are the eaft and weft points ; the former being on the left hand of «
perfon facing the fun at noonday, while the latter is on his right hand.

rtll.

GEOGRAPHY.

principles

and
Prartice.

Horizon of
of the fea.

to a proper height, than it can from the fame height In
a to^^•n or among liilh ; and, at fea, where the furface
is perfcftly equal, the view is in proportion to the height
of the eye. It becomes an intcrefting problem to afcer-
tain the extent of the vifible horizon, or the diftance to
which a pcrfon can fee at any given height of the eye ;
as, when this is known, we can calculate pretty accu-
rately the dillance of an object feen from fuch a height,
as land fecn from the topmaft of a fliip at fea.

For folving this problem, it mull be remarked, that
the alliance of an obferver from the boundary of the ho-
rizon, or from a diftant objeft, is different when mea-
fured along the furface of the earth, and when nieafured
in a direfi line. To illullrate this, let HDN (fig. 9.)
reprefent a feftion of the earth, of which C is the cen-
tre, and let D be the fituation of an obferver, whofe
eye is elevated to B. The lines BA, BE, tangents
to the curve at H and E, reprefent the limit of the vi-
fible horizon, or the radii of the circle circumfcribing
vifion. If the eye were elevated ftill higher, as to G,
it is evident, that the extent of the vifible horizon will
be increafed, being now reprcfented by the tangent GF.
The length of the tangent BA, or GF, is eafily found
by plane trigonometry (e).

It was remarked above, that the vifible horizon is
mod diftincl at fea, from the abfence of thofe objecls
which obftruft vifion on land. Hence the fenfible ho-
rizon is fometimes called the horizon of the fea, and
this may be obferved by looking through the fights of
a quadrant at the moll diftant part of the fea. In mak-
ing this obfervation, the vifual rays BA, or GF, by
reafon of the fpherical furface of the fea, always extend
a little below the true fenfible horizon SS, and confe-
quently below the rational horizon HN, which i> paral-
lel to it. Hence the quadrant (liews the depreiTion of
tlie horizon of the fea lower than it really is ; and it is
obvious from the figure, that the higher the eye is fitu-
ated, the greater muft be this dcpreffion. Thus, the
depreflion, when the eye is at G, marked by GF, is
evidently much greater than that marked by BE, when
the eye is at B. The depreffion of the horizon of the
fea is not always the fame, though there be no variation
in the height of the eye ; but the difference in this cafe

Vol. IX. Part II.

is very final!, amoimting only to a few feconds, and is Principles
owing to a difference of the degree of refradion in the "**
atmolphere. Were there no rcfraftion, the vifual ray ' "^'' .
would be BE (when the eye is at B), and E would be
the moft diftant point ; but, by reafon of the refradicn,
a point on the furfav;e of the earth beyond E, as F,
may be feen by an eye fituated no higher than B ; and
if the refraftion were ftill greater, a ftill more diftant
point might Ije obferved. 04

It will be neceffary here to anticipate a few remarks Difference
refpefting the difference between the apparent and true t"^'""^'-'"
levels ; a fubjed that mil be more fully difcuffed under '^'^'P^^'
Levelling. Two or more jdaces art on a true level, ^xac level,
when they are equally diftant from the centre of the
earth, and one place is higher than another, or above
the true level, when it is farther from the centre of the
earth. A line that is equally diftant in all its points
from the centre, is called the line of true level, and it
is evident that this line muft be curved ; and either
makepart of the earth's furface, or be concentricalwith it.
Thus the line DAO, which has all its points, D, A, O,
equally diftant from the centre C, is the line of true le-
vi:. But the line of fight DMP, as given by the ope-
ration of a level, i-> a ftraight line, %vhich is a tangent
to the earth's furface at D, always fifing higher above
the true line of level, according as it extends to a
greater diftance. This ftraight line is called the line
of apparent level. Thus MA is the height of the ap-
parent level above the true at the diftance DA, and
OP is the excefs of the apparent above the true level,
at the diftance DO.

The follo^ving table was conftrudled by Caffmi, for
the purpofe of ftiewing the excefs of the apparent above
the true level at various diftances from the point of ob-
fervation. It confifts of three columns, in the firft of
which the diftance of the obferved objciS from the place
of obfervation is given, from one fecond to 60 minutes,
or a degree. In the fecond is given the length of the
arc meafured on a great circle of the earth, that corre-
fponds to the obferved diftance, in feet and inches ; and
in the third is given the height of the apparent above
the true level in feet and inches, correfponding to each
obferved and real diftance of the objcft.
3U

(e) In the right-angled triangle ACB (fig. 9.), the length of CB is given, fuppofing the height of the eye
BD to be 6 feet; for adding 6 feet to 19,943,400 feet, the length of the femidiameter of the earth, we have
19,943,406 feet for the length of BC. Then, making the hypothenufe CB radius, we fliall havi-, As radius to
the fine of the angle BCA, fo is CB to BA ; and this %vill be nearly the fame as the arc DA. Again, without
finding the quantity of the angle at C, BA may be found, by confidering that BA' is equal to the difference of
the fquares of CB and CA, i. e. BA'=:CB=— CA'= (CB-f CA) X (CB— CA)=CB + CA into BD ; and
hence B A = v'(CB+ CA) X BD.

To illuftrate the laft in numbers, we have CB= i9,94S,4o6 feet, and CA= 1 9,943,4.00 feet. Then, to find
BA, we have 19.943,406 + 19,943,400 (=39,856,8=6) X 19-943.406—19,943,400 (=6) = 239,320,836}
whence BA =: V" 239, 320,^36=:! 5470 feet nearly, or about three miles.

The diftance, to which a perfon can fee, Is found to vary as the fquare root of the altitude of the eye. To
find a general expreffion for this quantity,

let a be the altitude of the eye in feet,
d the diftance at that altitude in miles ;

then wc have \^6 : V^=:3 : d=i-^=^ x ^^=I.2247 X '^^. Hence, we deduce this general rule : Multiply the

/quare root of the height of the eye in feet by J. 2247, and the produil will be the dijlantt to whUh we can fee

from

GEOGRAPHY.

Seconds.

Ftet.

Incn

Irrl,.

r~

101

6.8

2

203

1.6

3

334

8.4

4

406

3-2

J

507

ICO

0074

6

6c9

4.8

-

710

11.6

8

812

6.4

9

914

1.2

10

1015

8.0

0.296

II

1 1 17

2.8

12

1218

9.6

13

1320

4-4

'4

1421

II. 2

'5

J 523

6.0

i6

1625

0.8

I ~

1-26

7.6

i8

1828

2.4

'9

.929

9.2

20

203.

4.0

1. 186

21

21^2

10.8

22

2234

5-6

23

2336

0.4

A

2437

7-2

25

25^9

2.0

26

2640

8.8

27

2742

3-6

28

2843

10.4

29

2945

5-2

30

3047

0.0

2.670

31

3148

6.8

32

3250

1.6

33

3351

8.4

34

3453

3-2

3S

3554

1 0.0

36

3656

4.8

37

3757

3 1.6

38

3^59

6.4

39

3961

1.2

40

4062

8.0

4.746

41

4164

2.8

42

4265

9.6

43

4367

4-4

44

4468

II. 2

45

4570

6.0

46

4672

0.8

47

4773

7.6

48

4875

2.4

49

4976

9.2

5°

5078

4.0

7.4C9

51

5179

10.8

5^

528.

5-6

53

5383

0.4

54

5484

7.2

55

5586

2.0

56

5687

8.8

57

5789

3-6

58

5890

1C.4

59

5092

5.2

60

6094

0.0

10.680

Mn.ute-

Feet.

Feirt.

Inch.

,

6094

0"

io.68o

2

12188

3

6.580

3

182^2

7

,,.8.3

4

24376

14

1.8.2

5

3 = 470

22

^■93^

6

36564

3'

11.412

7

42658

42

5-436

8

48752

56

9384

9

54846

9.876

10

6C940

88

7.728

11

67-34

.07

2.940

I 2

73.28

.27

7-5'2

13

79222

149

9-444

85316

■73

8.736

15

91410

199

4.320

16

97504

226

9.264

17

J 03598

-55

11.568

18

IC9692

286

11.232

19

"^if

3'9

7.188

20

121880

354

0.504

21

127974

390

4.248

22

134068

^fo

5-352

23

140162

468

10.224

24

146256

510

6.084

25

152350

553

11.232

26

158444

599

1.776

27

164538

646

1.680

28

170632

694

10.944

29

.76726

745

5.568

30

182820

797

8.484

31

1889.4

851

9.828

32

195008

907

8.532

33

201102

965

3-528

34

207.96

1024

7.884

35

2.3290

1C85

9.600

36

2.9384

.148

8.676

37

225478

1213

5.112

38

231572

1277

10.908

39

237666

1348

2.064

40

243760

1417

..764

41

249854

1496

11.3S8

42

255948

1^69

10.452

43

262042

1638

9.084

44

268136

1716

0.108

45

274230

1794

11.424

46

280324

1875

7.032

47

286418

1958

0 000

48

292512

2042

2.328

49

298606

2.28

2.016

50

304700

2215

6.791

51

310794

2305

5-472

52

3.6888

3396

9.240

53

322982

24S9

10.S68

54

329076

2584

8.856

55

335170

2681

4.704

56

34.264

2779

9.912

57

347358

2880

0.480

58

353452

2982

0.408

59

35'' -46

3=85

8.628

60

365640

3^9'

2.208

Jrom thai height In miles. E.\amplc. Lit the height of the eye be 49 feet. Multiply the fcjuare root of 49 or 7,

by 1.2247, and we have 8.5729 or about 8j miles for the diftar.ee to which the eye can fee at the height

f 49 feet.
From

Part II.

G E O G R A P M Y.

Praclice.

Principles The above table will aiiTwer feveral ufefiil purpofes.
'■"^. In the firrt place, the height of the apparent level above
'"^ "^° , the true may be found by it at any dillance, from one
fecond to one degree, or 69x5 rniles. Thus, at the di-
ftance of 3o'=about ^^ miles, we have 182820 feet for
the length of the arch of a great circle on the earth,
an.d correfpondlng to this we have 797 feet 8 inches
484 parts for the excefs of the apparent level above the
true. 2. The extent of the vifible horizon correfpond-
ing to any height of the eye, may be found from the
table by obfervation. The femidiameter of the horizon
does not fenfibly differ from an arc of a great circle on
the earth, containing as many minutes and feconds as
are equal to the angle of depreflion obferved, and the
number of feet contained in fuch an arc may be found
in the table. Thus, if the depreflion, as obferved by
obfervation, be 40", its femidiameter is alfo about 40",
and the length of the arc correfponding to it is 243,760
feet.

The following table, alfo taken from Caffini, (hews
the different depreflions of the horizon of the fea at dif-
ferent heights of the eye, both by obfervation and cal-
culation ; with the difference bet^vixt the t^vo occafion-
ed by refraclion.

TAe height of the eye above
thefurface of the fea.

Feet. Inches.

II57 6,9

Difference by refraflion

The depreffion of the ho-
rizon of the fea.

32 30
.36 18

by obfer\'ation
by calculation

3 48

775 2,3

f 27 0 by obfervation
\ 29 id by calculation

Difference by refracftion

236

571 11,0

"24 0 by obfervation
'25 25 by calculation

Difference by refraclion

I 25

387 3.4

ri9 45 by obfervation
"^20 54 by calculation

Difference by refra6lion

I 9

288 4,3

Difference by refrafli

by obfervation
by calculation

The height of the eye above The depreffion of the ho

thefurface ofthefe
Fe<t. Inches.

187 0,9

Difference by refraflion

rizon of the fea.

("13 o by
1 14 41 by

obfervation
calculation

9 7.3

Difference by refraction

\ 3 2^ by
I 3 18 by

oblcr\'ation
calculation

In the above table, the depreflion, as eflimated by
calculation, is greater than that by obfervation in every
cafe except the lad, in which the latter is greater by
two feconds than the former ; but this difference wa-i
too fmall to be difcovered by the inllrument that Caf-
fini employed.

Refraftion leffens the angle of depreffion, by raifing the
objeiSls obferve 1 ; but as this refraiflion is itfelf variable,
the depreflion and extent of the horizon alfo vary. We
are informed by Caflini, that even in the fineft weather
he obferved the refraftion to differ at the lame hour of
different days, and at different hours of the fame day.
The truth of this obfervation may be eafily afcertained
by looking through a telefcope furniflied with crofs
•hairs, and fixed in fuch a pofltion that fome highly ele-
vated objeft, as the weathercock of a fteeple, may be
feen through it ; for, on obferving the weathercock at
different times of the day, it will be feen fometiraes on
the centre of the obje£l-glafs ; fometimes above, and
fometimes below it. A iimilar experiment may alfo be
made with plane lights fixed on a crofs-ftaff. It has
long been obferved, that the top of a dillant hill may
fometimes, when the refraclion is very great, be di-
ftindlly feen from a fituation from which, at other times,
when the refradlion is much lefs, it is not difcerniblc,
even though the Iky be very clear.

Many of the following problems may feem to belong
to the celellial rather than the terrcllrial globe ; but as
they may be folved equally well by means of both, and
as perfons not uncommonly poffefs a terreftrial globe
without its ufual companion, we (hall throw as many
problems as poffible under this head,

95
Problem IX. To fnJ the fun^s place in the ecliptic forf'Memi
any fiven time. rcfpc<;ilnE

■^ ^ the lun.

Find the d.iy of the month in the calendar on the

wooden horizon ; and oppofite to it, in the adjoining

circle, will be found the fign and degree in which the

3 U 2 fun

From the above, it is eafy to deduce the method of computing the diflance of any objeft feen in the horizon
from a certain height. Thus, fuppofe a man at the mad-head, 130 feet above the water, fees land or a ihip jull
coming in fight. We know, that, at this height, an eye can fee 14 miles, confequently the objccl feen will be
about 14 miles or about five leagues diflant. If the objecfl is within the horizon, or nearer the place of obfer\-a-
tion, its diflance may be calculated pretty exacflly, by defcending from the mall-head till the objcfl juft come?
10 the horizon ; meafuring the height at v.-hich this takes place, and thence computing the diflance.

524 G E O G R

Principles fun is on the given day. Then look for the fame fign
3nd 3„j Jegree in the circle of the ecliptic drawn on the
■ globe, and tliat is the fun's place at noon for the given

time.

Ex. I . What is the fun's place on the 4th of June ?
^iif. In 13* 57' of the fign Gemini.

Ex. 2. Required the fun's place for the firll day
of every calendar month ?

For January >y u" 23'

February ZZ 12 35

March K II 9

April f^ I I 56

May a tl 14

June n II 3

July SB 9° 4-

Auguft S^ 9 18
September ttji 9 9
Oaober =£i 8 27
November tri 9 16
December / 9 35

Problem X. To find the flirt's declination for any gi-
ven time.

Find the fun's place for the giveu day by Prob. X.
and bring it to the brazen meridian. The degree
marked on the meridian immediately over the place is
the declination required.

Ex. Required the fun's declination for I 8th March >
The fun's place for the given day is 20° 7' of H 5 and
this being brought to the meridian, will be immediate-
ly below 3" 54' S. which is therefore the declination
required.

From the above example, it is evident that the me-
thod of finding the declination of the fun correfponds to
that of finding the latitude of a place on the globe, gi-
ven in Problem I. the fun's declination being meafured
in the fame way by an arc of the meridian interpofed
between the equator and the fun's place in the eclip-
tic (K).

Problem XI. To reElify the globe for thefun''s place
and the day of the month'

Find the fun's declination for the given day, by
Problem XI. -, then elevate the pole that is in the fame
hemifphere uith the degree of decUnation, as many de-
grees as are equal to the declination.

Ex. Redify the globe for the fun's place on the 6th
Oftober ? Jlnf. The fun's declination on that day is
5° S. therefore the fouth pole mull be elevated 5° above
the horizon.

Reflifying the globe for the fun's declination corre-
fponds to the reiflifying of it for the latitude of a given
place. See N* 88.

Problem XII. To find the time of the fun's rifing and
• fetting at a given place, for any given day.
Reftify the globe for the declination on the given
day, and bring the given place to the meridian, and
fet the index of the hour circle at XII. Turn the
globe, till the given place come to the eaftern edge of
the horizon, and the time of funrife will be Ihewn by
the pofition of the index. Then turn the globe till the
given place come to the weftem part of the horizon,
and the pofition of the index will point out the time of
funfet.

A P H Y. Part 11.

To perform the fame problem by Adams's globes. Principles

Reftify the globe for the dec'iination, bring the gi- ^'"^
ven place to the meridian, and fet the horary index at ,

12 as before; then turn the globe towards the weft,
till the given place reach the weftern edge of the hori-
zon, and the index will point to the time of funrife.
The time of funfet will be kno^vn, in like manner, by
bringing the place to the eaftern iide of the horizon.

If the hour circle in the ordinary globes has a double
row of figures, the fun's rifing and fetting may be found
at the fame time ; for if the place be brought to the
eaftern part of the horizon, the time of funrife will be
fliewn by the index, in that circle where the hours in-
creafe towards the eaft ; and the time cut by the index
in tlie circle where the hours increafe towards the weft,
will fliow the time of funfet.

Ex. I . Required the time of the fun's rifing and fet-
ting at London, on the 29th Auguft ? jinf. The fun
riles at nine minutes after five, and fets nine minutes
before feven.

£x. 2. Required the time of funrife and funfet at E-
dinburgh on the iftol June? ^nf. For funrife, 27 mi-
nutes after three ; for funfet, 33 minutes after eight.

Corollary. From this problem we may eafily find
the length of the day and night for any given time ;
for, having found by the globe the time of funrife and
funfet, the double of the latter is the length of the day,
and the double of the former the length of the night.

Problem XIII. To find the fin'' s meridian altitude on
any given day, at a given place.

Reftify the globe for the latitude of the given place,
by Problem VIII. J find the fun's place on the given
day by Problem IX. and bring it to the brazen meri-
dian. Then fix the quadrant of altitude in the zenith,
or over the given place, and bring it over the fun's
place ; and the degree of the quadrant lying over the
fun's place will Ihew the meridian altitude.

If the globe has no quadrant of altitude, the fun's
meridian altitude may be found by counting the num-
ber of degrees on the meridian, between the horizon
and the lun's place.

Ex. Required the fun's meridian altitude at Edin-
burgh on the 2lrt of June ? Anf. 57° 30', or the
greateft poflible, this being the fummer lolftice.

Corollary. It may be known whether the fun's
meridian altitude be north or fouth, by the following
obfervations. When the fun's declination and the lati-
tude of the place are of different names, i. e. the one
north and the other fouth, the meridian altitude is of
the fame name with the declination. If the declination
and latitude be both north or both fouth, the :dtitude is
of the fame name with the declination, if the latter be
the greater ; but, otherwife, the altitude is of an oppo-
fite name.

Problem XIV. Having the latitude of the place and the
day of the month given, to find the fun''s altitude for
any given liour.
Reftify the globe for the latitude ; find the fun's

place, and bring it to the meridian, and fet the horary

index

(f) For a table of the fun's declination correfponding to his true place, fee Vol.

Fart

Punc.

IT.

G E O G R

i index to noon ; turn the pjlobe till the index point to

the given hour, then fix the quadrant of altitude in the
^ zenith, and bring its graduated edge over the fun's

place, and the degree cut by the fun's place will be the

altitude required.

£v. What will be the fun's altittide at lo o'clock

A. M. on the 30th of November at Edinburgh ?

^nf. 8* 50'.

Problem XV. Having the fun''! meridian altitude gi
ven at anij place, tojind the latitude of the place.

Bring the fun's place for the given day to the meri-
dian, and move the globe in the horizon till the dif-
tance between the fun's place and the northern or fouth-
ern edge of the horizon, (according as the cafe may re-
quire), be equal to the given altitude. The degree of
elevation of the pole will ihevv the latitude required.

^v. The fun's meridian altitude ohicrved at a cer-
tain place on 5th Auguft is 74° 24' N. What is the la-
titude of the place i" l^nf. \° 36' N.

Problem XVI. The latitude of the place and the daij

of the moath being given, to find when the fun is due

eafl or due weft.

Rectify the globe for the latitude of the place, bring
the fun's place to the meridian, and fet the index to
Xir. Fix the quadrant of altitude in the zenith, and
if the fun's declination be of the fame name with the
latitude, bring the graduated edge of the quadrant to
the eaftern fide of the horizon ; but if the declination is
of a different name from the latitude, bring the qua-
drant to the weftern part of the horizon. Turn the
globe till the fun's place in the ecliptic come below the
edge of the quadrant, and the index will point to the
hour when the fun is due ealt. Subtrad this from XII.
and the remainder Ihews the time when the fun is due
weft.

^.Y. At what hours is the fun due eaft and weft at
the fummer and winter folftice at Greenwich ? Anf. At
the fummer folftice he is due eaft at 20 minutes part fe-
ven, and due weft at 20 minutes before five. At the
winter folftice he is due eaft at 20 minutes before five,
and due weft at 20 minutes paft feven.

Corollary. When the declination and latitude
are of the fame name, the fun is due eaft after rifing ;
but when the declination and latitude are of different
names, he is due eaft before rifing. As it is not con-
venient to obferve on the globe when the fun is due
eaft before riling, or while he is under the horizon, it
is better to bring the oppofite point of the ecliptic due
weft, and then the index ftiews the time when he is due
eaft.

Problem XVII. Having a place in the torrid zone

given, to find on what livo days of the year the fun is

vertical at that place.

Find the latitude of the given place, and keeping
that in view, turn the globe round, noting the two
points at the ecliptic that pafs below the degree of lati-
tude. Find in the calendar circle of the horizon the
days correfponding to thofe points of the ecliptic ; and
thefe are the days on which the fun is vertical at the
given place.

Ex, I. On what days Is the fun vertical at St "He-

Anf. On 6th February Principles

A P H Y.

lcr.3, in latitude 15° jj' S
and 6th November.

Ex. 2. Required the days on which the fun is v«r. '''"^''
tical at Tobago, in latitude u" 29' N > Anf On A- ^
pnl 19. and Auguft 23. • .

Problem XVIII. Jo fnd thofe places irl the tori-id
■zone where the fun is vertical on a given .'lay.

Find the fun's place for the given day, and bring it
to the brazen meridian ; then turn the globe, and note
all the places which pafs under that point of the meri-
dian : thefe will be the places to which the fun is verti-
cal on the given day.

Ex. I. In what places is the fun vertical Rt'the fum-
mer folftice > Anf. At Canton in China, at Calcutta
in Bengal, at Mecca in Arabia, and at the Havan-
nah.

Av. 2. To what places is the fun vertical on the 1 6th
of May and 29th of July ? Anf. At Bombay, Pegu,
in the northern part of Manilla,' in the middle of the
Ladrone illands, at O^vhyhee, Mexico, in Hifpaniola,
and at Tombucloo in the central parts of Africa.

Problem XIX. Having the day and hour at any given
place, to find where the fun is then vertical.

Find the fun's declination by Problem XI. and the
places where it is noon at the given time, by Problem
III. ; then any of thofe places where it is noon, whofe
latitiide is the fame as the fun's declination, will have
the fun vertical at the given time.

E\: On the ift of Auguft at Edinburgh, it being
35 minutes paft four, P. M. it is required to find where
the fun is vertical ? Anf. The fun's declination on that
day is 18° 1 4' N. and the place where it is noon at the
given time, that lies neareft in latitude to the declina-
tion, is Kingftou in Jamaica : this, therefore, is the
place required.

Problem XX. /^ place in the northern frigid -zone
being given, to find when the fun begins 'to appear
above the horizon, and when to difappear ; as alfo the
length of the longefi day and night.
Reftify the globe for the latitude, and bring the
afcending figns of the zodiac (fee Astronomy, N''52)
to the fouthern part of the horizon ; obferve what de-
gree of the ecliptic is interfec^ed by that point of the
horizon, and in the calendar circle find the day of the
inonth anftvering to that degree. I'hat will ftiew the
time of the fun's firft appearance above the horizon at
the given place, and this is the end of the longeft night -
in that latitude. Then bring the defending figns to the
fame part of the horizon, and obferve the day which
anfwers to the degree of the ecliptic interfctled-, this will
ftew the time of the fun's difappearance, or the begin-
ning of the longeft night. Now bring the alcending
figns to the northern part of the horizon, and obferve
the degree of the ecliptic, and the correfponding
day as before, which will give '.he time when the
fun begins to ftiine continually, or the beginning of
the longeft day. Again, bring the defccnding figns to
the fame point, and thus will be given the time when
the fun ceafcs to ftiine continually, or the end of the
longeft day.

Ex. At what time docs the fun begin to appear
ab..-t

G E O G

above tl)e liorizon at Norlli Cape in Lapland, tlie lati-
tude of which is 72° N. ? When does he difappear, and
how long is he entirely ablent during the longell night ?
jdnr. He begins to appear on the 26th of January, and
entirely dilappears on the 16th of November j he is
therefore abfent for 7 1 days.

Cor. From the fun's firft appearance at the end of
the longeft night to the beginning of the longeft day,
and from the end of the longell day to the fun's total
difappearance at the beginning of the longeft night, he
lifes and fets every day.

96
Problems
refpei^irg
the c!i.

%vhat part of the northern
to Jhine continually on a

the given day, and
der \vill ihevv the la-

Problem XXI. To fnul i.

frigid 'Zone the fun begin

given datj.

Find the fun's declinatic
fubtraft this from 90°, the
titude required.

Note. — The given day muft be between the 21ft of
March and the 21ft of June, as at no other time does
the fun begin to fhine continually in the northern frigid

Ex. Required the latitude in which the fun begins
to fliine without fetting on the ift of June ? Anf. The
lun's declination for that day is 22° N. and this fubtraft-
ed from po° leaves 68° N. the latitude required.

Problem. XXII. The length of the longeft day in any

place being given, to find the latitude of that place.

Bring the tirfl degree of Cancer to the meridian, and
fet the horary index at noon. Then turn the globe
towards the welf, till the index point to the hour of fun-
fet, or half of the length of the given day ; raife or
deprefs the pole, till the fun's place in the ecliptic is ex-
aftly in the weftern edge of the horizon. The eleva-
tion thus obtained will be equal to the required lati-
tude.

In Adams's globes, after bringing the firft degree of
Cancer to the meridian, and fetting the index to noon,
the globe muft be turned towards the weft, till the in-
dex Ihew the time of funfet, and the fun's place muft
be brought to the eaftem fide of the horizon.

Ex. In what latitude is the longeft day 1 8 hours
long ? Anf. In latitude 58° 30' N.

By this problem the limits of the hour climates may
be pretty nearly afcertained.

Problem XXIII. To find the latitudes of thofe places

in the frigid zone where the fun is continually above

the horizon for a given number of days.

Count from the firft degree of Cancer towards the
neareft equinoftial point, as many degrees as is equal to
half the given number of days •, bring the point thus
obtained below the meridian, and note the degree of
the meridian which it interfefts. This fubtrafted from
90° will leave a remainder that is nearly equal to the
latitude of the place.

Ex. In what latitude does the fun never fet during
76 days? ■''Inf. In latitude 71° 30', or very near the
fouthern part of Nova Zembla.

AW. — This problem cannot be performed accurately
by the globe ; for as the fun requires j^6^ days fix
hours to move through the wl.ole 360° of the ecliptic,
he does not advance quite a degree in 14 hours.

R A P H Y.

By this problem the limits of the month climates may
be pretty nearly afcertained.

Problem XXIV. The hour and day being given at any '
place, to find in what places the fun is rifing, and in
ivhat he is fetting ; -where it is noon, and "where mid-
night.

Find by Problem XIX. the place to which the fun is
vertical at the given time ; retlify the globe for the
latitude of that place, and bring the place below the
meridian. In this pofition of the globe all thofe places
that lie within the weftern edge of the horizon will
have the fun rifing, and all thofe which are in the
caftern edge of the horizon will have it letting. Again,
to thofe places which lie under the upper femicircle of
the brazen meridian, it ^vill be noon ; and to thofe
which lie beloiv the lower femicircle, it will be mid-
night.

F.x. Suppofe it to be four o'clock P. M. on the
4th of June at London ; where is the fun at that time
riling, and where is he fetting ; to wliat places is it
noon, and to what midnight ? yJnf. The north-eaftern
part of Siberia, Kamtfchatkn, the moft weftern of the
Sandwich iftes, and the moft eaftern of the Society illes,
are within the weftern edge of the horizon, and confe-
quently to thefe the fun is rifing. At Tobolfli, in the
Cafpian fea, in the defert of Arabia, in the middle of
the Red fea, in Abyftinia, in the central parts of Af-
rica, and in the country of the Hottentots, the fun will
be letting, as thefe places lie \vithin the eaftern edge of
the horizon. New Britain, the illands of Martinique
and Trinidad, and the middle part of South America,
which lie below the upper femicircle of the meridian,
have noon •, and Chinefe Tartary, the eaftern part of
China, the Philippine ifles, and the weftern part of
New Holland, wliich are fituated below the under edge
of the femicircle, have midnight.

As the remaining problems on the terrcftrial globe On tv
chielly refpeil the continuance of twilight, it is proper, light,
before we proceed, to make a few remarks on this fub-
jeft. For the explanation of the term, fee Crepusculum
and Twilight.

The Crepufculum, or Twilight, it is fuppofed, ufually
begins and ends when the fun is about 18' below the
horizon ; for then the ftars of the 6th magnitude difap-
pear in the morning, and appear in the evening. It is
of longer duration in the folftlces than in the equinoxes,
and longer in an oblique fphere than in a right one ;
becaufe in thofe cafes the fun, by the obliquity of his
path, is longer in afcending through 18° of latitude.

Twilight is occafioned by the fun's rays refrafted in
our atmofphere, and relieved from the particles of it to
the eye. For let A (fig. 10.) be the place of an ob-
ferver on the earth ADL, AB the fenfible horizon,
meeting in B the circle CBM bounding that part of
the atmofphere which is capable of refrafling and re-
fledling light to the eye. It is plain that when the fun
is under this horizon, no direct rays can come to the
eye at A : but the fun being in the refracted line CG,
the particle C will be illuminated by the direct rays
of the fun ; and that particle may refteft thofe rays
to A, where they enter the eye of the fpeftator. And
thus the fun's light illuminating an innumerable multi-
tude of particles, may be all rclleded to the fpeftatcr at

A.
I

527

of davs before I'rin:i|.loj

GEOGRAPHY.

A. From B draw BD touching the circlg ADL in novth it continues for a certain number

D, and let the fun be at S in the line AD ; then the and after the fummer fohtice.
ray SB will be retlected into the fituation BA, and Near the north pole there is continual twilioht from . ^"f "^'j

will enter the eye, becaul'e from a principle in optics the 22d of September, the time of the fun's permanent *~~

the an^leof hicidcnce DRC is equal to the angle of abfence, to the i 2th of November. It then ceafes till

'J'his ray SB, or BA, about the pih of January, when it again appears, and

' ■' ■ ' continues till the 2 111 of March, the time of the fun's

refieaion ABE. Sec Oftk

will therefore be the firll that reaches the eye at dawn
in the morning, and the lail that falls on the eye at
night, when twilight ceafes, becaufe as the fun gets
lower down, the particles of the air at B will no longer
be illuniinuted.

The depth of the fun below the horizon at the begin-
ning of the morning or end of the evening twilight, is
determined by obferving the moment when the air firil
begins to fhine in the morning, or ceafes to (liine in tl^e
evening ; then finding the lun's place for that time,
and hence the time till his riling in the horizon, or af-
ter his difappjarance btloiv. This depth of the fun
belovc the horizon has been variouily llated by different
ailronomers, but it is now generally ellimated at 1 8".
Accordingly in Mr Adams's globes there is a circular
wire fixed l 8^ below the horizon, to reprefent the limits
of the crepufculum (fee PWY, fig. 5.)

As t'.ie caufe of t^vilight is not conflant, its limits
mull continually vary ; for if the exhalations in the
almofphere be more copious or more extenfive than
ufual, the morning twilight will begin fooner, and that
of the evening lall longer than ordinary ; as the more
copious the exhalations, the more rays will be reilecled
from them, and confequently the more they will (liine,
and again, the higher they are, the fooner they will
be illuminated by the fun. From this circumftance
the evening twilight is commonly longer than the morn-
ing, at the lame time, and in the fame place. The re-
fraction is alfo greater according as the air is more
denfe, and not only is the brightnefs of the atmo-
fphere variable, but the fame takes place in its height
above the earth ; therefore, the twilight is longell in
hot weather, and in hot countries, all other things be-
ing equal. The chief differences, however, arife from
the different fituations of places on the earth, or from
the difference of the fun's place in the heavens. Thus,
the twilight is longell when the earth is the pofition of
a parallel fphere, and (horteft in that of a right fphere
(fee N" 90.) : and in an oblique fphere, the twilight con-
tinues longer at any place, in proportion as that place
is nearer to either of the poles ; a circumllance which
affords confiderable relief to the inhabitants of the
northern countries in their long winter nights. Twi-
light continues longell in all places of north latitude,
when the fun is in the tropic of Cancer, and to thofe in
fcuth latitude when he is in the tropic of Capricorn.
The time of the (hortell twilight alfo varies in different

9S

permanent appearance. Hence the inhabitants of thofc
places neareft the pole, though ihty never fee the fun
for nearly fix months, liave, however, the benefit of
twilight for above the half of that time, and are entirely
excluded from the fun's light little more than 1 2 weeks,
during fix of ^vliich the moon is conilantly above the
horizon.

Were it not for the gradual change from light toUil..
darknefs, and vice verfa, which is the confequence oftwilight,
twilight, much inconvenience would arife. A fudden
change from the darknefs of midnight to the full fplen-
dor of the fun, and the reverfe, would injure the fight, <
and would, in many cafes, be produflive of much dan-
ger to travellers, who would be overtaken by utter
darknefs before they had time to prepare for its ap-
proach.

99
Probi.eim XXX. To find where il is nvHigkt at aa^ Problems
given time.

Find where the fun is vertical at the given time, and
rectify the globe for the latitude of that place. Ob-
ferve what places are within the limits of twilight, or
not quite 1 8'^ below the horizon. To thofe wliich are
fituated ^vithin the iveftem zone, between the horizon
and the parallel of 18°, it will be twilight in the morn-
ing ; and thofe which are in the eailern zone will
have it twilight in the evening.

Tiiis problem may be more conveniently performed
by rectifying the globe for the antipodes of the place
which has the fun then vertical, and obferving what
places are fituated in the zone formed above the hori-
zon, between it and a parallel circle of 1 8".

Ex. It is required to find where it is twilight on the
4th of June, when it is three o'clock, P. M. at London. •
^nf Kamtichatka, the Sandaich illes, and the Mar-
quefas, have twilight in the morning ; and the inhabi-
tants of Madagafcar, of Tibet, and the eailern part of
Perfia, have twilight in the evening.

Problem XX VI. To fnd the duration of nuilighi at
a g!t;eii place on any given day.
Reflify the globe for the latitude of the place ; find
the fun's place for the given day by Problem X. and
bring it below the meridian, and fet the horary index
to XII. Turn the globe till the fun's place be jull
within the circle that marks the limit of twilight, and

rtfperting
twilight.

latitudes : thus, in E-igland, the fliortell twilight is the index will Ihew the beginning of twilight. Sub-

■ • •■ - - • ■ tra£l the time of the beginning of twilight from the

time of funrifing at the given place (found by Problem

XII.) and the remainder will fliew the duration of

twilight at the given place.

Note. — The above rule will anfwer both for the or-
dinary globes, and for thofe of Adams, except that in
the latter the fun's place mull be brought below the
wellern part of the horizon. A more convenient way
in l)oth globes will be, to bring that point of the
ecliptic which is oppofite to the fuu's plpce, 18° above

the

about the beginning of Otlober and of March, when
the fun is in ^^ and X 5 hence, when the difference
between the fun's declination and the depth of the
equator is lefs than 1 8°, fo that the fun does not de-
fcend more than 18^ below the horizon, the twilight
will continue through the whole night, as happens in
Britain .''rom the 22d of May to the 22d of July.

In the latitude of 49° N. twilight continues for the
whole night, only on the 21ft of June, or the time of
the fumnicr folftice 5 but at all places further to. the

528

GEGGllAPHY,

Patt 11.

Principlts

ana
Praaice.

Caufe of
day and
night.

Problem
on lunar
tclipfes.

tliS weftern horizon, and the index \vill then flicw t'r.e
beginning of twilight.

Ex. Hon long will twilight Continue at London on
the following days : March id ; September 25th ; and
December 26 ' Anf. On the 2d of March it will
continue one hour and fifty minutes ; on the 25th of
September two hoiu-s •, and on the 26th of December,
two hours ten minutes (c).

Problem XXVII. to Jhcjo the caufe of day and
night by the globe.

It will have appeared, from the confideration of the
caufe of day and night given under the article Astro-
KOMY,that only that half of the earth which is oppofite
to the fun, is illuminated by his rays, while that which
is turned from him is involved in darknefs. As the-
earth revolves on its axis from well to eaft, in the fpace
of 24 hours, every place on the earth in the courfe of
that time alternately enjoys the light of the fun, and is
deprived of it.

To illuftrate this by the globe, redlify the globe for
the fun's declination, lb as to place the fun in the ze-
nith, and the horizon will reprefent the boundary be-
tween light and darknefs; that hemifphere which is
above the horizon being illuminated by the fun's rays,
and that which is below the horizon being derived of
light. If now a patch is put on the globe, fo as to repre-
fent any place, and if the globe be made to revolve from
weft to eaft ; when the place is brought to the weftern
edge of the horizon, the fun will appear to the inhabi-
tants of that place to be rifing in the eaft, though, in
faft, the appearance arlfes froni the place itfelf coming
beyond the limit of darknefs. As the globe continues
to turn, the place rifes towards the meridian, and this
produces the appearance as if the fun were advancing to-
wards the meridian in a contrary direftion. When the
place comes below the meridian, it is noon to that
place, and the fun appears to have attained its greateft
height.

As the place proceeds towards the eaft, it gradually
recedes from the meridian, and the fun appears defcend-
ing in the weft. When it reaches the eaftern edge of the
horizon, and is proceeding below the boundary of light
and darknefs, the fun appears to be fetting ; and during
the whole time that the place is moving below the ho-
rizon, the fiin will not appear till the place once more
rifes in the weft.

Problem XXVIII. To Jind at what places an eclipfe
of the moon is vijiblc at any given time.

Find the place to which the fun is vertical at the
given time, and reftify the globe for the latitude of
that place. As the moon is oppofite to the fun, which
illuminates the fuperipr hemifphere of the globe, the

ec'.ipfe of the moon will be vifible tc all the places that Principle!
lie below the horizon. ^''■^

As the places below the horizon are not eafily exa-
mined, this problem may be more conveniently per-
formed by rectifying the globe for the antipodes of the
place to which the fun is vertical at the given time, ra-
ther than for the place itlelf ; as in this latter pofition
of the globe the moon being in oppofition to the fun,
will be vertical to the place below the zenith, and
its eclipfe will be viable at all the places no.v above
the horizon.

Ex. I. On the 4th of Januar) 1 8c6, at 55 minutes
pall II P. M. reckoning the time at Greenwich, there
was an eclipfe of the moon. It is required to find thofe
places to which the eclipfe was vifible ' Anf. Through
the greateft part of Africa, in fjme part of Europe,
in Afia, South America, and a great part of North
America.

Ex. 1. On the loth of May 1S08, when it is eight
o'clock A. M. at Greenwich, the moon will be totally
eclipfed. In what places will the eclipfe be vilible ?
Anf, In moft parts of America ; in the illands of the Pa-
cific ocean, and on the eafteni coaft of New Holland.

Sect. II. Of the Ufe of the Celeflial Globe.

io»

The celeftial globe, with refpeft to the circles thatCe:eftia]
are defcribed on it, and the apparatus with which it is^'°^«'-
fumiftied, fcarcely differs from the terrcftrial globe,
which has been fo fully defcribed in the preceding fec-
tion. The furface of the celeftial globe is made to re-
prefent all the ftars that are commonly vifible to the
naked eye, arranged under their conftellations, and
bounded by the figures which have been given to thefe
conftellations by the early aftronomers. (See fig. 5.)
In Adams's celeftial globe the moveable femicircle
(N° 91.) turning round the poles reprefents a circle of
declination, and the fmall circle on it, an artificial fun
or planet.

Both the globes are often furnifhed with a mariner's
compafs, which is ufually placed in the lower part of
the frame.

It muft here be remarked, that the reprefentation of
the heavens on the celeftial globe, though probably
much more accurate than that of the earth on the ter-
rcftrial, is not fo natural as the latter ; for, in ■viewing
the ftars on the external furface of a globe, the fpecta-
tor fees them in an oppofite pefition to that in which he
obferves them in the heavens, ia that to form a juft
conception of their esacf fituation, he muft fuppofe his
eye to be feated in the centre of the globe. Hence, if
a large hollow hemil'phere were made of glafs, and if
the fiars in the correfponding hemifphtre of the firma-
ment \vere painted in tranfparent colours on its fur-
face ; an eye fituated in the centre of fuch a hemi-
fphere

(g) If we have the latitude of a place, and the fun's declination given, we may find the beginning of the morn-
ing and the end of the evening twilight by calculation. Thus, in the oblique-angled fpherical triangle ZPN
(fig. II.) we have given ZP the co-latitude; PN the co-declination, and ZN=: 108° being the fum of 90* the
quadrant, and 18' the deprelTion at the extremity of twilight. Then by fpherical trigonometry we may calculate
the triangle ZPN, the hour angle from noon, and this rediiced to time, at the rate of 1 5" per hour, gives the
lime from noon to the begituiing or end of twilight. For the mode of calculation, fee Spherics.

2

Pait 11

Principles

and
Piaclire.

GEOGRAPHY.

fphera u-oalJ Le the ftars exaiHly as they appear in the tude, «, named Algenib, anJ two of the ilurd magni- :
heavens. tude, one on each fide of Algcnib, at the diftance of

The great ufe of the celeftial globe is to perform a about f : they form a line a little curved on the fide ,

next Auriga. The altitude of Aleenib is 11°; azimuth'
N. E.byE. "'

'• A little to the fouth of Pcrfcus is the Head of Me-
dufa, which Pcrfeus is holding in his hand. Befides two
or three fmall liars, it contains one of the fecond, and
one of the third magnitude. The name of the brighteit
is jilgol; altitude 33", azimuth E. N, E. Algol is
only 10* diilant from Algenib.

" Direilly below the Head of Mtdufa, about 14''
above the horizon, are the Pleiades or feven ftars :
They are feated in the ihoulder of Taunis, and are fo
eaiily known, that no delcription is nectffary. Alde-
baran, a ftar of the firft magnitude, which forms the eye
of Taurus, is juft riling ; azimuth E. N. E. A vertical
circle drawn through Algol will point to it. There
are Vko ftars of the third magriitude, and feveral fmaller
very near Aldtbaran, which form with it a triangle.
The whole duller is called the Hyudes.

"' A line drawn from Aldebaran through Algol, and
continued to the zenith, will direft to CalTiopeia. This
contains five ftars of the third magnitude, befides feveral
cf the fourth : it is in form fomething like the letter Y,
or, as fome thhik, an inverted chair. It is fituated.
above Perfeus, within 30' of the zenith. The altitude
of the brightcft ftar, «, czWtdi Schcrfar, is 6;°; azimuth,
E. N. E.

variety of problems with refpccl to the ftirs, and the
motions of the heavenly bodies through the fpacc wliich
they occupy.

Problem I. To place the celejlial globe infuch a filia-
tion as tluit it Jhall exhibit art accurate reprefenlation

cf the face of the heavens at any gi-uen place, and at

any given time.

Re(Sify the globe for the latitude of the place, as in
Problem VHI. of the terreftrial globe, or by letting the
pole cf the celeftial globe pointing to the pole of the
earth, by means of the compafs that is ufusJly annexed
to the globes ; find the fun's place in the ecliptic ;
•bring this to the meridian, and fet the horary index at
noon. Again, make the globe turn on its axis till
the index point to the given time, and in this pofition
the globe will exactly reprefent the face of the hea-
vens, correfponding to the given time and place •, every
conftellation and ftar in the heavens anfwering in por-
tion to thofe on the globe. Hence, by examining the
globe, it will immediately be feen what ftars are above
cr below the horizon, which are on the eaftem and
weftem parts of the heavens, which have juft rifen
above the horizon, and which are about to fink be-
low it.

As this problem ^s-ill be found extremely ufeful to
the fludent of aftronomy, we (hall here quote the exam-
ple given in illuftration of it by MelTrs Bruce of New-
caftle.

" Required the fituation of the ftars for the lati-
tude of Newcaftle, on October 6tb, at eight o'clock in
the evening ?

" In our prefent furvey of the heavens, we fhall com-
mence at the north point of the horizon, and proceed
round eaflward; noticing the different confteliations, and
the relative fituation of the principal ftrjrs in thefe con-
ilellations.

" The Srft ftar which ftrikes the eye of the obfer-
ver, in the north-eaft part of the heavens, is Capella, in
the conftellation Auriga, or the Waggoner : It is of the
firft magnitude, of the altitude of 23°, or nearly the
fourth part of the diftance from the horizon to the ze-
r.ith. There are two ftars of the fecond magnitude,
which form with Capella a triangle : — The ftar which
forms the fhort fide of the triangle is in the right fhoul-
der of Auriga, and is marked ,3 ; it lies at the diftance
of about 8" from Capella, further to the north ; its al-
titude is 1 8° : — The ftar forming the longer fide of
the triangle is in the Bull's northern horn ; its diftance
from Capella is more than 26°; its altitude not more
than 5', and azimuth N. E. There are three Itars of
the fourth mEgnitudc, a little to the fouth of Capella,
that bear the name of the Kids.

" If a line be drawn through the two ftars that form
trie upper fide of the triangle, and continued to the
horizon, it will point out Caftor, «, in Gemini juft rifing,
azimuth E. N. E : it is between the firft and fecond contains one ftar of the third magnitude, marked .

" Below Caftiopeia and weft of Perfeus is Andromeda,
which contains three ftars of the fecond magnitude. A
line from Algenib, parallel to the horizon toxvards the
fouth, will pafs very near thefe three ftars ; and, as they
are all of the fame magnitude, and placed nearly at the
fame diftance of 15° from each other, they may eafily
be known. The name of the ftar nearell Perfeus, and
which is in the foot of Andromeda, marked y, is A'-
maak : its altitude is 49° ; azimuth E. N. E. The
name of ^, in the girdle, is Mirach : its altitude 44° ;
azimuth E. The altitude of es, in the head of Audru-
nieda, is 46°; azimuth E. S. E.

" About 1 8° below Mirach are tivo ftars in Aries, not
more than 5° diftant from each other, forming with
Mirach an ifofceles triangle : the moft eaftern ftar, «, is
of the fecond magnitude ; the other, ,3, of the third, at-
tended by a fmaller ftar, marked y, of the fourth mag-
nitude. A line drawn from Mirach, perpendicular to
the horizon, will pafs between the two, and befides,
will point to a ftar of the fecond magnitude, diredly E.
not above 3° from the horizon.

" This ftar is the firft of Cetus, marked «, and is of
the fecond magnitude : it is named Menhar. A line
drawn from Capella through the Pleiades will alfo point
to it. Cetus is a large conftellation, and contains eight
ftars of the third magnitude ; they all lie 1 1 the weft of
Menkar ; ;8, a ftar in the tail, is more than 40* diftant
from it. The azimuth of /3 is S. E. by E ; altitude
nearly the fume as Menkar.

1 heconitillation Pifces is fituated next to Aries; it

magnitude. The other ftars in this conftellation have
not yet rifen.

" A line drawn between Caftor and Capella. and con-
tinued higher in the heavens, will point cut Perfeus, in
which there are three ftars, one of the fecond magni-

VoL. IX. Part II.

its altitude is lo"*, azimuth E. by S. It is diiL.TU frcm
Menkar I j°. A line drawn from Almaak, through »
in Aries, will point to it.

" If we return again to «, in the head of Andromedj,

wc fliall find three other ftars nearer the meridian, which,

3 X wit'ti

Fhnclp!!

G E O G R A

i T\ kb it, form a fiiuarc. Tbcfe ftars are in Pegafas, and
are pbced at the dlftar.ce of 1 5" ftora eacli otlier ; they
_ are all of the fecond niagnitude. The two ftars fonn-
' lag the wellcrn fide of the fquare are called — the
upper one Scheat, vvhicli is marked /3, and which is
in the thigh of Pegafus ; the under one Markab, which
is marked «, and which is in the %ving ; the loweft ftar
in the eaftern fide of the fquare is in the tip of the wing,
and is marked y. The altitude of Scheat is 55° ; azi-
muth S. E. i E. Altitude of Markab, 43° ; azimuth
S. E. 1 y S i E.

" A line drawn through y and p (the diagonal in the
fquare of Pegafus) and continued to the meridian, will
point out Cygnus, a remarkable confteilalion in the
form of a large crof?, in which there is a ftar of the
fecond magnitude, named Deneb, or Prided; it is mark-
ed «, and is almoft direftly upon the meridian at the
altitude of So". Cygnus contains fix liars of the third
magnitude. The conttellation Cepheus, which contains
no remarkable ftars, is fituated between Cygnus and the
north pole.

" Below Pegafus, and nearer the meridian, is Aqua-
rius, containing four ftars of the third magnitude. A
line drawn from a in Andromeda, through Markab,
w ill point to « in Aquarius. Its altitude is 32°; azi-
muth S. S. E.

" A bright ftar of the firft magnitude named Tomel-
haut, in Piices Auftralis, is then upon the horizon ; azi-
muth S. S. E.

" Delphinus is a fmall conftellation, fituated about 30'
below Cygnus upon the meridian ; it contains five ftars
of the third magnitude, four of them being placed clofe
together, and forming the figure of a rhombus or lo-
zenge. A line drawn through the two under ftars
of tlie fquare will point to it. Its altitude is about

" A little to the weft of Delphinus, but not quite fo
high, is AquUa, containing one very bright ftar of the
firft magnitude, named A'.a'ir : It raay very eaSIy be
known from having a ftar on each fide of it of the third
magnitude, forming a ftraight line. The length of the
line is only about 5° ; altitude of Atair 40" 5 azimuth
S. S. W.

•' Confiderably above Atair, and a little to the \V. of
Cygnus, is Lyra, containing a ftar of the firft magnitude,
one of the moft brilliant in the firmament. It it called
Lyra or Vega, and is 35° to the N. W. of Atair-, al-
titude 60° ; azimuth W. S. W. Lyra, Atair, arid Ari-
ded, form a large triangle.

" We come no\v to notice three conftellations, which
occupy a large fpace in the weftem fide of the heavens :
thefe are Hercules immediately below Lyra ; Serpenta-
rius between Hercules and the horizon, extending a lit-
tle more towards the fouth ; and Bootes, reaching from
the horizon W. N. W. to the altitude of 45".

" Hercules contains eight ftars of the third magni-
tude; the ftar in the head, «, named Ras Algethi, is
within 5° of u m the head of Serpentarius. This laft
is a ftar of the fecond magnitude, and is named Ras
Alhaguc : its altitude is 30° ; azimuth, S. W. by
W. i W. A line drawn from Lyra, perpendicular
to the horizon, will pafs between thefe two ftars. The
othf-r ftars in Hercules extend towards the zenith, and
(hofe in Scrpcmarius towards the horizon.

PHY. Fart II.

'• The conftellation Bootes may eafily be known from Prmcip'es
the brilliancy of Arflurus, a ftar of the firft magnitude, "'^''
and fuppofed to be the neareft to our fyliem of any in '"
the northern heraifphere : it is within 10° of the ho-
rizon ; azimuth W. N. W. Bootes alfn coiitdins
feven ftars of the third magnitude, raoftly fituated high-
er in the heavens than Arftuius. The ftar immediate-
ly above Artlurus is called Mezen Mirach, and is
marked 1. The ftar in the left flioulder, 3, named Se-
ginus, forms with Mirach and Ar£lurus a ftraight

1

" Between Serpentarius and Bootes is Serpens, con-
taining one ftar of the fecond magnitude, and eight of
the third: « in Serpens \i nearly at the lame diftance
from the horizon, as Arfturus j azimuth W.

" Above Serpens, and a little to the cail of Boiites, is
the Northern Cro-vn, containing one ftar of the fecond
magnitude, named Gemma, and feveral of the third,
which have the appearance of a femicircle. A line
drawn from Lyra to Arclurus ^vill pafs through this
conftellation.

" We come now to Urfa Major, a conftellatien
containing one ftar of the firft, three of the fecond, and
feven of the third magnitude. It may eafily be dlftinguilh-
ed by thofe feven ftars, which, from tireir refemblance
to a waggon, are called Charles's Wain. The four ftars
in the form of a long fquare, are the four wheels of the
waggon ; the three ftars in the tail of the Bear, are the
three horfes, which appear fixed to one of the wheels.
The two hind wheels, <t named Dubhe, and $, are called
the pointers, from their always pointing nearly to the
noith pole. Hence the pole ftar may be known. The
altitude of Dubhe is 30° ; azimuth N. by W. -J- W.
The diftance between the two pointers is 5° ; the
diftance bet^veen the pole ftar and Dubhe, the upper

befides the pole ftar of the fecond
magnitude, fituated in the tail, contains three of the
third, and three of the fourth magnitude. Thefe form
fome refemblance to the figure of Charles's Wain in-
verted, and may eafily be traced,

" Draco, containing four ftars of the fecond and fe-
ven of the third magnitude, fpreads itfelf in the heavens
near Urfa Minor ; the four ftars in the. head are in the
form of a rhombus or lozenge : the tail is between the
pole ftar and Charles's Wain.

" Befides thefe conftellations, there are a number of
others, which, as they contain no remarkable ftars, we
have not defcribed ; an enumeration of thefe ^vill fuf-
fice. The Lynx, between Urfa Major and Auriga ;
Camelopardalus, between Urfa Major and Caftloptla ;
Mufca, and the Greater and LefsTrlangles between Aries
and Perfcus, Aculeus, clofe to the head of Pegafus ;
Sagittarius fetting in the fouth-weft ; Antinous and
Sobielki's Shield below Aquila ; the Fox and Goofe
between Aquila and Cygnus ; the Greyhounds and
Berenice's Hair between Bootes and Urfa Major, and
Leo Minor below Uifa Major" *. « j,„„v

The artronomical terms that we muft here employ TniroJi.iiic~.
in defcribing the method of performing the problems-'^ G^^'a-
on the celeftial globe, will be found explained in the.^''.* '""'^-
article Asironomy, or under their proper heads in the'^j°"**''J^j_
general alphabet of this work. See AscENSlOS, Azi^
muth, Declination, &c.

Probi-em

Part II. G E O G R

Princip'es Prc2LEM II. TofnJ l?i^ right nfcenfion and dtcHnathn
f,Xi\c^. ofamjghenjlar.

>— V ' Bring the given ftar below the brazen meridian, and
'=3 mark the degree of the meridian under which it lies.
^f°cai^' That degree iheivs the declination of the ftar, and the
the ftari. degree of the equator cut by the meridian givvs the ftar's
right afcenfion.

The right afcenfion of a ftar may alfo be found by
placing the globe in the pofition of a right fphere, and
then bringing the ftar to the eaftem part of the hori-
zon ; for that point of the equator which comes to the
liorizton at the fame lime with the ftar, marks its right
afcenlion. See Astronomy, N° 249, 250.

Ex. I . What is the right afcenfion and declination
of the ftar Sirius ? y^nf. Its right afcenfion is 99*, and
its declination i6* 27' S.

Ex. 2. Required the right afcenfion and declination
of Aldebaran, or the ftar in the Bull's Eye marked «.
^nf. Its right afcenfion is 66", and its declination 16'
S' '^■

Problem III. Having tie r/git afcenjion and declina-
tion ofajlargiven, to find the far on the globe.

Bring that degree of the equator which tnark^ the
right afcenfion below the brazen meridian, and count-
ing along the meridian towards the north or fouth, as
far as the degree of declination, the required ftar will
be there found.

Ex. T. The right afcenfion of a certain ftar is 162*
15' and its declination is 57° 27' N. ; What is the
name of the ftar ? Anf. The lower pointer of Urfa
major, marked fi.

Ex. 2. The right afcenfion of Arclurus is 211® 30',
and its declination is 20* 13' N. : it is required to find
it on the globe.

This problem is extremely ufeful in difcovering the
names and relative fituations of the different ftars.

Problem IV. To find the latitude and longitude cf a
given Jlar.

Bring the follHtial colure (fee N" 75") below the
brazen meridian, and there fix the quadrant of altitude
ever that pole of the ecliptic which is in the fame he-
■Hiifphere with the given liar. Then, keeping the globe
fteady, bring the graduated edge of the quadrant over
the given ftar, and the degree of the qundrant cut by
the ftar, counted from the ecliptic, marks its latitude,
and the degree cf the ecliptic that is cut by the qua-
drant is the longitude of the given ftar(H). See Astro-
KOMY, N" 252, 253.

Ex. I. What is the latitude and longitude of Arftu-
rus •" /inf. Lat. 31° N. Long. Libra 20°.

Ex. 2, What is the latitude and longitude of Capel-
la ? .^nfi. Lat. 23° N. Long. Gemini 18* 30'.

Problem V. Having the day of the month given, to
find at ivha: hour ant/ Jlar comes below the meridian.

Find the fun's place, and bring it to the meridian,
and fct the horary index to XII. ; turn the globe till the
given ftar come below the meridian, and the index will
point out the hour.

Praclice.

A P H Y. 531

To I;now whether the hour is in the forenoon or Principlti
afternoon, it is necenary to obferve, that if the ftar be """l
to- the eail of the fun, it will reach the meridian later ^
than the fun, but if it be to the weft of that luminar)-,
it will come to the meridian fooner : hence, in the
former cafe, the hour will be P. M. and in the latter
A. M.

Ex. I . At what hour doos Sirius come to the meri-
dian on the 9th of February ? Anf. At 7 minutcy
part 9 P. M.

Ex. 2. Required the hour when Caftor pafles the
meridian 011 the fame day. Anf. At 5 2 n:inutes pall
9 P. .VI.

Problem VI. Having any Jar given, and a given hour,

to find on what day the Jlar will come to the meridian

at a giivn hour.

Bring the given ftar below the meridian, and fet the
horary index to the given hour. Make the globe re-
volve till the index come to tivelve at noon ; and the
day of the month which coriefponds to the degree of
the ecliptic then below the meridian, found in the ca-
lendar circle of the wooden horizon, will be the day re-
quired.

Ex. I. On what day does Algenib, the firft ftar of
Perfeus, come to the meridian at midnight ? AnJ. On
the 13th of November.

Ex. 2. On what day does Arflurus come to the me-
ridian at 9 o'clock P. M. Anf. On the 1 oth of June.

Problem VII. Having llie latitude, the day of the month

and the hour of the night given , to find the altitude and

a%imu!h of any givenfiar.

Reftify the globe for the given latitude ; bring the
fun's place belo%v the meridian, and fet the horary in-
dex at XII. then turn the globe till the index point at
the given hour. Fix the quadrant of altitude at 90"
from the horizon, that is, in the zenith, and bring its
graduated edge over the place of the ftar : the degree
of the quadrant intercepted between the horizon and
the ftar is the altitude required ; and the diftance be-
tween the foot of the quadrant and the neareft part of
the horizon, will be the azimuth.

It is evident that this problem on the celeftial globe
is exactly fimilar to Problem XIII. on the terreftrial
globe, for finding the altitude of the fun.

Ex. I. What will be the altitude and azimuth of
Cor Hydraj on the 21ft of December at London, at
4 o'clock A. M. ? Anf. The altitude 30", the azi-
muth S. 14' W.

Ex. 2. Suppofe an obfervcr at the Cape of Good
Hopr, on the 2 1 ft of June at midnight ; required the al-
titude and azimuth of ArRurus to him ? Anf. Alti-
tude 12°, azimuth N. 55" W.

Problem VIII. Having given the axjmuth of any given

Jlar, and the day of the month tn a given latitude ; to

find the hour of the nghi, end altitude of the Jlar.

Reifiify the globe as in the laft problem ; fix the

qundrint of a'titnde in the zenith, and bring it to the

given azimuth. Turn the globe till the ftar comes bc-

3X2 I0.7

(h) It muft be remembered that the longitude of the heavenly bodies is not cftiroated in degrees OJid mir.ute,
•ike thtir right afcenfion, but in figns, degrees, and minutes, as the fun's place is reckoned.

G E / O: G R

low the graduated . edge of the quadrant,- jtv^lf en <.the
horary index will point out the hour, and the altitude
of the iLu- will be feen by the quadrant.

Ex, Suppofe the azimuth of Dubheto be N. 23" W.
r«t London on the I ft of September ; it is required to
find the altitude of the ftar, and the hour of the night ?
^rf. The altitude of Dubhe at that time is 31*, and
the .hour, i* 9 o'clock P. M.

Problem IX. The latitude of the place, the ahilude of

ajlar, and the day of the month, being given ; tofnd

the o%imuth and the hour of t lie niglit.

Reflify the globe as before, and having fixed the
quadrant of altitude in the zenith, turn the globe and
quadrant of altitude till the latter comes over the liar
at the given degree of altitude. In this pofuion the in-
dex will Ihew the time of night, and the pofition of the
quadrant at the horizon will Ihew the azimuth of the
ftar.

In the fame way the hour of the night and tlie
azimuth of the fun may be found, by fixing a patch on
the globe in the fun's place, and bringing it to the
quadrant as direded for the ftar.

As the fun and flars have the fame altitude t>vice in
the day, it is proper to know whetlier they are to J>e
eaft or iveft of the meridian j or whether the hour re-
quired be in the evening or the morning.

Ex. At Edinburgh, on the 2 :;th of December, in
the forenoon, when the fun's altitude is 7* 20', requir-
ed the hour and the fun's azimuth ? Anf. It is 1 o
o'clock A. M. and the fun's azimuth is S. 27° 30' E.

Problem X. Having the az-imuth of the fun or a far,

the latitude of the place, and the hour of the datj given ;

to find the altitude and day of the month.

Reclify the globe for the latitude of the place, fix
the quadrant in the zenith, and bring its edge under
the given azimuth. Bring the fun's place or the ftar
to the edge of the quadrant, and fet the inde.x at the
given hour. The degree marked in the quadrant will
ihew the altitude ; and if the globe be turned till the
inde.x poiiits to twelve at noon, the day of the month,
anfwering to that degree of the ecliptic which is in-
terfeded by the brazen meridian, is the day required.

Ex. The azimuth of the ftar a in the Northern Crown
was obferved at London at 9 o'clock P. M. to be S. 89*
W. ; required the altitude and day of the month ?
Anf. Altitude 3 8" 5 day of the month ift of September.

Problem XI. Having obferved two fiars to have the

fame azimuth; to find the hour of the night.

Rcdify the globe as before ; turn the globe and
move the quadrant till the edge of the latter comes over
both ftars, and the horary index in this pofition of the
globe will give the hour required.

The following is a fimple and eafy method of finding
when two ftars have the fame azimuth. Hold a fmall
line with a plummet at its lotver extremity between the
eye and the two ftars, and if both ftars fall within the
line, they have the fame azimuth. The fame may hi
done by obferving when any two ftars pafs behind the
perpendicular edge of a wall at the fame time.

Ex. Vega and Atalr were obferved to have the fame
azimuth at London on the 1 Ith of May 5 required the
hour of the ni^ht .' Anf. 15 minutes paft 2 At M.

Pra(5tice

A P H Y. Part II

This problem may be applied to the regulating of Principles
clocks and watches, by reducing apparent to real time,
as explained under Astronomy.

Problem XII. To find the ri7ng, fitting, and cul-
minating of any far or planet, its continuance above
the hori%t<n, its olhque ajcenjicn and defcenfion, and
its eafiern and wcJUrn amplitude ; the place and day
being given.

Reftify the globe as in the foregoing problems ; bring
the given ftar or the given planet (finding its place in
an epheraeris for the given day, and marking it by a
patch on the globe), to thetaftern part of the horizon,
and the inde.x of the hour circle will point out the time
of rifing : the degree of the equator that comes to the
horizon with the given ftar or planet, marks its oblique
afctnfion, and the caftern amplitude is fliewn by the di-
ftance of the ftar or planet from the eaftern part of the
hoiizon.

Bring the ftar or planet to the meridian, and the in-
dex will point to the time of its culminating.

Move the globe till the ftar or planet come to the
weftern part of the horizon, and the time of its fetting,
its oblique defcenfion, and its weftern amplitude, may be
found in the fame manner as diredled above ; for its
rifing, oblique afcenfion, and eaftern amplitude, the
number of hours pafled over by the index, while the ftar
or planet is moving from eaft to weft, will ftiew the time
of its continuance above the horizon.

Ex. I. Required the above circumftances with refpeft
to Sirius on the 14th of March at London. Anf. It
rifes at 24 minutes part two P. M. ; comes to the meri-
dian, or culminates, at 57 minutes paft fi.x P. M. ; and fets
at half-paft eleven PM. Hence it remains above the
horizon nine hours and fix minutes. Its oblique afcen-
fion is 120° 47', its oblique defcenfion 77* 17', and its
amplitude 27* S.

Ex. 2. It is required to find the fituation of the feve-
ral planets on the 19th of January 1806. Anf. Mer-
cury is about 2 2° to the weft of the fun, and rifes fouth-
eaft by eaft, at 20 minutes before feven A. M. Venus
is an evening ftar, and fets about half paft eight. Mars
is a very little to the eaft of the fun, and rifes and fets
fo near the fame time with the fun, that he cannot be
feen. Jupiter is a morning ftar, and rifes about fix
o'clock. Saturn is a little to the eaft of the ftar Spica
Virginis, and rifes about half an hour after midnight.
Herfchei is very near Saturn, and rifes about the fame
time.

Problem Xill. To find thofe fiars which never rife, and
thofe which never fet, in a given latitude.

ReiSlify the globe for the latitude of the place ; then,
holding a black lead pencil fo as to touch the furface of
the globe at the northern point of the horizon, turn
the globe, fo that the pencil may defcribe a circle :
all the ftars which are between this circle and the ele-
vated pole, never fet. Again, holding the pencil at
the fo uthern point of the horizon, turn the globe fo as
to defcribe another circle there, and all the ftars that
are between that circle and the pole, below the horizon,
never rife.

If the place is in fouthem latitude, the flars that ne
vcr fet arc found by defcribing a circle at the fouthern

poici.

Part II. GEOGRAPHY. ^^^

Principles point of the horizon, anti thofe that never rife by a fi- ence is leafl at the drae of riling, it is greateA at the WSntiplcs

^"'l milai circle at the nortliern point ( I ). time of fetting. ^"^

,^J^ Throughout almofl the whole year, the moon rifes li^ij!^

,„^ later every fucceflive day, by above three quarters of an Problem XV. To explain the equation of time by the 104
Harvefl hour j but at a confidcrabie diflance from the equator, elole. Kqnationof

moon il- as in the latitude of Britain, France, and fome other time il-

lu.irate*. countries, a remarkable anomaly takes place in the The diiTerence between apparent lime and mean !«•'"'*'"'<'•

moon's motion about the time of harveft. At this fea- equal time, has been explained in Astronomy, fi-om

fon, when the moon is about full, (he rifes for feveral N° 50 to 60 ; and the method of computing the equa-

nights fucceffively at about 17 minutes only later than tion of time is alfo there defcilbed.
on the preceding day. This is attended with confider- To explain the equation of time on the globe, make,

able advantage, for as the moon rifes before twilight is with a black lead pencil, marks all round the equator

veil ended, the light is as it were prolonged, and thus and ecliptic, beginning with 'Y^, at equal diftances

an opportunity given to the induftrious farmer to conti-
nue longer in the field, for the purpofe of gathering in
the fruits of the earth. From the advantage derived
from the full moon at the feafun of harveft, it has been
called the haruejl moon. The following problem has
been contrived for the purpofe of illuflrating the pheno-
menon by means of the globe.

Problem XIV.
Reftify the globe for any confiderable northern lati-
tude, fuppofe that of London. As the angle which the
moon's orbit makes with the ecliptic is but fmall, we
may fuppofe, ^s■ithout any coniiderable error, her orbit
to be reprefented by the ecliptic. In September the
fun is in the beginning of =2=, fo that the moon, wl)en
full, being in oppofition to the fun, muft be in or near
the beginning of T. Put a patch, therefore, in the
globe at the firft point of '^ in the ecliptic ; and as the
moon's mean motion is about 13* in a day, put another
patch on the ecliptic 13' beyond the former, and it
will point out the moon's place the night after it is full.
A third and fourth patch, put at the diftance of 13*
further on, will fhevv the moon's place on the fecond
and third nights after full, &c. Now, bring the firft
patch to the horizon, and obferve the hour pointed out
by the index j turn the globe till the fecond patch
comes to the horizon, and it will appear by the index
that there are only 1 7 minutes between the time of the
firft patch rising, and that of the fecond. 'J'his fmall
difference in the motion of the moon evideatiy arifes
from the fmall angle which her orbit makes with the
horizon. The remaining patches will come to the ho-
rizon with a little greater difference of time, and this
difference will gradually increafe as the moon advances
in the ecliptic ; but for the firft week after the full
moon at harveft the difftrence will not be more than
two hours. If patches be continued on to the firft point
in £i, it will be found that the time of their rifing, or
coming to the horizon, will increafe confiderably till
the laft will be above i, hour later in coming to the
horizon, becaufe th.-.t point of the ecliptic makes the
greateft angle with the horizon. ^

Th.» point of the eclipUc, which makes the leaft
angle \rith the horizon at rifing, makes the greateft
angle at fetting ; and, confequently, when the diffcr-

from each other, fuppofe about 15°. Then, on turn-
ing the globe, it will be feen that all the marks on the
firft quadrant of the ecliptic, reckoning from '"P to 03,
come to the brazen meridian fooner than the correfpond-
ing maiks on the firft quadrant of the equator. Now,
as the former marks reprefent time as meafured by the
Am, or a dial, and the latter reprefent it as meafured
by an accurate clock, it will be e\-ident, that through
the firft quarter the dial is fafter than the clock.

Still turning the globe, it will be feen that the marks
on the fecond quarter of the ecliptic, reckoning from
95 to iCs, come to the meridian later than the
correfponding marks of the equator ; confequently in
this quarter the fun or the dial is ilower than the clock.
By moving the globe round, and marking the approach
of the dots in the third quadrant, it will be feen that,
as in the firft, the dial now precedes the clock, and in
the fourth quadrant, that it is behind it, according to
the explanation given in Astronomy.

SZCT. III. Of the ConJlruBion of Globes.

The conftruflion of globes is of confiderable import- Generil
ance; as, in performing the problems in u'hich they are^oriflruc-
er?,ployed, very much depends on the accuracy v.ith ''°" °'
which they have been conftrufted. We fliall here,^ ^ "'
therefore, defcribe pretty i^iinutely the methods in
which the artifts of Britain and France make their
globes.

There are certain general circumf^ances which are
attended to in the conllruftion of every globe.

There is firft provided a wooden axis, fomcivhat le.'l"
than the intended diameter of the globe, and to the ex-
tremities of this axis, which is the bafis of the v.hole
fucceeding flruclurt-, there are fixed two metallic H-ire?,
to ferve as poles. No\v, two hemifpherical caps form-
ed on a wooden mould or clock, are applied in the axis.
Thefe caps are compofed of pafteboard, or folds of pa-
per laid one over another on the mould, till they are of
the thicknefs of a crown piece j and after the ivhole
has ftood to dry, and has become a folid body, an inci-
fion is made with a (harp knife along the middle, and
the two caps are thus ilipped off the mould. Thefe
caps are now to be applied on I'le poles of the axis, as
they were before on thefe of the mould ; and to fix

(i) This problem may be performed without the globe, by the following method. Find the latitude of the
place in a table, and fubtrafl it from 90' ; the remainder will be the complement of the latitude. Then, if th."
declination of the given ftar be of the fame name with the co-latitutlc, and exceed it in quantity, it vfili nevrt .'rr.
If it be of a contrary name, and exceed it, it will ncvei life.

534

principles

G E O G R

tlicm £nnW on t'le axis, the tv:o edges are fe-.veJ toge-
ther with packthread.

X'v'lien the n:d:ment3 of the globe are thus laid, the
artift proceeds to ftrexigthen the work, and make the
furface Imooth and equal. For this purpofe, the two
poles rre fixed in a metallic feTnicircle, of the propofed
dze; and a composition made of whitening, mixed with
water and c^lue, heated, melted, and incorporated to-
gether, is daObed all over the paper furface. While
the plafter is applied, the globe is turned round in the
femicircle, the edge of which pares away all the matter
that is fuperfluous and esceeds the proper diraenfions,
and fpreads the reft over thofe parts that require It.
After this operation the ball (lands to dry, and when
it is thoroughly dried, it is again put in the femicircle,
and frefli plafter applied to it ; and thus they continue to
apply compofition and dry the ball alternately, till the
furface accuiately toilches the femicircle in every point,
when it becomes perfectly firra, fmooth, and equal.

When the ball of the globe is thus finiflied, the map,
colitaining a delineation of the furface of the earth, is
to be pafted on the globe. For this purpofe, the map
is engraved in feveral gores or guffets, fo that when
thefe are accurately joined together on the fpherical
fcrface, they may cover every part of the ball, ^vithout
overlapping each other. The greatell nicety is required
in forming thefe engraved guffet;, as wh-U in the accuracy
of the engraving, as in the choice and ihape of the paper
employed. The method of defcribing the gores or gufletf,
ufually employed by the Britilli artift?, is as follows.

1. From the given diameter of the globe there is
found a right line AB (fig. 12.), equal to the circum-
ference of a great circle correfppnding to that diame-
ter ; and this line is divided into 12 equal parts.

2. Tlirough the feveral points of divillon, i, :, 3, 4,
otc. with a diftance equal to ten of the divifions, arches
are defcjibed crofling each other as in D and E ; and
thefe figures are pafted on the globe, fo as vfhen joined
together to cover its whole furface.

3. Each part of the line AB Is divided Into 30
equal parts, fo that the whole line, which may reprcfent
the equator, is divided into 360°.

4. From the points D and E, which reprcfent the
poles, with a diltance = 23^", there are defcribed arches
a i>, a b, (fig. 13.) which form twelftli parts of the po-
lar circles.

5. In a fimllar manner about the fame poles D and
E, with a diflance zzd^^', reckoned from the equator,
there are defcribed other arches, cdy c d, which are the
twelfth parts of the tropics.

6. In forming the celeftial globe, through tlie point
of the equator marked «■ (fig. 13.) reprcfenting the
right afcenfion of a given liar, and through the two
poles D and E, there is drawn an arch of a circle ;
and if the conipltment of the declination from tlie pole
1) be taken in the ccmpalTts, a:id an arch be defcrib-
ed, intcrfccnng the former in the point f, this point /
will be ihi^ place of the given flar.

7. In this way all the ft^fs of each conilellation are
laid dov.T), and the circumfcribing outline of the couflel-
iation is dra-.vii as figured in the tables of Bayer, Flam-
!kad, file,

8. In the fame manner are determined the declinations
»nd right afccnfions.of *very degree of the ecliptic, d, g.

The above is the raethcd defcribed by Mr Chamber?,
4

A P H Y. Partir.

of laying down or delineating the gores of a celeflial Prlociples
globe. Thofe of the terreflri^l globe are delineated in ^^^
much the fame manner, only that every pisce is laid ^'•'"''■^^' ^
down on the gores, according to its longitude and lati- '
tude, determined by the interfeclion of circles ) and then
the outline of the coafts, boundaries of countries, &.c.
are added, like the figures of the conftellatlons abo?c
mentioned.

9. WTien the furface of the globe has been thus pro-
jefted on a plane, the guffets are to be engraved on
copper, to fave the trouble of making a new projefllon
for every globe.

10. In the mean time, a ball of paper, plafter, or
the like, of the intended diameter of the globe, is pre-
pared in the manner above defcribed, and by means of
a femicircle and ftvle, great circles are drawn on its
furface, fo as to divide it into a number of equal parts,
correfponding to the number of guffets ; and fubdivid-
ing each of thefe according to the other lines and divi-
fions of the globe. When the ball is thus prepared,
the guffets are to be accurately cut from the printed en-
graving, and pafted on the ball.

When the papers have been thus pafted on, and fuf-
fered to dry, nothing remains but to colour and illumi-
nate the globe, and to cover It wth a thin layer of the
fineft varnifti, that It niay the better refift duft and
molfture. The ball of the globe is now finiflied, and
is to be hung In a ftrong brazen meridian, fumiftied
with hour circles and a quadrant of altitude, and fitted
Into a ftrong wooden horizon. j j

The method employed by the French artlfts in pro- Method of
jefling the guffets of globes, is thus defcribed by M. forming the
La Lande. g°f"-

" To form celeftial and terreftrial globes, it Is necef-
fary to engrave gores, which are a fort of projeifllon or
developement of the globe. The length PC (fig. 14.)
of the axis of the curve, is equal to a fourth part of the
circumference of the Intended globe ; the intervals of
the parallels on the axis PC are all equal ; the radii of
the circles K D I, which reprcfent the parallels, are
equal to tlie co-tangents of the latitudes, and the arches
of each, fuch as KI, are nearly equal to the number of
degrees that correfpond to the breadth of the gore
(ufually 30°), multiplied by the fme of the latitude:
thus, there will be found no dltficulty in tracing them ;
but the principal difficulty proceeds from the change
ivhich thofe parts of the gores undergo, when they are
glued upon the globe ; as, in order to adjuft them to
the fpace which they ought to occupy, it is neceffary to
make the paper lefs on the fides than In the middle,
bccaufe the fides are too long.

" The method employed by artifts for engraving
thefe gores, is thus defcribed by Bion {Vfage des Globes,
torn, iii.), and by Robert de Vaugondy in the feventh
-♦'umeofthc EncycLopedie, and this method is fuffi-
cicnt for praftical purpofes.

" -Oraw on the paper a line AC, equrJ to the chord
of 1 5°, to make the half breadth of the gore ; and a
perpendicular PC, equal to three times the chord of
30", to make the half length : for thefe papers, the
dimccfions of which will be equal to the chords, be-
come equal to the arcs themfelves when they are pafted
on the globe. Divide the height CP into nine parts,
if the parallels are to be drawn in every 1 0° ; di\-ide alfo
the quadrant BE into nine equal parts; through each di-

Fart II.

a E O G

Principle? vifion point ot the quaJrant, as G, and through the
3"' correfpor.Juig point D of the 'right line CP, draw the
^^''^^- pt^rpendiculars HGF and DF, the meetiii}; of wiiich in
' F gives one of ilie poin's of the curve BFP, wiiich will
terminate the circumference of the gore. When a fuf-
ficient number of points are thus found, trace the out-
line FIB with a curved rule. By this conflrucUon are
given the gore breadths, v/hich are on the globe, in
the ratio of the cofines of the latitudes, fuppoling thofe
breadths taken perpendicular to CD, wliich is not very
exaft ; but it is impolfible to prefcribe a rigid operation
fuiFicient to make a plane whicli (liall cover a curved fur-
face, and that on a right line AB (hall make lines PA,
PC, PD, equal to each other, as they ought to be on
the globe. To defcribe the circle KDI, which is at
the diftance of ^o" from the equator, there mull be ta-
ken above D, a point that (hall be diltaiit from D the
value of the tangent of 63°, which may be taken either
from tables, or may be meafured on a circle equal to
the circumference of the globe that is to be drawn ;
this point will ferve as a centre for the parallel Dl,
which ought to pafs through the point D ; for it is
fuppofed equal to that of a cone circumfcribing the
globe, and which would touch it at the point D.

" The meridians are traced to every lo*, by divid-
ing each parallel, as KI, into three equal parts at the
points L and M, and drawing from the pole P, through
all thefe points of divifion, curves which rcj'rcfent the
intermediate meridians Iving between PA and P3, fuch
as BR and ST (Sg. 15.)

" The ecliptic AQ_ (fig. rj.) is traced by means of
the known deciinatioi:, from different points of the
equator, as found in the tables; for lo* it is equal to
:;• 58' j for 20°=7°5o'rzBQ^ 20; for 30*=ii° 39',
&c."

In genera!, it is obfer/ed that the piper on which
maps are printed, fuch as that called in France co/omlier,
contrafts itfelf t'y, or a line in fix inches, upon an average,
-,vhen it is dried after printing j hence it is necelTary to
prevent this inconvenience in engranng the gore-, : if,
however, notwithilanding this, the gores are ftill found
too (hort, it mull be remedied by taking from the fur-
face of the ball a little of the white with which it is
covered ; thus making the dimenfions of the ball cor-
refpond to thofe of the gores as they arc printed. But,
what is Angular, in drawing the gore, moiftened with
the parte to apply it on the globe, the axis GH length-
ens, and the fide AN fhortens in fuch a manner that
neither the length of the fide ACK, nor that of the
axis GEH of the gore are exactly equal to the quarter
of the circumference of the quarter of the globe, when
compared to the figure on the copper, or to the num-
bers fhewn on the fide of fig. 15.

" Mr Bonne having made feveral experiments on
the dimenfions which the gores take after being covered
with palle in order to apply them to the globe, efpe-
cially of the paper called Je/us, which had been em-
ployed in covering globes of a foot in diameter : found
that it was neceffary to give to the gore engraved on
copper the dimenfions laid down in fig. I 5. Suppoilng
that the radius of the globe contains 720 parts, the
half of the breadth of the gore AG=: 188.5 > ^^^ •*''-
tance AC for the parallel of 1 0° taken on the llraight
line LM is :^ 1 28.1, the fma!! deviation from the paral-
lel of J 0° in the middle of the gore ED is 4, the

R A P H Y.

line ABN is a ftraight line, the radius

535

le paral- rrir.ciplcs
lei of 10° or of the circle CET, is 4383, &c. The , »"^
fmall circular cap which is placed under H, has its .^'"'^^'"' .
radius 253, inftead of 247, which it would have if
the fine of 20'^ had been the radius of it."* • La Landc

Globes are made of various fizcs, from a diameter -^""""''i
of three inches, to that of as many feet; but their '""''■' I*'
mod ufual diameter is that of iS inches, wiiich are^"''"' '
fufficiently large for moll of the purpofes for which
globes are employed. Some large globes nxre made
about 100 years ago, in France, by P. Coronelli, a
Francifcan monk, which were in confiderablc reputa-
tion. They were engraved, and the plates are ftill to
be feen at Paris, at the houfe of IW. Defiios, in the
Rue St Jacques. There are fome large globes at
Cambridge, which were drawn by the h.and ; but
the largell globes of which ive have any account, are
thofe which were made for the late unfortunate Louis
XVI. and were kept in the palace of Marly. They
were I 2 feet in diameter, and we believe, are Hill ex-
illing at Paris, ivhere they occupy four entire rooms,
each of them being partly in an upper room, and part-
ly in that below it, the rioor of the upper room foniiing
the horizon.

The account which we iiave given of the method of
conftrucling globes, will be ufeful to thofe who pur-
chafe thefe inftruments ; but to aflift them Aill further,
we (hall fubjoin the following practical rules for the
choice of globes. »C7

1. The papers (hould be well and neatly pa.led on ^"''; '■-^•
the globes, which may be known by the lines and ^'■^^"^
circles meeting exactly, and continuing all the way

even and \vho!e ; the circles not breaking into feveral
arches, nor the papers either coming (hort, or lapping
over one another.

2. The colours (hould be tranfparent, and not laid too ■
thick upon the globe, to hide the names of the places.

3. The globe (hould hang evenly between the brazen
meridian and the wooden horizon, not inclining cither
to the one fide or the other.

4. The globe (hould move as clofe to the horizon
and the meridian as it conveniently may, otherwife
there will be too much trouble to find againll what
part of the globe any degree of the meridian or hori-
zon is.

5. The equinoftial line fliould be even ^vith the hori-
zon all round, when the nortli or fouth pole Is elevated
90* above the horizon.

6. The equinoctial line fliould cut the horizon in the
eaft and weft points, in all the elevations of the pole
fiom o to 90*.

7. The degree of the brazen meridian marked o, ■
fliould be exactly over the equinoftial line of the
globe.

8. Exactly half of the brazen meridian fliould be
above the horixon, which may be knov\-n by bringing
any of the decimal divifions on the meridian to the
north point of tl:e horizon, and finding their comple-
ment to 90° on the Ibuth point.

9. When the quadrant of altitude is placed as far
from the equator, or the brazen meridian, .is the pole
is elevated above the horizon, the beginning of the
degrees of the quadrant ihould reach jull to the plane
furface of the horizon.

1 0. V.'hca the index of the hour circle paffcs fron^.

530 G E O G R

Ff i nciplc; one hour to another, 1 5 degrees of ihc equator muft
^'^ pafs under the graduated edge of the brazen mcri-
3l!^]iL dian.

II. The wooden horizon iTiovild be made fubflan-
tial and rtrcng j it being generalJy obfcrved, th-.it, in
nioiV globes, the horizon is the tiift part that fails, on
accjunt of its having been roade too lliglit.
•533 In ufing a globe, the eailcrn fide of the horizon

■iliould be kept towards the oblerver, Cunlefs in parti-
cular problems uhich require a different pofition) ; and
ti'.at fide may be knoivn by the word eoj? on the hori-
zon- In this polition the obferver will have the gra-
duated-iide of the meridian towards him, and the qua-
drant of altitude direclly before him ; and the globe
will be exactly divided into two equal parts by the
graduated fide- of the meridian.

In performing fome problems, it ivill be neceflary
to turn about the whole globe and horizon, in order
to look at the weft fide ; but this turning will be apt
to difturb the ball, fo as to Ihift a\vay that degree of
the globe vvhjch was before fet to the horizon or
meridian. This inconvenience may be avoided by
thrufting the feather end of a quill between the ball
of the globe and the brazen meridian, and thus, with-
out injuring the furface of the globe, it will be kept
from turning in the meridian, while the whole is
mo%'ed round, fo as to examine the wellern fide.

We have already mentioned fomc improvements
which have been made on the globes, for the pur-
cofe of remedying the defed in the old conftruclion,
of placing the hour circles on the outfide of the bra-
zen meridian. Some other Improvements and modifi-
cations have been contrived by various artiifs ; but of
thefe we fliall only mention thofe of Mr Sene.x, Mr B.
J 09 Martin, Mr Smeaton, and Mr Adams.
:>Ir Seiies's T^jj. John Senex, F. R. S. invented a contrivance for
unproye- i-emedying thefe defefts, by fixing the poles of the di-
elo"e='" '' i^rnal motion to two fhoxilders or arms of brafs, at the
diftance of l^i" from the poles of the ecliptic. Thefe
(houlders are ilrongly faftened at the other end to an
iron axis, which paifes through the poles of the ecliptic,
ind is made to move round with a very Itifl motion j
fo that when it is adjuiled to any point of the ecliptic
uhich the equator is made to intcrleft, the diurnal
motion of the globe on its axis will not difturb it.
When it is to be adjufted for any particular time,
either paft or future, one of the brazen ftioulders is
brought under the meridian, and held faft to it with
one hand, while the globe is turned about with the
other ; fo that the point of the ecliptic which the
equator is to interfeft may pafs under the o degree of
the brazen meridian ; then holding a pencil to that
point, and turning the globe about, it will defcribe the
equator according to its pofition at the time required;
and transferring the pencil to 234^ and 66t degrees
on the brazen meridian, the tropics and polar circles
will be fo delJcribeJ for the fame time. By this con-
trivance, the celeftial globe may be fo adjufted, as to
exhibit not only the riling and fetting of the itars in
all ages and in all latitudes, but likewife the other
phenomena that depend upon the motion of the diur-
nal round the annual axis. Senex's celeifial globes,
efpecia'.ly the two greateft, of 27 and 28 inches in
diamtter, have been conftruAed upon this principle ;
Cb that by means of a nut and fcrcw, the pole o:
3

A P II \\ Fart II.

the equator is made to revolve alout the pole of the frincipiej
ecliptic. ='"'^

To reprefent the above appearances in the moft na- '^^'y"^'" .
tural and cafy manner, Mr B. Martin applied to the
contrivance of Mr Senex a moveable equinoftial and
folftitial colure, a moveable cquinoftial circle, and a
moveable ecliptic ; all fo connedlcd togelht r as to re-
prefent thofe imaginary circles in the heavens for any
age of the world. ,,0

In order to the performance of the problems which Improve-
relate to the altitudes and azimuths of celeftial objefls, ™«"t» ^7
Mr Sm.eaton, F, R. S. has made fome improvements ap-'^^' ^"'"'
plicable to the celeftial globe •, and to give fome idea
of the conflruClion, they may be defcribed as follows :
Inftead of a thin ftexible ftip of brafs, which generally
accompanies the quadrant of altitude, Mr Smeaton
fubflitutcs an arch or a circle of the fame radius,
breadth, and fubftance, as the brafs meridian, divided
into degrees, &.c. fimilar to the divifions of that circle,
and which, on account of its flrc-ngth, is not liable to
be bent cut of the plane of a vertical circle, as is
ufual with the common quadrant put to globes. That
end of this circular arch at which the divifion begins,
refts en the horizon, being filed oflF fquare to fit and
reft fteadily on it throughout its ivhole breadth ; and
the upper end of the arch is firmly attached, by means
of an arm, to a vertical focket, in fuch a manner that
when the lower end of the arch refts on the horizon,
the lower end of this focket ftiall reft on the up-
per end of the brafs meridian, directly over the zenith
of the globe. This focket is fitted to and ground
with a fteel fpindle of the length, fo that it will turn
freely on it without fhaking ; and the fteel fpindle has
an apparatus attached to its lower end, by which it can
be faftened in a vertical pofition to the brafs meridian,
\dth its centre direclly over the zenith point of the
globe. The fpindle being fixed firmly in this pofition,
and the focket which is attriched to the circular arch
put on it, and fo adjufted that the lower end of the
arch juft rclts on and fits clofe to the horizon ; it is e\ i-
dent that the altitude of any objeft above the horizon
will be Ihewn hy the degree which it interfefls on this
arch, and its azimuth by that end of the arch which
refts on the horizon,

Befidcs this improvement, Mr Smeaton propcfes that,
inftead of fixing the hour index, as is ufually done, on
one end of the axis, it be placed in fuch a manner
that its upper fiirface may move in the plane of the
hour circle rather than above it. To effeft this, he
directs the extremity of the index to be filed off fo as to
form a circular arc, of the fame radius with the inner
edge of the hour circle, to which it is made to fit ex-
ailly, and a fine line is drawn in the nJddle of its up-
per furface, to point out the hour, inftead of the taper-
ing point uiually employed. By this cc'itrivance, if
the hour circle be made four inches in diameter, the
time may be ftieun to half a minute. For a more par-
ticular account of Mr Smeaton's improvements, we re-
fer the reader to the 79th volume of the Philofophical
Tranfacticns.

Another improvement of the celeftial globe, by which
it is better adapted to aftronomical purpofes, is defcrib-
ed in the article AsTROSOMy, Vol. III. p. 178. iti

Befidcs the modiiirations in the conftruilion of globes, Adams's
introduced by Mr j!\dams, and which have been al- *""

ready P'""""'*'

,Part ir.

Principles

G E O G Tv

ready defcribcd, tliere are fome others which we muft
bricHy mcntjoii, rti'peditig principally the placing the
, globe in an inclined polition, and fitting it with a move-
able or floating meridian and horizon.

Tl.c globes conllru^icd after this manner do not
hang in a frame like the ordinary globes, but are fix-
ed on a ptdeilal, and fupported by an axis which is
inclined 66j° to the ecliptic, and is of courlis always
par;illcl lo tlie axis of the earth, fuppofing the orbit of
this planet to be parallel to the ecliptic. On the pe-
dellal below the globe is a graduated circle, markej
with the iigns and degrees of the ecliptic ; and adjoin- -
Jng to this is a circle of months and days, anfwering
to every deeree of the ecliptic j and witiiin this is a
third circle fliewing the fun's dtelinatlun for every day
of the month. There is a moveable arm on the pe-
ticftal, which being ftt to the day of the month, im-
ruediatc'y points out the fmi's place and declination.

Round the guibe there is a circle repretenting the
licrixon of any place, and at right angles to this is fix-
ed -J. itmicircle, lerving tor a general meridian. The
middle point of this femicircle ferves to reprefent the
lituation of any inhabitant on the earth ; for this purpofe
there is fixed a itcel pin over the middle point of this
fcmicitcle.

Mr Adams alleges that only one fuppofitlon is ne-
ceSary for performing every problem with this globe,
namely, that a fpherical luminous body will enlighten one
half of a fpherical op3c,ue body, and coniequently that a
circle at right angles with the central lolar ray, and di-
viding the globe in half, will be a terminator iliewing
the boundary of light and darknefs for any given day.
For this purpofe, at the end of the moveable arm,
onpofite to the fun, there is a pillar, from the top of
which projeifls a piece carrying a circle that fiirrounds
the globe, dividing it into equal portions, and feparat-
:ng the illuminated from the dark parts 5 and 18° be-
hind this there is anot'ner circle parallel to it, reprefent-
ing the limit of twilight.

Ihere are two plates below the globe, which are
turned by the diurnal revolution of the globe, each of
them being divided into twice 12 hours, and on the
ouliide being marked with the degrees of longitude
correfponding to every hour ; fo that thefe circles give
at fight the hour of the day at any two places on the
globe, and the correfponding difference of longitude.

The celeltial globe is mounted in a fimilar manner,
except that it is fixed on the axis, and the ecliptic ex-
gftly coincides \vith the fun's apparent path from the
earth *.

StiCT. IV. 0/iL- Ai' miliary S/Jiere.

If a machine be conftructed that is compofed only
of the circles of the I'phere, and made fo as to revolve
like a globe, a great many of the moil ufeful prob-
lems relating to the heavenly bodies may be folved by
it. An inftrument of this kind is called an armillary
fphcre, and of thefc there are various forms. One of
the moil convenient is that contrived by the late Mr
James Fergjfon, and is thus, defcribed iu his Leilures.
it if repreientcd at fig. 16.

'I'he exterior parts of this machine are a compages
ot brals rings, which reprefent the principal circles of

Vol. IX. Fart II,

A P H Y.

the heaven, viz. i. The equinoftial AA, ivhicii is di- T:
vided into 360 degrees, (beginning at its interfedtiou
with the echptic in Aries) for (liewing the fijn's right -^
afceiifion in degrees ; and alfo into 24 hours, for Iheiv-
ing his right afcenfion in time. 2. The ecliptic BB,
which is divided into i z figns, and ewch fign into 30
degrees, and alfo into the months and d;iys of the year,
in liich a manner, that the degrees or points of the
ecliptic in which the fun is on any given day, (lands ovit
that day in the circle of months. 3. The tropic of
Cancer, CC, touching the ecliptic at the beginning of
Cancer in e ; and the tropic of Capricorn DD, touch-
ing the ecliptic at the beginning of Capricorn in f;
each 234 degrees from the equinoctial circle. 4. The
Arclic circle E, and the Antarftic circle F, each 234
degrees from its refpcCtive pole at N and S. 5. The
equinoftial colare GG, palling tlirough the fouth and
north poles of the heaven at N and S, and through the
equinodial points Aries and Libra, in the ecliptic.
6. The folfthial colure HH, palFmg through the poles
of the heaven, and through the foUUtial points Cancer
and Capricorn, in the ecliptic. Each quarter of the
iormer of thefe colures is divided hito 90 degrees, from
the equinoftial to the poles of the world, forihewing the
declination of the fun, moon, and ftars ; and each quar-
ter of the latter, from the ecliptic ate and/, to its poles
b and d, for (hewing the latitudes of the liars.

In the north pole of the ecliptic is a nut b, to which
is fixed one end of a quadrantal wire, and to the other
end a fmall fun Y, which is carried round the ecliptic
BB, by turning the nut : and in the fouth pole of the
ecliptic is a pin at //, on which is another quadrantal
ivire, with a fmall moon Z upon it, which may be
moved round by hand ; but there is a particular con-
trivance for caunng the moon to move in an orbit which
erodes the ecliptic at an angle of 5I degrees, in tv>o
oppoute points called iS.i moon's nodes ; and alfo for
Ihifting theie points backward in the ecliptic, as the
moon's nodes iliift in the heaven.

Within thefe circular rings is a fmall terreftrial globe
I, fixed on the axis KK, which extends from the north
and fouth poles of the globe at n and s, to thofe of the
celeftial fphere at N and S. On this a.\is is fixed tlie
fiat celellial meridian LL, which may be fet direftly over
the meridian of any place on the globe, and then turn-
ed round with the globe, fo as to keep over the fame
meridian upon it. This flat meridian is graduated the
fame way as the brals meridian of a common globe,
and its ufe is much the fame. To this globe is fitted the
moveable horizon MM, lb as to turn upon two tlrong
\vlres proceeding from its ealt and welt points to the
globe, ^nd entering the globe at oppofite points of it«
equator, which is a mo^table brafs ring let into the
globe in a groove all around its equator. The globe
may be turned by hand witliin this ring, fo as to plac«
any gi%en meridian upon it, direftly under the Celeftial
meridian LL. 'I he horizon is divided into 360 de-
grees all around its outermoft edge, vvithin which ana
the points of the compafs, for ihewing the amplitude of
the fun and moon, both in degrees and points. The
celeftial meridian LL, palTes through two notches in the
north and fouth points of the horizon, as in a common
globe ; but here, if the globe, be turned round, the hori-
zon and the meridian turn with it. At the ibulh pole
3Y of

537

'.CiplcJ

clke.

53S

Frincip^

■Dri. ,

fphtre.

G E O G II

of tlie ^yhaz k s circle of 24 hours, fixed to die rings,
and on the axis is an index which goes round that cir-
cle, if the globe be turned round its axis.

The whole fabric is fupported on a pedeftal N, and
may be elevated or depreffed upon the joint O, to any
number of degrees from o to 90, by means of the arc
P, which is fixed into the ftro;ig brafs arm Q^, and Aides
in the upright piece R, in wlilch is a fcrevv at r, to fix
it at any proper elevation.

In the box T are two wheels and two pinions, whofe
axes come out at V and U ; either of which may be
turned by the fmall winch W. When the winch is.
put upon the axis V, and turned bacliward, the terref-
trial globe, with its horizon and celeftial meridian,
keep at reft ; and the wliole fphere of circles turns round
from cart, by fouth, to weft, carrying the fun Y, and
moon Z, round the fame way, caufing them to rife above
and fet below the horizon. But when the winch is
put upon the axis U, and turned forward, the fphere
with tlie fun and moon keep at reft ; and the earth,
with its horizon and meridian, turn round from well,
by fouth, to eaft ; and bring the fame points of the
horizon to the fun and moon, to whicii thefe bodies
come when the earth kept at reft, and they were car-
ried round it ; ftiewing that they rife and fet in the
fame points of the horizon, and at the fame times in the
hour circle, whether the motion be in the earth or in
tiie heaven. If the earthly globe be turned, the hour
index goes round its hour circle ; but if the fphere be
turned, the hour circle goes round below the index.

And fo, by this conftruftion, the machine is equally
fitted to lliew either the real motion of the earth, or the
apparent motion of the heaven.

To reflify the fphere for ufe, firft flacken the fcrew
r in the upright ftem R, and taking hold of the arm
P, move it up or doun until the given degree of lati-
tude for any place be at the fi «. of the ftem R ; and
t!icn the axis of the fphere will be properly elevated, fo
as to ttand parallel to the axis of the world, if the
machine be fet north and fouth by a fmall compafs ;
this done, count the latitude from the north pole upon
tlie celeftial meridian LL, down towards the north notch
of the horizon, and fet the horizon to that latitude ;
then turn the nut b until the fun Y comes to the
given day of the year in the ecliptic, and the I'un
will be Rt its proper place for that day : find the place
of the moon's afcending node, and alfo the place of
the moon, by an Ephemeris, and fet them right ac-
cordingly : laftly, turn the winch W, until cither the
fun comes to the meridian LL, or until the meridian
comes to the fun (according as you want the fphere or
the earth to move), and fet the hour index to the XII.
marked noon, and the whole -machine will be reftified.
Then turn the winch, and obferve when the fun or
moon rife and fet in the horizon, and the hour index
will (hew the times thereof for the given day.

Thofe who have made therafelves acquainted with
the ufe of the globes, as defcribed in the firft and fe-
cond feCiions of this chapter, will be at no lofs to per-
form mary nrobltnis refpefling the motions of the
heavenly bodies by mcanK of this fphere.

Dr Lone, fome years awo, conllrucled an armillary
fphere of glafs, in Pembroke hall at Cambridge. It
was 18 feet in di-:meter, and could contain below it
more thw 30 perfons, fitting in fuch a manner with-

A P H Y. Fart IT.

in the fphere, as to view from its centre the reprefcn- Priudp'es
tation of the heavens drawn in its concavity. The ^^''
lower part of the fphere, or that part which is not ^''"^^'''"'' .
viiib'.e in the latitude of Britain, is wanting ; and the
whole apparatus is fo contrived, that it may be turned
round with as little exertion as is requifite to wind up
a common jack. Dr Long has given a defcription of
this fphere, accompanied with a figure, in his Aftro-
nomy.

The invention of the armillary fphere is thought by
La Lande to be as ancient as that of aftronomy itfelf.
It has been attributed to Atlas, to Hercules, to Ana-
ximander, and Mufeus ; while others have fuppofed that
it originated in Egypt. The fphere of Archimedes,
which became fo celebrated, appears to have been lome-
thing like that of Dr Long, as it was certainly com-
pofed of a globe of glafs, which, befides containing
the circles of the fphere, ferved as a planetarium,
and reprefented the motions of the planets. Claudian
has celebrated it in fome beautiful lines. See Archi-

MEDKS.

A combination of the armillary fphere with a plane-
tarium was conftrucied by the late Mr George Adams,
and is figured in Plate XIII. fig. 1. of his Aftronomi-
cal and Geographical Effays.

Chap. III. Of tie ConJiruBion and Ufe of Maps and
Charts.

Sect. I. Defcription of Maps and Charts.

It has been feen, that the furface of the earth may Oiftinaion
be delineated, in the moft accurate manner, on the fur- of maps and
face of a globe or fphere. This mode of delineation, <=''^"5'
however, can be employed only for the purpofe of
reprefenting the general fonn and relative proportions
of countries on a very confined fcale ; and is, befides,
fiom hs bulk and figure, not well fuited to many of
the pui-pofes of the geographer. To obviate thefe in-
conveniences, recourfe has been had to maps and
charts, or delineations of the earth's furface on a plane ;
where the form and boundaries of the feveral countries,
and the objefts moft remarkable in each, whether by
fea or land, are reprefented according to the rules of
perfpeclive, fo as to preferve the remembrance that
they are parts of a fpherical furface. In this way, the
feveral countries or diftri(fts of the earth may be re-
prefented on a larger fcale, and delineations of this kind
admit of more eafy reference. _ ,j

In maps, the circles of the fphere, and the boundaries Defcription.
of the countries within them, are drawn as they would o! a map-
appear to an eye fituated in fome point of the fphere,
or at a confiderable diftance above it. In maps of any
confiderable extent of country, the meridians and pa-
rallels of latitude are circular lines, but, if the map re-
prefents only a fmall diftrift, as a province or county,
thofe circles become fo large, that they m:.y, without
any confiderable error, be reprefented by ftraight lines.
In charts, which arc alfo called hijdrographical maps, as
they are reprefentations rather of the ivater than land,
the meridians and parallels are ufually reprefented by
ftraight lines, crofting each other at right angles, as in
the fmaller maps ; and, in particular parts, there are
drawn lines diverging from feveral points, in the di-
rcftion of the points of the compafs, in order to mark

the

Part II.

GEOGRAPHY.

Principles the beaiings of particular places. In maps, the inland
and face of the country is chictly regarded in the delinea-
. P^^'^'g^- tion ; but in charts, which are deligned for the purpofes
' of navigation, the interna! face of the land is left nearly
blank, and only the fea-coaft, with the principal ob-
jcfts on it, fuch as churches, lighthoufes, beacons,
&c. are accurately delineated ; while particular care is
taken to mark the rocks, (hoals, and qu'.ckfands in the
fea, that may endanger the fafely of veffels ; the depths
or foundings of the principal bays and harbours, and the
direciion of the winds, where thefe are ftationary or pe-
culiarly prevalent. Another dirtindion of maps and
charts is, that in the former, the fea-coaft is (haJcd on
the fide next the land, while, in the latter, it is Ihaded
towards the fea.

In maps tHe upper fide reprefents the north, the
lower fide the fouth •, that on the right hand the eaft,
and that on the left hand the weft. All the margins
of the map are graduated ; the upper and lower fhowing
the degrees of longitude, and the right and left margins
the degrees of latitude. JjSee fig. i. to which the
reader muft refer in going over the following defcrip-
tion). If the map is on a fraall fcale, only every ten
degrees of longitude or latitude are marked on the
margin ; but, if the map is drawn on a large fcale, every
degree is numbered, and fometimes every half degree is
marked with the number 30 in fmaller figures. The
fpace included between e\ery ten degrees in fmall maps,
or between every two degrees in thole on a larger fcale,
is ufually divided into ten fpaces, which are alternately
left blank, and marked with parallel lines, to denote
the fubdivifions ot lingle degrees or minutes. Through
every ten degrees of latitude a line is dravvn, reprefent-
ing a parallel of latitude •, and through every ten degrees
of longitude, or at fmaller intervals in each, where the
fize of the map ivill admit of it, there are drawn lines re-
prefer.ting meridians. In fome maps thefe lines are conti-
nued from fide to fide, or from top to bottom, acrofs both
fea and land ; but in other maps, they are fometimes only
drawn acrofs the fe:i. The firft meridian, however, and
the principal circles of the fphere, as the equator, tropics,
&c. (hould always be drawn direftly acrofs the map.
In moft maps, it is marked on the margins, whether
the longitude is eaft or weft, and the latitude north or
fouth ; but, if this is not marked, it may eafily be known,
by obferving toivards what part of the map the degrees
increafe. If the degrees of latitude increafe from the
lower to the upper part of the map, the country deli-
neated lies in north latitude ; but if they increafe from
above downwards, it lies in fouth latitude. Again, if the
degrees of longitude increafe towards the right, the
countries are in eaft longitude ; but if towards the left,
they are in weft longitude.

The principal objefls that diverfify the face of the
country delineated in the map, fuch as rivers, mountains,
forcrts, lakes, roads, cities, towns, forts, &c. are marked
in fuch a manner, as that they may be moft eafily dif-
tinguillied. A river is denoted by 3 black crooked
line, drawn very fine towards the fource or head of the
river, and gradually becoming broader as it approaches
towards the mouth ; and the leffer rivers, or rivulets,
which unite their waters with thofc of the principal
rtream, are denoted by Cmilar lines appearing to branch
off from the firft.

Mountains are reprefentcd by the figures of little bills ;

539

and if thefe figures are pkced in a ro^v, they denote Pfii
a ridge of mountains running acrofs the lar.d. If a *".^
mountain is a volcano, it is denoted in the map by the _
appearance of fmoke iflfuing from its fummit. Woods
or forerts are reprc.'ented by a number of little trees or
ftirubs, placed in a group. Lakes are denoted by a
circumfcribed fpot (haded with dark lines, and bays or
fens by a more regular fpot of the fame kind, more
lightly fhaded, or, where the map is coloured, painted
of a light green. Roads are reprefentcd in a map by
t"'o ftraight lines drawn parallel to each other, for the
principal roads, or by a fingle ftraight line for the IclTer
or crofs roads. Cities are denoted by a large houfe, or
the figure of a church with the fteeple in the middle ;
and if the city is the metropolis of the country, this is
denoted by a white circular fpace in the middle of the
houfe or church. Small towns are ufually reprefentcd
by circles ; and where a fmall church with the fteeple at
one end occurs, it denotes a parlfti. Where the map is
on a large fcale, or reprefents only a fmall diftrifl, the
towns are denoted by a group of fmall houfes, or more
commonly by a number of fmall Ihaded fpots on each
fide of the road. A fort, caftle, or fortified town, is
denoted by a femlcircular fpace furroundtd by an an-
gular edge reprefenting baftions. The ll.oals upon the
coaft are reprefentcd by fmall dots j the depth of water
in bays and harbours by figures, denoting the number
of fathoms, among which is fometimes drawn the figure
of an anchor, to ftiew that in that place there is good
anchorage for ftilps.

The boundaries or limits that divide countries from
each other are diftinguiflicd in maps by dotted lines
drawn round each country or diftrict, in fuch a dire£lioii
as to (bow its proper form. Where the map is coloured,
the countries or diftrifts are diftiiiguillicd from each
other by the fide of the boundary next each being
fliaded by a different colour from that of the adjoining.
Thus, in a map of Europe, the boundary of France may
be ftiaded green, that of Spain red, that of Italy yellow,
that of Germany blue, &c. In one corner of the map
there is ufually drawn a fcale divided into a number of
equal parts, by which the number of miles or leagues
from one part of the map to another may be meafured,
Simietimes the parts into \vhich the fcale is divided are
ufed to denote geographical miles, of 60 to a degree ;
but more commonly they correfpond to the miles in ufe
in the country where the map is made, as, in Britain,
to Britilh ftatute miles of 69} to a degree.

To mark more diflindly the bearings of different
parts of the map, there is ufually added in fome blank
fpace a circle with four radii, marking the four cardinal
points of the compafs ; the north point being diftinguifti-
ed by the figure of a /air de lis, and the eaft point hj
a crofs.

Till of late, the only diftin<5lion between the land
and water in maps and charts, was afforded by the
ftiading of the fea coaft, as mentioned above. In this
way, however, the eye cannot eally and cxpeditioufly di-
ftim;uill)the form and extent of the land; and, where the
lliadint^ is carried much beyond the boundary ot the coaft,
as is often done, efpecially in engraving fmall iilands, the
land is made to appear much larger than it really is.

The ingenious Mr Wilfon L0W17 having lately

contrived an inftrumcnt for engraving parallel ftraight

lines, in a much more clear and commodious way

3 Y 2 ilian

540

Principles

"7
Ortho-
graohic
projeilions.

Stereo-
graphic
projedions.

G £ O G R

tlian cou'iJ he done by tlie common grayer, it occurred
to Mr Pinkf-rton, while preparing his Modern Geogra-
phy, that this invention might be applied with ad-
vantage to the improvement of maps. A fet of maps
was, accordingly engraved by Mr Lowry for Pinker-
ton'.> Geography, in which tlie water was marked by
dark parallel lines to dlfcriminate it from the land.
Thefc lines are drawn horizontally ; and Mr Pinker-
ton propofed that, in engraving charts, the land
ihould be marked with fimilar lines drawn in a per-
pendicular direiflion, while the water thoiild be left
blank. 'J'his improvement has fmce been adopted by
other conltruftors of maps and charts, and bids fair
to be generally uied. The efFeft is pleafing ; and the
progrels of ir.ftruflion will be greatly facilitated by tlie
new method, as the extent and bearings of the feveral
countries are feen, as it were, with a glance of the
eye. In many of thcfe maps which we have feen,
however, the lines are drawn too flrongly, which
renders the fea fo dark, that tlie names of illands and
places on the fea coaft can with difficulty be perufed.
As the line of coaft in thefe maps is ftrongly marked,
the parallel lines denoting the lea (hould be engraved
in a light and foft ftyle ; and in this way Mr Lo\\ry's
f.rft fptciraens are executed.

Sect. II. Oft/ie CunJiruElion of Maps ana Char:-.

The conftruftion of maps confills in making a pro-
jeftion of the furface of the globe on the plane of feme
one of its circles, fupnofing the eye to be placed in
fome particular point. The defcribing of thefe pro-
jeftions depends on the principles of peripedlive, and
the projeflion of the fphere. The general principles
will be explained under thofe articles, but the parti-
cular mode of drawing maps properly forms a part of
the prefent treatife.

The methods of conftrufting maps vary according to
the fize or fcale of the map, and to the projeftion em-
ployed in conftrufling it.

There are three projedlions employed in conftrufting
maps, the orthographic, thejlereographic, and the globu-
lar. In the orthographic projeftion the eye is fuppofed
to view the part of the globe to be projected, from an
infinite diftance. In this projeftion the parts about the
middle of the map are very well reprefented, but thofe
towards the margin are too much contrafted.

In the ftcreographic projeftion, the eye is fuppofed
to be fituatcd in the furface of the globe to be repre-
fented, and looking towards the oppoiite furface. This
is the method ufually employed in conllrufting moft
maps, efpccially maps of the world, or planifphcres.

In conftrufting a m:ip of the world, as well KS moft
partial maps, the part of the fphere to' be reprefented
is fuppofed to be in the polition of a right fphere ( fee
Ko. 90). In this mode of projeflion, the hemi-
fphcrc to be reprefented is fuppofed to be delineated
on the plane of that meridian by which it is bounded,
in the fame manner as its concave furface, conceiving
the fphere to be tranfparent, would appear to an eye
placed in the oppo!ite hemifphere, where the equator
croiTes a meridian ; that is, pc'' diftant from that which
forms the plane of the projcflicn. In a delineation of
this kind, the mcfidians and parallels of latitude are re-
prefented hy arches of circles, except the equator and the
central meridian, which are ftraight lines; and each paral-

A P H Y. Part II.

lel or meridian forms an arc of a greater circle, in proper- Principles
tion as it approaches nearer to the centre of the map. ^""^

By either of thefe projeftions only half the globe ^"^^"^^•,
can be reprefented in one projeSion ; but in the map of
the \vorld, the two hemiipheres are ufually drawn on
the plane of the fame circle, adjacent to each other.
By Mercator's projeftlon, ufually employed for charts,
and to be defcribed prefently, the whole globe may be
reprefented in one projeclion, but much ditlorted.

If the projeftion of a map of the ivorld be formed on
the plane of a meridian, the two proieclions will repre-
fent the eallern and weftem hemifpheres of the globe.

When the projection is made on the plane of the
equator, in the fituation of a parallel fphere, the pro-
jeftions reprefent the northern and fouthem hemi-
fpheres, which appear as their concave furface would
be feen by an eye placed at the oppofite pole. In
this way the meridians become ftraight lines diverging
from the fame centre, and the parallels are circles
having the iarae common centre.

The following is the m^hod of conftrufting a map
of the world, on the plane of a meridian, according to
the globular projecliori. (See fig. 17). ,,p

About the centre C, with any radius as CB, dcfcribe Globular
a circle, reprefenting the meridian that is to form the "'■"j^'^'':"''',
plane of the hemilphere. Draw the diameters NS,", Pf"

and AB, croffrng each other at right angles, and the
former of thefe will be the central meridian, and the
latter the equator. Divide each femidiameter into nine
equal parts, and divide each quadrant of the circle alfo into
nine equal parts, each of which will be equal to II °. If
the fcale of the map be fufficiently large, each of thefe
may again be divided into ten equal parts or degrees. The
next object is to defcribe the meridians parting through
every 1 0° of the equator. Suppofe we are to draw the me-
ridian of 80' weit of Greenwich. We have here three
points given, the t'.vo poles and the point 80° on the equa-
tor, and it is eafy to defcribe a circle that (liail pafs through
thefe three points. This arch will be the meridian. The
method of drawing a circle through any three points is,
in this cafe, as follows. About the centre S, w'ith the
radius SC, defcribe a circular arch, as XX ; and about
the centre N, with the fame radius, defcribe the arch
ZZ ; then about the centre 80°, with the fame diftance,
defcribe arches l, l, 2, 2, croffing the former, and draw
lines from 2 to I on each fide of AB, crofting each
other, and AB produced, in D. D is the centre of the
circular arc, reprefenting the meridian of 80° weft from
Greenwich ; and with the fame radius the meridian of
140° weft longitude may be drawn. All the other
meridians are to be drawn in a fimilar manner, by de-
fcribing a circular arch throu'j;h three points N, S, and
the required degree. (Si^e Gkometry.)

For defcribing the parallels, fuppofe that of 60° N.
Lat. ; about the centre O, with any radius, defcribe the
circle FGH, and about the points 60", 60°, in the pri-
mitive circle, with the fame diftance, defcribe the arcs
cc,dd, cutting the circle FGH : through the points
of interfeitlon draw ftraight lines, and the point where,
thefe lines meet in NS produced, as in I, is the centre
of the arch that will reprefent the parallel of 60°. The
other parallels are drawn in a fimilar manner, obferving
that the firft circle, fuch as FGH, muft have for its
centre that point in the central meridian through which
the parallel is to be drawn. Fig. 1 8. reprefcnts this
projeiftion

Part ir.

G E O G R

Conftnic
tion of pj
ticular
maps.

prijeflion with all the merijiaiis and parallels com-
pleted.
, If the map is very large, and the paper on which it
is to be drawn does not admit of lo raany circles, the
centres of the meridians and parallels are more eafily
found ill the following manner. Hrt%ing di\'ided the
fcmi-diamcters and quadrants, each into 9 e-jual parts,
find, from a tcale of equal parts, the length of the half
chord of each arc, and the verfed fine of half the fame
arc ; then add together the fquare of the half chord,
and the fquaie of the verfed fine, and divide the- fum by
the verfed fine ; the quotient is e.:jual to the diameter,
and i of this to the radius of the circle required. In
this manner the radii of all the meridians and parallels
may be found.

As, in drawing maps on a large fcale, compafles of
?.n ordinary fize will not anfvver for defcribing the cir-
cular arcs, it is convenient to have fome other mechani-
cal contrivance for this purpofe ; and it is found that a
thin tlexible ruler of tough wood, called a low, may
be fo bended as to forr; a curve, very nearly circular,
that will pafs through the three points that are to de-
termine tlie meridian or parallel. In this way the
circles on maps on a large fcale ■ are ufually drawn by
engravers and lludents of geography •, and where the
circle is of very large radius, the method is futficiently
accurate ; but it ought by no means to be employed
where compalTes of a proper fize can be procured, or
conveniently ufed.

The following is the method given by Dr Hutton,
for defcril)ing a globular projeftion of the earth on the
plane of the equator. For the north or fouth hemi-
spheres draw AO^BE, for the equinoctial (fig. 19.), di-
viding it into the four quadrants EA, AQ^, Q^B, and
EE ; and each quadrant into 9 equal parts, reprefenting
each 10" of longitude ; and then from the points of dl-
vifion, draw lines to the centre C, for the circles of
longitude. Divide any circle of longitude, as the firft
r-.eridian EC, into 9 equal parts, and tlirough thefe
points defcribe circles from the centre C,' for the pa-
rallels of latitude, numbering them as in the figure.
In this method equal fpaces on the earth are reprefent-
cd by equal fpaces on the map, as nearly as any pro-
jection v.ill bear ; for a fpherical furface can in no way
be reprefented exacriy upon a plane. Then the fe-
vtral countries of the world, feas, illands, fea-coails,
towns, &c. are to be entered in the map, according to
their latitudes and longitudes.

To draw a Map of any particular Country.

There are three methods of doing this.

ift, For this purpofe its extent inult be knoun as to
latitude and longitude ; as fuppofe £p:;in, lying between
the north latitudes 36° and 44°, and extending from
1 o* to 23° of longitude, fo tliat its extent from north 10
fouth is 8", aad from eafl to weft 13'.

Draw the line Ali for a meridian palTmg through
the middle of the country (fig. Tj.), on which fet off
8° from B to A, taken from any convenient fcalc ;
A being the norih and B the fouth point. Through A
and B draw the perpendiculars CD, EF, for the ex-
treme parallels of latitude. Divide AB into eight
parts, or degrees, through which draw the other paral-
lels of latitude parallel to the former.

JFor '.'.ij meridians, divide any degree in AB i.V.o 60

A P H Y.

equal pari',.or geographical miles. TIjen, because the
length in each parallel decreafcs towards the pole,
from the tHble fliewing tliis dtcrcafc givcu in p. 514. .
take the number of miles anfwcring to the latitude of
B, which is 48} nearly, and fet it from JB, fcven- times
to E, and lix times to F; fo is EF divided into de-
grees. Again, from the lame table tiike the iiumb;;r of
miles of a degree in the latitude A, viz. 45 ^ nearly;
which fet off from A, feven times to C, and fix times
to D. Then from tlic- points of divifion in the hue
CD, to the correfponding points in the line EF, iraiv
fo many right lines for the meridians. Number the de-
grees of latitude up both fides of the map, and the de-
grees of longitude on the top and bottom. Alio in
fome vacant place make a (cale of miles, or of aegrees
if the map repreient a large part of the earth ; to fervt
for finding the diftances of places upon the map.

Then make the proper diviiions and fubdivifions of
the country ; and having the latitudes and longitudes
of the principal places, it will be eafy to fet them down
in the map ; for any town, &c. muft be placed where
the circles of its latitude and longitude interfed. For
inftance, Gibraltar, whet latitude is 36° 1 1"', and lon-
gitude I 2° 27', will be at G ; and IVIadrid, whofe lati-
tude Is 40° 10', and longitude 14° 44', will be at M.
In the lame manner the mouth of a river may be fet
down ; but to defcribe the >vhole courfe of the river,
the latitude and longitude of every turning, and of the
towns and bridges by ^vhlch It pafles, muft alfo be mark-
ed down. The fame is neceiTary for woods, forefts,
mountains, lakes, caftles, &.c. The boundaries are de-
fcribed by fetting down the remarkable places on the
fea coaft, and drawing a continued line through them
all. This method is very proper for fmall countries.

2d Method. Maps of particular places are but por-
tions of the globe, and may therefore be drawn in the
fame manner as the whole globe, either by the ortho-
graphic or ftereographic projection of the fphere. But
in partial maps a more eafy method is as follov.s. Ha-
ving drawn the meridian AB in the laft figure, and
divided it into equal parts as before, draw lines througli
all the pohits of divifion ; put them together to AB, to
reprefent the parallels of latitude. Then to divide thefe,
fet off the degrees in each parallel ; diminilb after tht
manner directed for the two extreme parallels CD and
EF, and through all the correfponding points draw the
meridians, wliich will be curved lines; thefe were right
lines in the lalt method, btcaufe only the extreme pa-
rallels were divided acccording to the table. This me-
thod is proper for a large tradt, as Europe, .&c. ii»
which cafe the parallels and meridians need be drawn
only through every 5° or I o". This method is mucii
ufed in drawing m'aps, as all the parts are nearly of
their due magnitude, except being a little diftorted to-
wards the outfide, from the oblique inlerfeflion of the
meridians and parallels.

3d Method. Draw PB of a convenient length, for
a meridian ; divide it into nine equal parts, and through
the points of divifion, defcribe as many circles for the
parallels of latitude, from tlie cci-lrc P, which repre-
fents the pole. Suppofc AB (fig. 21.) the height of tlic
map ; then CD will be the parallel palTmg througli
the greateft latitude, and EF will reprefent the equa-
tor. Divide the equator EF into 9 equal parts o: ilie
fame Cze as thofc in AB, boUi wjys beginni:ig Al'. ;

54'

-542

^GEOGRAPHY.

Part ir.

Principles divide alio all the parallels into llie ifame number of
*.":' equal parts, but letter, in proportioii to the numbers for

.^'•'^''"•, the feveral latitudes, as direfled in the lalt method for
the reiSlilineal parallels. Then through ail the corre-
fponding divinoiii draw cur.'ed lines, which ^vill repre-
I'ent the meridians, the extreme meridians being EC and
FD. Lallly, Number the degrees of latitude and lon-
gitude, and pl^ce a fcale of equal parts, either in miles
or degrees, for meafuring diiiances.

When the place of which a map is to be made is
but fmall, as when a county is to be delineated, the me-
ridians will be fo nearly parallel to one another, and
the whole will difter fo little from a plane, that the
map may be laid down in a much more eafy manner
than what is given above. It \u)l be here fufficient to
r.ieafure the diiiances of plrxes in miles, and note them
doun in a plane reCiangular manner. The method of
delineating fuch partial maps is the pro\ance of the fur-
veyor. See Surveyixg.

Blercator"* Mercator's plojeftion is chiefly confined to charts for

projection, the purpofes of navigation. In this projection the me-
ridians, parallels, and rhumbs, are all ftraight lines ;
but inftead of the degrees of longitude being everyivhere
equal to thofe of latitude, as is the cafe in plain charts,
the degrees of latitude are increafed as we approach to-
wards either pole, being made to thofe of longitude in
the proportion of radius to the fine of the dillance from
the pole, or cofnie of the latitude, or, what is the fame
thing, in the ratio of the fccant of the latitude to radi-
us. Hence all the parallel circles are reprefented by
equal and parallel llraight lines, and all the meridians
are parallel lines alfo ; but thefe increafe indefinitely to-
wards the poles.

From this proportional uicreafe of the degrees of the
meridian, it is evident that the length of an arc of the
meridian beginning at the equator, is proportional to
the fum of all the fecants of the latitude ; or that the
increafed meridian bears the fame proportion to its true
arc as the fum of all the Tecants of the latitude to as
many times the radius. The increafed meridian is alfo
analogous to a fcale of the logarithmic tangents,
though this is not at firll very evident. It is not cer-
tain by whom this analogy was firll difcovered, but the
difcovery appears to have been made by accident. It
was firft publillied and introduced into the practice of
navigation by Mr Henry Bond, by whom this property
is me'irioned in an edition of Norwood's Epitome of
Navigation, printed about 1645. This analogy, though
it had been found true by aiilual meafurement, was not
accurately demonllrated. Nicholas Mercator offered to
dildoie, for a fum of money, a method which he had
difcovered for demonftrating it ; but this was not ac-
cepted, and the demonftration was, ^ve believe, never
difclofed. See Nic/10/as Mercator. About two
years after, however, the demonftration was again dif-
covered, and publllhed by James Gregory.

The meridian line in Mercator's chart is a fcale of
logarithmic tangents of the half colatitudes. The dif-
ferences of longitude on any rhumb, are the logarithms
of the fame tangents, but of a different fpecies ; thofe
fpecies being to each other as the tangents of the angles
made with the meridian. Hence any fcale of logarithmic
tangents is a table of the differences of longitude, to fe-
veral latitudes, upon fomc one determinate rhumb •, and
ihercfore as the tsngent of the angle of fuch a rhumb

is to the tangent of any other thumb, fo is the differ- I'rinciiiles
cnce of the logarithms of any two tangents, to the dif- »"<•
ference of longitude on the propofed rhumlj, intercept- '

ed between the two latitudes, of whole half comple- '
ments the logarithmic tangents were taken.

It -.vas the great lludy of our predecelTors to contrive
fuch a chart in piano, with ftraiglit lines, on which all
or any parts of the world might be truly fet douTi, ac-
cording to their longitudes and latitudes, bearings, and
diftances. A method for this purnofc was hinted at by
Ptolemy, near 2000 years iince, and a general map in
luch an idea, was made by Mercator : but the princi-
ples were not demonftrated, and a ready way fhowii
of delcribing the chart, till Wright explained how to
enlarge the meridian line by the continual addition of
fecants, fo that all degrees of longitude might be pro-
portional to thofe of laUtude, as on the globe ; which
renders this chart, in feveral refpefts, far more conve-
nient for the navigator's ufe, than the globe itfelf, and
which will truly lhe^v the courfe and dillance from place
to place, in all cafes of failing..

For further particulars relpecting the coni^ruttion,
and for the ufe of charts, fee NavigAi ion.

Ill choofing maps, it is proper to examine particular-
ly whether the curved lines of thofe that ought to have
the meridians and parallels arches of circles be truly cir-
cular. If the map is compofed of more than one Iheet,
the flieets lliould be fo joined together as that the cor-
refponding meridional lines and parallels be each in one
continued line. The colours in painted maps, as was
obferved with refpeft to globes, (liould be fine and
tranfparent, and not laid on too thickly.

Maps folded for the pocket anfwer very well for
travelling, in fo far as they point out the relative fitua-
tion of places ; but, owing to the intervals at which the
parts are palled on the canvals, the diiiances between
places cannot be afcertained with any degree of ac-
curacy.

^ECT. III. Oftke Ufe of Maps.

Maps are of great utility in the ftudy of geography
and hiftory ; and if they are accurately drawn, many of
the problems that are ufually performed on the globes,
may be folved mechanically by means of maps.

In confulting a map, it is not fudicient to find out in
it the name of the place of which you defire to know the
fituation, although this is frequently all at which the
confulter of a map aims : it is, beiides, proper for the
lludent to inform himfelf refpeiSing the relative pofition
of the place, with regard to its vicinity to other places ;
its bearings and diftance from the principal places in the
fame or neighbouring diftricls 5 whether it is near the
fea Ihore, and is near a convenient harbour ; whether
it be feated on fome principal river, and on what fide
of the river ; w hether it is in the neighbourhood of a
confiderable canal ; whether it be near a lake, moun-
tain, foreft, &c. and many other little particulars that
will readily fuggeft thcmfelves to an attendve reader.

The problems that are ufually performed by means
of maps, arc the following.

Prodlkm I. To find tlie latitude and longitude of any
given place.
In maps on a large fcale, or where the meridians and Ui"c ofmsps.
paralkis of latitude are ftraight lines, the latitude of the

pl3C«

Part ir,

GEOGRAPHY.

place may be canly found by ftrelclung a thread over
the place, fo that it may crofs the ^amc degree of lati-
, tude on each fide of the map ; and the decree croffeJ
will be the latitude required. Or, with a pair of com-
paiTes meafure the lliorteft dillance of the place from
the ncarelt parallel, and apply this diftance to either
fide of the map, fo as to keep one point of the compaf-
fes on the fame parallel ; then the other point will fliew
the degree of latitude as meafured on the graduated
margin, counting from the parallel north or iouth, ac-
cording as the place is in north or fouth latitude.

The long-'.ude of the place may be found in a fimilar
manner, by itretching the thread over the place, or
laying a ruler acrofs it, fo as to cut tlie fame degree of
longitude on the top and bottom of the map, and that
is the degree required.

The above methods anfwer very well in plain charts or
in maps of counties ; but when the meridians and parallels
are curved line;, we muft find how often tlie dillance of
the place, meafured by the compaffes from the neareft
parallel, will reach the next parallel in a ftraight direc-
tion, and from thence the latitude may be found with
fufficient exa^flnefs. Thus, fuppofe we are required to
find the latitude of Berlin, the capital of PrulTia. The
nearell parallel is that of 50° north latitude ; the dif-
tance of Berlin from this parallel will reach the paral-
lel of 60° in four times, meafuring on the map of Eu-
rope. The fourth part of ten, or two and a half, add-
ed to 50, gives the latitude required, or 52^.

To find the longitude on fuch maps, mcalure hovv often
the dillance of the place from the neareft meridian will
reach the next meridian. Thus, in the fame inilance,
the dillance of Berlin from the meridian of 10, which
is the neareft towards the eaft, taken three times, will
extend a little beyond the meridian of 20. Add to 10
the third part of this diftance, which is about three and
a half, and we have 13" 30' for the longitude of Ber-
lin eaft from London.

Problem II. The latitude and longitude oj a place being
given; to Jind the place on the map.

Where the meridians and parallels are ftraight lines,
this is done by ftretching one thread from the given la-
titude on one fide of the map to the fame latitude on
the other fide ; while another thread is ftretchcd be-
tween the correfponding degrees of longitude. The
interfedling point of the two threads (hews the place re-
quired. Thus, fuppofe we are required to find the
place whofe latitude is 34° 29' S. and longitude 18°
23' E. Stretching one lliread between the given lati-
tudes, and another bet^veen the given longitudes, we
ihall find that they crof> over the Cape of Good Hope,
which is therefore the place required.

When the meridians and parallels arc curved lines,
the moft accurate way will be to defcribe a circle of la-
titude through the given degree of latitude on each fide,
and a circle of longitude through the correfponding de-
grees of longitude, and the interfeclion of tliefe circles
will (hew tlie place. An eafier method will be, know-
ing between what two parallels of latitude and longitude
the place lie?, and confequenlly by what four lines it is
bounded, to find the plare by trial, by confidcring the
T roportional diftance of it from each line.

543

Principles
ProBLKM III. Ti^c latitude of a place being given i to and

fnd all thofe places on the fame map lluit have the fraftite.

fame latitude. • '

If a parallel of latitude happen to be drawn on
the map through the given place, this problem is eafily
folved, by tracing along the parallel, and feeing what
other places it paflcs through. If a parallel is rtot
drawn through the given place, take with a pair of
compalTes the diftance of the place from the neareft pa-
rallel ; then keeping one foot on the parallel, and the
other in fudi a pofilion as to defcribe a line parallel to
the parallel of latitude, move the compalTes, and all the
places over which the point that is not on the parallel
palTes, have the fame latitude with the given place.

This method will not fucceed in maps on which a
large tradl of country is delineated on a fmall fcalc.

Problem IV. Given the longitude of a place ; to find
on tlie map all thofe places that have the fame longi-
tude.

Find the longitude of the given place, and if a meri-
dian paiTes through it, obierve all the places that lie
under this meridian ; or, if a meiidian does not pafs
through the place, find by the compaffes, as in the laft
problem, thofe places that are fituated at the fame pa-
rallel diftance with the given place from the neareft: ■
meridian. Thefe places have nearly the fame longitude
with the given place.

Problem V. To find the antceci of a given place.

Find the latitude and longitude of the place by Pro-
blem I. and find another place of the fame longitude,
whofe latitude is equal to that of the former, but in a
contrary direftion. The inhabitants of this latter place
are the antceci to the latter.

Ex. Suppofe a fliip to be in the Indian ocean, in
lat. 13° S. and long. 80° E. it is required to find the
antixci to her prefent fituation ? ^nf. The place
which has nearly the fame longitude, and an equal la-
titude in a contrary direftion, viz. 13° N. is Madras.

Problem VI. To find the perimci of a given place.

Find the longitude of the given place, and fubtraft '
it from I So° : the remainder will be the longitude in
an oppofite direclion of the perioeci. Then find a place
having an equal longitude "with this laft, and having
the fame latitude with that of the given place : this lat-
ter is the fituation required.

Ex. It is required to find the perioeci to the inhabi-
tants of the gulf of Siam. Anf. The longitude of Siam
is 100° 50' E. which, fubtrafted from 1 80*, leaves
79° I o' W. No'v, the place that has this longitude,
and the fame latitude with Siam, viz. about 14° N. is •
the ifthmus of Darien,

Problem VII. To find the antipodes of a given place.
This prob/era is folved on maps in the fame manner
as on the globe.

Problem VIII. Having the hour at any place given ; to
find what hour it is in any part of the world.
Find the difference of longitude between the two
places, and reduce this to its equ.'J value in time, by

S4-I- G E O G

Prioci;)les fT^ oj. Add this value to the given hour, if the price
"^"^ vhere the time is required be to the ealtward of the gi-
■ "^ '^ ''^' ven place, and the fum is the time required. If the
place at which the time is required lie to the weftward
of the given place, fubtraft the difference of longitude
in time from the given hour, and the difference is the
time fought.

iV.i/f. — If, after adding, the fum is found greater
tlian 12, 12 muft be cancelled, and the hours rouft be
cliancred from A. M. to P. M. and vice ver/a ; and if,
on fubtrafting, the diSerence in time between the two
places happens to be greater than the ^iven hour, 13
mu!f be added to the given hour, and the hours changed
as before mentioned.

Ev. Suppofe it to be at prtfent 9 A. M. at Lilhnn,
what time of the day is it at Pekin in China ? y^ri/.
The difference of longitude between Pekin and I.ilbon
is 125° }^', which reduced to time gives 8 hours 2-2
minutes ; and fince Pekin lies to the eaft of Lilhoii,
this muft be added to 9, the given hour, giving a fum
of 1 7 hours, 2 2 minutes ; but as this is greater than 12,
we muft take i 2 away, and the difference, 5- hours 2 2
minutes, changed from morning to afternoon hours, h
the time required. It is therefore 2 2 minutes paft five
P. M. at Pekin.

Problem IX. To find thofe places in the torrid 'Zone to
•which the fun is vertical on amj given daij.

Find in an ephemeris, or nautical almanack, the fun's
declination for the given day; then oblerve, in the map
of the world, all thofe places which he under that pa-
rallel of latitude, which is the fame with the declina-
tion, and thefe will be the places required.

Ex. It is required to find at what places the fun will
be vertical on the 20th of March and 25d of Septem-
ber ? Anf. The fun's declination on tlie 20th of
March, is 19' S. and on the 23d of September 6' N.
Nov.- the principal places that lie near the parallel of
1 9' S. and 6' N. are the iiland of St Thomas, the mid-
dle part of the illands of Sumatra and Borneo ; the
Gallipagos ifles, and Q^uito in South America.

The Analemma, or Orthographic Projection dellne-
' ated in Plate CCXXXV. will folve many of the mofl
. curious problems, and uith the alhilance of maps will
be almort equivalent to a terreftrial globe. The paral-
lel lines drawn on this figure reprefent the degrees of
the fun's declination from the equator, whether north
or fouth, amounting to l-i,^ nearly. On thefe lines are
marked the months and days which correfpond to fuch
and fuch declinations. The fize of the figure does not
admit of having every day of the year inferted ; but
by making allowance for the intermediate days, in pro-
portion to the reft, the declination may be gueffed at
wi'.h tolerable exactnefs. The elliptical lines are de-
figned to flievv the hour of funriilng or funfctting before
or after fix o'clock. As 60 minutes make an hour of
time, a fourth part of the (pace between each of the
hour-lines will reprefent 15 minutes •, which the eye can
readily guefs at, and which is as great exaflnefs as can
be expcfted from any mechanical invention, or as is ne-
ceffary to anfiver any common purpole. The circles
drawn round the centre at ,the dittance of ii-J^ each,
Ihew the point of the corapafs on which the fun rifes and
■fets, and on what point the twihght begins and ends.

Analemm
for folv:r.j

R A P H y. Part II.

In order to make ufe of this analemma, it is only Principles
neceff^.ry to confider, that, when the latitude of the ="■'1
place and the fun's declination are both north or both '^""- '^^•_
fcuih, the fun rifes before fix o'clock, between the eaft * "
and the elevated pole ; that is, towards the nortli, if
the latitude and declination are north j or towards the
fouth, if the latitude and declination are fouth. Let us
no\v iuppofe it is j-equired to find the time of the fun's
rifing ana fetting, the length of tlie days and nights,
tlie time when the twilight begins and ends, and wliat
point of the horizon the fun rifes and fets on, for the
Lizard point in England, Frankfort in Germany, or
Abbeville in France, on the 3cth of April. The la-
titude of thefe places by the maps will be found nearly
50° N. Place the moveable index lb that its point
may touch ^d^ on the quadrant of north latitude in the
figure ; then obferve where its edge cuts the parallel
line on which April 30th is written. From this reckon ,

the hour-lines towards the centre, and you will find that
the parallel line is cut by the index nearly at the di-
ftance of one hour and 15 minutes. So the fun rifes at
one hour 15 minutes betore fix, or 45 minutes after
four in the morning, and fets 15 minutes after feven in
the evening. The length of the day is 1 4 hours 30
minutes. Obferve how far the intcrfection of the edge
of the index with the parallel of April 30th is Jilyant
from any of the concenrric circles, which you will find
to be a little beyond that marked tivo points of the
compafs, and this fliews that on the 30th of April the
fun rifes two points and fomewhat more from -the eaft
towards the north, or a little to the northward of eaft-
north-eaft, and fets a little to the northward of weft-
north-^veft. To find the beginning and ending of the
twilight, take from the graduated arch of the circle
I 7 '- degrees with a pair of compaffes ; move one foot of
the compaffes extended to this diftance along the paral-
lel of April 3Cth, till the other jull touches the edge
of the index, ivhich muft Kill point at 5c. The place
where the other foot refts on the parallel of April 30th,
then denotes the num.ber of hours before fix at which
the twilight begins. This is fomewhat more than three
hours and a half, which fliews that the twilight then
begins foon after two in the morning, and likewife that
it begins to appear near five points from the eaft towards
the north. The ufes of this analemma may be varied
in a great number of ways ; but the example juft now
given will be fufticient for the ingenious reader.

Sect. IV. Of the Origin and Progrefs of Maps.

The firft map of which we have any certain record, Origm ol
is that of Anaximander, about 560 years before the maps.
Chriftian era. This is mentioned by Strabo, book 1.
and is fuppofed to be that referred to by Hipparchus,
under the name of the ancient map.

It has been alleged, that Sefoftris, king of Egypt,
on his return from his boafted expedition, after having
tnivcrfed great part of the earth, recorded his march in
maps, of which he gave copies, not only to the Egyp-
tians, but to the Scythians, to the great admiration of
both people. This is the relation of Euftathius ; but
M. Montucla confiders it as a very improbable ftory, • Montuela,
and tliinks that the invention of maps cannot be dated Hijl. j,
prior to Anaximander *. Some have fuppofed that the Mathemat.
Jews laid down the holy land in a map, when they dif- '"""• "■ ■
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Part IT. GEO

Pricciples tributcd the uiffetcat ^lortions to the nine tribes "at Shi-
p '"*' loh ; a fuppofition u}ach is derived from Jofhun's ac-
Y^ /* '^'' count, that they were fcnt to walk through the land,
and that they defcribed it in fevcn parts in a book. Jo-
fephu'! alfo relates, that when Joihua fent people from
the diiTcrent tribes to meafure the land of promife, he
\fent with them men well fkilled in geometry. All this,
however, is no proot that thefe perfor.s drew a Iketch
of the country, according to our idea of a map; but
probably only wrote down, for the fatisfadlion ot their
employers, the extent, boundaries, and general charac-
terilHcs of the divilions of the land.

Herodotus has given a minute defcription of a map
conftrucfed by Ariftagoras, tyrant of Miletus, an
abridgement of which will ierve to give fome notion of
the maps of thole times. It was drawn upon brafs or cop-
per, and feems to have been merely an itinerary con-
taining the route through the Countries which were to
be traverfed in a march which Ariilagoras propofed to
Cleomenes, king of Sparta, for the purpole of attacking
the king of Perlia at Sufa, that he might thus affift in
reftoring the lonians to their liberty. The rivers Ha-
lis, Euphrates, and Tigris, which, according to Hero-
dotus, muft have been crofled in that expedition, were
laid dowTi in this map •, and it contained one llraight
line, called the royal road or high way, which com-
prehended all the ftations or places of encampment,
from Sardis, the beginning of the route, to Sufa, a dif-
tance of 13,500 ftadia, or 1687! Roman miles of 5000
feet each. The number of encampments in this whole
route was III.

Ptolemy of Alexandria, the celebrated geographer
mentioned in N^ 2i. conftrufted maps to illullrate his
defcription of places, and thefe are the firll that have
regular meridians and parallels, the better to define and
determine the lituation of places. Ptolenry acknow-
ledges that his maps, with the addition of fome improve-
ments of his own, the principal of which was certainly
the introduclion of meridians and parallels, were copied
from pre\-ious maps made by Marianus Tyrius, &c.
Tliey are, however, often very inaccurate.

According to Athencus, a work which feems to have
contained maps, was written by Baeton, under the title
of Alexander's march ; and a work on the fame fubjeil
is mentioned as the produftion of Amynthus. We are
informed by Pliny, that this Baeton was one of the fur-
veyors of Alexander's marches ; and he quotes the e.x-
aft number of miles of thefe marches, according to Bae-
ton's menfuration, and confirms their authenticity by
the letters of Alexander. Pliny alfo remarks, that a
copy of this conqueror's furveys was given by Zcnobius,
his treafurer, to the geographer Patrocles, who was ad-
miral of the rteets of Seleucus and -Ajitiochus.
Peutinpf- Among the racft celebrated of the ancient maps, are
*iao table, the Pcutingerian tables, fo called, becaufe publifhed by
Peutinger of Augfburg. Thefe tables contain an itine-
rary of the whole Roman empire ; all places except feas,
wood, and deferts, being laid down according to their
meafured dillances, though without any mention of la-
titude, longitude, or bearing. A particular defcription
of this monument of antiquity is given in the i8th vo-
lume of the Hillory of the Academy of Infcriptions,
and in the Hiltory of the Academy of Sciences for
I761, from which M. Montucla has dra^v•n up the fol-
lowing account. 'I he map of Peutinger, as it is in the

Vol. IX. Part II.

G R A P H Y.

original in the imperial library, is exsclly one French
foot in height, and 20 feet eight inches in length, ac-
cording to meafures taken by Buache, from a copy of
the fplendid editioo given by Scheelein I 753. It com. "
prehends the whole extent of the Roman empire, from
Conllantinople to the ocean, and from the ihores of A-
fiica to the northern parts of Gaul ; but the table which
it aifords of this vatl extent of country is by no means
calculated to give us an idea of its figure, fince the 3 5*^
of longitude w^hich it comprehends, occupy 20 feet 8
.indies, while the 13° of latitude are <'omprifed within
the fpace of one foot ; thus the countries reprcfented
are fo disfigured, that the Mediterranean appears only
like a broad river, and all the countries are fo dillorted,
towards the north and fouth, that they cannot be rc-
cognifed.

Mod of thofe who have feen this ancient map, have
confidered it as the rude and bungling work of a man
liltie converfant with geography, and llill lefs fo with
mathematics ; but Edmund Brutz confiders the diftor-
tion of this map as fimilar to what we fee in fome pieces
of perfpedive, and that it ought to be examined from
fjme certain near point in order to perceive the objects
in their natural proportion.

Buache fuppofed long ago, that this map was con-
ftruded xvith more fcientific (kill than it appears to be
at the firft glance ; and that the apparent irregularities
which we obierve in it, might have been introduced de-
fignedly, for the purpofe of deriving greater advantages
as to what was intended for the principal object. In
faft, as the Roman routes extended almoll entirely
from eaft to well, they paid more attention to the mea-
fures in this direftion than thofe between north and
fouth ; and the map in this way might have had the
greater convenience of being more eafily rolled up, and
confequently more portable.

Thus far Buache hazarded no more than conjeclure ;
but a labour undertaken by him with a very different
view, led him to the true dcfign of the map of Peutinger.
He had been tracing a fcale of climates, and of the
length of the days and nights, for the purpofe of attach-
ing it to fmall maps of the different countries of Europe.
As the fpace occupied by the fcale was pretty mucii
extended in height, but had very little breadth, he
formed the idea of drawing a kind of map upon two
fcales, one pretty much extended for the kititude, and
the other very much contrafted for the longitudes, pre-
ferving the hollows of the coails and boundaries of each
ftate. As this difpofition of his map ftrangely disfigu-
red the countries which it was intended to rcprefent, he
was led to imagine that this map might be the reverfe
of that of Peutinger. This was fuihcient to engage
him to conflruft another map upon the fame principle ,
but in which the fcale of longitudes was much greater
than that of the latitudes. He then faw that he had
been right in his fuppofition, and that the map A\hich
he had lall conllrudUd had a confiderable refemblance
to that of Peutinger. This latter is in fa6l only a plain
chart, conftruiSled upon two fcales, of which that of the
longitudes is very great, and that of the latitudes much
fmallcr.

One difficulty alone arofe. By fuppofing that he ob-

ftrved in this map a cuftom at prcfcnt ellabliihed anioiig

geographers, of rcprefenting the meridians by lines

drawn perpendicular to the bafe of the chart, and the

3 Z parallel/*

545

GEO

riple? parallels to tbe equator by ftraight lines d

G R

rawn parallel
to this fame bafe, Buache found a confiderable error.
Tiie bottom of the gulf of Venice and Rome did not
then appear, as they ought to do, under the fame meri-
dian. He foon, however, favv the folution of this diffi-
culty. The method of drawing the meridians parallel
to the fides of the chart, is a matter of pure agreement,
and had probably not been obferved in the map of
ivhlch we are fpeaking. The ancient Roman geogra-
phers having confidered that Italy was naturally divided
by the Appenirrt^, according to its length, into two
pans that were nearly equal, had theretore delineated
the length of Italy from Trent to the end of the penin-
fula, parallel to the loiver margin of the map, and had
afterwards arranged the other parts which tlie map was
to contain, conformably to this difpofition ; and as the
length of Italy is not in a diredtion parallel to the equa-
tor, it would happen neceffarily that the meridians and
parallels, if they had been drawn on this map, would
have been parallel neither to the fides nor to the lower
margins of the map, and that the vertical line pafling
through Rome mull inlerfecl the gulf of Venice at about
the middle : but this line is not a meridian.

Thus, this map is not fo rude a work as has been
Imagined, but has been entirely conftrufted according
to rule ; and it even appears that the author had ern-
ployed pretty good materials in its compilation, as the
pofitions are laid down in a manner that differs little
I- from modern obfervations *.

From the time of Ptolemy till about the 14th centu-
rv, no new maps were publitlied ; and the firft maps of
any efteera among the modems were conftrufted by
Mercator, to whom we are indebted for the projeftioH
according to which marine charts are conllrufted.
IMcrcator was followed by Ortelius, ^vho undertook to
conllrucl a new fet of maps OTth the modem divifions of
countries and names of places, for want of which the
maps of Ptolemy were become almoft ufelefs. After
jMercator and Ortelius, many others publifhed maps,
which were chierly copied from thofe above mentioned,
till about the middle of the 1 7th century, when Blaeu
publilhcd his large atlas, or Cofmographie blaviane, in
which is a pretty accurate defcription of the earth, tlie
fea, and the heavens, comprifed in 1 2 folie volumes.
About the fame time an atlas in two folio volumes ^vas
publifhed in France by iVI. Sanfon, the maps of which
are in general very correcl, containing many improve-
ments of the travellers of thofe times. The maps of
Blaeu and Sanion were copied with little variation both
in England, France, and Holland, till from later ob-
fervations De Lifle, Robert, Wall, &c. publiihed ftill
more accurate and copious fets of maps.

The ^vorks of recent travellers and navigators have
conCderably improved the conllruiflion and accuracy of
our maps and charts ; but there is ilill much to be done,
efpecially with refpecl to trigonometrical furveys, be-
fore any high degree of correclnefs can be acquired.
Among the lateft maps and charts, thofe conflrufled
by Mr Arrowfmith are in the greateft eflimation.

As a colleclion of good and accurate maps is of the
greateft importance in the ftudy of geography and hif-
tory, ^vc fliall here fubjoin a lift of fome of the beft
modern maps that have been publiflied.

Thofe maps which may be coUecled for the purpofe
of forming an atlas, have been arranged under three

A P H Y.

Part II.

heads, according to their fize, or the extent of their
fcale. 1 ft, Thofe which confift of more than fix (heets,
filch as De Bougc's map of Europe in 50 half ftieets,
and Cafhni's map of France in 183 ftieets. zdly, Thofe
from fix to four flieets, to which clafs belong feveral
maps of kingdoms. And, 3dly, Thofe from one ftieet
to four, -ivhich is the Imallelt fize that can anfwer the
purpofe of an atlas. We ihall briefiy notice the beft
maps of each fize.

Flanifpheres, or Maps of the World. — We know of
no very large map of the world that can at prefent be
confidently relied on : the beft is that of Mr Arrow-
fmith in four (heets ; and Faden has publiihed very good
maps in one (lieet.

Maps of Europe. — I ft fize. That of De Bouge, pub-
liftied at Vienna, or that by Sotzmann in 16 Iheets,
which is the better of the two. 2d Size. Arrowfmith's
in four flieets. 3d Size. That by Faden in one ftieet.

Maps of England. — I. The trigonometrical furveys
of the counties, publiftied by Lindley and Gardner, and
by Faden. II. Gary's atlas of the counties, and his
England and W^ales in 81 ftieets. III. Fadcn's tuap in
one ftieet.

Maps of Wales. — I. That of Evans in nine ftieets.
III. Tlie maps in Pennant's Tours, and Evans's Gam-
brian Itinerary.

Maps of Scotland. — I. The furveys of the feveral
counties. II. Ainllie's nine iheet map. IH. An excel-
lent map by General Roy, and Ainllie's reduced map
in one iheet.

Maps of Ireland. — I. Surveys of counties. III. A
valuable map by Dr Beaufort in two Iheets, or Faden's
in one ftieet.

Maps of France, — I. Caftini's, mentioned above, and
the atlas nationale in 85 (heets. III. Faden's one iheet
map, and a map, in departments, by Bellycirae in four
ftieets.

Maps of tlie Netherlands. — I. Ferrari's map in 2J
flieets. II. Alas de Department Belglque. III. Fer-
rari's map reduced by Faden.

Maps of Holland. — II. Kep's maps of the United
Provinces. III. Faden's map of the Seven United
Provinces in one ftieet.

Maps of Germany. — II. Chauchard's map of Ger-
many. III. A map of the Auftrian dominions, in one
ftieet, by Baron Lichtenftem.

Maps of Prvfjia. — I. Sortzmann's atlas in 21 Iheets.
III. Sortzmanii's reduced, in one (beet.

Maps of Spain. — Lopez's atlas, not, however, very
accurate. II. A map of Spain in nine (heets by Mon-
telle and Ghanlaire. III. Faden's map in one iheet.

Maps of Portugal. — II. Geoflry's improved byRainf-
ford, in fix ftieets. III. De la Rochette"s chorcgra-
phical map in one iheet, pubhllied by Faden.

Maps of Italy. — I. The maps of the feveral ftates.
III. D'Anville's map of Italy improved by De la Ro-
chette, in four flieets, publiflied by Faden.

Maps of Turkeij in Europe. — III. Arrowlinith's map
of Turkey in two ftieets. De la Rochette's map of
Greece in one (heet.

Mops of Switzerland. — I. Weifs's atlas, publiflied at
Straftjurg in 1800. III. Weifs's reduced map in one iheet.

Maps of Denmark. — I. Maps of the provinces, un-
der the diredlion of Byggc. III. Faden's maps of
Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, in one flieet.

Maps

Piinciple

and
Plaice.

Append!

GEOGRAPHY.

Maps of Sweden. — I. Atlas of tbe Swediili provin-
ces, by Baron Hennelin. III. De la Rochette's, by
raden, in one (heet.

Alafis of /4fia. — The beft general map of Afia is that
by Arrowfinith in four (beets, publiflied in j8oi ; and
D'Anviile's, in fix Qieets, may dill be confulted with
ad%antage.

'I'here are few good maps of the individual coun-
tries ; but the following are efteemed among the beft.

Of China. — D'Anviile's atlas, and a map by Arrow-
fmith.

OfTartary. — A map by Witfen, in fix iheets, and
one by De Witt in one ftieet.

Of Japan. — Robert's map in one flieet.

Of the Birman Empire .—~T)\t maps publilhed in Mr
Symes's embaffy.

Of H'mdbflan. — Rennell's map in four (heets. His at-
las of Bengal, and his map of the fouthern provinces.

Of Perf.a there is no good modem map ; but La
Rochette publillied a beautiful one, to illullrate the ex-
pedition ot Alexander the Great.

Of Arabia there are Ibme good partial maps in Nie-
buhr's journey.

Of the Afiatic IJlands there is an excellent chart by
Arrowfmith, in four iheets.

Of Aufralafta, or Nevti Holland, the beft drawing
is contained in Arrowfmith's chart of the Pacific
ocean.

Maps of Africa. — The beft general map of Africa is
ftill that of D'Anville, though fome little additions
may be made to it, derived from the journeys of Park

and Bro^vn. Major Rennell's partial maps may be con-
fiJted with advantage.

Of Abyfjinia there is a good map in Bruce's travels.

Of Egi/pt, the beft maps arc that of the Delta
by Nicbuhr, and that of Lower Egypt by la Ro-
chette.

Of lite Mahometan States, the beft maps are ihofc
by Shaw, and a chart of the Mediterranean in four
(heets, by Faden.

Of the Cafe of Good Hope, the beft is Barrow's
furvey.

Maps of America. — There is no modern general
map of America that can be relied on. The beft
it that of D'Anville, in five Iheets, publiflied in 1746
and 1748.

Wr Arrowfmith has publilhed an excellent map of
North America, on a very large fcale, but has omitted
the Spanirti dominions.

Of the United States, the beft map is Arrowfmith's
in four (heets, publilhed in 1 80 2 j and there are very good
maps of the individual provinces in Morfe's American
Geography.

Of the Britifh Poffejions in America, beCdes Arro«'-
fraith's map above mentioned, there is a good map of
Upper Canada by Smith, in one ftieet.

Of the Wefl India Ijlands, the beft map is that of
Jefferys in 16 flieets, from which a fmaller one in one
fheet has been reduced.

Of South America, the beft map is that publilhed by
Faden in 1 799, in fix (heets, from an engraving done at
Madrid lome years before.

547

APPENDIX.

Obfcrva. BEFORE we conclude this article, we muft make a

tions on the feiv obiervations on the method to be folloAved for acquir-
ftudy of ing or imparting geographical knowledge.
geography. ^^ f^^g knowledge of geography, as well as of chro-
nology, is abfolutely neceflary, before hiftory can be pro-
perly underftood, the rudiments of thefe fciences fliouid
be learned, as foon as the capacity of the pupil will al-
low. It happens fortunately, that fome of the moft ufe-
ful parts of geography, thofe which confider the rela-
tive fituations, extent and boundaries of countries, with
the manners and cuftoms of their inhabitants, are highly
interefting ; and provided that a knowledge of them
be conveyed to a child in a pleafing rnanner, they are
well fitted to intereft his eurioCty, and awaken his at-
tention. The more fcientific parts of geography, and a
detailed account of the minute clrcum(f aiices refpefling
each country, though extremely ufeful, and indeed ne-
ceflary to the more advanced ftudent, may be with-
held for a little without any great lofs, till his age
and judgement permit him to lee their utility and ap-
plication.

In teaching geography to very young children, their
cliief attention fliould be directed to thofe circum-
ftances which are moft interefting; and even with this
limited viev/ much may be learned at a very early pe-
riod. For this purpofe the diffefted maps that are ufu-
ally fold at toy Ihdps, may be employed with confider-
able advantage ; but it is to be regretted, that the maps
ufcd in preparing thcfc are feldom taken from the moft

correft copies. Thofe works alfo which, under the dif-
guife of fiditious voyages and travels, are intended to
convey a geographical knowledge of various countries,
afford a very pleafing and profitable method of initruc-
tion. A late work of this kind, by M. Jaufret, enti-
tled the Travels of Rolando, may be advantageoully put
into the hands of young people ; and, as they are far-
ther advanced, the travels of Anacharfis the younger
by the Abbe Barthelemi will give them confiderable
information refpciling the manners, culloras, and hifto-
rical events of ancient Greece.

When the young ftudent is fuihciently advanced to
profecute the lludy of geography on a more extenfive
and fcientific plan, it would be defirable that he fliould
begin by reading fome elementary treatife on allronomy,
fach as that of Mr Bonnycaftle, or the Spectacle de la
Nature; or, if he has acquired a proper degree of ma-
thematical knowledge, he may read Laplace's Si/Jleme
dii Monde, the aftronomical part of Robifon's Mecha-
nical Phil'jfophy, or the aftronomical article in this •
diftionary.

It may happen, that, from a defeft of early educa-
tion, or want of time, a preliminary courfe of aftrono-
my cannot be commanded. Still, however, confider-
able progrefs may be made in geography, by the me-
chanical means of maps and globes. The ftudent fliould,
therefore, provide himfelf with a pair bf the beft globes,
chofen according to the dirciftlons laid down in N° 107 ;
and with a few good maps of thofe countries which
3 Z a are

548

G E O G R

sre moft intereiling, particularly maps of Europe, Alia,
Africa, and North anJ South America, the Britilh
iilands, France, Germany, Italy, RulFia, and Den-
mark, which may be coUefled from the lift given at
N" I 26.

Being provided with thefe materials, the ftudent
ihould firft read over Chap. I. of Part II. of this trea-
tife, or a fimilar part of fome elementary work in geo-
graphy. On the elementary principles of geography
we would recommend the general principles prefixed
to Mr Pattcfon's general and claflical Atlas; and for
teaching the ufe of the globes, Bruce's Introdudion to
Geography and Aftronomy. For a complete account
of modern geography we cannot refer to a better
work than that of ]\Ir Piukerton ; and for a combined
account of ancient and modern geography, the pupil
may have recourfe to a work on that fubjeft by Dr
Adam of Edinburgh.

After reading over the preliminary part above men-
tioned, the pupil may go through the fecond Chapter
of Part II. folving all the problems as he goes along
on the tcirti'irlal globe ; and thus he may proceed pro-
greiTively through the whole article, leaving that part
of Part I. %vhich treats of the hiftory of geography for
the laft objed of his enquiry.

In ftudying the particular circumftances oT each
country, the pupil (hould ahvays have the map of
the country before him ; and, as he goes along, fliould
trace there the fituation of each particular place ; of
the principal mountains, lakes, the fources ^nd direc-
tions of the rivers, the form and bounding of the Ihores,
&c. In his progrelTive view of particular geography,
it will be proper for the pupil to begin with the coun-
try in which he refides ; and, after having made him-
felf mafter of that, to preceed fuccelTively to thofe which
border on it, or whofe connexion with it is the mod
interefting.

Thus an inhabitant of thefe iilands, after having
taken a view of Europe in general, Ihould make himfelf
acquainted w-ith Britain and Ireland (by pemfing
the articles England, Scotland, and Ireland in this
Dictionary or in other works) ; whence he may proceed
to France and its dependencies in the Netherlands,
Switzerland, Italy ; thence to Germany and the
Austrian territories, Prussia, Sweden, Den-
mark, and Russia ; whence he may return to the
fouth of Europe to Si'ain, Portugal, and Turkey,
&c. After Europe, the United States of America
vrill probably be found the moft interefting ; the pupil
may therefore ftudy the geography of North America
before that of Asia. From Asia he may proceed to
Australasia and Polynesia ; thence to Africa, and
fo conclude with South America. Nothing will con-
tribute more to the advancement of geographical ftudies
than the conftruflion of maps. If the pupil has time
therefore he Ihould early be inftiufted in this part of the

A P H Y. Appendix.

fubjeft by at firft drawing a map of the world accord-
ing to the direftions laid down in N* 118. then one of
Europe, and fo of other quarters and countries. In
conftruding this map, it will be proper firft to lay Aovm
thofe places which are near the coaft, in order to form
the outline of the maritime part of the country, and on-
ly the moft remarkable places inland, efpccially thofe
which are fituated in the courfe of the principal rivers.
In eveiy map the moft prominent features of the coon-
try, as the mountains, lakes, rivers, and principal cities
and toivns, ftiould firft be attended to, and from thefe
the pupil may be introduced to the other places in the
order of their magnitude or importance.

The moft agreeable and interefting method of flud-
dying particular geography, after having become ac-
quainted with the elementary principles of the fcience,
would be to perufe the beft books of voyages and tra-
vels ; for from thofe, where the traveller can be depend-
ed upon, the moft correft fyftems of geography are com-
piled. Many of thefe, however, are too prolix and par-
ticular to be put into the hands of moft young people,
and a judicious abridgement of the beft of them will
anfwer every purpofe ; and perhaps Dr Mavor's collec-
tion may be recommended, as the beft of the kind
in the Englifli language. For thofe whofe time and
convenience will admit of their reading the beft writers
of voyages and travels, there is no want of fuch works ;
and Mr Pinkerton has given at the end of his excellent
work, a lift of the beft in moft languages. We ftiall
here only notice a few of the beft and lateft.

Pennant's Tours In Britain.

Young's Tours in the Britifti ifles.

Salntfond's Travels in England and Scotland.

Young's Travels in France.

Ilolcroft's Tour in France.

Spallanzani's Travels in the two Sicilies.

Coxe's Travels In Ruflia, Sec.

Pallas's Travels in the Ruffian empire.

Carr's Northern Summer.

Staunton's Account of China;

Barrow's Travels in China.

Percival's Account of Ceylon.

Symes's Embafly to Ava.

Collins's account of New South Wales,

Bruce's Travels in AbylTmia.

Barrow's Travels in Africa.

Park's Travels in the interior of Africa.

Browne's Travels in Africa.

Sonnini's Travels in Egypt.

Percival's Cape of Good Hope.

Mackenzie's Journey In North America.

Davis's Travels in America.

Macklnnon's Tour in the Weft Indies ; with the
voyages of Anfon, Byron, Cook, Phlpps, Bligh, Wil-
fon, Wallis, La Peyroufe, 8tc. 6cc.

INDEX,

Index.

GEOGRAPHY.

549

INDEX.

uaD^MS''} iraproveinen; of the

globes, N"

Africa, circumnavigation of,
Alexander the Great improves geo-
graphy,
Altitude, quadrant of,
Amphifcii,
Analemma for folvtng geographical

problems,
Anaximander, the inventor of maps.
Ancients, geographical knowledge of,
in Europe,
Ada,
Africa,
Antipodes,
Antceci,

Arabians, difcoveries of,
Armillary fphere, Fergufoa's,
Long's,

^ays defined,

Baar/ic"' J- elucidation of the Peutingerian
tables,

c.

Cafie defined,

Carthaginians, difcoveries of,

Celejiial globe defcribed, 1

Clitnates, divifion of the earth into, 83

table of,

northern, places in the,
problems relating to the,

Colures explained.

Continents defined.

Currents defined,

D.

Day and night, caufe of, illuftrated by

the globe, 100

Dionysius the Periegetic, 22

E.

Earth, fpheriral form of, how proved, 59

magnitude of, 40

diviijons of, 41

population of, J3

Eclip/es, lunar, problem refpe£ling, lOl

.£"c/(^/ii' explained, 72

Equation of time illuftrated by the

globe, 104

F.

Fergufon^s armillary fpjiere, 1 1 2

JStographers, ancient, enumerated, 18

Hudfon's collection of, 23

Geography, definition of, i

divifwn of, z

Geography, phyfical.

N*4

importance of,

5

III

hiftory of.

p- y-i

Jl

origin of.

N»7

improved by Alexander

the

14

Great,

14

86

by Ptolemy Phila-

7S

delphus.

95

of the ancients,

25

«23

middle ages.

31

124

modern difcoveries in,

33

. 25

prefent defefts of,

S6

, 26

general obfervations on the

27

mode of fludylng.

1^7

29

Globes, nature of,

54

70

circles on the.

SS

68

axis and poles of.

56

32

equator of,

57

112

meridians of.

58

113

brazen meridian of,

59

parallels of latitude,

60

horary circles of,

66

44

ecliptic on the.

72

tropical circles of.

73

125

polar circles of.

74

colures of.

75

53

quadrant of altitude.

86

10

wooden horizon of.

87

102

celeftial, defcribed.

102

83

general conflrutlion of.

105

84

gores of, how formed,

106

85

rules for chooiing.

107

96

ufing.

108

75

improvement of, by Senex,

109

49

by Smeaton,

, 110

46

by Harris,

66

by Wright,

tb.

Gulfs defined.

44

H.

Harrises improvement on the hour-
circle of the globes, dS
Hnrvejl moon illuftrated by the globes, 103
Ihterofci, 80
Horary circles on the globe, 66
Horizon, wooden, of globes, 87
of the fea, explained, 93
depreflion of, how
eftimated, P-523
I.
I/lands defined, N" 50
jy?/OTuj defined, 52

Lakes defined, 47
Latitude and longitude explained and

illuftrated, 61

parallels of, 60
introduced by Eratof-

thencs, 61

problems on, 64..

Leiel, true and apparent, N" 94

table far cftimating
the diiference of, p. 522
Long^s armillary fphere, N° 11 3

Longilade how reduced to any fmgle

meridian, 62

how reduced to mile<, 63

how computed in lime, 6^

M.
Maps, and charts, diftin£Uon of, 114

defcription of, 115

conftrudion of, 1 16

by the orthographic

projection, 117

by the ftereograpliic
projeiSlion, 1 1 8

of the world, how projedled by

the globular projeftlon, 1 1 9

particular, conflruftion of, 120

ufe of, 1 22

origin of, I 24

Peutingerian, 125

catalogue of the beft, 126

Mercator''s projection, ■_ 121

Meridians on the globe, 58

brazen, 59

prime or firft, V- 5^3

o.

Oblique fphere, N° 89

Oceans defined, 42

Ophir, fituation of, difcuflfed, 9.

P.
Parallel (■phere, gt

Peutingerian table defcribed, 1 25

Peninfula defined, 5 1

Periceci, 69

Penfcii, 8 a

Phoenicians, difcoveries of, 8

Polar circles explained, , 74.

Pomponius Mela, an ancient geogra-
pher, 20
Problems on latitude and longitude, 68

I. To find the latitude and
longitude of a given
place. P-5«4

II. Latitude and longitude
given, to find the place, 515

refpecttng time, N° 67

III. Hour at any place be-
ing giver, to find the
hour at any other place, p. 5 IJ

IV. Hour at any place be-
ing given, to fiud where

it is noon, 516

refpcding the antctci, &c. N" 7 r

V. To find the antaci of a
given place, p. 516

VI. To find the periaci, ib.

Problems.

550 ^

Problems on tl;e leneftrial globe.

VII. To find theanlipodef,p.5l6
VJII. To redlify the globe

for the latitude, N™ 88

refpeciing the fun, 95

IX. To find the fun's place, ib.

X. To find the declination, p.524

XI. To reclify the globe

for the fun's place, ih.

XII. To find the time of fun-
rife and funfet, ib.

XIII. To find the fun's meri-
dian altitude at a given place, ib.

XIV. To find the fun's alti-
tude for a given hour, 2b.

XV. Sun's meridian altitude
given, to find the latitude

of the place, 5 25

Wl. To find when the fun

: due eaft or weft, ib.

XVII. -) To find when the
fun is vertical in
torrid zone, ib,

XX. To find when the fun
begins to appear, &c. in
the northern frigid zone, ib.

XXI. To find when he be-
gins to ftiine continually
there, 526

XXII. To find the Umits of
the hour climates, ib.

XXIII. Month climates, ib.

XXIV. To find where the fun
is rifing, fetting, &c. at a
given time, ib.

XXV. To find where it is
twilight at a given time, 527

XXVI. To find the duration
of twilight, &c. ib.

XXVII. To fliew the caufe
of day and night by the
globe, 528

XVII. TTofi.

XVIII. f. fun

XIX. j the

E O G R A P H

XXVIII. To find where an
eclipfe of the moon is vifi-
ble, p. 528

Problems on the celeflial globe, 5 29

I. To place the globe fo as
to reprefent the heavens
for any evening in any
latitude, ib.

II. To find the right afcenfiop
and declination of a ftar, jji

III. Having the right afcen-
fion and declination given,

to find the ftar, ib.

IV. To find the latitude and
longitude of a given ftar, ib.

V. 1 To find on what day a

VI. J given ftar comes to

the meridian at a
given hour, ib.

VII. To find the altitude and
azimuth of a given ftar, ib.

VIII. The azimuth, &c.
given, to find the altitude, ib.

IX. To find the azimuth and
hour of the night, 53 2

X. Azimuth and latitude
given, to find the altitude

and day of the month, ib.

XI. Obferving two ftars to
have the fame azimuth, to
find the hour of the night, ib.

XII. To find the rifing, fet- •
ting, &c. of a ftar or pla-
cet, 533

XIII. To find thofe ftars
which never rife, or never

fet, ib.

XIV. To illuftrate the phe-
nomena of the harveft
moon, 534

XV. To illuftrate the equa-
tion of time, ib.

Y. Index.

Problems performed by maps, N° 122
P/-or/;on;or^ defined, ^^
Ptolemy's work on geography, 21
Ptolemy Philadelphus improves geo-
graphy, 15
Pythias, voyage of, 1 n

Right fphere,
Rivers defined.

S.

Snlafpes, voyage of,

Scylax, expedition of.

Seas defined,

Sencx^s improvement of the globes,

Smeatoti's improvement of the globes

Sphere, oblique,

right,

parallel,

armillary, by Fergufon,
by Long,
invention of,
Slrabo^s work on geography,
Straits defined.
Sun, problems refpecfling,

Taprobana, fituation of,
Time, problems relating to,
Tropics explained.
Twilight explained,

ufes of,

problems refpe(fling.

13
43
109

lVright''s improvement of the hour cir-
cle of the globes, 66

Zones, divifion of the earth into,
Zone, torrid, countries in,
temperate, places in,
frigid, countries in,

GEOLOGY.

. tion. INTRODUCTION.

Definition 'T'H AT part of natural hiftory which treats of the in-
and objea "*■ ternal ftrufture of the earth, as far as we have been
oigeolopy. able to penetrate below its furface ; of the arrangement
of the materials of which it is compofed, and of the
changes which have taken place in thcfe, is called Ge-
ology, from yn, the earth, and Ao'/s?, a difcourfe.
This fcience has been called by Werner, Geognosy,
and is by him defined to be that part of mineralogy

•which, confidering minerals as apart of our globe, treats Introduc-
chiefly of their bearings and pojit ions with refpeli to each tion.
other [a). Till of late this department of literature ■r—^

was called phyfical geography, but at prefcnt the terms p^°-"'
Geology and Geognosy are generally adopted ; of [o.n'.T"''
thefe we have preferred the former, as being equally p. 441.
exprclFive and more familiar ; and under this head we
propofe to include every thing that is ufually compre-
hended under what have been called theories of the
earth.

Geology differs from Cosmogony as a part from

the

(a) Werner has probably made this trifling change from a defire of novelty ; and fome of his admirin?
jjave attempted to difplay in very pompous but puerile terms, that it is of great value and importance.

G E O L

rntteduc- the whole ; the objedl of tlie latter is to give an account
tion. of tlie creation of tlie unmerfe, ivhile llie former con-
' iines itfelf to the confideration of the planet which we
inhabit.

Geology is intimately conneftcd \vith mineralogy,
and may indted be faid to depend on this as its very
foundation. Werner, as we have fcen, confiders Geog-
nc/y as a part of Mineraloi^ij ; but we are difpofed to
concur with Dr Kirwan, who, fpeaking of mineralogy
with rcfpeiff to its relation to geology, calls it " the
alphabet of the huge and mylferious volume of inani-

2 mate nature."

Divllion. Geology may be divided into defcriptive and fpecu-

lative ; the former giving a general account of the ma-
terials of which the globe is compofed, and of their
arrangement ; while the latter is ftridlly confined to
■what may be called a theory of the earth, or an attempt
to explain the aianner in ^vhich the ftrufture and ar-
rangement have been brought about, and the changes
that have taken place in the difpofition of the component

3 parts of the earth.

Importance The fcience of geology is of confiderable importance
°f '*" in many points of view.

I. The liudent of natural hiftory cannot but derive
to tlie na- 3 great fund of profit and advantage from a fcience,
turalift ; which makes him acquainted with fo large a depart-
ment of nature. Mineral bodies, ^vhether we coniider
them as individuals of nature, or as collected into thofe
maffes which form the llrata of the earth, and the
mountains that rife above its furfr.ce, are peculiarly in-
terefting to tlie naturalill, as v.-ell from the variety of
form and beauty of appearance which fome of them
prefent, as the ufeful purpofes to which many of them
are apphed. The other kingdoms of nature delight us
with the difplay of order and defign exhibited in their
organization, or interefl us from the intimate connexion
wliich fubfifts between many of them and ourfelves.
Thcfe are objects of the beautiful ; while the ftupenduus
mountain, the awful volcano, the towering cliff, the
gloomy mine, and the majelKc cavern, are objects of
5 the grand and \\\c fubiime.

to the min- 2. To the miner, and all thofe who are employed
"' in fearching the bowels of the earth for the treafures

which they contain, geology, as well as mineralogy,
forms an eflential qualification. Experience has fhewn
that certain minerals and metals are found more fre-
quently attached to fome of the ifony materials of the
earth, than to others, and that a few of them are only
found in particular llrata. Examples of this kind will
be given prefently. We have alfo learned that the
arrangement of the materials in the earth is fo far re-
gular and uniform, that when we know the particu-
lar materials near which certain metals and mine-
rals are commonly found, and the ufual difpofition in
thefe places ; and when ^ve find in another fituation the
fame materials difpofed in a fimilar manner, we are
pretty certain that the nietal or mineral of which we
arc in fcarch is not far diftant. We are therefore en-
couraged to proftcule the fearch with every probability
of fu- cefs. Thofe who undertake to direct an invefti-
gation of this kind, or to carry on the operations re-
quifite for the obtaining what is fought, would do well
to inform themfelves beforehand of fuch fadts as are
well cftablilhcd rcfpcfling tlie dillribution of the raate-

O G Y, ■ sS^

rials of the earth, and the fubllances ufually found con- I»troduo
netted with them. For want of this neceffary informa- *[""•
lion, we often fee projectors impofe on the credulity, '
and impoveiilh the finances, of gentlemen of landed pro-
perty, w'ho are led to fuppofe that they pollefs on fome
part of their ellate a rich vein of metal, feara of coal,
&c. the working of which will confiderably improve
their Ii'.come. ,

3. The failure of undertakings of this kind, partly n the lar.d-
from the villany of the projector, and partly from the <^ J propiic-
ignorance of his employer, (hews the advantages that'"'''
gentlemen of landed eftates would derive from the
Itudy of geology. An acquaintance with this fcience
would guard them agalnft the artifices of defigning
men, and prevent them from embarking in uncertain
r.nd expenfive projects, the iffue of which is too often
ruin and dilappointment. -

4. But the lludy of geology boafts a flill higher ad- and to the-
vantage. Nothing has more contributed to demonftrate''''"'''*'^
the truth of the dlnne writings, and to clear up many
doubtful paflages in them, than the difcoverles that
have lately been made in the ftrufture and formation
of the earth. The original {late of the globe is fo
iiitimately connected with that which It at prefent ex-
hibits, that we cannot properly underftand the latter
without referring to the former ; and recent experience

,h3s (liewn that the obfcurity in which the philofophical
knowledge of this fubjeft was involved, has been high-
ly favourable to thofe fyftems of athelfra and infidehty
which prevailed in the laft age. Much of this obfcuri-
ty is now removed ; and the inveltlgations of White-
hurll, Werner, Kirwan, Howard, and fome other geo-
logifts, by pro^ng that the fuppofitlon of a deluge is
the only hypothefis on which we can account for the
prefent ftate of oiu- globe, have contributed as much to
the advancement of true religion as of philofophical
knowledge.

" So numerous indeed, and fo luminous, have been the
more modern geological refearches, and fo obvloufly
connected with the object we have now in view, that
fince the obfcuratlon or obliteration of the primitive
traditions, ftrange as it may appear, no period has oc-
curred fo favourable to the Illuftration of the original
Itate of the globe as the prefent, though fo far removed
from it. At no period has its furface been traverled in
fo many different diredtlons, or its fnape and extent
under its different modifications of earth and water been
fo nearly afcertained, and the -relative dcnfity of the
whole fo accurately determined, its folid conftltuent
parts fo exaiaiydiftinguKhed, their mutual relation, both
as to pofition and compofition, fo clearly traced, or pur-
fued to fuch confiderable depths, as within thcfe laft
thirty years. Neither have the tcfiimonies that relate
to it been ever fo critically examined and carefully * Kir-L^n-
weighed, nor confcquently fo well underltood, as w ith- Geal. f.Jjf<i\;.
in the latter half of the I Sth century *." S

Geological refearches feem at firil view to be attend- '^'''''^'''""
ed with almoft infurmountable dilhculty. - It is- evi-,^'f"hid*'
dent that the part of the earth which it is in our power not infur-
to examine, is infinitely fmall when compared to thatmouiuable.
which is entirely beyond our reach ; and even much of
the elevated parts, that appear above the furface, would
feem to be (o completely cut off from us by inacceflible
precipices, and the ice and liiow with which the fum-

5S2

IntToduc-
tion.

G E

EJts of fome of them are perpetually coTCred, that
our knowledg^e of their ftrufture and compofitions
n-iull for ever remain imperfect. Much of thefe diffi-
culties, however, is rather apparent than real. It is
true that bur refearches cin extend but a very little
V, av below the furface ; but fo far as our experience
has yet tauglit us, any farther inveftigation wduld be
rather a tnatter of curiofity than utility. Thofe metals
and minerals \vhich prove of rr.ort fervice to niankind,
are found at no very great depth in the earth, and fome
of them almoft on its furface ; and when we have pene-
trated beyond thefe, the materials difcovf red are of a
nature fo uniform, and of a texture fo firm and hard,
that it is polTible they may extend even to the centre.
Again, the ir.veftigations of Sauffure, De Luc, Dolo-
mieu, and Humboldt, have proved that the moft dan-
gerous precipices, and the highefl fummits of thofe im-
menfe mountainous chains which traverfe the earth in

O L O G Y.

can comprehend the terms employed by geological I- trodur-
writers. , '•""'

The fludy of this fcience, like that of fome other *
pans of natural hiftory, particularly botany, can be
profecuted with but little advantage in the clofet. The
fludent muft examine the declivities of hills, the beds
of rivers, the inteiior of caverns and of mines, the re-
ceffes of the ravine, and the utmoft fummits of the
mountain, before he can obtain that degree of know-
ledge which is neceflsry to conftitute a fkilful and phi-
lofophic geologift. Wlule making thefe perfonal ob-
fers'ations, he (hculd iludy the works of the beft writers,
and compare the fails related and dtfcribed by them,
with thofe which he himfelf has obferved. The writ-
ings on this fubjecl may be divided into two principal
elailcs, one comprehending thoie works \\hich contain
a fyftematic account of the whole, or fome part of the
fubjed J fuch as Bergman's Phyfical Geography, the

fo manv directions, oppofe but feeble barriers to per- Geological ElTays of Kirwan, the Tlieone de la Terre

9

Principal
improvers
of geo: .^gy.

fevering induftry and philofophic ardo

The diverfily which occurs in the ftrufture and lo-
cal arrangement of fubterraneous fubftances, feems to
throw another difficulty in the way of the geologift ;
but the farther his refearches are extended, the more
will this apparent diverfity be diminiihed. The practi-
cal fkill which fome miners poffefs in many parts of the
world, proves that the mazes of this labyrinth are not
without a clue •, and we may fafely conclude, that when
our knowledge of the (truclure of the earth, and the
difpofition of its materials, (hall be ftill farther extend-
ed, the greater part of the obfcurities under which the
fubjeil is now veiled, will be entirely removed. Mul-
tiplied obfervations of later years have enabled us to
form certain general conclufions, and lay down cer-
tain general laws, which muft materially affift future
obfervers.

In the modern improvements of geology the Ger-
mans led the way, and Lehmann may he confidered
as the father of the fcience. Eminently Ikilled in ge-
neral phyfics, practical mining, mineralogy, and che-
millry, and fully acquainted with the circumftances
attending the relative fituation of moft mineral bodies
in very extenfive trafts of different countries which he
examined, he was enabled to deduce, from a long fe-
ries of obfervations, fome general conclufions, which
have, with fome exceptions, been fince verified in every
part of the world.

Lehmann was followed in his own coitiitry by
Bergman, Ferber, Gmelin, Cronftedt, Born, and Wer-
ner ; in Italy, by Arduini and Tilas ; in Switzerland,
by Sauffure and De Luc ; in Ruftia, by Pallas ; in
France, by Delametherie, Saint Fond, Dolomieu, and
Lavoifier j and in Britain, by Hutton and Kirwan, mineral bodies, and the manner in which we find

of Delametherie, the writings of Werner, 6ic. : and
the fecond comprifing thofe works which treat of the
geology of particular countries in the familiar ftyle of
travels; as Bom's Travels in Hungary, Ferber's Tra-
vels through Italy, SauiTure's Voyage dans les Aipes^
Pallas's Travels, Jar's Voyages Metallurgiques, Saint
Fond's Travels in England and Scotland, &c. After
having acquired a knowledge of the principles and ge-
neral fadls of the fcience from the former, the ftudent
will, by means of the latter, increafe liis knowledge in
the moft famiUar and agreeable way. n

In the {ketch of geology which we are to 'give in Arrange^
the following article, we (hall conlider the fubjcCl un-™^'*''
der three general heads, which will be the fubjeCl of as
many chapters.

h\ the firft chapter we (hall defcribe the arrangement
and diftribution of the materials of which the earth is
corapofed. Here, after giving fome general notion of
that arrangement, we (hall confider each of the prin-
cipal materials under a feparate feclion, in which we
(hall firft lay down thofe general marks by which each
is diftinguiihed, defcribe its general arrangement, and
mention the places, elpecially in Britain, where the
fubftance is found in greateft abundance, and thofe
metallic or mineral bodies which are commonly found
in connection with it. After having briefly confidered
each fubftance, we (hall bring the more general diftribu-
tion of them under one view, ftill directing our atten-
tion to the arrangement of thefe materials in the Bri-
u(h iflands.

In the fecond chapter we fliall give a brief outline of
the moft remarkable theories that have been framed
in modem times, to account for the diftribution of

Method of

ftudyiog

8eolo£jr.

names which muft ever be held in the higheft eftima-
tion by the cultivators of this part of natural hiftory.

Before entering on the ftudy of geology, it is ne-
ceiTary to acquire a competent knowledge of chemiftry,
and a pretty extenfive acquaintance with mineralogy,
as thefe fciences form an effential introduftion to the
more general refearches refpeiting the ftru6hire of the
tarth. The former fupplies the means of afcertaining
the nature of the fubftances met \vith ; and the latter
muft be well underftood, before we can arrange thefe
fchftances under their proper heads, and Ijefore we

them now arranged. In this chapter %ve (hall dwell
more particularly on the two rival theories which at
prefent divide the geological world, and (hall enume-
rate fome of the objections which have been made to
each.

In the third chapter we (hall give fome account of
the derangement of the fubftances that compole our
globe, fo far as it has originated from known caufes _; ■
and this will lead us to the coafideiation of Earth-
quakes and VotCANOEo.

Chap.

Chap, T.

Arrange-
ment, &c. CkAP. I. Of thi Ai-)S!igemLi:t and Djfirtbution cf
"te'rUll^r f^-r Materiah cf ivhkh the Earth is Compofed.

t— v^— ^ The materials of which the general mafs of the eJtlh
II is corapolcd, are varioufly dirtributed in different parts.
General £„ fo^ie places they form irregular malVes or blocks,
f -he ma^" either buried below the furface, or elevated to a greater
terialsof "^ 'c's height above it. In moft places, however, the
tae earth, materials are arranged in a more regular manner ; thofe
of the, fame kind being collefted into extenfive maffes,
lying in layers or ftrata, above or below a funilar
luafs of another kind, or thefe alternate v.ith each
other to a conCderabl-s depth. Thefe ftrata are fome-
times found arranged in a direction parallel to the ho».
rizon ; at others they are vertical, or perpendicular to
the horizon, appearing as if the horizontal ftrata had
been lifted up, and laid upon their edges. More com-
monly the ftrata are arranged in a direftion inclining
13 to the horizon, when they are faid to d'p.
Stratitica. The uppermoft ftratum is in moft places covered to
ti«n. . a certain depth with mould that has evidently been
formed from the decompofition of organized fubftancej.
In many parts of the earth this mould extends to
a very confiderable depth, and conftitutes the foil ; in
other places it is barely fufRcient to form a coating to
J the ftrata, and in ot'.:ers it is entirely wanting.

Horizontal A good inftance of horizontal ftrata occurs about
and vertical two miles to the eaft of Balleycaftle in the north of
fiiata. Ireland, of which we fhall fpeak more particularly by

and by. One of the moft curious example? of vertical
ftrata in Britain is found in the fraall ifland of Caldey,
on the coaft of Pembrokefliire, where the ftrata of
which the whole ifland is compofed are placed in
fuch a manner, that their edges are all expofed to %'iew,
and they may be fucceffively examined from the one end
of the iiland to the other. It is feidom that an oppor-
tunity offers of examining the arrangement of ftrata
fo eafily as is afforded in this fmall illand. In moft
cafes it is neceffary to penetrate to great depths before
we can acquire an imperfeft knowledge of the ftrati-
fication of the earth ; and in no inf^ance have we yet
proceeded a mile below the furface. In Caldey ifland,
however, the ftrata may be examined to the extent of
more than a mile, beginning at what may be fuppofed
the uppermoft ftratum, which is not more than a foot
thick, to that which may be called the loweft, at the
oppofite end of the ifland, being a raafs of red ftone of
more than a mile in depth.
Uerange- Sometimes the ftrata are continued in a regular ar-

m-lit of the rangement, preferving the fame inclination to a very
strata. confiderable extent ; but more commonly they appear in
fome parts feparated, as if they had been broken afun-
der. Thefe feparations are ufually in a perpendicular
dire£lion, and the cavities are found filled with various
heterogeneous matters. Sometimes thefe are chiefly
compoftd of fragments of the adjacent ftrata, but tor
the moft part they confift of mineral or metallic fub-
ilances of a different nature.

When thefe fiffures are filled up with broken frag-
ments, or rubble, as it is called, it very commonly hap-
pens that they become the beds of brooks or rivers.
Thus the river Derwent runs for a confiderable extent
in Derby ftjire over a fiffure of this kind. When the
fiffure is filled up with a folid ftony matter, t'.as forms
Vol. IX. Part II.

GEOLOGY.

what in Scotland is called a dt/le. If a mafs ot mineral Amn^e-
or mc't«Uic matters £11 the filTure, or be Inlinuatcd be- """^t, fict.
tween the ftrata, it forms what is called a vein, and "•'V'^^-^'-
thefe veins fomctimes branch between the ftiata in vari- ,i,e e„°1i,
ous dirciflions. v— — '

When a frai?lure has taken place in the firatiSed
mafs, one part of the mafs fometimes prcferves the fame
pofition as it had before, or ftill forms a continued line
with the other parts of the mals, or is parallel to it ;
but more frequently one part is thrown- out of its origi-
nal pofition, and becomes more inclined to the horizon
than before. Sometimes one fide of the mafs Is more
deprcffed than the other, as is commonly feen in many
of the ftrata in Derbyfliire ; at others the two parts of
the mals are fo difturbed as to incline towards each
other, as if they had been broken upwards. When the
edges of the ilrata on each fide of the fiffure are thus'
divided and difarranged, they are faid by the miners to
trap.

The chafms thus formed are fometimes of confider-
able ividth. Some are found in Cornwall nearly 20 feet
acrofs, and almoft full of metallic and other mineral
fabftances. It not unfrequently happens, that thefe
fiffures are empty, containing nothing but water in the
bottom. A celebrated chafm of this kind is ftiewn at
the Peak in Derbyftiire ; and if a ftone be thrown in,
it is heard to ftrike from fide to fide for a confiderable
time, till at length it feems loft in fubterraneous water.

If the country in which the ftrata lie runs in a wa-
ving direftion of hill and dale, the ftrata ufually pre-
feri-e the fame waving direclion, keeping pretty nearly
parallel to each other. A curious example of this kind Plate
has been delcribed by Gerhard, as occurring in the ccxxxvui.
diftria of Mansfield in Germany. See fig. i. In '*.
thofe places where fome remarkable dillocation of the „(." rVue-
ftrata has not taken place, their difiribution is in ge- gu!ar.
neral extremely regular, certain materials lying above
or below certain others in an uniform manner. The
oblervations of later geologifts have difcovered pretty
nearly the arrangement that takes place in moft coun-
tries •, and we fhall prefently give fome examples of the
ftratification of feveral parts of Europe. Before we at-
tempt this, however, we muft mention fome circum-
ftances in which the materials compofing the ftrata dif-
fer from each other.

The general obfervation of all modem geologifts Divifion of
proves, that all thefe materials may be diftributed under ^^'^ materi-
two general claffes ; one conlifting ot thofe fabftances ^^'
which are found more or lefs connetled with the re-
mains of organized bodies, as the bones, teeth, and
ftiells of animals, the trunks of trees, and other parts
of vegetable bodies ; and the other comprehending
thofe in the fubftance of which thefe organic remains are
never found. As it is now generally believed that
the latter of thefe are of a formation prior to the form-
er, we ftiall here adopt the general divifion of them
into primary and fecondary. We might go ftill farther
in this divifion, by arranging them under more heads j
one, for example, containing thole in which organic re-
mains are fparingly found, and others containing thofe
fubftances which are found only in particular places ;
but as the firft of thefe involves in it a particular theory
which we fliall notice fully hereafter, and the others
allude to facl& which will be mentioned when treating
of the feparate materials, we fliall not here extend our
•I A. divifion

554

Dtrlyfiirt,

p. 1.7.

Its diiLr-
?nt ftatcs.

G E O L

dlvifiou beyond the difliibutjon of the mateiials into
piimary and fecondiiry.

In the following (hort detail, many terms will occur
v.liich can be underdood only by the roineralogifr.
1'hcy will be fully explained under the article MlNE-
RAiocY. The names which we fhall give to the fub-
iltinces dtfcribed will be fuch as have been moft gene-
rally adopted in this country ; but to prevent ambigui-
ty, we Ihall, where it feems to be neceflUry, add the
fynonimous names that occur in the bed geological
writings.

A. Primitive Compounds.

Sect. I. OfGramte.

The Wimc granite\\:n long been applied to all (lones
which are corapofed of an aggregate oi quartz, feldlpar,
and mica, dillributcd in fuch a manner as that each of
them appear in a feparate ftate •, but as this definition
has been confidered as too loofe, and comprehending
too many varieties, the name is at prefent reftricled to
that kind of granitic ftone in v.hich the quartz, feld-
fpar, and mica, are found in grains or cryftals. Of the
three fubftances, the feldfpar is generally the moft
abundant, and the mica the leaft fo.

Granite is found in the loweft and the higheft situa-
tions of the earth that have yet been examined. It
iorms the bafis of all the other ftrata ; and though
tliefc are fometimcs found below it, this iituation feems
to have been the confequence of fome accident, by
which the inferior fubflances were thrown below the
granite. Many mountains feem almoft entirely com-
pofed of granite, as Gefrorn one of the Rhsetian Alps ;
and there is a high hill of white granite about fix miles
to the welt of Strontian in Scotland. Sometimes large
maffes of granite are found in a detached fituation at
fome diftance from the mountains to which they appear
to belong ; and thefe maffes feem in fome inftances to
have been broken off, and rolled down the mountain,
and in others to have been carried away by irrefifti-
ble torrents, or dillodged by earthquakes. On the
fiunmits of the mountains near Port Sonnachin in Scot-
land, are found large quantities of detached pieces of
granite, fome of them of amazing fize *.

Granite is moft commonly found in vaft blocks, fe-
parated from each other by rifts or chafms, irregularly
difpofed. This is the cafe in moft moiratains, efpecial-
ly in thofe which have high, pointed fpires. The ftruc-
ture of thefe blocks is pretty uniform, there occurring
feldora more than two varieties, one called porphyritic
granite, in which the bafis is of a fine grain, containing
large cryftals of feldfpar. Of this variety many in-
ftances occur in the north of Scotland, and near Carlf-
bad in Bohemia. The other principal variety is that in
which the granite is found in diftinft globular concre-
tions, compofed of concentric lamellae. This variety
was obferved by Mr Jamefon, on the road between
Drcfden and Eautzen •, and Mr Barrand, in his defcrip-
tion of the Cape of Good Hope, mentions feveral glo-
bular concretions of immcnfe fize. The ifte of Arran

O G Y. Chap. I.

in Scotland alfo affords inftances of the fame variety, Ariange-
It is alfo found in Corftca, and is often called Coriica "'>--nt. &c.
granite. "[ertl'^V

It has been doubted by fome geologifts, whether the t'^-'^Eanh
true granite is ever found ftratified ; but numerous in- — ,
ftances of its ftratification have been lately addiiced, 2:
that leave no room to doubt that this is fometimcs the^'^'^^"'^'^"
cafe. Pallas takes notice of fome ftratified granite on
the banks of the river Berda, where what he confidered
as perfect primitive granite, compactly cryftallizcd, is
difpofed in layers of various degrees of thicknefs, fome
not exceeding one-eighth of an inch, and bounded both
above and below by blocks of foiid granite f . Again, t PoZ/jj'/
on the banks of the Groinoklea, he obferved fimilar '^''''•"' ^'o!- ^
layers of granite ruunhig in a direftion from north to 1^ 5*''
fouth, each bed beir.g from one fpan to tliree feet fix
inches in breadth, and conljfting of the moft perfect
primitive granite, which he confiders as a coiitinuTtion
of that mineral traft which produces the catarafts of
the Dnieper J. Mr Playfair mentions an example of J ^HJ, vol.-
ftratified granite which he iav.- in Chorley foreft in Lei-" P- i'^i-
cefterfliire, where real granite is difpofed in beds on the
eaftern border of the foreft, efpecially near Mount Sor-
rel. Another inftance of real granite difpofed in re-
gular beds, is alfo mentioned by Mr Playfair as occur-
ring hear the village of Prieftlaw in Berwickfliire ||. Mr [| PUyfai/,
Jamefon obferved the Riefengebirge, which, feparates -'''''^'''■'^■'"'■'■,
Silefia from Bohemia, to be for i jo miles compofed of <"' \}}'
granite difpofed in horizontal ftrata, and he obferved a L' " '
fimilar ftratification in Sa.xony and Lufatia {. vol. ii. li-t.

Granite conftitutes the bafe of moft of the Britifti 21
mountains, but is more commonly met with in the north
and weftern parts of the ifland. There is a confiderable
mafs of granite which runs longitudinally through Corn-
wall, from Dartmore to the Land's End *. Confider- ' Playfair,
able maifes are found in Scotland, but their extent hasi^o-
not been accurately afcertained. According to Mr
Playfair, there is no mafs of any magnitude in the
fouthem parts, except that of Galloway, which occurs
in two pretty large infulated trails. Mr Playfair thinks
that Dr Hutton greatly underrated the quantity of gra-
nite in Scotland, which, efpecially in the north, he con-
fiders as extending over a large diftrift. If we fuppofe
a line to be drawn from a few miles fouth of Aber-
deen, to a few miles fouth of Fort William, it will, ac-
cording to Mr Playfair, mark out the central chain of
the Grampians, along which line there are many gra-
nite mountains, and large trafts in which granite is the J. '^"'^
prevailing rock f.

It is remarkable that in the mountainous regions of 'y" ^
Peru, efpecially in the environs of the volcanoes, no -om jii." '
granite is found, except in very low fituations, at the 31^3.
bottom of valleys J. ^^

Several varieties of granite are fubjeft to decay, fromDecaiof
the decompofition of the feldfpar which they contain. granue.
This circumftance will probably explain a curious faft.
It is foimd that the granite exifting in the interior of
mountains is much fofter than that near the furfare,
probably from the decay of the feldfpar in the lat-
ter, while it remains in its original ftate in the for-
mer (b).

Granite

I, p. 345,

(b; The decompofition of granite appears to go through fevsral ftages, froa; the folid rock to the loofe fand.

Thefe

Chap.

Ph^. torn.

foucd.j

I. GEO

Granite is by no means abundant in metallic and the
richer mineral fubftances ; it, however, contains a con-

■ fiderable variety, fome of which have as yet been found
in no other fubllance, efpecially molybdcna. Iron ores
are very commonly found in granite, efpecially the
compaift brown iron ftone. It feems to be owing to
the prefence of iron that granite aflumes that fine red-
difh colour with which ive fometimes fee it tinged. One
of the moft remarkable inftances of this kind is afforded
by the rocks to the fouth-eaft of the valley of Chamou-
ni, at the foot of the Alps. Thefe rocks, from their
red appearance, are called Les Aiguilles Rouges, or the
red needles. Thefe rocks were mentioned by SauITure,
but he had not afcertained their compofition. This has
Cnce been done by M. Berger, who found them to be
conipofcd of granite, with a confiderable quantity of
oxide of iron *. Bifmuth, cobalt, blende, galena
(an ore of lead), and feveral ores of copper, are alfo

■ fometimes met with ; but the metal moft frequently
found in granite is tin, efpecially in the great mining
field in Cornwall.

Sect. II. Gneifs.

Gkeiss, by fome writers called inei/s, is not unfre-
quently confounded with granite, from which it differs
rather in the arrangement than in the nature of its com-
ponent parts. Theie in gneifs are arranged in a fchif-
tofe or flaty form, whereas in granite, they are in dif-
tinft grains or cryftals, the layers being generally in
the direction of the mica. It fometimes is intimately
incorporated with maiTes of granite, but, in moft in-
ftances, it repofes on the granite, being generally the
fecond layer. In defcending into the valley of Cha-
mouni, Sauffure obferved a fine bed of true granite in-
corporated with a rock of gneifs, which was arranged
in very fine leaves f . Sometimes the gneifs lies entire-
I ly below the granite ; but this is uncommon. More
generally there is found a vertical mafs of granite, with
ftrata of gneifs on each fide of it. Very frequently gra-
nite and gneifs alternate with each other.

Sometimes whole mountains are compofed of gneifs.
Thus, Ben Liomond fcarcely contains any other fub-
ftance, and the Schaw, which is the moft northern point
of the northernmf>ft of the Shetland iflands, is entirely
gneifs. Mountains of this kind are, in general, neither
{o high nor fo fteep as thofe of granite, though Mount
Rofa in Italy, and a few others, muft be excepted.
The fummits of thefe mountains are alfo generally more
rounded than thofe of granite mountains. The bafes of
all the Shetland iflands feem chiefly compofed of gneifs,
and the middle part of the Pyrenees is almoft wholly
formed of this and granite.

Jt is curious that where gneifs is contiguous to gra-

LOGY.

555

nite, its quartz and feldfpaT are more apparent, and Arrange-

thc mica lefs fo ; wliile, where it is more dillant from """'.8'''

1 , . oi th? Ma-

granite, the contrary happens J. irtiaUcf

Several metallic ores are found in gneifs, particular- tha Eatth.

ly thofe of iion, as the magnetic iron ftone, and martial r— —

pyrites ; lead ores, tin ores, blende, cobalt, copper, ^^
and arfenical pyrites, and not unfrequently filver ores. ^ , j -

g^nclfc.'"

Sect. III. Micaceous Schi/lus. i Xiruian-j

This is otherwife called /clii/lo/e mica, and mieajlats. '' J'
It is alfo compofed of the fume materials with granite ,viica 'eous
and gneifs, except that it contains little or no feldfpar ; fchiftus.
the quartz and mica being arranged in layers as in
gneifs.

This fubftance alfo is very abundant in moft rocks
and mountains. It generally compofes the third layer
or ftratum, being immediately above or without the
gneifs. It not uncommonly appears to be the only fub-
ftance compofing the hill or mountain, from the gneifs
and granite being probably fo completely covered as to
be out of fight. . %

Micaceous fchiftus compofes tlie rocks that are found Whfrt
immediately to the north of Dunkeld in Scotland, and '"'^'*-
it is here penetrated in every diredlion by veins cf
quartz. The fouthern fliores of Loch Tay, the moun-
tains of Glen Lochy, the vale of Tumel between Loch
Tumel and Loch Rannoch, contain much of the fame,
fubftance ; and the lower part of Glen Tilt is cliietiy
compofed of it. In the weftem Highlands towards
Ben Lomond, micaceous fchiftus alfo abounds, and
fome of it is found in the north of Argyleftiire. The
Shetland ifiands are moftly compofed of micaceous fchif-
tus, in thick layers above the gneifs, with a few maffes
of granite interfperfcd.

It not unfrequently happens that a bed of micaceous
fchiftus is interfec^ed by veins of granite. Mr Jamefon
obferved an example of this in Glen Drummond in Ba- > f^:„ ^r
denoch, of which he has given a plate. The veins are ihi IJin.
very large, and run acrofs the ftrata of fchiftus in a di vj! if. p.
reclion nearly parallel to erich other*. '73

The metallic ores found in micaceous fchiftus, are ■vjg.^' -^
chiefly thofe of iron, copper, tin, lead, cobalt, and an- [t.
timony.

Sect. IV. ^art%.

(Quartz is not unfreqtiently found diftin£l from feld- A.jauj.
fpar and mica, and fometimes whole mountains are
found compofed of it. In particular, the mountain of
Kukuc, at the fouth-eaft end of the lake of Baikal,
among the AltaifthiaXi mountains, which is 4800 feet
long, 3 \0 high, and above 4000 broad, confifts en-
tirely of milk-white quartz ; and the mountain of Flinz-
4 A 2 berg

Thefe are thus marked by Mr Jamefon. In its beginning difintegration it fplits into niaffcs, having a greater or
lefs tendency to the quadrangular form ; but thefe njaffes have ftill a degree of connexion amongft themfelves, as
is the cafe upon the mountain top. The next ftcp is the enlargement of tlie fiHiires, by which the maffes are
loofencd from their connexion, and tumble down from their elevated fituations, upon the fummits of the neigh-
bouring mountains, or are hurried with impetuous velocity down the moimtain fide, covering the bottom of the
glens with their ftu;.endous ruins. Laft'y, Thefe detached maffes, by the aciion of the weather, are completely
.iifintcgrated, forming a loofe fand, which is loft upon the tops or fides of the mountains, or is carried in great
quantities to th; fea fhore by the torrents, "jarnejoti's Mineralogy of the Scotli/h IJles, vol. i. p. 82.

GEOLOGY. Chap. I.

Luface, is almofl w'noUy compofed of it. There of Potofi confift entirely of argill.iceous Ichillus, and Arrange.
J exteniive lidge of quartz, feme miles long, in SauiTure found it on the fummit of Mont Blanc. nient, Stc.

In Britain it 15 not very common ; but is fometimes "(g^j'^jj ^f*
found on the higher parts of mountains. Thus it forms the Earth.

the fummit of Skiddaw in Cumberland. v ' '

Argillaceous fchiltus, efpecially the fofter variety, is 34

found ia :t>

berg i:

is alfo

Bavaria, and Monnet mentions a rock of it 60 feet

liigh. Mountains of it are a'.fo found in Thuringia, Si-

le.la, and Saxony. It fometimes forms layers between

gncifs and micaceous fchiftus. A confiderable flratum

of this kind, confilHng of granular quartz, is found be

t-.veen granite and micaceous fchiftus in the ifland of the greater part of Potofi, one of the richeft fil
Iflay, lee fig. 4. i. It is often found forming fpires on mines. The ores of copper and lead, fulphur, pyrites,
the tops of mountains, and appearing like fno«-. blende, and calamine, are alfo found in it. The great
Q^uartz is found in fevera! parts of Britain ; but there belly of copper ore in the Parrys mountain in Anglefea,
is very little of it in the fouthern part of the ifland. is found below this fubftance. It alfo fometimes con-
Williams found it very common in the Highlands of tains antimonial and mercurial ores.
Scotland, where he has feen it regularly ftratified, with

other regular ftrata immediately above and below it ;
and fometimes compofing high mountains entirely of its
own ftrata. Thefe ftrata art fometimes moderately fo-
lid ; but often are naturally broken into fmall irregular
malTes, \vith Iharp angles, and of a uniformly fine gra-
nulated texture, refembling the finelf loaf fugar

Sect. VI. Jnfpa:

It was fuppofed, by the earlier mineralogifts of the Jafpcr de.
laft century, that jafper was only pure quartz, fo much ''^"bed-
penetrated by a colouring metallic oxide as entirely to
deprive it of its tranfparency ; but Sauffure and Dolo-

Mir.tral
vol. 11. p. 5-

31

No metals
ia quirt z.

Argillace-
ous ichillus
o^fcriled.

There are large and high mountains of this ftone in mieu, with their ufual accuracy, difcovered that it con-
the ftiires of Rofs and Invernefs ; and in a clear day fifts of flint, and not of pure quartz, having in combi-
thefe appear at a diftance as white as fnow, being quite nation a quantity of argillaceous matter, more or lefc
_ bare of vegetation, except a little dry heath around the mixed with oxide of iron.
bafe of the hill f . ■ Primitive jafper is always opaque. It is commonly

The mountain of Swetlaia Gera, one of the Uralian found imbedded in other ftony matters. In colour it
.chain, confifts of round grains of quartz, white and varies from red to green, and frequently conlifts of al-
tranfparent, and of the fize of a pea, united without ternate ftripes of red and green, fometimes perfedlly
any cement. diftinft, at others running together. There is a beau-

No metals are foimd in quartz, though it fometimes tiful variety figured by Patrin, in which a dark-red

ground is croffed in every direftion with curved white
lines, leaving here and there circular fpaces of red fur-
rounded with white, forming eyes.

contains petroleum.

Sect. V. yirgillaceous Schiju

This ftone, which is other\vife called clay (late, is
the thonchieffer of Werner, and the argillite of kirwan.
It is of the fame nature with gneifs and micaceous fchif-
tus •, but in this the ftratific.ition is ftill more complete,
and all traces of cryftallized granite entirely difappear.
Doubts have arifen whether this ftone is primitive ; but
thefe ate now cleared up, as it is frequently found al-
ternating with gneifs and micaceous fchiftus, efpecially
in Sa.xony, and with other primitive ftrata. It fome-
times happens, too, that both gneifs and granite reft
upon it.

Tlierc are two varieties of this ftone, one hard, and
the other .foft ; but the hard often graduates into the
fofter.

Sometimes this ftone is found forming whole moun-
tains -, but more commonly it enters into them only par-
tially. In lome, however, there are entire ftrata of it,
as at Zillerthal, in the Tyrol. The famous mountains

Striped jafper is fometimes fo abundant, as to be the Where
chief material of fome mountain'^, in which it is mi.xed found,
with broken fragments of granite and other primary
compounds (c). Mountains of red and green jafper alfo
occur. Generally, however, it appears in ftrata, inter-
pofed between layers of micaceous fchiftus, or alternat-
ing, and lomctimes mi.xed with compaft red iron ftone.
It is found in the fouth of France, repoCng on granite ;
and in the Altaifchan mountains, it fometimes lies be-
low argillaceous fchiftus, but has there never been
found in contaft with granite. A coarfe kind of jafper
is fometimes found in the hills near Edinburgh ; and
fome fine fpccimens are met with in the northern moun-
tains.

Sect. VII. Uornjlone.

This ftone is confidered by Dr Kirwan as the fameHomftor.e
with petrof.hx, but Patrin and fome others diftinguiih<*«'^=f''>'^''-

them.

(c) There is often found interpoled between the ftrata of rocks, or fometimes above the upper ftratum, a bed
of fragments that have been broken off from, the principal ftrata. When thele fragments chiefly confil^ of limeftone
and c;ilcar£ous compounds, whether they he of an angular form, or confift of rounded pebbles, they are generally
called by the name of bnccia ; but when the fragments are of a filiceous or quartzy nature, efpecially if they are
agglutinated together, fo as to form a folid mafs, they have ufual ly been called puddingstone. From the uncer-
tain manner in v/hich thefe terms were employed, much confulion arofe, till Rome de I'llle, and other later na-
turalifts, have given the name of breccia to every ftony mafs that is compofed of angular fragments, of whatever
riature they be ; and they call by the name of puddingftone every agglutinated mafs that is compofed of
Tound pebbles, whether they be calcareous, <juanzofe, or of any other nature. Thcfc compounds will be fpokea
-f |iitfcnily in a feparate fcftion.

Chap. I.

GEOLOGY.

Arranee- them. According to Pulrin, hornrtone is a compound
rock, compofed of the fame elements with

557

• n-, &c.

prin

tctials ol' g'^snite, in which fchori is very abundant, communicat-
the Earth! i"S t" ^^^ Hone a dull, gtay, or fometimes blackilh,
' V colour, and containing a pretty large quantity of the

argillaceous matter of mica. Pttrofilcx, according to
him, is purer than hornllone, and commonly of a gray-
ilh or greeniih colour, femitranfparent, and very hard,
fo as to give tire with fteel. They are often found
united, and fometimes form entire mountains, contain-
ing fragments of feldfpar interfperfed. They are com-
monly found in large thick maffes or blocks, though
they are fometimes l^ratified like the fchiftofe ftones.
Dolomieu is millaken, when he aflerts that petrofdex
is only found in primitive mountains, as it will appear
hereafter, that it is fometimes a fecondary compound.
At Tuhumas, in the iile of Rona, Mr Jamefon found
a mafs of rock chiefly compofed of hornftone and
quartz, from 12 to 15 feet wide, and of confiderable
length, lying between two beds of gneifs.

» 38

Pitchftoni
defcribed.

Sect. VIII, Fitchpne.

The Germans have given the name ol pitchjlone, or
pechjlein, to a llony matter, which is found in large
maffes of an irregular form, and of different colours, as
yellow, brown, red, green, &c. having fometimes the
appearance of rofin, and fometimes that of an enamel,
or of glafs imperfedly tranfparent. It is never cryftal-
lized.

It is found, either in large maffes, or in veins. At
Mifnia, it is found forming entire mountains ; and in
other countries there are mountains containing ftrata of
pitchftone, fometimes alternating with granite, at
others with porphyry. Mr Jamefon defcribes a large
vein of it of a green colour, feveral feet wide, traver-
fing a mafs of red argillaceous fandftone, at Tormore
in the ifle of Arran. This vein is extremely curious,
and contains ftratulfe of different fubllances depofited in
n'jthe fame fiffure *. Another curious vein of pitchftone
'/ is defcribed by him ?.s traveriing a baf^ltic rock, toge-
°-ther with a vein of hornftone, in the ilknd of Eigg f.
' ^,_ Mr Jamefon confiders this as the iirft example of pitch-
done traveriing b^falt, difcovered in Europe, though
fimilar appearances have been found on the top of the
peak of Teneriffe.

Pitch done is only confidered as a primitive rock,
when :t is nearly allied to porphyry.

Sect. IX. Hornblende, and IhrnbUnde Slate.
40

^°^"''''" •'^ Hornblende is fometimes found c.xifting feparately
from the compounds in which it ufually occurs, as is
the caie in Siberia, where there are mountains of black
horn blende. It is often found rai:ied with quartz,
mica, feldlpar, or fchori, of a greeniih or black co-
lour. More commonly, hovvever, it occurs in immenfe
ftratn, fometimes in layers of gneifs, argillaceous fchif-
tus, or primitive llmeflone. A ftratum of it above pri-
mitive iimeftone has been found at Miltiz. It is fome-
times feen below granite, or granite is even found im-
bedded i.-> it. A rock of hornblende, repofing on gra-

J .V/Z/i. «/ I'ite, has been feen by Mr Jamefon in thc^lle cf Arran j

}JUi, . , . ■. and on the fide of Loch Fine he found it alttr'.ating

If 7-— H4 'A-ith lUata of micaceoiu fchillus :f ,

Minera

i. p. ic
f /J. vc
J. 44.

The principal metallic fubftances found in horn- Arrange
blende Hate, are native fulphuret of iron and coppc- "^"'^^ ^^•

Sect. X. Scrpentii

of the Ma-
terials of
th? Earth.

Serpentine is a ftone of afirailar nature with refpcftr j • -^

,. "lie . r. . ^ lound in it.

to Its ingredients with thofe we have been defcnbing. 4,
It takes its name from its appearance, being generallySerpentine
of a greeniih ground, marked with white, ycllow,<l=''':fi'>'^-
brown, or redditli fpots, fo as to bear fome referablance
to the Ikin of a inake. Its green colour is owing to a
quantity of llightly oxidated iron which it contains. It
is ufually opaque ; but fometimes parts of it are femi-
tranfparent, and though not very hard, is capable of
receiving a good poliih.

Serpentine is by no means uncommon, and is often Where
found in layers alternating with primitive Iimeftone, orf'^u"''-
below gneifs. The hill of Zobtenbeg in Lower Silefia,
coiififts almoil entirely of ferpentine, difpofed in nearly
vertical ftrata, with a little hornblende interfperfed.
Whole mountains of green ferpentine are alfo found i:i
Siberia, and near Genoa, where it is called gabbro or
pulverezza . It is alfo found near the White fea, and the
mountain of Regelberg in Germany is chiefly compofed
of it. Rocks of it are found near the Lizard Point, on
the coaft of Cornwall ; and hills of it occur in fome o!:
the Shetland illands.

Metals are feldom found in ferpentine, except a mag-
netic ore of iron, which not unfrequently forms a part
of the ferpentine rocks, imparting to them its magnetic
power. Veins of copper fometimes traverfe it.

Sect. XI. Porpltyry.

Porphyry generally conufts of the fame materials aspcphyry
granite, but in dilferent proportions, and having alto-defciibed.
gether a different appearance ; for initead of being cryf-
tallized as in granite, we find in the true porphyries an
uniform compadl mafs, in v;hich are diffemlnated fmall
cryftals of feldfpar, and fometimes of fchori. There
are, however, many varieties forming fliades between
granite and true porphyry, feveral of which are de-
icribed by mineralogifts. , ^^

Porphyry is very abundant in many fituations, form- Where
ing a confiderable part of hills, and even mountaii>s.f->"n'''-
It fometimes alternates with gneifs, and has been found
below it. Gneifs has alfo been found in the midd of
porphyry. It fometimes occurs in the midft of mica-
ceous fchiftus, and fometimes forms an external covering
to other primitive ftrata. Whole mountains of porphy-
ry, arranged in immenfe ftrata, fometimes repofe on a
bafe of granite or gneifs. This ftone is found in the
greateil abundance in feveral places between the tropics,
efpecially in South America, where it is fometimes met
with at immenfe heights*. Ann dc

Porphyry is very common i.i mo.1 parts of Scotland, ■^/i.''^'''
and, in particular, forms a confiderable ftratum at the ,j,'_
top of the Calton hill at Edhibargh, being in fome places
12 or 15 yards thick, covering a bed of breccia.

Porphyry is found in conllderable quantity between
Ncwc.illle and Wooler, and blocks of it of confiderabl<;
fize may be every where feen fcattered about, in the
fields. The feldfpar of thcfe porphyries being lefe du-
lab'.c than the reft of the ftone, is partly 4«flroj'ed ia

fsKe

55?

GEOLOGY.

Chap. T.

Arrarjc- fome blocks, and appears corroded in others ; from
ir.ent, &c ^yhich circumftance tile porphyries are (b porous, ..s to
°^''^aUof" ^PP^^f 3' '^ ^^°y ^'^^ ^^^" burnt. Porphyries of a li-
the Eanh. rnilar appearance are found in the mountain of E'.lerele
k— %^— in Provence, on the road from Frejus to Antibes *.
• Sjirt- 'I'here is a variety of porphyry mentioned by Char-

f^''' pentier, a great part of whofe compofition is indurated

rr<2« /, ^j^y^ ^,^j nodules of clay of different colours are found
p. 164. in its fubftance. Specimens of a fimilar n.iture occur
in the weftem iflands of Scotland. There is alfo a fpe-
.g cics of porphyry nearly allied to hornftone.
Metals The two varieties laft mentioned are rich in metallic

found in it. ores ; in the former there being formed ores of filver,
copper, iron, lead, and antimony ; and, in the latter,
fparry iron ore, native fulpiiuret of iron, galena, black
- blende, and ores of bifmutb.
Schinofe A (lone of a pcrphyritic nature is defcribed by Wer-

porphjrj-. ner under the name ol fckijiofe porphyry, and is con-
fidered by Kinvan as the fame with the horn (late of
Charpentier. It is found among the primitive rocks of
Altai, and on the borders of the lake of Baikal, in
which latter place it is mixed with granite and horn-
blende. It is alfo foimd in Siberia, and in Bohemia.
Saulhire found it near Pfaffenfprung, intercepted be-
tween ftrata of gneifs.

48
Pudding
fione am
breccia.

Sect. XII. Fuddingstone and Breccia.

The diftinflion between thefe two (lony matters vras
Examples mentioned in note c : they are both futficiently com-
of breccia, nion, confifling of different materials. The breccia ufu-
ally lies in bodies, almoft at the top of the other primi-
tive (^rata, with fome of which it fometimes alternates.
Stratified breccias, confifting of fragments of flints and
jafper, cemented by hardened clay, are frequently found
in Siberia, and fometimts alternate (^rata of breccia,
porphyry, jafper, and other primary compounds, com-
pofe a confiderable part of mountains. Some mountains
in the north of Scotland conta'n maffes of breccia, com-
pofedof fragmentsof redgranite,micaceous fchiflus, and
quartz, in a bafe of fandflone. Mount Scuraben con-
tains ftrata of this kind, furmounted by a rock of white
quartz. Simiiiar appearances take place at Cromarty, at
Murray frith, and two or three miles to the fouth of
Aberdeen; but in many of thefe inflances the breccia
mull be confidered as fecondary. Much of the northern
;o coart of Scotland abounds with breccia.
Ofpudding- Puddingllone is alfo extremely common. A moun-
Itor.e. tain of it is found in Siberia, near the rivulet of Tulat,

being compofed of fragments of jafper, chalcedony,
aigue marine, and cornelian, cemented by a quartzofe
matter. Immenfe heaps, and even;^ molir.tain of pud-
dingllone, sre found at Meifenheim, in the palatinate.
Puddingftone is found in confiderable abundance in
pa(rnig from Loch Nefs to Oban, in Scotland, and be-
tween Invernefs arid Dunolla. Large dttached rocks
of puddingflonc were fcen by Pallas in the village of
Temirdlki, in the Crimea. Some of thefe maffes are
feven or eight fathoms long, lying one above an-
"ratu;. other*. " ■

Tru-j. in
Crimea, Tol.

U. p. .,7.

Skct. Xrir. Slfnite.

This name has bte:i introduced by Werner, to de-

4

note a primary rock, effeutially compofed of grains of Arrange
feldfpar and hornblende, intimately blended together, ro«nt. &c.
in which the hornblende is generally mcft.predominent. of •'''^^ Ma-
He Hril called it greenjlone, but afterwards gave it the ^y^^ EArth.
name o^fieni'.e, as he fuppofed it iirailar to a (lone de- — y— j
fcribed by Pliny, as found at Syene in Upper Egypt,
where it was dug in great quantities, and from thence
carried to Rome, for the purpofe of building public
edifices.

Slenite fometimes contains a few grains of quartz and
mica ; but thefe feem to be accidental, and are always in
very fmall quantity. This ftone is not comaionly ftra-
tified.

SJenite ufually overlays moft of the other primary
rocks, and has often a bed of breccia interpofed be-
tween It and the inferior ftrata. It is very commonly
found repofing on porphyry. js

It Is found in Saxony, in the environs of Drefden;}^'^"'
at Meiflen in Thuringia ; in Hungary, and in general '^""
in almoft all primitive chains of mountains, efpecially
in the Alps. It is doubtlefs the fame which Sauffurc
found in the fummit of Mont Blanc, and which he calls
granitelle.

Metallic veins are not unfrequently found in fienite. Metais in
At Scharffenberg, veins of filver and lead are found in't.
it ; and it is faid, that the veins of ftrontian in Argyle-
(hlre run in a fimilar rock.

Sect. XIV. "Primitive or Granular Linieftonc,

be found unmixed with organic remains, or primitive jlimcftone.
but the obfer\^tions of late mineralogifts and geologifts
have fully proved, that primitive limeHone exifts in
confiderable quantity. This ftone is of a granular llruc-
ture, and of a whitiih gray colour, though frequently of
a dark iron gray, or reildi(h brown. It is fometimes
fcaly or lamellar ; at others nearly compact, and is
now and then found to have a fplintery frafture. It
is generally unmixed with other primary compounds)
but fometimes particles of mica, quartz, hornblende,
&c. occur in it.

This ftone is always found alternating with the pri- where
mary ftrata, efpecially with gneifs, micaceous, and argil-foiini
laceous fchiflus. It iometimes forms whole mountains,
as in Stiria, Carinlhia, and Carnlola, in Switzerland
and in the Pyrenees, being often found feven or eight
thoufand feet high. Three mountains in Switzerland,
all exceeding 10,000 feet in height, are chiefly com-
pofed of it In thefe fituations it commonly forms im-
menfe blocks, without any regular dip or direflion ; but
it is fometimes flratified, as at Altenberg near the lake
of Neuenberg. It is fometimes interpofed between fie-
nite and hornblende (late. One of the moft lingular
mountains of granular Ilmeftone is that of Filabres in
Spain, confifting of a block of white marble three miles
in circumfcrencr, and 2000 feet high, without any mix-
ture of other earths or ftones, and with fcarcely any
fiffurc.

A confiderable part of Mont Perdu in the Pyrenees
is compofed of alternate vertical bands of granite, por-
phyry, limeflone, hornblende, and petrofilex.

Granular Ilmeftone is found in various parts of Bri-
tain, efpecially In the north of Scotland. Or.e of the
mcft remarkable examples of it occurs in the ifi.and of

Ifiav .

Chap.

Amrge-
incnt, &c,
of the Ma-
terials cf
the Earth.

T. GEO

ifiiy j t'ne central part of wliicli is formed of a compaft
bed of it of conliderable extent. See fig. 4. d. It alfo
occurs in fome other of the Wellern j3es.

Primitive limeltone often contains veins of metnllic
ore, efpecialJy tVioleof galena, magnetic iron ore, blende,
and pyrites.

Sect. XV. PHimthe Trap.

Trap is a name that ivas long ago given hy the
Swediili mineralogifts, to dillinguilli certain lloncs that
are of a compafl texture, and a dark coloui-, comooling
part of feveral mountains. The word originally ilgni-
fies a ftair-afe, and was given to mountains containing
this Hone, becaufe their llrata retire one behind the
other like the fteps of a ftaircafe. But a* many rocks
of a very diflferent kind, both in their nature and forma-
tion, have received the common name of trap, conlider-
able confuiion arofe among mineralogifts, with refpect to
what particular llones iiiould receive this appellation.
Moll of the French mineralogifts, as Sauffure, Dolo-
mieu and Saintfoud make trap to figi.ify a primitive
rock, but they do not always mean the lame rock.
Other mineralogifts, efpecially the Germans, uuder-
fland by tlie name of trap, certain fecondary rocks, and
efpecially v.'bat are commonly called bafa/ts.

Werner comprehends under the name of trap, feve-
ral feries of rocks, which are principally cbarafterifed
by their containing hornblende, which is found almolf
pure in thofe which he conHders as the myft ancie-.it, or
what generally lie the loweft : and it degenerates gra-
dually in the fucceeding ftrata into a kind of blackilh,
ferruginous, hardened clay. He diftinguiihes three fe-
ries or formations of traps j primitive traps, tranfilion or
intermediate traps, and ftratiforra or floetz traps. We
ihill here confider the firft of thefe.

Piimitive trap is almoil wholly compofed of horn
blende, though it is fometiraes mixed with feldfpar, or
More rarely with mica and fome other fubflances. Un-
der this general defcription Werner comprehends four
ilony fubifances j hornblende and hornblende flate,
which W'C have already noticed in Setlion IX. pri-
aoitive greendone, and fchiftufe greenllone.

Primitive greeiftone is a mixture of hornblende and'
feldfpar ; under this there are feveral varieties, accord-
ing as its texture is more or lefs granular, or compaft.
i. Common greenftone, in which the hornblende
and feldfpar are intimately blended, is granular, and
bears confiderable referablance to fienite, in which
the hornblende is predominant. 2. A fecond variety
has fmaller grains, in which are imbedded cryftals of
feldfpar, being of a ftrufture between the granular and
porphyritic. 3. A third variety has the grains of
hornblende and feldfpar extremely fmall, fo as to be
fcarcely diftinguifhable. This flone lofes its granular
appearance, and becomes entirely porphyritic. 4. Laft-
ly, when the mafs becoiries quite homogeneous, and of
a complete green colour, it forms what was once called
green porphyry, and conllitutes the fourth variety *.

Schiliofe greenllone is compofed of compaft feldfpar,
hornblende, and a little mica, of which the hornblende
and feldfpar are nearly in equal quantity, and it now
and then contains a little quartz. Its flruclare is
ichiftofe.

We have been thus particular in defcribing what

r. O G Y. 559

Werner uiiJerilaiids by primitive trap, as whatever Arrange-
may be thought of his theoretical opinions, his talent "J'?*' ^^''
for nr.ineralogical diftinclions and charaflers cannot be "trials i.f"
called in quef'.ion. _ _ _ _ the Earth.

Dr Kirwan has given a long feftion or. ;he difiin- <— y— —>
guilhing charafters of trap, and its rclatiim to bafalt,
Sic. in his Geological Eflayi. He thinks that there
might be formed a natural feries of llones of a trap
nature, taking in not only the compofition but aifo
the texture, grain, and fpecific gravity, as fomething
of this kind has been conceived and done by Wer-

Primitive trap is often found in vaft ftrata in the WTiere-
roidft of gneifs, and veins of it running through gneifs, f^"""^-
have been f^und in Knobfdorf in Silefia, and in Bo-
liemia. It is alfo fometimes found in granite, and it is
foimd ■affing through granite and micaceous fchiftus
in the Weflern ifles of Scotland. Saintfond found it al-
ternating with granite, near .St Malo ; and Charpentier,
with gneifs. It fometimes forms entire mountains, as
in the territory of Deux Pouts ; and in Norway it is
found repoiing on granite. It fometimes alternates with
argillaceous fcaiftus, as at Leidcnbiu-gh. j^

Primitive trap frequently contains metals, efpecially Met?.!s
the ores of iron and copper. fcu^.d in it.

Sect. XVI. Topaz Rod.

^ So

This ftone is compofed of quartz, fchorl, topaz, anj Topaiisck,
lithoiuarga (a kind of hardened clay), the three former
fubflances coniiituting fmall layers or plates alternating
with each other. It fometimes contains cavities or
geods, lined on the infide with cryftals of quartz and .
topazes. The texture of this ftone is between the
fchiftofe and the granular ; that is, it is compofed of
plates or laminsej but thefe lamina: are of a. granular
ilrudure.

Topaz rock is very rare. It forms part of a moun-
tain near Averbach, in the metallic mountains of Sas-
ony ; but no metallic matter has hitherto been diicover-
ed.in it.

Sect. XVII. SiUcsous Sckijlus.

€1

Siliceous fchiftus, or flinty (late, is the kiefelfchiefer Siliceous-
of Werner j but there feems fome difpute between his^j^''.''^"'
difciple?, whether it be a primitive or a fecondary. rock ;
on which account we have placed it lall in the former
leries. Erochant does the fame ; but Mr Jamefon, in
his fltetch of the Wernerian geogtiofy, places it among
the tranlition formations, or thofe which immediately
fucceeJ the primitive. It is thus defcribed by Mr Jame-
fon. Its colour is bluifn gray ; it is internally dull > its
fracture in the great is imptrfeftly flaty ; in the fmall,
large fplintery, pafling into ilat conchoidal ; its frag- , y,„^^^-.
ments are indeterminately angular, and pretty iharp j\^;„ „y
edged ; it is ftrongly tranfiuccnt on the edges ; it is Dumjriei,
hard and brittle, difficultly frangible, and not particular- P- 4*'
ly heavy *. 62

An entire mountain formed of this ftone is found in Whrrc
Lufatia, in which there art no petrifactions. It is alfo*""'"'
found in the Alps, interpofed between gneils and horn-
ftone. Schlendgenberg, a mountain in Saxony, is for
tiie moft part compofed of it, mixed with hornblende
u:;a feldfpar. Kirwau confiden it as the fame fub-

Ilaucc

5<30

GEOLOGY,

Arranpe- flanc- which Sauffure calls palaiopetre, whicb is com-

7*1"' M*^ nion^y confidered as petrofilex.

*t-'ri'.ils of' Flinty (late is defcrlbed by Mr Jaincfon as among

the karth. the niineral fubftanccs found in Dumfrieslliire. lie
■' ■ -V particularly notices an immenfe rocky raafs of it at the

entrance of the valley at Leadhills, by which the me-
• Mineralo tgii;^ veij,; are completely interrupted *.
/W« p 'T'. ^° "■"^"''^ \ld\z been found in it.

Secondary Compounds.

ft.-?

64

Sfcondary
limeftone
clelcribed.

Secoadary The fubftances which we are now to notice are
toinpounds.j]in;ng,,ii|jeci {^^y^ ti,ofe ^vhich we have been defcrib-
ing, in containing mbre or lefs the remains of organiz-
ed beings. As the inferior ftrata of thefe fecondary
rompouiids ufually contain fewer organic remains than
thole above them, they are fometimes fubdivided into
two orders, one of which is confidered to be intermedi-
ate between the primary and fecondary Itrata. This is
Werner's claffification, of which we (hall give an ac-
count in the next chapter.

Sect. XVIII. Secondary Limeftone.

Under this title we (hall comprehend what Werner
calls tranfition limeftone, floetz limeftone, and limeftone.
Secondary limeftone is a calcareous mafs, fometimes
granular, and fometimes compaft, the former approach-
ing to primitive hmeftone. Its frafture is fcaly, and
it is fometimes feraitranfparent. In colour it is very
various, fometimes red, or rather blackilh, with white
veins, confifting of calcareous fpar. It Is often of a
grayiih call. It fometimes forms vaft blocks, without
any appearance of ftratification ; at other times it is
c^-idently flratified. It abounds with remains of marine
animals, and often contains nodules of agate, and other
firailar ftones.

A variety of calcareous ftone is defcribed by mine-
lalogirts under the name of fwineftone. It is either
compadl, flaty, or porous, and is faid in general to con-
t.;in no petrifaftions, though fome found in the moun-
t.^in of Kinneculla contains many. It is confidered by
Kirwan as primeval limeftone, impregnated with pe-
troleum.

Limeftone is fometimes found In oviform balls, com-
monly containing a grain of fand in them.

There is a variety of limeftone that is very porous,
and abounds in remains of vegetable matter, as impref-
fions of leaves, &c.

Secondary limeftone is very abundant in moft parts
of the world, forming a confiderable part of many
mountains, and being often the principal ftratum to a
conliderable depth below the furface. The mountain
Iberg, in the Hartz, is compofed of vaft mafles of it,
irregularly rifted ; and mountains of a fimilac kind are
found in Siberia and in the Vivarais. In fome of thofe
mountains vaft caverns have been formed. Secondary
limeftone mountains always repofe on fome primitive
ilone ; thus, in Siberia their hiafe confifts of granite,
porphyry or hornblende ; in Saxony, of granite, -or
granular limeftone, and fometimes of argillaceous
ichirtus J in Switzerland, thefe mountains repofe on ar-
gillaceous fchiftus or gneifs, or fometimes on calcareous
puddingftone. In the Crimea, there is an immenfe
extent of fecondary limeftone, between Rollof and
3

Where
fcund.

Chap. I.

Perekop, which is minutely defcrlbed by Pallas. Great .^rrange.
part of the fummit of Mont Perdu, the higheft of the '''■'^"'' ^':-
Pyrenees, is compofed of fecondary limeftone, arranged ° .^j .""
in nearly vertical ftrata, and fo full of the remains of the liaith.
marine animals as in fome places to appear as if com- ■— — y— '
pofed of nothing elfe. Here it feems to repofe on gra-
nular limeftone.

The bafe of Mount Ingleborough in Wellmoreland,
which is near 30 miles in circuit, confifts entirely of
limeftone, containing vaft quantities of fea (hells. This
Hone alfo forms the principal inferior ftrata through the
greater part of Derbylhire, being arranged in beds of
various degrees of thicknefs, from a few inches to about
200 fathoms in fome places, not having been perforated ;
and abounding with (hells, and other marine remains.

It is found in many quarries in Scotland diftinftly
ftratified. Mr Jamefon notices quarries of limeftone at
Clofeburn, and Barjarg, and at Kellhead in Dum-
frieslhire. _ - g^

Secondary limeftone often contains metallic veins, Mrtals
efpecially in Derbylhire, where it abounds with galena, '""""J 'i> 't.
blende, fulphur pyrites, and copper pyrites. Sulphur is
alfo fometimes found in it. Kirwan remarks, that in
the reft of Europe limeftone is feldom metalliferous. ^

The ftone commonly called alahajler, employed in Alabafter,
making ftatues and ornaments, is properly a carbonated
lime, nearly allied to marble ; though it is ufually fup-
pofed to be a variety of gypfum or plafter ftone. There
is a gypfeous alabatter that will be noticed prefently.

Calcareous alabafter is not often white (though as
•white as olahajler is a common-proverb), but generally
tin(flured with iron of a yello^v, brown, or redtii-fti caft.
It is femipellucid, and ufually fo foft as to be fcratched
by the nail.

It is commonly found In blocks. In marble quarries,
as in the ifland of Paros, and in fevcral parts of Italy,
particularly in the territory of Volterra in Tufcany, in
Malta, &c. A variety is found In the form of ftalac-
tites of a conical or cylindrical form.

Sect. XIX. Gray IVache.

C%

Gray wacke is a ftone compofed of fragments of Gray
quartz and argillaceous fchiftus, cemented by an argil- wacke de-
laceous matter limilar to the fchiftus, varying in fize, "^ ^ '
from that of a hen's egg, till they are fo minute as to
be no longer vilible. It fometimes contains a matter
fimilar to iiliceous fchiftus.

There is a variety of this ftone, called by Wenier
gray wacke Ante, which is a fimple flaty ftone, which
bears a confiderable reft mblance to argillaceous fchiftus.
From this, however, it is to be diftir.guiftied, according
to Mr Jamefon, by the following chara<flers.

" It has feldom a greeni(h or light yellowidi gray
colour, as is the cafe with primitive (late, hut is ufually
afti and fmoke gray. It does not (hew the fiivery con-
tinuous luftre of primitive clay (late, but is rather glim-
mering, which originates from intermixed fcales 01 mi-
ca. Onartz fcarcely occurs in it in layers, but ufually
traverfes it in the form of veins. Further we do not
find cryftals of feldfpar, fchorl, talc, chlorite (late, or
magnetic iron ftone arc to be obferved in it. It con-
tains petrifaftions, particularly t'iiofe varieties that hor- ,^^^^^^^^_^
der on gray wacke. It alternates with gray wacke *•"„ o/Dum-

Thefe ftones are diftinflly flratified, but the direflion /ri«.

of

Chap. I.

GEOLOGY.

56^

69

Where

found.

70
Metals
found io it.

Arrange- of their ftrata is Mot plrallel to tW of the other rocks
ment, &c. p^ which tliey lie. They are very commonly found
"' t°>^^^' covering limeftone, efpccially at the foot of mountains,
the Earth. Gray H'acke is found in Erzgebirge, at Braunfdorf,
._— V— ' Ricfberg, and Averbach, in Voegtland, in Tranfylvania,
on the banks of the Rhine, in Lahnthal, and fome
other places in Germany. It is alfo found in Britain ;
and Mr Jamefon notices it among the minerals of Dum-
friesfl'.irc, where the gray ivacke ilate is found near Mof-
fat, in the vicinity of Langholm, in the higher parts
of the valley of Elk, and behind Bumf^vark. The
ftrata found in thefe places yield a very good flate,
nearly free from mechanical mixture, and well adapted
to the roofing of houfes.

This fpecies of ftone is rich in metals ; the greater
part of the veins of lead and filver in the Hartz, efpe-
cially thofe of Claufthal and Zcllerfeld, are in gray
wacke. In Tranfylvania, in Vorefpath, it contains
even rich mines of gold. The gray wacke ftrata on the
banks of the Rhine are alfo traverfed by fome metallic
veins, but thofe of Saxony contain nothing but blhid
coal.

Sect. XX. Secondary Trap.

Secondary SEVERAL varieties of trap occur among the fecondary
trap. ftrata, and muft be here enumerated. They all confift

principally of greenftone, or that mixture of horn-
blende and feldfpar, which conftitutes the primitive
traps, noticed in Seflion XV. but in the traps we are now
to mention, the mixture is much more intimate, the
grains confiderably finer, and the mafs appears homo-
geneous. We (liall here notice only three principal
varieties; the amygdaloid or toadftone, the globu'ar
trap, and the greenftone, called by the Wernerians
_j tranfition greenftone.
Amygda- 1. The amygdaloid, called in Derfbyfhire toadftone,

k)idortoad-and fometimes cat dirl, appears to confift of hornblende
°^' flate in a ftate of decompofition, and appears very fimi-

lar to a kind of wacke, of a very fine grain. It is of a
blackifli colour, and very hard, and often contains a
number of bladder holes, which are fometimes entirely
empty, at others are partially or wholly filled with fpar.
It runs in immenfe folid beds, without any appear-
ance of ftratification or fiffure, of unequal thiclintfs, ha-
\nng been feen from 6 feet to 600 thick. It commonly
alternates i\ith the ftrata of fecondary limeflone, as in
Derbjfl.ire, and lometimes feems to penetrate the infe-
rior ftratum of limeflone to a very confidcrable <*-_pth.
It contains no metallic veins, and it is faid entirely to
intercept thofe which it palTes in the limeflone ftrata.
Saintfond affirms that lead ore is fometimes found in cat
dirt •, but he feems to have been deceived by the vague-
nefs of the term, as the miners of Derbyftiire give the
fame name to a greenifti variety of limeflone, which is
.,, fometimes traverfed by veins of lead ore.
{;'.obular 2. Globular trap. I'his is a fchiftofe greenftone, par-

'"P. tially decompofed, and alfo refembles a fne-grained

wacke ; but it appears in the form of large balls, com-
pofed of concentric layers, with a hard nucleus. It is
found at Altenzulze in Voegtland, and fome other
places. It fometiui'S contains veins of copper and iron.
Green- 3- Greenftone. 'J'his is almoft entirely compoftd of

iron, blackiHi mica, and cry'cals of pale iTcfti-colourcd Arran^c-
fcldfpar. Tills rock may be confounded with pjrphy- "'J^' ^^■
ry, or with feldfpar ; but is generally confidered as dif- jj, ^jj ,.,'/
fe rent from both. Mr Jamefon found it in beds from th^ Eirin.
three to twelve feet thick on the upper fide of the Sufan- — y— — '
iia vein in the valley of Leadhills, and in the moun-
tain between Wamphray and Elkdulemuir.

Sr.cT. XXI. SanrlJlone^orCrii.

These terms, like many others which we meet with ir. Sandilone.
mineralogy, are very vague and indefinite, and are ufed
to denote three or four kinds of ftone ; a calcareous, an
argillaceous, and a filiceous fandftone. We ftiall here
confider oidy two of them, the argillaceous and the fili-
ceous. _ _ . 7(J

1. Argillaceous fandftone. This is the fariiJjlein ,\r^\\\i,:e.
of Werner, and the argillaceous grit of the ordinary sus f^nd-
miners. It is compofed of grains of quartz, and fome- '^^"''
times of filiceous fchiftus ; more rarely of feldfpar.

Thefe grains are of various fizes, and are cemented in
an argillaceous matter, commonly containing iron ;
whence this ftone is fometimes called ferruginous fand-
ftone. From the coarfenefs or finenefs of the grains, it
receives the names of coarfe and fine fandftone. There
is a very coarfe kind found in Derbyftiire, containing a
confiderable quantity of quartz pebbles.

This fpecies of fandllone is found in Immenfe beds,
fometimes above 100 yards thick.

It is very dilfinctly ftratiried, and is commonly divid-
ed by filTures, into the ftupe of parallelopipeds. It
fometimes alternates with layers of compaft limeflone,
and often lies above a ftone which we are immediately
to mention, yJrt/c at f>roer.

Sandftone is fometimes formed into globular concre-
tions, compofed of concentric lamellje. ,

Sandlione is one of the molt abundant produfls of vyhere
nature, occurring in almoft every country. In Britain found,
it forms the uppermoft ftratum in many parts of Derby-
ftiire ■■, and in the ifle of Arran there is an immenfe
feparate mafs of it, forming what is c^iXii^ the cock* .*'Jumifoni
In the fame ifland it is found in Glenranza, repofing on -'^■^''>■ ?/'*«
fecondary limeftone. ip,,^a\ ■l.

The globular concretions of fandftone are uncom-"^'' '
mon. Mr Jamefon obferved them in the ifle of ^"^l^ijll^'jp,
ntar the harbour of Portree f ; and Reufs obferved the ^1 j, p j'^.
fame in Bohemia %. \ M'mcraL

This fpecies of fandftone ufually contains many pc- Gngrafh.
trifadions, but is generally not verj- abundant in me- •''" B«bmin,
tals ; it however fometimes contains veins of cobalt. ^'' '^.'g' *

2. Siliceous fandftone. This is a ftone of a fimilar siliceous
nature with the lafl, except that the cementing mafs is fandftone.
alfo of a fihceous nature. It is found in the ports of
Domica and Campara, in the ifle of Arl.c, and on the

coaft of Dalmatia, where it contains petrifa61ions. The
hill of Platinburg confifls of fandftone, with a chalce-
dony cement. Some fine fpicimens of filiceous fand-
ftone are found in Saliftsury Craies at Edinburgh, con-
taining liiells which have affuined the nature of chalce-
dony. It does not appear to contain metals.

times imbedded in it grains of grayifti quart z^Jcales of
. Vol. IX. Part H.

sWca

SiCT. XXII. C,

P/aJIcrflone.

This js native fulphatc of lime, and it appears in fe- Gjpfuui.
teral forms. Six varieties are ufually enumerated ; cora-
4 B mou

m Al^ci,

LentiiU

562 , G E O L

"\rrar,ce- mon gypuim, lenticular gyprurn, crjftallized gypfum,
mei.t, &c. j^ijrous gypfum, ftalaftitic gypfum, and gypfeous ala-
"/"'"l^rbafter.
•il Earth. i- Common gyf>fum is a ccmpaa, granulated ftone,

>1— V ' commonly of a grayifti colour, and mixed with impuri-

80 ties, containing a coiifiderable quantity of carbonate of
Coffixon. j;j^^_ J.J texture is Celdom laminated, but it appears
like -cop.rfe lo;if fugar. This kind is very abundant,
many hills being entirely formed of it. Of thefe the
molt remarkable arc the 'plarterhills in the neighbour-
liood of Paris, thole in the canton of Bern in Switzer-
land, and others among the Alps. Hills of gypfum
occur alfo in Spain and Poland ; near the White lea ;
i;i Afia, where they are nioiUy in horizontal Qrata ; in
the north Archipelago, bet.ween Afia and America.
Sauflure found a mountain in Svntzerland compofed of
gypfum, fand, and clay *. This kind fometiraes con-
tains petrifaftions, and often abounds with die impref-
fions of animal and vegetable matters -, fome very curi-
ous examples of which will be mentioned in a future
fertion. It contains few metals, although copper is
fometimes found in it, as are rock-falt and fulphur.

2. Lemicvlar giif'fi"" is a curious variety, which
feems peculiar to Montmartre near Paris. _ In one of
the banks in this mountain, fpecimcns of it are found
containing little lenticular bodies, diftinft and diilemj-
nated through the llony matter, fo as to form a great
part of its mafs. A fpecimen of this kind is figured by
Piitrin, in his natural hiftory of minerals.

3. The cnjf.allized gypfum is alfo found chiefly in
the environs of Paris, in ci7ftals that are decaedral, or
fometimes like a rhomboidal oSaedron, with the pyra-
mids truncated near the bafe.

4. Fibrous g'Jpf'im, compofed of fliort brittle threads
difpofed in bundles, is found in Derbyfliire, and near
Riom in Auvergne. A very beautiful variety of a filky
feel, and reticulated texture, is defcribed by Patrin, as
found in Poland, in the fait" mines of Wielitlka ; in
Ruflia, near the junftion of the river Oka ivith the WoU
ga ; in Spain ; and in China.

* HlJI.Nat. A variety of gypfum with the appearance of vegeta-
A M!„cr. tion is found in caverns near the baths at Matlock in
torn, ill. p. Deibyftiire. A beautiful fpecimen of it is figured by
'•^•j^ Patrin*.

St,ilaftitic. 5- Gypfum is fometimes found hanging from the
' fides and roof of caverns in the form of ftaladlites, a
+ Pairln k< tranfverfe feftion of which Ihews their internal itruelure
fufra.p. jjj ^|g radiated. This variety is commonly called
''"■,, Ji/i/otf.

6. Gypfeous alabqfler is very fimilar to true alabaftcr,
except that it does not, like that, effervefce with acids,
and is in gencnd not fo ftrong. It is found in great
abundance in Derbjthirc in large maflcs, filling up ca-
vities in argillaceous grit. It never forms a Itratum,
but is gcntVally attended with gravel, red clay, and
(hells. Mr Mawe rcprefents the lower portions as be-
ing very flrong and compafl, fo as to form columns
1 Mireral. and i)ilafiers J. I'his kind is alfo found in Tranche
of Dubsfi. Comtr, and on the Marne about fix leagues from Paris
*• '•♦■ at Lagny.

Thoagh from the ordinary form or fituntion of gyp-
fum, and the organic reitwins fo commonly found in it,
there can be no douLt of its being in mofl cafes a fc-
ccndary rock j yet from its having been fjiuid iniwd

Cliap. L

S3

Gypfeous

auD.iUcr.

O G Y.

with mica in St Gothard, it is
among the primary compounds.

Sf.CT. XXIII. Tiu^n

Tins beautiful lubilance, which i,< Xi\A\\(t fiuat s/Fluor fpar
lime, is found either in large unformed mafles or blocks, •^'f'^r'tK^d-
or cryftallized in cubes or otlaedrons. It is of different
colours : but the m.oft prevailing varieties are that in
parallel zones or bands of green, blue, yellow, and
white ; and that in which a white ground is veined
with a reddirti brown. Some fpecimcns are fo fliaded
as to reprefent a geographical map ; but thefe are very
rare. It is fo foft as to be eaiily turned in a lathe into
thofe vafes and other ornaments which are fo common-
ly feen on chimneypieccs. g

Fluor fpar is found in feveral countries of Europa, whei«
but efpecially in France and Britain. According toioand.
Patrin, there are mines of it in the primitive mountains
of Gyromagny, in the Vofges, in the neighbourhood of
Langeac in Auvergne, and at Forcz near Ambieric,
that are inexhauflible \. It is alfo found in the \ Hifi. Nat.
mountain of Pilat not far from Lyons 5 among the '''' Miner.
rocks that Ikirt the valley of Chamouni in the Alps 5 in ^'^^^ ""'• P"
the Altaifchian mountains of Afia ■■, and in Greenland.

The moft produflive mines of this fubftance in Bri-
tain are in a mountain near Caftleton in Derbylhire.
Here there are two mines producing the beautiful com-
paft fluor, called Blue joliU, which is found in pipe
veins running in various direflions. The fluor com-
monly rells upon limeftone, and it frequently has this
ftone for a nucleus, round which it appears to have cry-
ftallized. Frequently, however, the centre is hollow.
In feveral parts of the mine the fluor is found in detach-
ed maffes, in caves filled with clay and loofe adventiti-
ous matter, having the appearance as if it had been
broken oflf from the hmeltone on which it had been
formed ; for every piece, in one part or other, feeras as
if it had adhered to fomething, and been broken off.

Some of the pieces of fluor are a foot lliick, and
have four or five different veins or zones : fuch large
pieces are however very rare, and in general they are
only three or four inches thick *. ' Ma-m

Saintfond, who has given an interefting account of j^"'^"/"
the curioiities near Caftleton, fays, that fluor fpar would •
be the moft beautifid fubftance in nature, if it were but
a little harder.

It is alio found in Northumberland, in a vein a-
mong the granite mountains of Aberdeenfliiref , and m^ J ""/"•'
one of the Shetland ifles, in a vein of bafalt J. ^"'X\.'-

Fluor appears in fome cafes to be primitive. Thus ^^ , ^,
it is found forming whole ftrata in, the mountains of the j/i. ii. 207.
foreft of Thuiingia, and in a vein of quartz in Upper
Hungary.

Sect. XXIV. Chalk.

S5

Chalk is too well known to require a defcription.ai.ilk.
It is not always white, but is frequently coloured. It
is difpofed in horizontal beds that are often many yards
in ihickne.'s, and which always repofc on layers ot
other calcareous ftone of a harder ftruflure. Thefe
beds are often of confidcrable extent, and very common-
ly
4

I, G E O L

ly contulii lliiits, Cilrorm 'iimeflone, and vaft quantities
ofriiell...

Clulk, wliicli is fo abundant in fome countries, is
fcarccly found in others. It is ivell known that the
foath and fouth-eaftern parts of England, and t!\e foutli
and fouth-weft of France contaiii vafl cliffs and beds of
it ; ruuc'n of it is alfo found in Zealand. It is, we be-
lifie, a rare produdtion in Scotland, and in moft moun-
tainous traCls. It has been rcinarked by Pennant, that
if a line be drawn from Dorchcilerin the county of Dor-
fet, to the county of >Joifolk,it would form the boundary
of the great chalky ftratum of England ; no quantity ha-
\ing been found to the north or weft of that line.

There is a mountain of chalk between Tor and Ifium
on the banks of the Donetz in RuIue, in which fome
Creek monks have excavated aparticents to the length
of fifty fathoms i.

No metals are found in chalk, though it is fald that
in France murtial pyrites has been dilcovered in it.

O G Y.

5^3

Sect. XXV. day.

Clay is found in larious ftates with refpefl to hard-
ncfs or Iblidity, from the foft ductile clay ufcd by the
potters and pipemakers to the perfect (late (clay ilate,
or argillaceaus fchiftus) already defcribed.

Soft clay is found in beds of various degrees of thick-
nefi, commonly not far below the furface, and alter-
nating with harder clay, flates, fand, or limeftone. It
is generally very abundant, eipecially in thofc places
where coal or rock-falt is found.

Clay of a harder confiftence, commonly called indu.'
rated clay, or in tl:e language of the mhicrs clunch, is
ulually found below the fofter clay, or there Is fome-
tiines a llr.atum of ilate or firailar argillaceous matter
interpofed. It often alternates with limeftone, fandflone,
or gypfiun. Petrifaclioris and fhells are often found
in it, as are quartz, fulphur pyrites, martial ochre, com-
mon fait, vitriol and alum.

A harder /late of clay forms that fubftance which
is called by mineralogifts iiihomarga (Hone clay.)
This is found in beds or ftrata often alternating with
the former, with flate or with limeftone, efpecially in
co.;l mines. It alfo .forms nefts or balls in toadftone
and fimilar rock. It fometimes bears the impreffions of
reeds and other vegetable bodies.

The nest degree of hardened clay, forms flate clay,
(fc/uefer t/wn of the Germans.) This fubftance, how-
ever is not very hard, but is eafily broken into angular
tabular fragments. Its internal appearance is ufually
dull, but fometimes glimmering from a flight interrab:ture
of leaks of mica. Its colour is ufually a yellowidi
gray, with fpots or clouds of a pearl gray, or a cher-
ry red, but fometimes it inclines to black. It ufually
lies between beds of fandftone, and almoft always below
the fofter clays.

A kind of clay, of a flill harder confiftence, fornSs
flate or fchiftus. This is ufually of a dark brown or
blackllh colour, .and a Laminated texture. It lies in
beds, fometimes of immenfe thickneft, ufually belo.v
fandftone, Or alternating with this and limeftone. It
often contains IraprelTions of organic remains, and there
are fometimes found in it veins of lead ore. It is a
very common ftrutum in the coal countries.

Nearly allied to tliis is what the miners call rubble Arrangc-
ftone, which is a common variety of ilate found in ">'"'. S*c.
fimilar lituations witlr flate j but often very rich in me- "'f^r'^^i^^'
tallic ores, efpecially iron, galena, bifmuth, and cobalt, th^. Eaiib.
It alf) abounds witli pctiifaclions. It is fcmetimes — v— '
Icund In primitive rocks. p^

Sect. XXVI. Mar.'.

M.\RL is a fubftance chiefly compofed of fand, clav,?5arl.
and calcareous matter, which is found in many places,
and forms one of the moft valuable natural manures
ufcd in agricultui-e. This is alfo found of various
degrees of hardnefs, from a foft powder to a ftony con-
fiftence, in which lait ftate it forms wliat Kirwan
calls marhte. In colour it is uiiially of a reddilh
white, fometimes Verging upon red, and it is not un-
frequently found of a yellowifti brown or blackilli caft.
Marl is uiually difpofed in confiderable beds of various
degrees of thjcknefs, in valleys and other low lands, efpe-
cially among the coal ftrata. Indurated marl occurs > y^„
in the coal ftrata of Mid Lothian*, and It is alfo found zjaw/,
in the illand of Iflay. Powdery mail is fcren in Skye. pi:^

Stony marl, or mariile, is found in Bavaria, alter-
nating with fand and fandftone. Hills of it occur
in Carniola, Carinthia, and the Venetian territory. It
is alfo found between ftrata of limeftone and argillaceoas
fchiftus.

Sect. XXVII. Argillaceous Ironjione.

This Is .'bmetimes called metal ftone, and is veryA-a.iLte-
coramon in the coal countries. It is very heavy and ■ii<'iron-
compaft, and of various colours, from a dark brown '*''''-«•
to a blood red ; the latter forms the hcematius or
bloodftorie, one of the richeft iron ores. It often
contai:is iu it fpherical balls like iron bullets. It is dif-
pofed in ftrata alternating with indurated clay, flate
clay, marl, or fandftone, feldom far below the furface.
It feldom forms very extenfive beds, but is often con-
fined to particular fpots.

Ironftone is found in great abundance in Cumber-
land, .*id in moft parts of Scotland. It may be feen
in the clift's all along the coaft of Fife, from Dyfart to
St Andrews.

Sect. XXVIII. IVach and Bafah.

We have already fpoken of feveral ftoncs under thc\Y(,j„H(,re,
name of traps, that are found both among primitive and
fecondary compounds. l"he two I'ubftancts which we are
now to notice are nearly allied to the traps, and have been
ck-ired with them under the general name of ■whbijlciie.
This is a favourite term among the mineralogifts of
Scotland, of whom Sir .lames Hall employs it as a ge-
neric Dame to denote trap, bafalt, wackc, grunftein, and'
porphyry. * The term is convenient, but ProfclTor • f,ji„ijr''h
Jamefon and others of the Wcmerian fchool objeft to it Pint Ttanf.
as too vague and indefinite. vol. v. p. 46.

Wackc, or wackcn, differs from trap only in being . 59
more conipaifl and of a finer grain. It is heavy and ^ " ''
very hard, fo as often to ftrike fire ^vilh fleel ; it is
dull and opaque, and breaks with an even fratlure. Its
colour Is ufually a reddifli brovsii or gray of various
• 4 B 4 fliadcs.

0^4

Arrar.ce-

TTC.t, &<-.

of the Ma-
terials of
the liarth,

GEO

(hadts, and ibmetimes it has a greenilh call. It h
ufually an earthy fmell, when breathed

It is lomc-
, and often contains
commonly thofc of

times highly impregnated with
cryftals of hornb/ende, and
hexagonal black mica.

It often forms a confiderable part of mountains, either
in vaft blocks, as in the hill on which Edinburgh caflle
ilands, or in flrata lying above limeftone or fandftone,
or ahemaling with thefe. A great part of the Calton-
hill, of Salilhury craigs, and Arthur's feat at Edin-
ourgh, is compofed of flrata of this kind ; and fimilar
appearances take place in the bed of the water of Leith
near the town, and in the cliffs on the coail of Fife,
efpecially at St Andrews. To the eye of the volcanic
Saintfcnd, all thefe beds appeared to be lava. We are
Tpofed to think, with Mr Playfair, that the curiou:

L C)

fait ar
petrifaclions.

G Y. Chap. I.

coal, and niufl fay iomelhlng of fu/Tus and Arrange-

Sect, XXIX. Rock Sail.

,&c.
of the Ma-
terialsof
the Earth.

infts

Rock fait or fal gem, (the Jteinfal of the Germans) loi
is the pureft muriate of foda that is found in nature, it '^°'^^ fa't
being much lefs impregnated with foreign matters than '''
what is procured ftom fea water. It is very hard, and
generally very tranfparent, being fometimes as clear as
cryftal. It is ufually white, but often yellowilh, blue,
red, or violet, and now and then it is quite opaque.
This fait forms in the bowels of the earth horizontal
beds or banks, more or lefs thick, from a few inches
to many hundred fathoms-, and fometimes extending
feveral miles round. It commonly alternates with clay

of alternate flrata of bafalt (as Saintfond calls or gypfum. The beds are fometimes without any break

/»r le, rUi

Iraa,, p.

204.

ICO

it) and limeftone, near Villeneuve de Berg, defcribed
and figured by that author, affords an example of whin-
ftone alternating with limeftone, fuch as are feen in
Scotland f . Several varitites of wacke are found in
the hills near Edinburgh, and are defcribed by Dr
Tovvnfon J. Mr Jamefon obferved wacke alternating
with porpyhry in Skye.

Bafalt has a finer grain, and is more compaft, than
even wacke, and is the moft denfe of all the whins or

Bafal

mfon

for a great extent. It is generally found a few fathoms
below the furface, and in fome places is found continued
to the depth of roco feet. ^

It is found in fome mountains ; and in Algiers, near Whf re
the lake called Marks, there is a mountain almoft found,
wholly compofed of it. The famous fait mine of
Wielitlka in Auftrian Poland, about eight miles to
the fouth-eaft of Cracow, is in the northern extremity
of a branch of the Carpathian mountains. The fait
traps. It is found either in large blocks, covering the found here is of an iron gray colour, intermingled with
other ftrata, fometimes in the form of tables, or in re- white cubes ; and fometimes large blocks of fait are
gular prifmatic columns, either ftraight or bended. We found imbedded in marl. This famous mine has been
have already treated io fully of the nature, properties, worked ever fince 1251, and it is pretended that its
and chief habitats of bafalt (fee Basaltes), that excavations extend more than a league from eaft to
little remains to be added here. wefk *. About five leagues to the fouth-eaft of Cra- * T01

It is principally diftinguiftied from wacke, where it cow are the fait mines of Bofchnia, the depth of which Travel: in
is not in regular prifms, by very rarely containing cryf- is nearly equal to thofe of Wielitlka (1000 feet) j but "|'f'^'
tals of mica, which are fo common in the latter. the fait procured from them is lefs pure f . Mines oi^'y^^^^ j^

Saintfond in his fplendid work Siir les Volcans eteints fait, in horizontal undulated beds, occur at Thorda in Mtiis,
ilu Vivarais, Sec. has figured fome examples of bafal- Tranfylvania, and in Upper Hungary. In the fide ofn*47.
tic pillars which rival thofe of Staffa and the Giants a mountain, about two leagues from Halle, on the
Caufeway. A more romantic fituation is fcarcely to be banks of the Inn, to the north-eaft of Infpruck, rock
conceived than that drawn in his eleventh plate, of a fait is found imbedded in layers of a flaty rock ; but
village placed in the front of a bold hill covered with there is one part of the mountain in which there occurs
bundles of fmall pillars lying in every diredlion, and an immenfe body of fait, without any mixture of rock,
having detached perpendicular columns tending at each to which they pafs by a gallery 260 toifes in length,
end, with a brge cave direcily behind the houfes. clofed at the end with a locked door. This fait is very

impure J. There are three important fait mines in j y^j^V ^^j.
Spain ; the firrt near Mingranella, in a mountainous tom. iii. p.
traft, between Valeutia and Caftile, imbedded in lay-J^S.
ers of gypfum ; the fecond in Spanilh Navarre, in a
ridge of hills compofed of limeftone and gypfum ; and
the third that of Cardona in Catalonia, about 16 leagues
to the north-eaft of Barcelona, which is one of the moft
curious natural produftions with which we are acquaint-
ed. It confifts of an immenfe folid rock of fait, eleva-
ted 500 feet above the earth, and extending to a depth
that has not been afcertained. It is without crevices
or clefts, and has no appearance of ftrata, and is near a
league in circuit. There is no plafter or gypfum found
in the neighbourhood, and the fait rock is as high as

Large mafles of bafalt are feen in the north of Shetland,
ftanding infulated, and affuming a very grotefque ap-
pearance. Mr Jamefon defcribes one of thefe in the
itle of Jura, that forms a natural arch. We remember
feeing two curious infulated rocks on the ihore at the
foot of Kinkeld braes at St Andrews, but do not re-
colleft whether they are of a bafaltic nature.

Several other fubftances, as fand, gravel, peat, &c.
might here be noticed, but their ftrufture and litua-
tion are too well known to render a particular notice
necelTary.

Many of the Hones which we have defcribed among
the primitive rocks, are alfo fometimes found among
the fecondary ftrata, as argillaceous fchiftus, homftone,

hornblende, jafper, and efpecially puddingftone ; but any of the adjacent hills J

they are not fo important as to require a fecond exami- Rock fait is found in ieveral places in JK,nglanci, par- Nat. mjt.

i:a:ion. ticularly at Northwich in Chelhire, at Droitwich m'/ ^P"'"-

Before we conclude this general account of the ma- Worceftcrlhire, and near Wefton in Staffordlhire ; but

tcrials which compofe our globe, we muft briefly notice the mines in Northwich nre the .ju produiflive. Salt salt mine»

:s':o of the moft valuable mineral produftions, vii, rock Eun?', in this liluationj were kuown to the Romans ; at North-

Chap. T. G E O L

Arrange- but the principal mine tliat is at prefeiit wrought, was

•°*^''^^" difcovcred in the beginning of lall century. It forms

''tf rials oi" ™t"enfe quarries, extending over ievrral acres, which,

the Earth, with their huge cryllal pillars and glittering roof,

^— — V— prefent a moil beautiful ipedacle. The fait found here

is of a dark-brown colour, like brown fugarcandy, and

is fo hard that it is blafted with gunpowder to get it

from the mafs. It is difpofed in beds, alternating with

beds of clay, gypium, and ilaty (lone. Salt is procured

at the greateft depth hitherto explored ; and wherever

a ftiaft is funk in the neighbourhood, there is a certain-

• JVfjTi'A ty of finding fait *.

^dZI'T ^'^'"^'=5 ^^'^'^ extenfive mines, rock fait is found in

i"!. "y ' *^^ canton of Berne in Switzerland, in Siberia, in A-

rabia, in Tibet, and even in New Holland. It is alio

found in many parts of America, at a great height in

the mountains, efpecially thofe of Peru.

Sect. XXX. Coa/.

Coal, We have already, in the articles Coal and Coal-

ERY, treated of the nature of this fubftance, of the
ftrata that are ufually found conneifled with it (accord-
ing to the phrafeology of the miners), and of the me-
thod of procuring it from the pits ; and, in Minera-
logy, we (hall give a particular account of the feveral
varieties, and the diftinguifhing characters of each. A
few obfervations refpefting the principal collieries, with
the appearance of the coal found in them, and the
correfponding ftratiScation, fall to be made in this
place.

There are certain general circumftances that attend

the depofitions of coal in almofl every place where it is

found, and which we mufl mention before noticing the

jj,, particular collieries. Thefe are as follows.

General I. The beds in which coal is difpofed, ufually have

circumftap- their extremities near the furface of the ground, from

ces attend- ^^bich thev bend obliquely downwards, the middle p?.rt

inp coal -..'... *.-'.. . '. . ^ .

O G Y. 56s

4. It is an obfervation v-hicli holds, a'moil without •■Arrange
exception, that the flaty ftrata, and efpecially thofe "!■'?'.' w'^'
next the coal, bear the imprellion of vegetables, and °<.rjjisof"
often of exotic or unknown plants. the Eanh.

rly horizontal, fo that a vertical

of the bed being

feflion of the bed nearly refembles the keel of a be
This figure is well expreffed in the fiift and third plates
to IVIr Jamefoii's Mineralogy of Dumfries. The lowell
part of the bed is ufually the thickell (d).

2. A bed of coal is feldom found iingle ; but, in ge-
neral, feveral ftrata occur in the fame place, of various
thicknefs, the upper being ufually very thin, and the
lower very thick, with feveral ftony ftrata between each
two. Where there is only one bed, thi^ is generally of
very confiderable ihicknefs. At Whitehaven there are
found at Jeaft 20 coal ftrata below the furface ; and at
Liege, in France, there are no lefs than 60.

3. The ftrata that feparate the layers of coal are
nearly the fame in every colliery, and will be feen by
referring to the table given under Coa.lery, and by
thofe which will immediately be added. Thofe ftrata
which are in immediate ccntaft with the coal, are ei-
ther whinftone, or more commonly an argillaceous Ilaty
mafs ; and near this is fandftone, in layers that are fe-
parated by flaty clay, mixed with particles of coal.

Coal, in a greater or lefs quantity, but of very dit- iciS
fcrent qualities, has been found in moft countries, and Where
perhaps exifts in all. It is found in France, Holland, ''^"°°'
Britain, Germany, Saxony, Portugal, Switzerland,
and Sweden ; in China, Japan, and in New Holland ;
and much ot it is worked in Virginia in America.
But France and Britain may be confidered as the fa-
vourite feats of this invaluable commodity, which may
jurtly be put in competition with the treafures of Potoii
and Peru. 107

It is ftated by Buffbn, that there are no fewer than Coal mines
400 collieries worked in France ; and yet Saintfond re- ''*""•
grets that his countrymen are not fo far advanced in
the ufe of this mineral as the inhabitants of Britain *. ' Saintfcni':
The moft confiderable coal mines in France, are thofe ^'■"'f''»
in the Lyonnois, at Forez, Burgundy, Auvergne, ,° " '' ^'
Languedoc, Franche Comte, and Liege.

1 he mines in the Lyonnois, and thole of Forez, are
among the moft important in France. They are iilua-
ted in a valley, extending from the Rhone to the Loire,
in a direftion from north-eaft to fouth-wefl, between
two chains of primitive mountains, and they occupy iu
length a fpace of llx or feven leagues, from Rivc-dc-
Gier to Firmini. In one part of the valley, in the
neighbourhood of Saint-Etienne, the ftrata are nearly
horizontal, and the medial thicknefs of the coal ftratum
is from three to fix feet ; and near the Loire there arc
from 15 to 23 of thefe. At Rive-de-Gier the ftrata
are almoft vertical, and tiieir thicknefs is very un-
equal, being feldom lefs than three feet, and fometimes
amounting to 40 or even 60. All the coal produced
by thele mines is of an excellent quality, and its quan-
tity is immenfe. Patrin llates, on the moft undoubt-
ed authority, that there are in the neighbourhood ■©£
Rive-de-Gier, no lefs than 40 mines at work, which „.. .
produced in one year 1 ,600,000 quintals of coal f. jVjtX'

The next in importance are the coal mines of Liege. Mj„cr.xam.
The beds of coal in that country have a direilion from v. p. 123.
eaft to weft ; they commence about a league to the eaft
of the town, and extend to about a league and a half
to the wed of it. Here, after meeting with fome inter-
ruption, they extend for feveral leagues farther. Their
breadth, from north to fouth, is about three-fourths of
a league. At Verbios, whith is to the north-weft of the
city, there are, according to Jars, more than 40 ftrat.i
of coal, which are feparatcd from each other by beds of
different kinds of fandftone, of from 30 to too feet in
thicknefs J. Gennete has counted 61 of thefe beds, t 'JinTcj :
placed one above another j and he is of opinion, that ■''''''''■
the loweft penetrates to the depth of 4000 feet perpen- ' '"^^ "''
dicular. Though thefe mines have been wrought from
the I 2th century, they have not yet reached to more
than the twenty-firft bed, at the depth of a little more
than 1000 Englifti feet. ^ Fjirin,

.pj^ tom.v.j-.
33C-

(d) Saintfond, in the feflion which he has of the coal ftrata at Nevvcaftle, defcribes them as if they were con-
vex towards the upper furface. (Sc«^; J34. of vcL i. of the Englilb Tranflation of '£s Travels in England, &c.)
Surely this is a miftake,

3

566

GEOLOGY.

Chap. I.

Aivangc- The principal tc'liLiies of Britain are thofe of New-
'"' ''^t^' '^"^-^ ^"'^ Whitehaven.

'te'ialj of" Nevvcaille is fi-.rrounded by collieries to the diftance
tl-.J Eaith. of fix or fevcn leagues, ai;d may, perhaps, be confider-

^ ed as the riclieft coal dill rift in the world. 1 here are

loS in feveral of the Newcaftle mines not feirer than i6
Fnrcipal \^^^^ gf pg^_,]_ ^^.^ ^i which are connjerably thicker
ofEngUnd.*'"" t'"^ ^'^'^ '^'^■"S ^^^h about a fathom in tliicknefs.
Thcfe arc c-alled tlie mni'/i caal, and are iliillnguillied
into the Jdgh main coal, and the low main coal, fepara-
ted from each other by a confiJerable number of llony
ttrata. Good coal, iii fufFicicnt quantity, is generally
four.d at the depth of little more than l oo feet. The
bed is five feet thick in fome places, and lefs in others ;
but, in general, it is eafily wrought, and large pieces
are brought up. This lad circumftance is of confider-
ab!e advantage, as thcfe pieces are moft proper for
chamber fire-, and cafily tranfported, ;\hich makes this
kind of coal (el! at a higher price. Where the bed of
black and bituminous clay is penetrated, the coal is
found adhering to it : but this is not always the cafe,
for there are other mines in the neighbourhood where
freertonc is recovering, which, in the points of contaft,
is mixed with coal to the thicknefs of two or three
irxhes ; the latter running, as it were, in fplinters into
the (lone, and having a hgneous appearance, when at-
*Si\ntfinii tcntively examined f .

3"r<j«.'j,v. At Whitehaven, the beds of coal lie in a direftion
!. p. 140. parallel to each other. Their inclination or dip is
nearly to the weft, and is from one yard in eight, to
pne in twelve. The flrata are frequently interrupted
by large fiffures, or dykes, fonie of which remove the
ftrata upwards or downwards, I 20 feet. The courfe of
thefe filTufes is almoft eaft and well. In a depth from
the furface of 165 and a half fathoms, there are, in
thcfe collieries, feven large beds of coal, and 1 8 thin

beds, which cannot, at prefect, be rendered proli- Arrange,
table. "'.^"■' ^'^•

The flrata fuperincumbent on the large beds of coal ° ,,^,21, ^^
are, ift bed. Blue flate. 2d, Gray freeftone. 3d, tlieia.tli.

Hard, white freeftone. 4th, Blue' flate, ftriated or „__j

fpeckled with frceftojie. 5th, Gray Hate. 6th, Hard,
ivhite freeftone.

The ftrata irameJiately beneath thefe large beds of
coal, are from one and a half to fix inches thick, and
confifts of a fpecies of argillaceous earth, or Jl.<alt\
As this earth is of a very foft or friable nature, the
weight of the fuperincumbent ftrata prefTes the pillar of
coal through it. If the pillar dcfcends a few inches,
the roof not equally yielding at the fame time, crufties,
or breaks into fmall pieces. When, under thefe cir-
cumftances, the thicknefs of the bed does not exceed
fix feel, nor the deptli 30 fathoms, the furface of the
earth is fenfibly affefted *. ^ « Dixon:

TKere appear to be two principal belts of coal in this£,y>y'2)i»
illand, extending from the eaftern to the vveftern coaft j Siivmrigg,
one from Newcaftle to Whitehaven ; the other from theP- ic7-
eaft coaft of Scotland, acrofs the vale of Forth and
Clyde, to Ayrfliire. Coal is indeed found in many other
parts of the iflarid ; but the quantity is very trifling.

The fimilarity of fituation, and the Smilar nature of
the coal at Whitehaven and Newcaftle, would natural-
ly lead us to infer, that the coal at both places is from
the fame feam. But this is placed beyond difpute, by
a comparative examinatioii af the ftrata in both fituations.
We fliall here give twp tabular views of the ftrata, one
taken from Saintfond's Travels, and the other from Dr
Jofhua Dixon's account of the Whitehaven mines, in his
literary life of Dr Brownrigg. Allowing for the dif-
ferent names given by ditterent miners to the fame fub-
ftances, and Dr Dixon's greater minutenefs, there is a
wonderful fimilarity between the two tables.

Table I. Strata in Refloration Pit, St Anthon's Colliery, Newcaftle, to the depth of 135 fathoms.—

From

N°

Stratum.

Fath.

Feet.

Inch.

J

Soil and clay, . . ...

s

_

_

2

Brov\n freeftone, • . . • •

12

-

-

3

Coal, I. .....

-

-

6

4

Blue metalftone, .....

2

5

-

5

White girdles, . . . • •

2

I

-

6

Coal, 11. . . . ...

—

—

8

7

White and gray freeftone, . . . •

6

-

-

8

Soft blue metalftone, . . . .

5

-

-

9

Coal, III. .....

-

-

6

ID

Freeftone girdles, . . ...

3

"-

-

II jWhin, " . . . . . .

I

4

6

1 2 [Strong freeftone, . . . • •

3

I

-

13

Coal, IV. .....

-

I

-

'4

Soft blue thill, .....

I

5

-

I.?

Soft girdles mixed with whin, . . . •

3

5

-

16

Coal, V. . . . . . .

—

— .

6

J?

Blue and black ftone, . . • •

3

4

-

18

Coal, VI. .....

-

-

8

19

Strong freeftone, . . . • •

1

3

-

20

Gray metaLlone, . . • . .

I

4

-

G E O L O G \

Coal, V!I.

Gray poll mixed with whin,

iGrav girdles,

[Blue and black ftone,

Coal, viir.

Gra • metahlone,
g freeaone,
Black metalftoiic,with hard girdl
High main coal, IX.
Gray metal.
Foil girdles.
Blue metal,
Girdles,

Blue metalftone,
Port,

Blue metalftone.
Whin and blue metal.
Strong freeftone,
Erown poft with water,
Blue metalftone with gray girdles,
Coal, X.
Blue metalftone,
Freeftone,

Coal, XI. . .

Strong gray metal, with poft girdle
Strong freeftone,
Whin,
Blue metalftone.

Gray metalftone, with poft girdles
Blue metalftone, with whin girdles,
Coal, XII.
Blue gray metal,
Freeftone,

Freeftone mixed with whin,
Freeftone,
Dark blue metal,
Gray metalftone and girdles,
Freeftone mixed with whin,
Whin,

Freeftone mixed with whin,
Coal XIII.
Dark gray metalftone.
Gray metal and whin girdles,
Gray metal and girdles,
Freeftone,
Coal XIV.
Blue and gray metal.
Coal XV.

Blue and gray metal,
Freeftone mixed with whin,
Gray metal,
Gray metal and girdles,
Low main coal, XVI.

H.

567

t,

2

_ 1

4

-

I

-

-

6

3

—

-

7

2

3

-

-

3

4

—

-

6

7

6

2

7

4

.5

4

3

I

6

3

S

-

7

2

_

2

2

2

-

7

6

3

3

3

6

4

10

3

-

3

-

3

2

4

2

-

9

4

6

-

6

—

0

-

6

Tabl^-

GEOLOGY

Chap. I.

N°

Stratu;-:.

Fath.

Feet.

Inch.

J

Soil and clay, .....

1

_

2

Brown foft iimeftone,

I

_

3

Dark coloured limeftone, harder,

1

_

4

Yellowiilr limenone mixed with fpar,

_

_

?

Reddilh hard hmellone, ....

-

6

6

Hard dark-coloured Umeftone,

_

4

7

Yello Willi limeftone mixed with fpar,

-

8

Soft brown limeftone, ....

_

2

9

Soft brown and yellow limeftone mixed with freeftone,

_

6

10

Limeftone mixed with yellow freeftone.

_

II

Reddilh foft freeftone, ....

_

6

12

Red flate, ftriated with freeftone in layers,

_

6

'3

Red freeftone, . '.

7

6

'4

Soft red ftone, ....

6

IS

Red flate ftriated with red freeftone,

4

i6

Red flate ftriated with freeftone.

4

_

17

Strong red freeftone, rather grayifti,

4

9

18

Lumpy red freeftone (peckled with white freeftone,

9

19

Blue argillaceous fchiftus fpeckled with coal.

-

9

20

Red foapy flate, ....

2

21

Black flate with a fmall appearance of coal.

-

_

22

Afti-coloured friable fchiftus.

_

6

23

Purple-coloured flate, ....

3

3

24

The fame, and under it black flate,

*5

Coal L . . . . .

_

_

26

Soft whitilh freeftone, . , . ,

I

2

27

Blackifti flate, a little inclined to brown.

_

II

28

Coal IL ;

_

10

29

Blackifti fliale intermixed with coal, .

_

6

30

Whitifti freeftone, ....

I

6

31

Strong bluifti flate mixed with feeeftone,

32

White ironftone, ....

_

_

33

Freeftone ftriated with blue flate.

_

8

34

White freeftone in thin layers,

1

3

35

Dark-blue flate, ....

2

6

36

Coal in. .....

37

Dark -gray (hale, ....

_

8

38

Coal IV. .... .

_

_

39

Gray freeftone mixed with ironftone,

I

_

40

Hard white freeftone, ....

2

6

41

CoalV. .....

42

Shale mixed with freeftone.

I

•:_

43

Olive-coloured flate adhering to black flate fuperincumbent on coal,

._

4

44

Coal VI. .... .

_

45

Black ftiale mixed with freeftone.

1

8

46

White freeftone mixed with flate.

I

_

47

Dark-blue flate, ....

3

4

48

Coal VII. .....

3

49

Black ftiale mixed with freeftone,

I

6

50

Srong white freeftone, ....

I

_

Ji

Brown ironftone, ....

_

_

52

Dark-gray flate, ....

J

_

53

Dark-gray ftiale with an intermixture of coal VIII,

_

6

54

Light-coloured flate mixed with freeftone,

_

6

55

Blue flate ftriated with freeftone,

I

_

56

Strong white freeftone a little tinged with iron,

-

6

GEOLOGY.

N"='

Stratum.

Faih.

Feet.

Inch.

57

Very black (hivery tkte,

,

4

3

J8

Strong coal of a good quality, IX.

_

4

59

Soft gray {late,

_

_

60

Verv black coal X. burns well

_

_

8

61

Hard black Hate,

_

I

7

62

Coal mixed with pyrites, XI.

_

I

2

63

Argillaceous fchiftus, gray and brittle,

_

3

_

64

Blue rough argiUaceoiis fchillus,

_

4

6

6;

Fine blue Hate,

_

3

_

66

Freeftone mixed with ironftoiie,

_

3

_

67

Black Ihivery flate.

,

_

68

Dark-blue Hate, very fine.

5

6

69

Dark-blue flate, very brittle,

_

6

7=

Coal, XII.

_

2

6

7'

Soft gray argillaceous fchiftus.

_

6

72

Argillaceous fchiftus mixed with freeftone,

_

2

73

White freeftone with fine particles.

I

_

7+

Blue flate ftriated with white freeftone.

4

7

75

Light-blue flate,

_

3

76

Blue flate a little mixed with ironftone,

2

_

77

Black ftiivery flate.

1

_

78

Coal, XIII. .

_

_

6

79

BrowniOi hard flate.

I

3

80

Strong blue flate tinged with ironftone.

4

4

6

81

Dark- blue flate rather inclined to brown,

I

6

82

Blue brittle flate,

_

6

83

Coal, XIV.

_

I

84

Lightilli-gray, brittle foapy fchiftus.

_

4

_

85

Freeftone ftriated with blue flate.

I

_

86

Fine blue argillaceous fchiftus ftriated with freeftone,

4

_

87

Black flate, with hard, ftiarp, and fine particles,

_

3

_

88

Very light blue flate, remarkably fine,

4

3

_

89

Coal, XV.

5

90

Soft gray argillaceous fchiftus,

_

4

91

Black ftlivery flate.

_

2

92

Coal, XVI.

_

I

93

Strong lightifti-coloured ftiale,

_

3

94

Blue flate ftriated with white freeftone,

_

3

9>"

Ironftone, . . . -

^

96

Gray flate.

_

3

97

Strong white freeftone,

_

5

98

Freeftone ftriated with blue flale,

_

10

99

White freeftone,

_

I

ICO

Freeftone ftriated with blue flate.

_

3

II

lOI

Black flate.

_

102

Freeftone ftriated with blue flate,

_

I

41

'03

Strong white freeftone.

_

_

104

Freeftone mixed with blue flate.

_

2

'05

Strong white freeftone.

_

_

106

Grayifti flate of a fliivery nature,

I

_

107

Freeftone mixed with blue flate.

4

108

Very ftrong white freeftone.

_

5

109

Fine blue flate.

_

2

IIO

WTiite freeftone ftriated with blue flate,

_

_

^1

II I

Fine blue flate.

_

_

112

White freeftone.

_

2

"3

Freeftone ftriated with blue flate.

_

_

10

•14

White freeftone.

_

_

• I?

White freeftone in thin layers,

_

116

Fine blue flate,

2

117

Coal-, XVII. .

■

I

10

5^9

Vol. IX. Part II.

4C

An

57°

GEOLOGY.

Chap. I.

Arrange-
ment, Sec
ct" the Ma

tcrials of
the Earth,

• ParHn-
fon'i Orga-
nic Rcmaini
Ltttcr yii.

An inlertiiliig and valuable memoir on the fubjeft of
coal, written by M. I>ahamel the younger, yvas pre-
Icnted a few years Imce to the Academy of Sciences at
Paris, who adjudged it the prize that had been offered
for the beft eflay on the fubjert. An ample abftraa of
this memoir appeared in t!ie Journal des Mines, N° vii.
In this paper is given a table of the number of veins,
their direction aiid inclination, and the natiure of the
ilrata next the coal, and in the neighbourhood, in all
the principal mines in Europe.

Sect. XXXI. OfTo£lhand?etrifaaions.

Those organic remains of vegetable and animal-mat-
ter which are found below the furface of the earth,
mixed ^vith the Hony matters which are properly the
component parts of the earth, are generally called fof-
fils, or extraneous fo/fils. If they have entirely .loft ail
traces of vegetable or animal matter, and have aflfuraed
a ftony earthy nature, they are called petrifaBiotis.

Some of thefe organic remains, particularly thole of
the vegetable kind, are found penetrated with a bitu-
minous fubflance, fo as to be rendered highly infjam-
mable. Gne of the raoft curious circumllances attend-
ing thefe foffil bodies is, that they are very commonly
natives of a different country from that in which they
are found, o-T arc the remains of fpecies that are wow
no longer known.

Wemay properly divide thefe fubftances into thofe
of the vegetable and thofe of the animal kingdom.

I. Vegetable fojfds. Almoft every part of vegetables,
the trunks, branches, leaves, and fruits, havebeen found
in a fortil ftate, or impreflions of fomc of them are feen in
various mineral fubftances, efpecially in the (laty ftone
which accompanies coal.

Fig. 6. reprefents a curious example of this, that was
found in the mines at Saint Etienne in France.

A, is a fruit refembling that of coffee.

P., is a portion of an unknown vegetable, apparently
of the verticillate tribe.

C, is a fpecies of fern, which is very remarkable, as
it is funiilbed with fruftiiications.

D, is part of a plant with verticillate leaves, proba-
bly a fpecies (A gallium.

E, is fome exotic fruit.

Whole trees are often found below the furface of the
earth, eCpecially in bogs and mofles, fometimes retain-
ing much of their vegetable nature, but more common-
ly either impregnated with bitumen or completely pe-
trified. Subterraneous trees are frequently dug up in
the ifle of Anglefea ; and in the iile of Man there is a
marfli fix miles long and three broad, in which fir trees are
found in great quantities ; and though they are 1 8 or 20
feet btlow the furface, they appear as if Handing firmly
upon their roots. Subterraneous trees, in various ftates,
are frequently found in Ireland, efpecially in li^e neigh-
bourhood of Lough Neagh. Much has be;n w-fitten on
the fubjefl of thefe petrifaftions of Lough Neagh, by
Dr Boate, in his Natural Hillory of Ireland ; by Mr
Molyneux, in tl>e Philofophical Tranfaflions, N" clviii.
and Dr Barton in his Leclures on -Natural Philofophy.
Some of thicfe tree* arc reprefented as of an iramenfe
fize *. One of the moft curious inftances of vegetable
foflils, is tiiat TCkted by Rammazzini, as feen by iwa

at Modena in Italy. At the bottom of wells, that are Arrangc-
dug there below Itony maffes, ^vhich appear to have "'<:n'. *^<"-
bccn the foundation of a former city, at the depth of "teriTK^w'
near 30 feet, they find heaps ofwiieat entire, filbert the Earth.
trec'i, with tlieir nuts, briars, &.C. They find, hkewife, >— _y__j
every fix feet, a layer of earth, alteniating with branch-
es and leaves of trees.

At the depth of 28 feet, or thereabouts, they find a
chalk that cuts very eafily. It is mixed with ftiells of
fcveral forts, and makes a bed of about II feet. After
this they find a bed of marlhy earth, of about two feet,
mixed with rufhes, leaves, and branches. After this
bed comes another chalk bed, of nearly the fame thick-
nefs w ith the fortvier, which ends at the depth of 49
feet.

That is followed by another bed of marftiy earth like
the former ; after which comes a new chalk bed. Thefe
lucceffive beds of marftiy earth and chalk are to be
fouivd in the fame order, in whatever parts of the eartli
they dig. The auger fometimes finds great trees, which
give the workmen much trouble. They fee alio lomc-
times at the bottom of thefe wells, great bones, coal?,
flints, and pieces of iron f . -f Rays

'I'hefe vegetable foflils are generally of a flinty ftruc- Difccurfc,
ture, being fometimes rough and fandy ; at others ioV-^^2-
hard and compacl: as to admit of a fine poliih. Some
beautiful fpecimens of petrified wood, of the appearance
of agate, are to be feen in the cabinet of natural hiftory.
That of Bilfon at Paris contains two examples of this
kind, which are figured at fig. 7 and 8. Fig. 7. is a
tranfverfe leclion of a piece of agati^ed wood, in v. hich
the ligneous texture is moll completely preferved.
Fig. 8. is another more compail, and wliich lias the
additional fingularity of containing fcveral worms.
The white oval fpots are fuppofed to have been eggs,
from which the worms had iffued. ^^^

Among the bituminous vegetable foffils, none have Rovey coat
attraded nioie attention than what is called Loveij coal,
a fuliftancc of an intermediate nature between wood
and pitcoal, which is dug up in a common near Chud-
leigh in Devonfiiire. It is of a laminated texture, of a
chocolate, or fometimes of a fiiining blaok colour, like
deal boards that had been half charred. It burns hea-
vily, and coi. fumes to light gray afties. It is regularly
ftratified among beds of land and clay, and the beds of
coal are fometimes of confiderable tliicknefs. Mr Park- J Organit
infon has collecled much information refpeiling the ^'j'"""''
former and prefent llate of this coal, in his entertaining j^f '^j;
work on foifils %• in

2. Animal fojils. Foffils of animal matters are fliU Arim.al ioU
more common than thofe of vegetables. ShcUs and '"''•
bones are found in almoft every bed of limeftone, and
in almoft every country, at the bottom of the dcepeft
valleys, and at the tops of very conliderable moun-
tains.

In the limeftone firata in Cerbyfliire are found many
of thofe foffiis, \\hich are caVicA Jiar-Jlones and fcrew-
Jlones, v;hich appear to be the remains of marine ani-
nials called eiicrini. Thefe are defcribed by White-
huift, who has given figures of fimilar animals brought
entire from the Weft Indies {. Fig. 9. reprefents one J rtnry cf
of thefe Hones. ibc Earti,

The ifle of Cherea in Dalmatia contains caverns in'hap. xvii,
wiuch arc found prodigious q-unrtities o£ fbflll bones of

Chap. I.

GEOLOGY.

^/

Arrange- oKtn, horfes, and fliecp. Similar examples occur in
"^^ t'' ^^' nianv places •, but human bones are, we believe, never
Inals of' f'^U"''^ i" ^ fo''"'! ft"te-

the Earth. Foilil (hells are found on the Alps, on the top of
'— \— — Mount Cenis, on the Apennines, on the mountains of
Genoa, and in moft of the quarries of llone and marble
in Italy j in moit parts of Germany and Hungary, and
indeed generally in all the elevated places in Europe.
We alfo find them in the ftoncs whereof the aioii an-
cient edifices of the Romnns were conftrucled.

In Switzerland, Aua, and Africa, ttavellers have
obierved petrified filh, irnnany places ; for inilance, on
the mountains of Caftravan, there is a bed of white la-
minated ftone, and each lamina contains a great num-
ber and diverfity of fillies ; they are, for the moft part,
very llat, and extremely compreffed, in the manner of
foffil fern ; yet they are fo well preferved, that the mi-
nuted marks of their fins and fcales are ditlinguilhable,
and eve\y other part, whereby one fpecies of filh is
known from another.

There are likewife many ec/iera'ler and petrified filli
between Iver and Cairo, and on all the hills and heights
of Barbary, moft of which exaiStly correfpond with the
like fpecies taken in the Red fea.

The long chain of mountains which extend from eaft
to weft, from the lower part of Portugal to the moft
eaftern parts of China, thofe which ftretch collaterally
to the north and fouth of them, together with the moun-
tains of Africa and Araenca, which are now Kno'.vn to
i!S, all contain /frfl^fl of earth and ftone, full of lliells.

The iflands of Europe, Ada, and America, wherein
Europeans have had occafion to dig, whether in moun-
tains or plains,, all furnifti us with '.hells, and convince
us that they have this particular in common with their
adjacent continents.

'I'he glojpjptr-a, or the teeth of ft^rks and other fidies,

' e jaws, polidied and worn fraooth at the

extremities, confequently muft have been made ufe of

are found in the jaws, polidied

during the animal's life ; and in diells the very pearls
are found, which the living animals of the fame kind
produce.

It is well known that the purpura and pholades ha^e
a long-pointed probofcis, which ferves them as a kind of
gimb'et or drill, to pierce the diells of living fidi, on
whofe tledi they feed. Now, diells thus pierced are
found in the earth, which is another inconteftable proof
that they heretofore inclofed living fidi, and that ihefe
fidi inhabited places where the purpura and pholades
jireyed on them.

In Holland fea diells are found loo feet below the
luriace ; at Marly-la- Ville, fix leagues from Paris, at
75 ; and in the Alps and Pyrenean mountains they are
found under beds of ftone of lOO, nay even looo
feet.

Shells are likev.ife found in the mountains of Spain,
France, and England, in all the marble quarries of
Flanders, in the mountains of Guelders, in all the hills
round Paris, in thofe of Burgundy and Cliampagne ;
and, in diort, in all places where the bafis of the foil is
neither freeftone nor fandftone.

By diells we would be underdood to mean, not only
thofe which are merely tcftaceous, but the relics of the
cruftaceous fidies alfo ; and even all other marine pro-
duiElions; and ive can venture to affert, that,' in the ge-

nerality of marbles, there Is 'io great a quantity of ma- Arran^e-
rine productions, that they appear to fuqiafs in bulk the ^°"'j ^^*
matter whereby they are united. terialsof

Among the many inftances of the multiplicity of the £artl).
oyUcrs, there are few more extraordinary than that ira- ' v '
mtnfe bed which M. de Reaumur gives an account of,
which contains 130,630,000 cubic fathoms. This vaft
niafs of marine bodies is itf Touraine in France, at up-
wards of 36 leagijcs from the fea. Some of thefe fliells
are found fo entire, that their different fpecies arc very
diftinguiihable.

Some of the fame fpecies are found recent on the
coaft of Poit^ou, and others are known to be natives of
more diftant parts -of^the world. Among them are
likewife blended fome fragments of the more ftrong
parts of fea plants, fuch as viadripores, fungi marini,
&c. The canton of Touraine contains full nine fquare
leagues in furface, and furnilhes thefe fragments of
ihells wherever you dig.

Near Reading in Berkdiire, a continued body of
. oyfter diells has been found : they lie in a ftratura of
greenifti fand, about two feet in thicknefs, and extend
over fi\e or fix acres of ground ; they are covered by
ftrata of fiind and clay, upwards of 14 feet deep. Se-
veral whole oyfters are found with both their valves or
diells lying together, as oyfters before they are opened;
the diells are very brittle ;. and in digging them up,
one of the valves will frequently drop from its fisllow.
Several are dug out entire ; nay, fome double oyfters
with tlieir valves iniited.

In a quarry at the ead end'of Broughton in Lincoln-
fliire, innumerable fragments of the (hells of diell fi(h,
of various forts, are found under a ftratum of ftone im-
bedded in clay, with pieces of coral, and fomctimcs
whole (hell fifti, vvith their natural IhiHs and colours :
fome are moft mii'erably cracked, bruifed, and broken ;
others totally fqueezed fiat by the incumbent weight of
earth.

Sharks teeth are dug up in the Jde of Sheppey, re-
taining their natural colour, not petrified.

The teeth of diarks have likeuife been taken out of
a rock in Hindcrftielf park, near Malton in York-
ftiire.

In the ide of Caldey, and elfewhcre about Tenby. in
Pembrokelhire, marine fodils have been found in folid
marble, on the face of the broken fea cliffs, 200 fa-
thoms below the upper furface of the rocks. Nor were '
they only olifervcd upon the face of thefe rocks, but
even more or lefs throughout the whole mafs or extent
of them. This is manifeft from divers rocks heivn
down by workmen for making of lime, and other pieces
cafually fallen from the cud's.

Thoufands of foflil teeth, exaftly anfwering to thofe
of divers forts of fea filh, have been found in quarries
and gravel pits about Oxford.

At Tame in Oxfordftiire, the belemniles, or thunder-
holt Jlones, are found in a (Iratum of blue clay, which
ftill retain their native dielly fubftance.

The belemniles found in gravel pits, have fuffered
much, by their being rubbed againll each other in the
(luftuatiun of waters.

The nautili and behmnites are frequently found at
Corfing near Oxford *. • PbU.

One of the moft extraordinary colle&ions of (hells is TVa./ vol.
4 C 2 that ''"■ P- 5-

572 G E

Arrange- tliat lately difccvered by Ramond on the fumniit of
"•="•> ^^- Mont Perdu, the higlieft of the Pyrenees, where there
"terials of' ^'*^ found vail quantities of lea (hells and other marine
the Earth, fpoils, and even fkeletons of animals, in a folTil Hate.
I— V— — ' Whole Ikeletons of very large animals have been dif-
covciej in a foflil ftate. Thoi'e of elephants have been
found buried in the plains of Siberia ; and bones of the
rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, and the tapir, have been
found in other places. A very large Ikeleton, nearly
complete, of an immenfe animal, fimilar to the rhino-
ceros, is preferved in the cabinet of Madrid. It was
dug up at Paraguay in South America, at the depth of
100 feet, in a fandy bed, on the banks of the river
de la Plata. A defcription and engraving of it are gi-
ven by Cuvier, in the Annals of the National Mufeum,
N" 29. It appears to be at leaft j 2 feet long, and the
bones are of an immenfe lizc.

A prodigious quantity of foiTils, both of marine ani-
mals, and of quadrupeds, are found in the plafter hills
of Montmartre near Paris. An account of thefe has
lately appeared in feveral numbers of the Annals of the
National Mufeum, by M. Lamarck, accompanied with
the anatomical illuftrations of Cuvier. Thefe papers
are eMtremely curious, and contain engravings of mort
of the foffils dcfcribed, fome of which are the remains
of unknown animals. Our limits do not permit us to
prefent our readers with even an abftrad of thefe
accounts. We iliall therefore feleft only one ex-
ample.

Fig. 10. reprefents a block of gypfum, on the fur-
face of which is the Ikeleton of an animal refembling a
moufe, or, according to Cuvier, one of the opolTum

O L O G Y.

Chap. II.

tribe. The Ikeleton is nearly entire, and the head,
the neck, the fpine, the pelvis, one of the fore and pilfbu-
hind legs, and part of the tail, are very dllHna. ^m»",1^^\1
There were two pieces of gyplum found together, of the
which appear to have divided the ikeleton between Earth,
them. The animal feems to have been crulhed or im- "~~~v— — ^
bedded in his natural fituation *. * ■^""- o'»

We have now enumerated the principal materials ■"'^''-^ ^''*'
that compofe the external cruft of our earth, and have "'"'
mentioned fome of the moft material circumllances re-
fpefting each. Tlie metallic ores ilill remain to be
confidered, and they (liall be noticed in defcribing me-
tallic veins.

Ch.VP. II. General Dijirlbution of the Materials of
the Earth.

THE\uppermoil ftratum of the earth, in low fitua-
tions, is, for the mofl part, corapofed of fand or clay,
or a mixture of tlicic, forming beds that are either com-
poftd of the fame mixture, or of alternate layers of the
two fubllances. Thefe beds vary in thicknefs, in dif-
ferent places •, but, in the fame place, they ulually pre-
ferve nearly the fame thicknefs for a confiderable ex-
tent. Sometimes thefe beds of clay, fand, and earth,
with (hells, extend to the depth of fome hundred feet.
See the annexed table, I.(e).

This table exhibits a view of the arrangement of
ftrata in feveral countries of Europe ; and, with the
tables of coal flrata, in the laft chapter, will give the
reader more information on this fubjcft than an elabo-
rate detailed account.

(e) The following works are referred to in the table of ftrata.

* Varenii Geogr. Gener. lib. i. prop. vii.

f Buffon, Nat. Hift. vol. i. art. vii.

X Bergman, Defcript. Phyf. de Terre, feci. viii.

IJ Kirwan, Geolog. EITays, p. 259.

^ Guettard, Atlas Mineral, de la France,

If Whitehurft's Theory of the Earth, feft. xvi. "*■

♦•Ib.fea. xix.

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573

G E O J

III our fu'ufequcnt view of the di'Jribution of the
fiony matters that compofe the earth, we fliall coiifider,

1. The nature, difpofition, and firuclure, of moun-
tains.

2. The nature, direflion, &c. of dykes.

3. The nature, diredion, &c. of metallic veins.

SZCT I. Of Mountains.

1 There are no objefts on the furface of the earth
v.hich are fo well calculated to excite the attention of
mankind in general, and that of geologills in particular,
as thofe Hupendous elevated niaffes ivhich we call
mountains. The term mountain has in general been
Applied to thofe parts of the earth which are elevated
to a very confiderable height above the level furface ;
and a mountain is in common language diftinguiflied
from a hill only by its fuperior elevation. But as it is
found neceflary in a fcientific point of view to render
tliis diftinftion more accurate and precife, various geo-
logi'.ls have given more correct definitions. By Pini and
IMitterpachter every elevation whofe declivity makes
with the horizon an angle of at leaft 13°, and whofe
perpendicular height is not lefs than one-fifth of the
declivity is called a mountain. Werner dillinguiilies
mountains according to their height, into higli, iniddle-
^fized, and Au'. A iiigh mountain according to him is
that whofe perpendicular height exceeds 6000 feet ;
ivhen the height is not above 6300 nor below 3000 he
calls it middle-fi-zed ; and when its height is below 3000
feet, he calls it lozv.

Mountains are either fingle or in groups ; and thefe
groups either confift of feveral mountains Handing near
each other fo as to occupy nearly the centre of a certain
fpace of ground, or they follow each other fo as to
form a ridge or chain running acrofs a country, or
along its (liorcs. Sometimes thefe chains run in a lon-
gitudinal direction, as is the cafe with IMount Caucafus
pnd the Uralian mountains in Afia, the Cordilleras in
South America, &c. but often they ruij in a curvilineal
direction like a crefcent, as the Carpathian mountains,
which feparate Hungary from the rell of the Auftrian ter-
ritories. It has been fuppofed by fome theoretic writers,
that chains of mountains always run in nearly the fame
direclion, which has been conceived to be from ead to
ived j but this is by no means exaft, as later obfervations
have fliewn that they aflfume different direftions accord-
ing to the form of the country where they are fituated.
Some %vriters have laid it down as a general rule, that
chains of mountains always extend in a diredion nenrly
})arallel to the length of the country ; but to this there
are alfo many exceptions. Thus the Uralian moun-
tains, the Carpathians, the Pyrenees, the Grampians in
Scotland, and many others, run rather acrofs the coun-
try. It often happens that mountains occupy nearly
the central parts of a country j and the land generally
(lopes with a gentle declivity towards one fide of the
chain, while towards the other it is cohfiderably deep-
er. This circumrtance of one fide of a chain of moun-
tains being deeper than the other, has been lately ex-
tended to mountains and hills in general ; and Dr
Kirwan has written an excellent paper on the fubjedl,
from which we (hall here extract the raoft important
o^fer^r,t;o>,^.

1. O G Y. Chap. n.

'• That one part of almo.^ every high mountain or General
hill is deeper than another, could not have efcaped P"lnbu-
the notice of any perfon who had travcrfed fuch moun- 'j^j , 'if
tains ; but that nature in the formation of fuch decli- of t|,e
vides had any regard to different afpefts or points of Earth.
the compafs, feeir.s to have been fird remarked by tl:e "— v— ^
celebrated SwediA geologiil Mr Tilas, in the 22d vol.„.^^^'4^
of the Memoirs of Stockholm for 1760. Neither Va-ui,f|_,,y_,,
renius, Lulolph, nor Buffon in his natural hifiory pub- ;ions on the
liihed in 174S, have noticed this remarkable circum-J'cltvities
fiance. ofni^oun.

" The obfervation of Tilas, however, relates only to \^
the extreme ends, and not to the flanks of mountains ; The fteep
with refpecl to the former, he remarked that xhe.Jlec/i- '!<le faces
eji declivity always faces that part of the country where '''^ '"^
the land lies lowed; and the gentled, that part of the^""""^'
country where the land lies highed : and that in the
fouthern and eadem parts of Sweden they confequent-
ly face the ead and fouth-eaft ; and in the northern the
wed. 'J"he effential part of this obfervation extends
therefore only to the general elevation or depreffion of
the country, and not to the bearings of their declivi-

"'''• . . . ... "«

" The difcovery that the different declivities of the Weftern
flanks of mountains bear an invariable relation to their*i<'<: '''«
different afpefts, feems to have been fird publidied 'oyteepeft.
I\Ir Bergman in his Phyfical Defcription of the Earth,
of which the fecond edition appeared in 1 773. He
there remarked, that in mountains that extend from
north to fouth, the wellern flank is \.\\cjleepej}, and the
eadem the gentle/1. And that in mountains which rUn
ead and well the fouthern declivity is the deeped, and
the northern the gentled. Vol. II. § 187.

" Tiiis affertion he grourids on the obferVations re-
lated in his ift vol. § 32, namely, that in Scandina-
via, the Suevoberg mountains that run north and fouth,
feparating Sweden from Norvvay, the we'^em or Nor-
wegian fides are the ileeped, and the eadem or Svvedilh,
the mod moderate ; the verticality or fteepnefs of the
former being to that of the latter as 40' or i^o to 4 or 2.
" That the Alps are deeper on their weftern and
fouthern fides than on the eadem and northern.

" That in America the Cordilleras are deeper on
the wedern fide, which faces the Pr.cific ocean, than on
the eadem. But he does not notice a few exceptions
to this rule in particular cafes which ^vill hereafter be
mentioned. ,,-

" Buffon, in the fird volume of his Epochs of Na-Jlemarksof
ture, publidied in 1778, p. 1S5. is the next who notices ^uff^n.
the general prevalence of this phenomenon, as far as
relates to the eadern and wedern fides of the mountains
that extend from north to fouth j Ijut he is filent with
refj»?cl to the north and fouth fides of the mountains
that run from ead to wed ; nay, he does not ieem to
have had a jull comprehenfion of this phenomenon ; for
he confiders it conjointly with the genera! dip of the re-
gions in which thefe mountains exid. Thus he tells
us, vol. i. p. 185, that in all contiheiits the general de-
clivity, taking it from the fummit of tnountains, is al-
ivays more rapid on the wedern than on the eadem
fide ; thus the fummit of the chain of the Cordilleras
is much nearer to the weftern diore than to the eadern ;
the chain which divides the \-.!)ole leiigth of y\frica,
from tl;c Cape of Good Hope to the ihountaiiis of the

Moon,
I

II.

GEOLOGY.

Gent-'al Llcon, is nearer, he f.iys, to the weftern thaa to the
]).ftril)u- eai'ern feas; of this, however, he mufl have been igno-
MateriaU ""^ ^^ ^''^"^ ^"^''^ of country is llill uiikiiovvii.
of the " The mountains which run from Cape Comorin

JEatLh. through the peninlula of India are, he fays, much nearer
'—V—— to the fca on the eafi: than on the weil j he probably
meant the contrary, as the fact is evidently fo, and fo
l-.e Rates it in vol. ii. p. 195 ; the fame he tells us may
be obferved in iflauds and peninfuks, and in moun-
tains.

" This remarkable circumflance of movmtaias was
riotwithilanding fo little noticed, that in 1792 the
author of an excellent accovuit of the territory of Carlf-
bad in Bohemia, tells us he had made an obfervatiou,
uhich he had never met with in any phyfical defcrip-
tion of the earth, namely, that the fouthern declivity of
all mountains was much lleeper than the northern,
which he proves by inllancing the Erzgebirge of Sax-
ony, the Pyrenees, the moiintams of Switzerland, Savoy,
Carfntlii-n, Tyrole, Moravia, the Carpathian and Mount
Haemus in Turkey. 2. Bergm. Jour. 1792. p. 385,
,j5 in the note.
Of Her. " Herman in his geology, publilhed in 1787, p. 90.

man. has at lealt partial'y mentioned this circumilance ; for

he fays that the eaftern declivities of all mountains are
much gentler and more thickly covered ivith fecondary
flrata, and to a greater height than the weilern flanks,
ivhicli he inllances in the S'.vediih and Norwegian
mountains, the x\lps, the Caucafian, the Appenine,
and Ouralian mountains •, but the declivities bearing a
fouthern or northern afpcfl he does not mention.
Of Uelii- " Lametherle, in vol. iv. of his theory of the earth,

iDttherie. of which the fecond edition appeared in 1797, a work
which abounds in excellent obfervations, p. 381, pro-
duces numerous inilances of the inequality of the eallern
and v.-ellern declivities, but fcarce any of the nort'iern
and fouthern, whofe difference he doc? not feem to have
noticed ; but he makes a remark which I liave not feen
elfewhere, that the coafts of different countries prefent
fimilar declivities.

" With regard to eaftern and weftem afpeds, he
thinks that a diflferent law has obtained in Africa from
that which has been obferved in other countries; for
in that vaft peninfula he imagines the eallern declivities
of mountains are the fleepeft, and the weilern the
gentled. Of this, however, he adduces no other proof,
but tiiat the grea.ell rivers are found on the weilern
fide : this proof feems infiifhcient, as, if mountains be
fituated far in land, great rivers may flow indifcriminate-
, ly from any fide of them, and fometimes few rivers flow
even from the fide whofe dcfcent is moll moderate ; for
i;illance, from the eallern fide of th.e mountains of Sy-
ria. The Elbe and the Oder, two of the greateft rivers
in Germany, take their courfe from the v.ellcrn fides,
the firft of the Bohem.ian and the other of th? Moravian
mountains, which yet are the fieef.eft. Many origi-
nate from lakes, . as the Shannon with us ; many take
fuch a windiijg courfe, that from a bare knowledge of
the place of itheir difembogueraent it is impoflible to
judge from what fide of a mountain they ilTue, if from
any ; their courfe at mod difcovcrs the depreflion of the
general level ofthc country.

" In 1798, the celebrated traveller and circumna-
vigator, Johu Reinhold Fofter, publiflied a geological

575

tra(5l which merits fo much more attention, as all the Genera
fails were either obferved by himfelf, or related to him pilrib"-
by the immediate obfervers. In this he Hates as a faft ''°" °' .''!|
univcrhiUy obferved, that the fouth and foutli-eall fides ' 0/ the '"
of almoil every mountain are fleep, but that the north Earth,
and north-well fides are gently covered and connefted '■~~v~"~
with fecondary llrata, in which organic remains abound, '*°'
which he illu.iratcs by various uil'.ances, fome of "hich f^"",^.^^"^
have been already, and others will prefcntly be men- iXs of"
tioned. mounlains

At prefent this faifl attrafls the greateft attention, 1<=«l'e'*-
being obvicudy conncfled with the original ftrufture
of the globe, and clearly proving that mountains are
not merely fortuitous eruptions unconnefled with tranf-
aclions on the furface of the earth, as has of late been
confidently advanced. *

"^ I fiiall now Hate the principal obfervations relative Account o
to this object, that have been made in different parts of mountain-,
the world.

Li Europe. *

1. The mountains that feparate Sweden from Nor- In Europe,
^vay extend from north to fouth, their ivellern fides are

fieep, and the eallern ^f «//<?. I. Berg. Erde Befchrcib.
P- IJ7-

2. The Carpathian mountains run from eaft to weft •,
their fouthern fides towards Hungary are fteep, their
northern touards Poland moderate. Ffi/ler, § 46.

3. Dr Walker, profcflbr of natural hillory at Edin-
burgh, obferved that the coafts and hills of Scotland are
fteeper and higher on the weftem fide than on the
eaftern. Jamelbn's IVIincralogy of Scotland, p. ^.
However, Jamefon obferved, that the fouth fide of the
ille of Arran is the loweft, and the north fide the high-
ell, p. 51.

4. The mountains of Wales are gentle on the eaftern
and fteep on the wcftern fides.

5. The mountains of Parthery, in the county of
Mayo, are fteep on the weftern fide.

6. The mountairts which feparate Saxony from Bo-
hemia, defcend gently on the Saxon or northern fide,
but are fteep on the Bohemian or fouthern fide. C/iar-
pcme, p. 75. The fouthetn declivity is to the north-
em as fix to two. 2. Bergm. Journ. 1792, p. 384.
and 385.

7. The mountains which feparate Silefia from Bohe-
mia run nearly from eaft to weft, yet are fteeper on
tlie northern or Silcfian fide than on the oppofite Bohe-
mian. ^JJimanni Si/eft a, t,t,^. Such branches as run
from north-eaft to fouth-welt, have their weftem cover-
ed with primordial ftrata, and confequently Icfs lleep.
4. New Roz. p. 157.

8. The Mciftencr in Heflla is fteeper on the north
and eaft fides, which face the Warra, than on the fouth
and iveftern. I. Bergm. jfourti. 1789, p. 272.

9. The mountains of the Hartz and Habilchtfwald
are fteep on the fouth, and gentle on the northern fides.
Fq/^er, j 46.

10. The Pyrenees, .which run from eaft to weft, arc
fteeper on the fouthern or Spanish fide. Carbonieres,
-xiii. ■ "

1 1 . The mountains of Crim Tartaty are gentle on
th.e northern, and fteep on the fouthern fides. Fqfler,

576

■Material
of the

G E O L O G \'

In Aft:

\ 1 2. The Ourals, which flretch from north to fouth,
are far ftceper on the ^veftern than on tlie fouthern
fides. Herman Ceologie, p. 90.; and; 2. Ural. Bcf-
chreib, p. 389.

13. The mountain of Armenia, to the weft of tlie
Oiuals, is fteep on its eaft and north fides ; but gentle
on the fouthern and weftern. i. Pallas Voy. p. 277.

14. The Altaifchan mountains are fteep on their
fouthern and weftcm fides, but gentle on the northern
and CTflern. Fooler, ibid, and Herman. 2. Ural Bef-
rlireib, p. 390. in the note.

r 9. So alfo are the mountains of Caucafus. 3. Schrift.
Berl. Gelafch. 47 l .

if. The mountains of Kamtfch itka are fteep on the
eaftcrn fides. Pallas., I. Act. Petropol. 1777. p. 43.

1 7. The Ghauts in the Indian peninfula are fteep on
the weftem fide.

1 8. The mountains of Syria, which run from north
to fouth, Ikirting the Mediterranean, are faid to be
fteeper on the weftern fide, facing the Mediterranean.
4. La Metherie, p. 380.

/// America.
" The Cordilleras run from north to fouth

Chap. II.

General

U.ltribii.

^.^ tion of the

weftern flanks towards the Pacific are fteep, their eaft- of the^ '
ern defcend gradually. Eirth.

" In Guiana there is a chain of mountains that run *— v— ^
from e.-.ft to weft ; their fouthern flanks are fteep, theirj^^ '"*
northern gentle. Vci/tiges de ConJamine, p. 140."*. ^ica '"

The theory according to which Dr Kirwan attempts* NUholf.
to explain the appearances of mountains which are enu- J'l'rn. bvo.
merated above, will be given in the next chapter. ^°'- ''^•

We have already, under the article Barometer,^' ^^ .
N° 44. (hewn the method of computing the height of Height of
mountains by means of that inftrument. The following mountains,
table ftiews the height of the principal mountains in
the globe, chiefly according to this computation.

In this table the fecond column fliews the height as
eftimated by the barometer, and the third the fame by
geometrical calculation. Where the numbers are pla-
ced in the middle of thefe two fpaces, it denotes an un-
certainty by what method the computation has been
made.

Table of the Heights of Mountains, according to the latefl; computations.

Mountains.

HeigLt by

Barom.

■ Height l.y
jGeometiy.

r.Iountains.

Height by
Barom.

Height hy
Geometry.

In Britain.

Feet.

Feet.

Pyrenees.

Feet.

Feet.

Ben Nevis,

43 .P

Mont Perdu,

11,000

Whirn,

4050

Canigou,

9,000

Ben Lasers,

40'5

Ingleborough,

3987

Alps.

Do.

2377 2380

Mont Blanc,

15,662

Ben More,

39°3

Schrekhom,

13,000-1-

Pennvgent,

393° 1

Finfteraar,

12,000 4-

Crofsfell,

3839

Mount 7"itlis,

10,818

Skiddaw,

3380 1 3530

Mont Rofa, ,

15,000

Snowden,

3456 1

Mont Cenis,

9,760

Mount Battock,

3465

Pendlehill,

34»» 1

In tJie Tyrole.

Schehallion,

35^4

Glochner,

11,500 Fr.

Helvellyn,

3324 1

Ortele,

13,000 Fr.

Hartfell,
Ben Wevis,

3300 1
3700

Plaley Kogel,

9,748 Fr.

'Ben Lomond,

3240 1

Germany.

1

Saddleback,

3048 1

Stuben,

4692

Ben Ledy,

3099

Brenner,

5109

Lomnitz peak, T

8640

In Ireland.

Kefmark peak, > Carpath.

8508

Slieve Donard,

3'5o

Krivan, J

8343

Croagh Patrick,

■>666

. Nephin,

2640

Sicily.

Knock Meledown,

2700

jCtna,

10,032

Mangerton,

2500

Cumeragh,

2160

In Denmark, Norway, and
Sweden.

In France.

Swukku,

9C00
6162

Puy de Sanfi,

6300

' Arelkutan,

Plomb de Cantal,

62=0

Kinneculla,

931

Puy de Dome,

5000

Roetack,

6coo

Table

Chap. II.

Gener;il
DUUibii-
tjonof (lie
Materials

GEOLOGY.

Taele of the Heights of rilountains, Continued.

577

Earth.

.....

Height by

Barom.

Height by
Gcome-ry

Mountains.

HHoht by
Karoin.

Height by
Geometry.

In Ruf.,.
P.iud3,

Feet.

Fe-t.

South America.

Fee,.

Feft.

4512

Chimborazo,

20,28d

Do.

20,910

Canary Ijhruh.

Cotopaxi,

l8,60D

Peak of Teneriffe,

11,424

Tunguragas,

16,170

In Korlh America.

In Jamaica.

S'rony Mountains,

3 -.00

Blue Mountains,

743'

White Mountains,

4oro

Blue Mountains,

2:00

"7
Compul
tion of

_ ',' ^f. The courfe of mountains is that dircclion of their

mountains. letKjth in which they ciefcend and giow lower; cr :f a
river runs parallel to them, they are faid to have their
couife in the direction of the ftream of the river. The
courfe of mountains is feldom uniform. It has been
laid down as a general maxim by Buffon, that when
there are two parallel chains of mountains, the falient
angle of one of the chains always correfponds v.ith the
internal angle of the other ; but later geologills have
afcertained that this circumllance does not generally
hold, except when a river runs between the two
chains.

It generally happens, that one particular mountain,
or chain of mountains, is compofed of thofe ftony ma-
terials which we have denominated primitive ; while
"the reft is made up of the fecondary compounds. The
primitive fubftances occupy the bale and central parts
of the mountain, and often extend to its very fummit :
the fecondary cover thefe, and are generally found on
tl'.e flanks or fides of the mountain, though fometimes
they cover the top of the mountain. In a chain of
mountains there are commonly three, and often five pa-
rallel ridges, of w hich the central ridge is compofed of
primitive compounds, and thofe on each fide of it,
chielly or entirely of fecondary compounds. Hence
mountains are ufuaily di%'ided into primary or primeval,
and fecondary or epizootic; the latter terra being given
to the fecondary mountains from their being" replete
with (hells and other remains of animal beings. The
fecondary mountains are alfo fometimes divided into
original and derivative, for a reafon that \n\\ appear
hereatter.

The primary mountains, beCdes their being in the
centre, and deilitute, or nearly (o, of organic remains,
may generally be diiUnguilhed by the ruggednefs and
■ angular appearances arifing from the different nature
and hardnefs of the fubftances of which thry are com-
pofed ; the quartz r.nd harder granite refilling the at-
tacks of the air and weather, while the other fubllances
being fofter, gradually decay, and leave the harder in
the form of fpires and angles. WTicie, however, the
primitive compounds havo been completely covered
with fecondary ftrata, thefe angular appearances feldom
take place ; and the mountain is only to be diftinguiih-
ed by its pofition and the flrufture of its internal parts.
The fecondary moimtains generally have their tops
Vci. IX. Part II.

rounded, and much fmoother than thofe of the primary
mountains.

In fome cafes a number of mountains appear united
at their tops into an extenfive plain or platform, from
which they feem to diverge and branch in every direc-
tion. The molf remarkable inltance of this kind oc-
curs in Tibet. (See Geography, N* 41.)

It is dithcult to acquire a knowledge of the interior
ftrudlure of mountains. The greater part of them is
hid from our view, and nature 'only expofes them in
a few pohits by meatis of fiffures, caverns, and inter-
mediate valleys.

" The materials of which mountains confifl are dif-
pofed either in irregular heaps, or piles varioully in-
terfecled b^' rifts, or in beds or ftrata feparated from
each other by rifts, often horizontal, or varying from
that direftion by an angle of from 5 to 40 degrees, and
fometimes much more confiderably, approaching even
to a vertical pofition. The ftrata of mountains are moil
frequently in the direction of their declivity, yet fome-
times their courfe is direftly oppofite, or coiuitercur-
rent : the beft manner of determining the angles of their
courfe is by difcovering that of their rifts. It chiefly
depends on the unevennefs of the fundamental ground
that fupports them. According to I SauiT. i;o2. moft
of the elevated granitic mountains in Swifferland are
formed of immenfe vertical pyramidal laminae, parallel
to each other, that is, piles fomeWhat inclining from the
unequal diftributionof their weight, a ditpofition th.-itmay
well be expelled from collateral cryftallizations ; but
this difpofition is not univerfal, for they have been found
in Saxony, and in the Pyrenees, hgrizontally ftratified j
much lefs can it be faid, that this vertical pofition is
. general, for the ftrata of gneifs are generally horizon-
tal, and commonly very regular, difcovering no traces
of a violent ftiock. Mount Rofa, next to Mount Blanc,
the higheft in Europe, confills alfo of gntlfs, which
M. SauflTure found horizontally ftratified.

" Shangin, who lately (1786) travelled over the
Altaifchan mountains, being confulted by Pallas, whe-
ther he found any vertical layers or ftrata therein, an-
fwcred, he had not ; but that he found them perfeftly
horizontal on the banks of the river Tfchary.

" Mountains of primitive limeftone are frequently in

irregular piles, but often alfo horizontally ftratified.

Siliceous ichiflus is alfo often horizontally ftratified.

4 D Many

Equator:
uvx. the

G E O L

Many argillitcs, parliculaily roof Hates, are generally
faid to liave nearly a vertical pofition : but Voight
has (heuTi that it is only their lanielLe that are fo fitu-
ated J their horizontal fearas, and their walls, dilcovcr-
ing their true pofition ; their vcrticaliiy arifing only
from the drain of the water, and, confequently, their
rontra6tion in that direilion ; hence thole that are moll
filicited, as they contracl lefs, difcover lei's verticali-
ty. Sometimes horizontal flrata overlap on both fides.
.Sometimes they are flanked on both fides with vertical
Ilrata.

" Much confi:Co7i prevails in the ftrufture of the Py-
renees, and of the Grifon mountains, and thofe on the
borders of the Baikal, and other great lakes.

" The perturbed flate of the flrata often proceeds
from the decompolition of internal beds of pyrites, to
which water has had accefs ; this appears to be the
caufe of the alterations oblerved in the mountain of Ra-
benberg, on the frontiers of Saxony. In this moun-
tain a double direftion of the ftrata of gceifs is obfer-
ved ; between both the flrata are vertical, and a large
intermediate fpace is filled with iron ore : but this
mountain contains beds of pyrites and vaft fwallows ;
molt .probably then the pyrites fivoll, uplifted the
whole, and the diifolved iron flowed into the va-
cuity, from which the water afterwards drained off
im the fides.

" In fecondary moimtains, particularly the calcareous,
the greatell diforder often prevails, though in general
their flratification is horizontal.

" The calcarecous mountains of Savoy are often arch-
ed like a lambda, probably from the finking of the
intermediate ftrata, the intermediate remaining horizon,
'■al. Sometimes they affume the form cf the letters
Z. S. C. or of a disjointed DC, the convexities facing
each other. So alfo in the Pyrenees, they fometimes
overlap, from an unequal diftribution in their original
formation, and bend various ways. They aflume a
fpiral form, or that of a horfe-lhoe placed horizon-
tiiliy.

" According to Lehman, mod fecondary ftrata pre-
fent hollows or moulds, (as they are called,) from in-
ternal depreffion. Rut fometimes alfo elevations, from
an original elevation in llie fundamental ftone.

" In Scotland, all the fecondary flrata in the vicinity
of primeval mountains, are nearly vertical ; but at a
^ greater diflance they approach more to an horizontal
'direflion *."

We (hall now trace the courfe of the principal moun-
tainovis chains on the globe, and in accompanying us,
the reader may have before him a good map of the
world.

M. Buache places the moft elevated points of the
great chains of mountains under the equatorial line :
but, according to Pallas, the fuUcfl and raofl continuous
lands, and perhaps likewife the mofl elevated, are to be
found at a diftance from the equator, and towards the
temperate zones. If, in faft, we furvey the globe's
furface, we fliall not be able to perceive that chain of
mountains, which mnning from eaft to weft, and divid-
ing the earth into two portions, ought again to meet.
On the contrary, extenfive plains ieem to acconrjany
the line through almoft its whole extent. In Africa,
the dcferts of Nigritia and thofe of Upper Ethiopia, are
on the one fide of the line ; aiid on the other ate the

Chap. II.

Moncmugi, and Zan- Ceneial
From the eaftern ihores of Africa to the Sunda I>iit"hu-

O. G Y.

fandy plains of Nicoco, CaiTr;

gueba

iflands, is a fpace of i joo leagues of fea with almoft 'I°" °'."" .

no iflands, except the Laccadive and Maldive iflands ; (,fthe '

moft part of which have little elevation, and which run Earth.

from north to fouth. From the Molucca iflands and ' ^~—'

New Guinea, to the weftern borders of America, the
fea occupies a fpace of 30CO leagues. Though Chim-
boraco and Pichincha in America, the two higheft
mountains which have been meafured, are near and
even under the line, yet from this no concluflon can
be drawn ; becaufe on one fxde. thefe mountains run in
a direftion not parallel to the equator ; the Andes or
Cordilleras attain a greater elevation as they remove
from the equator towards the poles ; and a vaft plain
is found exaclly under the line, between the Oroonoko
and the river of the Amazons. Befides, the latter ri-
ver, which takes its rife in the province of Lima aboiit
the 11th degree of fouth latitude, after crofting the
whole of South America from weft to eaft, falls into
the ocean exaftly under the equator. This fliows that
there i» a defcent for the fpace of 12 degrees or 300
leagues. From the mouth of the river of the Ama-
zons, to the weftern ihores of Africa, the fea forms
another plain of more than 50 degrees.

From the hw certain facts and accurate obfervations 130
which we have received from wcjl informed travellers,
we might almoft affirm that the moft elevated land on
our globe is fituated without the tropics in the northern
and Ibuthern hemifpheres. By examining the courfe
of the great rivers, we in fact find that they are in ge-
neral diicharged into three great refervoirs, the one
luider the line, and the other two towards the poles.
This, however, we do not mean to lay dov\Ti as univer-
fally true ; for it is allowed, that, belides the two ele-
vated belt}^, the whole furface of the earth is covered
v.ith inniimerable mountains, either detached from one
another or in a continued chain. In America, the O-
roonoko and the river of the Amazons lun towards the
line, while the river St Lawrence runs towards the 50th
degree of north latitude, and the river dela Plata towards
the 40lh degree of fouth latitude. We are ftill too lit-
tle acquainted with Africa, which is almoft all contain-
ed within the tropics, to form any accurate conclufions
concerning this fubjeft. Europe and Afia, which form
only one great mals, appear to be divided by a more
elevated belt, v.hich extends from the moft weflerly
ftiores of France to the moft eafterly of China, and to
the ifland of Sagaleen or Anga-hata, following pretty
nearly the 50th degree of north latitude. In the new
continent, therefore, we may confider that chain where
the Mifliifippi, the river St Lawrence, the Ohio, and
and the river de los Eflrechos, take their rife, as the
moft elevated fituation in North America ; whence the
MiflTiflippi flows towards the equator, the river St Law-
rence towards the nonh-eaft, and the reft towards the
north-wefl. In the old continent, the belt formerly
mentioned, and to which we may affign about i o de-
grees of breadth, may be reckoned from the 45th to
tlie 5 jth degree of north latitude : for in Europe the
Tagus, the Danube, the Dnieper, the Don, and the
Volga, and in Afia the Indus, the Ganges, the Meran,
the Mecon, the Hoang-ho, and the Yang-tfe-Kiang,
dcfcending as it were from tliis elevation, fall into the
great rtfeivoir between the tropics ; vvhilft towards the

Borth

Chap. IL GEO

G;i,eral north the Rhine, the Elbe, the Oder, the Viilula,
Diftrinu- the Oby, the Jenifei, the Lena, the Indigirka, and
Alaterials^ the Kowyma, are difcharged into the northern refer-
oft\s ^oir-

Earth. Judging from thole mountains the height of which

'~~^'~~^ has been calculated, and from the immenfe chains with
which we are acquainted, we may infer that the
highelt mountains are to be found in this elevated belt.
The Alps of Swilferland and Savoy extend throagh.
the 4Jth, the 46:h, and the 47th degrees. Among
them we find St Gothard, Furca, Bruning, Rufs,
V>"higgis, Scheidek, Gunggels, Galanda, and lal^ly,
that branch of the Swifs Alps which reaches Tirol by
the name of Arlenberg and Amla. In Savoy, we
meet with Mont Blanc, the Peak of Argentiere,
Cornero, Great and Little St Bernard, Great and Little
Cenis, Coupeline, Servin, and that branch of the
Savoyard Alps which proceeds towards Italy through
the duchy of Aoft and IMontferrat. In this vait
heap of elevated peaks. Mount Blanc and St Go-
thard are particularly diftinguiihed. The Alps, leav-
ing Sv,-!iTerland and Savoy, and pafling through
Tirol and Camiola, traverfe Saltzbourg, Stiria, and
Aullria, and extend their branches through Mo-
ravia and Bohemia, as far as Poland and Pruffia. —
Between the 47 th and 48th degrees, we meet with
Grimming the highelt mountain of Stiria, and Prlel
which is the highell in Auftria. Betvveen the 46th
and 47th degrees, the Bacher and the Reinfchnic-
ken, form two remarkable chains. The upper one,
which traverfes the counties of Trencfin, Arrava,
Scepus, and the Kreyna, feparates Upper Hungary
from Silefia, Little Poland, and Red RuiTia ; the in-
ferior one traverfes Upper Croatia, Bofnia, Servia,
and Tranfylvania, feparates Lower Hungary from
Turkey in Europe, and meets the upper chain behind
Moldavia, on the confines of Little Tartary. In thefe
mountains are fituated the rich mines of Schemnitz.

To form a general idea of the great height of this
Alpine belt, it is neceffary only to remark, that the
greateft depth of the wells at Schemnitz is 200 toifes ;
and yet it appears, from the barometrical calculations
■ of the learned M. Noda, that the greateft depth of
thefe mines is 286 toifes higher than the city of Vien-
na. The granito-argillous mountains of Schemnitz,
and of the whole of this metallic dillrift, are inferior,
however, to the Carpathian mountains. Mount Kri-
vany in the county of Arrava, and the Carpathian
mountains between Red Ruflia and the Kreyna, ap-
pear by their great elevation to rule o\'er the whole of
the upper Alpine chain-. In the inferior chain we like-
wife meet with mountains of an extraordinary height 5
among others. Mount Mediednik, which gives its name
to a chain extending far into Bofnia j and Mount He-
mus, celebrated even among the ancients. In fliort,
this extenCve chain reaches into Afia, and is there con-
founded with another chain no lefs famous, which,
following exactly the 50th degree of latitude, runs
through the whole of Afia. This chain of mountains
i) defcribed by Dr Pallas in the work above mention-
ed ; and we (hall now trace its courfe in company with
this intelligent obferver.
UralUn ihis author places the head of the mountains of

chain. Oural, between the fourccs of the Yaik and the Bie-

lai'a, about the 53d degree of latitude, and the 47th of

L O G Y. 5-5,

longitude. Here the Luropcan Alps, after having tva- General
verlbd Europe, and fent off various branches which P'lnbi:-
we (hall afterwards examine, lofe their name, which "j"t°,ij!s
is changed into that of the Ourallc or Uralian moun- 'of the
tains, and begin their courfe in Afia. This lofty Earth.
chain, which feparates Great Bulgaria from the de- » '
ferts of Ifchiralka, proceeds through the country of
the Eleuths, follou-s the courfe of the river Irtis, ap-
proaches the lake Telefkaia, and afterwards forms a
part o: the fame fyllem of mountains with t'le Al-
taic chain. There they give rife to the O'jy, the Ir-
tis, and the Jenifei, which begin their courfe about
the 50th degree of north latitude, and fall into the
Frozen ocean. i- .

The Altaic chain, after having embraced and united '""
all the rivers which fupply the Jenifei, is continued''''"^"
under the name of Saiaiies, without the fmalleU inter-
ruption, as far as the Baikal lake. The exteniion
of this chain to the fouth forms that immenfe and ele-
vated plain which is loft in Chinefe Tartary, which
may be compared with the only plain in (^uito, and
which is called Gobi or C/iamo. Tlie Altai afterwards
intcrpollng between the fource of the Tchikoi and of
the rivers nhich fupply the Amur or Sagaleen, rifcs
towards the Lena, approaches the city Jakuck beyond
the 60th degree of latitude, runs from that to the fea
of Kamtfchatka, turns round the Ochockoi and Pcn-
fink gulfs, joins the great marine chain of the Ku-
rile itles near Japan, and forms the fteep (hores of
Kamtfchatka, between the 55th and 60th degrees of
latitude. After running in the fame parallel, and
giving rife to the Ohio, the Riviere LonguL-, the
river St Laivrence, and the Miffiffippi, they are loll in
Canada. From the eaftern fhores of America to the
weftern fhores of Europe, we find a vail interruption. 1^3

The European Alps produce three principal chains, Alpine
which run towards the equator, and fome fmaller ones'^''^"'*
running towards the pole. The firft fouthem chain
is fent out through Dauphine ; traverfes Vivarais, Ly-
onnois, Auvergne, Cevennes, and Languedoc ; and,
after joining the Pyrenees, enters Spain. There it
divides into two or three ramifications, one of which
runs through Navarre, Eifcay, Arragon, Caflile,
Marche, and Sierra Morena, and extends into Portu-
gal. The other, after traverfing Andalulia and the
kingdom of Granada, and there forming a number
of mountains, again makes its appearance, beyond the
llraits of Gibraltar, in Africa, and coalls along its

northern fhores under the name of Mount Alias,

The fecond principal chain of the Alps palTes out
through Savoy and Piedmont ; fpreads its roughneflis
over the (lates of Genoa and Parma ; forms the belt
of the Apennines; and after frequently changing its
name, and dividing Italy into two parts, terminates
in the kingdom of Naples and in Sicily, producing
volcanoes in every part of its courfe. The third chain
is fent off from Hungary, and fcatters innumerable
mountains over all Turkey in Europe, as far as the
Morea and the Archipelago at the bottom of the Me-
diterranean lea. 1 lie northern branches, though fraallcr
at firft, are no lefs clearly defined ; and fome of them
even extend their ramifications as far as the Frozen
ocean. An Alpine branch, illuing from Savoy through
the country of Gex, proceeds though Franche Comtc,
Suntgaw, Alfacr, the Palatinate, and Veterabia. —
4 D 3 Another

s8o

GEO

Earth.

fur U, At
lantidtSy
iet. I6.

Gfnsral Another iiTucr- from tlie territory of Sallzbourg, paflqs

Diftribu- along Bohemia, enters Poland, fends off a ramilkation

Materials ""'^ Prulfia towards the deferts of Waldotv, and after

of the liayiiig paffed through RufTia is loll in the govcrn-

lucnl of Archangel.

The Afiatic Alps fend forth in like manner fcveral
branches both to the fouth and north. The OuraJic
mountains, between the fources of the Bielaia and tiie
Jaik, produce three principal branches ; the firll of
whicl;, including the Cafpian fea in one of \xi divi-
fions, enters Circaffia through the government of A-
flracan, paffi;s thrbugh Georgia under the name of
Caucafus, fends a vaft number of ramifications to the
weft into Afiatic Turkey, and there produces the
mountains Tfchildcr, Ararat, Taurus, Arg£e, and
many others in the three Arabias ; while the other
divifion, paffing between the Cafpian iea and the lake
Aral, penetrates through Chorafan into Perfia. The
fecond branch, taking a more eaflerly direftion, leaves
the country of the Eleuths ; reaches Little Bucharia 5
and forms the ramparts of Gog and Magog, and the ce-
lebrated mountains formerly known by the name of Caf,
which M. Bailiy has made the feat of the war between
the Dives and the Peris*. It traverfes the kingdoms of
Cafgar and Turkeftan, enters through that of Labor
into the Mogul territory, and, after giving rife to tile
elevated defert of Chamo, forms the wellern peninfula
of India. While thefe two branches run towards the
fouth, the third branch of the Our;dic chain rifes to-
wards the north, folloiving almoll the 79th degree of
longitude, and forms a natural boundary between Eu-
rope and Afia j without, however, bounding the ini-
menfe empire of Rullia. Tiiis chain, after coming
oppofitc to Nova Zembla, divides into tivo confuler-
able branches. The one, running to the north-eaft,
pafles along the Arftic Ihores •, the other, proceeding
towards the north-weft, meets the northern European
chain, traverfes ScanJina^-ia in the ihape of a horfe-
fhoe, covers the low lands of Finland v. ith rocks ; and,
as is obferved by Dr Pallas, appears to be continued
from the North Cape of Norway through tlie marine^
chain of Spitzbergen, fcattcring iflands and (helves
perhaps throughout the northern ocean, that, pairmg
through the pole, it may join the northern and eallern
points of Afia and North America.

Tiie Ouralic, which in the country of the P.Tongols
becomes the Altaic chain, proceeds towards the equa-
tor. After forming the mountains and caverns
wherein, as we are told, the alhes of the Mongol em-
perors of the race of Gengis-Kan are depofited, to-
gether with the vaft plain of Chamo, conCfting of
arid (and, and the frightful rocks and precipices of
Thibet, which form the myfterious and delert retreats
ef the Grand Lama, it crofies the rivers Ava and Me-
nan j contains in its fubdivifions the kingdoms of
Ava, Pegu, Laos, Tonquin, Cochinchina, and Siam ;
fupports the peninfula of Malacca; and overfprcads
the Indian ocean with the ifles of Smida, the Mo-
luccas, and the Philippines. From the borders of the
Baikal lake and of the province of Selinginfkoy, a
branch is detached, which fpreads over Chinefe Tar-
tary and China, is continued into Corea, and gives rif?
to the illands of Japan.

The great chain having extended to the north, near
the city of Jakuck, upon the banks of the Lena, fends

LOG Y. Chap. II.

oiToneof its branches to the norlh-wefl, which paf- Gereial
fing between the two Tungufta, is IqA in piarfliy ^^Jj^'"]"'"
grounds lying in the northern parts of the province of Materials
Jennifleifkoy. T!ie fimi. c!:u!ii, after it has reached ol the
the eaftern p...! ' \ ''X in the icy regions of Earth,

the north abois - ly, or the ley Proraon- >— -v~— '

tory, and Cap^ ' . ij5

It will be moix- (lii:cul;., p^. : , , ; ■ the ele- S^'Xhetn

vated belt in the fouthern lie:r. ■ the tvo-*^'--""°°'^-

pic of Capricorn, than it has > 1 _ uilh that

towards the north. An immeut; t>;Ui!i '1 nct;;iu feems
to occupy the whole Antarclic part of the globe. —
The greateft fouth latitude of the old continent is not
more than 34 dfgrets, and S"uth America fcarccly
e.\tends to the 55th (lf'_,'rfL-. I;i \\l\\ has the enter-
priihig Cook aticniptc^l lo diiiovcr regions towards
the pole : his progrtis was conftanUy interrupted by
tremendous mountains and fields of ice. Beyond the
joth degree no land and no I^abitatior.s are to be found.
The illiiuis of New Zealand aie th-: fartheft land iti
thefe deiert Teas ; and yet the fouth cape of Taral-
Poenamoo extends only to the 48ih degree : We do
not mention Sand-.', ir.n-lnnd. \-:\\\r\\ ;, i^tiiateti in tlir:
j8th degiee, 1 '

mull be recol!^
declarations of t ' ■ -

as they advance fuuthvvaid to ti ,

• and that Terra del Fuego, \ .
tude of 55, is noihing but a :

gious elevation. America, ho ;.j our

view elevated pomts, whence t ' ns arc

dillributed in different diretliui:- v .:>/ie ftir-

face of the new continent. There n.ull likeivife be
great refervoirs, where the nioft remarkable rivers
take their rile, and from which they neceflarily de-
fcend towards their mou'.hs. In the fouthern heml-
fphere, this elevated belt is nearer the equator ; and
though it does not extend to the 50th degree, it is
evidently to be !r. . ' ' .,..'y be accurately traced,

between the 201 ' . :.es. The high moun-

tains of Tucuiii ,. . . i^-;ut;y, which interfefl

South America ajeut tie 25th degree of latitude,
may be confidered as the American Alps. If we
look into the map of the world, we fliall be able to
diflinguifli an elevated belt all along this parallel. In
Africa, Monomotapa and CalTraria are covered with
very high mountains, from wliich pretty large rivers
defcend. In the Pacific ocean, we find New Hol-
land, New Caledonia, the New Hebrides, and the
Friendly and the Society iflands, under the fame pa-
rallel. We may, therefore, ivith fufficient propriety,
diftinguifti this parallel by the name of the Southern
Alps, as we have already dillinguifhed the elevated
belt of the jOth degiee of north latitude by that of
the Northern A'ps. In America, the Rio de la Plata,
which after a courfe of 500 leagues falls into the ocean
at the 35th degree of fouth latitude ; the Pavana,
which rifes from the mountains of the Arapcs, and
falls into the Plata at Corriente ; the great number
of rivers which flow into that of the Amazons, fuch
as the Paraba, which receives in its courfe the tribute
of more than 30 other rivers ; the Madera, the Cuchi-
rara, the Ucayal, &c. &c. all defcend from thefe
fouthern Alps. From thefe Alps likewife three con-
fiderable branches of mountains are detached, which

go

Chap n.

G E O L O

5Sr

Geneirtl go by tlifi common pame, of Andes or Cordilleras. —
Diftriba- I'he firft branch, '^ winch' expends fovvards' the fouth,
Mat" ials^ and pafles out from Paraguay "through Tucumaii; ("c-
u^-,l,e paratcs Chili from thcfe provinces and from Chiniito,
t«rtii. and is contiuuKd through Terra Magcllanica as far
^~'~\-—^ as Terra del Fuego. The lecond branrh, direiliiig
its courfe towards the equator, travevles Pin:, in vain
endeavouring to conceal treafurcs wliich the avarice
of men has taught them to difcover in its bowels ;
bounds the Sjiaiiiih MiiTlons ; enters Terra Firma
tlirough Popayan ; and unites South and Njvth Ame-
rica by the ilthmas of Pa!;ama. The third divifion,
iffijing from Paraguviy through Cuayra and the terri-
tory of Saint Vincent, traverfes Brazil, dirtributes ra-
miucotions into Portugucfe, French, and Dutch Gui-
ana, crofies the OrooTioko, forms the mountains of
Venezuela, and near Carlhagena meets the fecond
,^^ branch coming from Popayan.
Mountains \\ e have already ruppofed, tliRt the elevated belt
of North of North America was fituated about the 45th degree
America. ^£ north latitude ; and there we imagined we recog-
nized the continuation of the northern Alps of the
old continent. This chain likewife fends forth con-
Jiderable branches on both fides. One of them is de-
tached acrofs the fources of the Miiriffippi, the Eelle
Ri\'iere, and the Miffourl, and at the entrance of New
i\iexico divides, in order to form California to the
well, and the Apalachian mountains to the eaft. —
Thence proceeding through New Bifcay, the audi-
ence of Guadalaxara, Old Mexico, and Guatimala, it
meets at Panama the fouthern branch, which is part
of the Alps of Paraguay. The fecond branch, fol-
lowing the courfe of the MilElTippi, feparales Louifi-
ana from Virginia ; ferves as a bulwark, to the United
States of America ; forms the Apalachian mountains
in Carolina ; and at laft, traverfing Eaft Florida, en-
clofes the gulf of Mexico witli tlie Great and Little
Antilles. In the north, we can trace the branches of
the elevated belt 5 on one fide obferve them proceed-
ing towards Canada, directing their courfe through
Labrador to Hudfon's St! aits, and at length con-
founded with the rocks of Greenland, which are co-
vered with eternal fnow and ice. On the other fide,
we fee them riling through the country of the Afli-
nipoels and the Krillinos, as far as Michinipis and the
northern Archipelago.
tjs In tracing the courfe and direftion of the Britilh

Britifli mountains, we Ihall begin with the central chain, which
mountains, runs through the fouthern part of the iiland from north
to fouth, commericing at Gekfd.Je, about 14 miles to
the fouth-eaft of Carlifle, and ending at Land's End in
Cornwall, or rather in the Scilly illes to the well of this.
This ch-.iin pafl'es from Geltsdale foreft through the
iveftern diftri'5ts of Durham and Yorkitire, forming the
bills called Kelton Fell, Stanmore, Widehill Fell, Wild-
bore Fell, Bow Fell, Home Fell, Bun Hill, &c. A lit-
tle to tV:e weft of the chain ftand feveral detached
mountains, the principal of ^vhich is Skiddaw in Cum-
berland. PafiTmg through Yorkfliire we find Craven,
WhurnfiJe, Ingleborough, and Pennygent ; and on the
raft of Lancafter is Pendle. In this courfe there are
feveral miles of coal and lead. The chain next pro-
ceeds through Derby (liire, and in this part of the ridge
a great variety of valuable minerals are found, cfpcci-
i!]y lead, copper, gypfum, fluor, barytic canh«, mar-

ti;:i pyrites, iron ore, mangantfe, and feveral ores of General
zinc. About this point tliejadge ftretqhes a little in- P'*^"''""^
to ChcfUii-e, and feemS" to terminate j a central chain j^^'j,°pj|j
of fouiewhat lefs elevation may, however, ftill be traced, of the
proceeding in a waving direclion towards Salilhary, and Earih.
having three irregular branches, two to the ealt, aiid » ^
another running to the fouth-wci.1 itito Cornwall. The
firft eaitern branch proceeds low.-'.rds Norfolk, ai'.d to
this belong iome conlidexable hills, cfpecially thole of
Gog Magog in Cambridgeillire.. The fecond branch
pailes into Kent, and diverges a little into Surr)- and
Hampfi'.ire. The continuation of this chain is r.ftbrdcd
by the hills of Mendip, Poldtn, Ledgemoor, and Black-
down in Somedetftiire ; the Tores and W ilds of Dart-
more in DevonOiire, and the upland Downs of Corn wall.
Malvern hills in Worcefterfbire deviate a little froip.
the chain, but thofe of CotlWold in Glouceilerftiire ap-
pear to be a continuation of it. The principal mineral
found in this ridge of mountains, after leaving Derby-
fliire, is the tin ore of Connvall.

Wales contains many mountains, efpecially in its 131/
northern part, where Snowden is celebrated for its height
and claflical fame. The top of this mountain is formed
almolt into a point, and commands an extenfive view,
not only of the neighbouring counties, but of part of
Scotland and Ireland, and the ifies of Mann and An-
glefey. A line of mountairis proceeds from Snowden
along the weftern coalt to Plinlimmon; and in this line
lie Urrou Scth, Caeridris, and Moyle Vadiau. A few
hills of little elevation proved towards SInopihire, a-
mong which the Wrekin is the molt remarkable. An-
other fmall chain proceeds fouth towards Cardiff, but
contains no hills of any eminence. , .j.

Leaving England, and proceeding towards the north, Scotch
we find the Cheviot Hills, io celebrated in the hiftory mountaini.
of the border ikirmilhes. Thefe form a regular ridge,
mnning from fouth-welt to north-eall, where they join
the hills of Galloway. In this part of Scotland there are
feveral mountainous ridges ruiming in various direilions,
generally north and fouth according to the courfe of
the rivers ; but there is, properly fpeaking, no uniform
chain. Dumfriesiliire contains feveral mountains, lorae
of which are of a couliderable height, efpecially H^il-
fell in Annandale, from which proceeds the celebrated
chalybeate fpaw ; Lowther near Leadhills ; Blacklaw
on the borders of Ayrthire ; Etrick Pen, in Elkdale
moor j Cainkinnow ne?r Druralanrigg ; and (Queens-
berry hill, vchifh gives the title to the dukedom uf that
name. Proceeding towards the north, wc find Pent-
land hills, a little to the fouth-weft of Edinburgh, and
the romantic hills of Arthur's feat and Siililhury Craigs,
in the immediate vicinity of that city. On the eaftern
coaft, before crofling the Forth, is North Berwick Law,
which muft be conlidered as clofing the lift of fouthern
hills in Scotland, 'i'he principal part of thefe fouthern
hills confirts of calcareous earth, and argillaceous fchif-
tus ; and except in thofe of Galloway, granite and
other primitive rocks are very fparing. In the Lothian
hills the calcareous ftrata are furmounted by vail blocks
of trap, wacke, and bafalt.

On the north of the Forth are the hills of Ochil, of
little elevation, but celebrated for affording large <juan-
tities of agates and chalcedonies. The bills of Kin-
noul and DunCnnan in the eaftern part of Perthlhirc,
are generallv confldercd the lall of the lowland hill>.

5S2 GEO

Ctneral Tl;e prlncii';;! ncrlhern c1;::;n of Eritifh mountains is
piftribij- ,],_,[ of jijg Grampian hill?, extending from Loch Lo-
Alaterials' ■''°"'^ '° Stonehaven, and forming the fouthern boundary
of the of the Highlands ; and rifing by a gradual tranfition
£aitli. from the Sidlaw hills on the eaft, the Campfey hills on
''~—v~— the weft, and the Ochils in the middle. The princi-
pal mountains of this chain are Ben Lauers, Ben More,
Schehallion, Een Vorlich, Ben Lomond, and Ben Le-
dy. Near Ben Lawers is Ben Nevis, the higheft
mountain in Britain, and to the north-weft of this near
Fort Auguftus, is the long hill of Corri Allok. A-
bout 30 miles to the eaft of this is the high mountain
of Cairngorum, famous for the fpecimens of quartzofe
ftones found there. Numerous mountains lie in the fe-
cui'd divifions of the Highlands, beyond Loch Linne,
and Loch Nfefs, efpecially on the wefteni fliore, which
is croivded with hills. Few of thefe are confiderable.
To the weft of Rofsftiire are feveral hiJIs, among which
Een Chat, Ben Chalker, and Een Golich are the moft
re^jdarkable. More inland ftands the high mountain of
Ben Wevis, nearly equal to Ben Nevis. In moft of
thefe mountains the primitive rocks prevail, and granite
is often very abundant. Few minerals, however, ex-
idi "P^ '"°^ ^""' ""^^ found.
Irifh mcun- L'eland contains but few mountains, and none of any
uir.s. confiderable importance. They generally form ftiort

lines,' or appear in detached groups, one of the higheft
of which is that on the weft and fouth of the lake of
Killarney, in which is the mountain of Mangerton. A
fmall Ime of hills called Shecky mountains runs on the
north-weft of Bantry Bay, palling towards the eaft.
To the northward of this ftands Sliblogher and Nagles,
and towards the eaft are the hills of Knockeradovvn.
In the county of Leinfler is a moiuitain of the fame
name, and to the I'outh of Dublin are the Wicklow
hills, from which tliere were lately fuch great expeda-
tions of golden treafure. In Ulfter ftand the moun-
tains of IVIoume, the higheft of which, Donard, is faid
to be nearly the height of Mangerton. The moft
mountainous part of Ireland is the weftern peninfula of
that ifland, towards v.hich, in the county of Mayo,
ftands Nephin, one of the higheft in the kingdom.
On the fouth-eaft of Clewbay is the mountain of Croagh
Patrick, alfo in the county of Mayo, which is the laft
Irifti hill of any importance.

We cannot here with propriety enter en the theory
of the formation of mountains. The hypothefis of the
principal geological writers with refpeft to this fubjetl,
will be feen from the general view of the theories to
be given In the next chapter. We may In this place
only remark, that all the fyftems which have been con-
ftrufted, to explain the formation of the primitive moun-
tains, with refpeft to which there is the moft difpute,
may be reduced to three.

In the firft of thefe, mountains are fuppofed to have
been formed fuch as we now fee them, except that they
have fuffered fome degradations and modifications, from
cert^n accidents pofterior to th.cir original formation,
and that thefe mountains owed their elevation above the
places which furround them, to one fingle accidental
accumulation of more materials in one place than in an-
otlier ; an accumulation which might have taken place
without that great preci[)itation which preceded and oc-
cafioned the confolidation of the cruft of our globe.
In the fecond hypothefis, -Jl the primitive mountains

LOGY.

Chap. II

are fuppofed to have been raiftd by one caufe, and in General
one certain manner j and the materials which compofe f>'""t^'i-
them, to have been throivn out of their natural pofi- ji"t°'ria'l<
tion. It is with refpeft to this ralfing or difplacement ' Jf "'e "
that geologifts have imagined fo many different hypo- Earth,
thefes. ' V '

In the third general theory, thefe mountains are fup-
pofed to have become pre-eminent from the accidental
lowering or removal of the materials which originally
fjrrounded them, whether this happened from the ma-
terials compoCng thele mountainous fituations having
fuffered no difplacement, or that they had been thera-
felves removed.

M. Dolomieu is of opinion, that there are mountains
whofe fituatlon and llruclure favour each of thefe three
hvpothefes. * * Jcur. Hc

1:2, n. No.

Sect. II. Of Dijkes. ^■n.v.^^l.

We have defcribed dykes (N° 15.) to be thofe in-Hiftoryof
lerruptions of the ftrata which are formed by perpendi-"')!^^*-
cular fiffures filled with ftony fubftances. As thefe
ftony matters are frequently of that kind called whin-
ftone, thefe dykes are commonly called ifliin dykes,
and the hiftory of tliele is very important, as they form
one of the principal fubjecls in the principal theories of
the earth. _ _ ,^3

Dykes have received different denominations, defcrip- Names,
tivc, in fome meafure, of the nature of the fubftances
of which they are compofed ; or of the feeming effefts
they have produced on the Intexfefled horizontal ftrata.
They are called bafaltic veins, trafi dykes, •whin dykes ;
and in the coal countries of Scotland they are called
gaws, from the idea that they have occafioned the fe-
paration of the coal, and contiguous ftrata, through
which they run.

Thefe dykes have been more atte.ntively obferved in
coal countries, than where they occur elfewhere ; be-
caufe on the accurate knowledge of their courfe, in-
clination and thicknefs, depend, in a great niealure,-
the judicious and fuccefsful operations of the miner,
when his workings approach the dike, or render it ne-
ceflary to cut through it to reach the ftrata of coal on
the other fide. But, though lefs attended to, they have
been obferved and traced in other places, where a great
extent of the horizontal ftrata have been expofed in the
beds of rivers, as in the bed of the Water of Leith,
above St Bernard's Well, near Edinburgh, and on the
fea (liore, efpecially on the weftern coafts of Scotland,
ivhere the rocks are more abrupt and precipitous, and
\vhere the violence of the Atlantic ocean has removed
part of the horizontal ftrata, and left the vertical ftrata
remaining, like immenfe walls or dykes. Hence pro-
bably the origin of the jiame ; and as they often confift
of that fpecies of ftone called whin/lone, this epithet
has been added. ,^

The courfe, however, of the greater number w-hichCuuiK.
^ve have had the opportunity of examining, generally
lies between the points of the compafs S. and S. E.
and N. and N. W. This is moft frequently the courfe
of the w-hln dykes of Illay and Jura ; it is the courle
of a remarkable dyke which traverfcs the coal ftrata
at the village of Stevenfon, near Saltcoats, in Ayr-
ftiire ; part of which is feen on the furface, not many
himdrcd yards to the north of the weft endof that vil-
lage :

Chap. II.

G E O L O G Y.

C'n'':al lage ; and it is tlie ccarfe of two dykes, flili move re-
])iiiribu- maikable, in the ifland of Great Cumbray in tlie filth
tion of tlie r pi J

ot the Geologifts, who have treated tJiis fubjeiS, do net

Earth, feem to have marked, with much attention, the courfe
*——y—^ of t!ie dykes. They have mentioned in general terms,
that they fbllovv all direiV.ons. More cxtenfive ob-
fervation may probably (lieiv, that the moll frequent
tlireftions of the principal dykes, is from north to
fcuth, or a few points deviation from that courfe. And
if this be eftabli'.hed, by a fuller and more accurate
hiilory of dykes, the analogy between thtm and me-
tallic veins will be more complete 5 for it is obferved
of the latter, that the moll powerful, that is, the mofl
produclive, run from north to fouth.

Dykes do not alivays run in a ftraight line. In
their couife they form certain tlexuofities. Eut, in
this winding courfe, the deviations are ufually fa fmall,
as to have little eJeft on the general direction of the
dyke, which, upon the whole, may be conlkiered as
nearly the fame.

The continuity of dykes is fometimes interrupted,
exaftly in the fame manner as frequently happens to
the horizontal ilrata, and which, in technical language
is termed zJI'fi.

In the ifland of lllay we have obferved two dikes
of this defcription, the one on the fouth iide of Loch-
indal, near the point of Laggan ; the other on the
ihore of the fouth-eall part of the iflar.d, a little to tlie
fouth of the houfe of Ardmore. In both thefc dykes,
the extent of the feparatlon of the Hip was jull equal to
the thicknefs of the dyke. The oppofite fides were
brought exaftly into the fame line.

After this feparation, thefe dykes, in fo far ss they
could be traced, preferve the fame thicknefs, ccurie, and
inclination as formerly.

A very remarkable dyke has been difcovered in the
coal field, in the diftricl; of Boulogne in France. It
. . . runs in the form of a crefcent from north to weft.
r.aion. The direction of dykes downwards is feldom per-
pendicular. This deviation from a line perpendicular
to the horizon is called their inclination. The in-
clination of a dyke is ufually denominated the /uiJe
or hading. See the article CoALERY.

The inclination of different dykes, and even of the
fame dyke, is various, fometimes approaching to, and
fometimes deviating from the perpendicular. The ex-
tent of dykes downwards, we believe, has not been
afcertained with any degree of accuracy, and the termi-
nation of very few has yet been detefted. The depth
to which refearches of this kind can be carried, is
comparatively fraall. With all the ardour, ingenuity,
and power of man, inveiligations to determine this
point, will probably always be limited by the extent
of his mining operations. The crefcent formed dyke
jufl mentioned, which occurs in a coal-field in the dif-
trict of Boulogne in France, which confifls of a fpecies
of marble, found in feveral quarries in the vicinity,
lias been traced to the perpendicular depth of 600
f=et, where it is fucceeded by a fchiftus rock, which
latter, with the fame courfe and inclination, continue;
,^^ to ir.terfc:ft the horizontal ftrata.
f-xxcx. The extent of dykes in length has not been accu-

rately determined. Indeed, it inull be extremely dif-
f.tuJt to trace them with any degree of certainty. For

583

thofc which are cbfencd on tlie fca coatl, where they Gcr.cr.il
are mod confpicuous, foon difappear in the mountains, P'lrilm-
on the one hand, or on the other lofe thcmfelves in \^j",°,j!,j5
the fea. And, as the extent of the fame coal field of the
rarely exceeds a few miles, tliey have feldom been fol- Earth,
lowed beyond its limits. In many cafes, the change ^-—^——i
in the nature and arrangement of the ilrata, renders it
almoft impofiible. Some, however, have been traced
to a very great extent : one in particular, on the banks
of the river Meufe in the Netherlands, has been fol-
lowed in its direft courfe, to the diftance of four
leagues ; and of this dyke it is obferved, if purfued
through all its ^nndings, the extent is not lefs than fix
leagues.

The thicknefs of dykes is various. Sometimes they Tpj^j'^p^fj^
are obferved no thicker than a few inches. From that
they iiicreafe to one foot, fix feet, and very often are ,
found from 10 to 20 feet. There is one in the iQand
of lllay, of the enormous thicknefs of 69 feet. This
immenfe dyke accompanies a lead vein, about a foot
thick, which is included between it and the limeftone
flrata. In this mining field, two whin dykes, one of
them 10 feet thick, have been difcovered, croffmg the
metallic veins.

In going downwards, dykes are faid to decreafe in
thicknefs. This is particularly obferved of dykes of
fmaller magnitude. Of fmaller dykes it is alfo faid, that
they diminiih in thicknefs towards tlie extremities.

In one refpeft, fome whin dykes are exactly analo-
gous to metallic veins, in having branches, or in the
miners phrafe, Jlrm^s go'"g °^ ^nd traverfing the con-
tiguous flrata, and forming in the courfe they take, an
acute angle with the principal dyke. A whin'dyke of this
defcription has been obferved in the illand of Jura, on the
(hore of the found. The diverging branch terminated
in a point among the horizontal flrata, at the diltance
of a few feet from the great dyke, afluming altogether
a wedge-like form.

If \se. include metallic veins in the account, the ver- ^i^.j'Jjjj,^,
tical ftrata may be faid to be compofed of every kind of
mineral fubftance, but almoil always diiferent from the
interfecled horizontal ftrata. By this laft circumflance
their occurrence is at once recognized. In general, the
dykes that are fomid in Scotland, whether in tlie coal
countries, or in the weftern coalls and iftands, ■where
they are fo frequent, are of that fpecies of llone which
comes under the denomination of trap or whinitone.
Dykes, conilfting of other fpecies of ftouc, have alfo
been found in Scotland. On the Mull of Kinouth,
which forms the fouthern headland, at the entrance of
Lochjndaal, in lllay, we obferved a fmall dyke of gra-
nite, crofting the headland, which is of granular quartz.
'I'here are fome vertical flrata of granite in the iflrind
of Icolmkill, of pitchllonc in the ifland of Arran, and
of ferpcntine at Portloy in Banfflliire.

Bergman, in his Phy.lcal Geography, fuppofes that
granite was never found to be a component part of
vertical flrata. What has been already mentioned
proves the contrary. Granite dykes have alfo been dif-
covered in other places. Ecffon has obferved dikes of
this defcription on the great road between Limoges
and Cahors in France, traverfing horizontal flrata of
argillaceous fchiftus, a fpecies of llone which has ge-
nerally been conCdered of later formation than gra-
nite. Thefe dykes, he obfervcs, are from ao inch to

fix

tion (

584 GEO

Gtiicrsl fix ;eet in thickr.efi, and the quartz, feldfpar, and mica,
piftribii- are of larger fize than are ufually found iri the granite

""" ° of mountains. Dolomieu has made a fimilar obfert'a-

tion, and confiders it as a difcriminative charafter, by
which the granite of mountains and that found in ver-
tical ftra'ta may be eafily diitinguifhed. But this is not
ahvays to be admitted as a charaderiftic mark of dif-
tintlion. The granite dyke which has been already
mentioned, eroding the granular quartz, on the Mull
of Kinouth in Iflay, is fmall grained, and ethers of this
latter defcription have been obferved in other places.

There is a very fingular dyke on the coalt of Ayr-
fhire, between Weems bay and Largs, near the houfe
of Kelly. It is about ten feet thick, traverfes the ho-
rizontal ftrata, which Coniill of pkimb-pudding rock,
whofe cement is fandftone of a red colour, from north-
eaft to fouth-weft, and crofles a larger dike of the
whinlione of this country, nearly at right angles. This
dike is compofed of different materials. Part Is of the
common whinftone, and part of a plumb-pudding rock,
cefr.cnted by the matter of the dyke ; and thefe alter-
nate with each other, both in the thicknefs of the dyke,
and lengthwife. On one fide, there are four feet thick
of whinlione ; immediately in contaft with this there is
plum-pudding ftone three feet thick, and fo on alter-
nately, acrols the whole dyke. In tracing the dyke
lengthwife acrofs the whole line, there is found a few
yards of whinftone, which is fucceeded by a few yards
of pium-pudding ilone, and this is again fucceeded by
the u-hinftone.

But, for the general view which is here propofed, it

is not requifite to give a full account of all the mineral

fubftances which enter into the compofition of vertical

flrata, or even a minute enumeration of all the varieties

145 that are found in whin dykes.

J*eculiar One of the rtioft fingular circumflances refpefling

''^"•'^ T^ °^ whin dykes, which feems to have been entirely over-

to be cohfidered.
rrangement of the
parts of which they are compofed. Of t'.iis peculiar
arrangement it may be obferved in general, that it is
in all refpefts the reverfe of what takes place in the
horirsntal flrata.

When the dyke is of fmall magnitude, it is pretty
com.pacl in all its parts; but if an attempt be made to
break or feparate any part of it,' the fraiflure will be
found to run mod readily in the perpendicular direction.
But when the dyke is of more confiderable thicknefs, it
ufually forms feveral divifions, marked liy perpendicular
filfures, and there is often very great variety in the na-
ture and qualities of the feveral divifions of the fame
dyke. The exterior divifion of one fide fometimes, and
fometimes the exterior divifion of both fides, are of a
fofter texture than the intermediate divifion ; and often
contain, in great proportion, fpecks of radiated zeolite
and calcareous fpar, while the middle divifions, as well
as being harder, are alfo more homogeneous. In other
cafes, the reverfe of this appears. The middle parts of
the dyke are the foftefl and leall: compaft, exhibiting
the greatefl variety of heterogeneous fubflances.

Some \vhin dykes have a great tendency to alTume,
when broken, the prifmatic form. This is the cafe with
many, even of tht- moft compadl texture. In others,
where the fide ot the dyke is expofcd to view, and mi-
nutely examined, fiffures may be traced, difcovering
2

_, , .I'hich feems to ha

whin dykes, jjj^,.^, J j^^ geologifls, ftill

This is the peculiar ftrufture

L O G Y, Chip. IL

the ends of pretty regular prifms. But in fofne dykes Ceneral
ill the ifland of Jura, the prifmatic columns are entirely Uift.ibii-
feparatcd, and lying loofe, are four, five, or fix-fided, MateriaU^
jointed 5 the perpendicular fiffurcs forming the joints, of the
and ill all refpefts fimilar to the perpendicular bafaltic Earth,
columns, except being in the horizontal pofition. In » ' ^'
one of the dykes in the iiland of Jura, the colum'ns are
from 1 2 to 1 8 inches in diameter. In fome others on
the fea fhore, near the houfe of Mr Campbell of Jura,
and at the harbour of the fmall Itlcs, in the fame iiknd,
there are columns of the enormous fize of i o and 1 3
feet diameter.

A dyke which traverfes the bafahic flrata of the
Giants Caufeway in the north of Ireland, exhibits ftill
more remarkably this peculiarity of llruclure. The
fmalleft mafTes detached from it alVutne the columnar
form, and moit of them are perfeftiy regular. The
fratJIure invariably runs in the horizontal diredVion-; the
columns confequently lie in the fame pofition, are three,
four, five, and lix-f\ded, and are generally of fmall
fize,

Skct. III. Of MetaUicVems.

150
The hiftory of metallic veins, although far from be-Mitalij«
ing fo full and fatisfaftory as could be wifhed, is more "^'^s.
complete than that of whin dykes. The latter have excited
no farther attention than as objefts of curiofity to the
geologiff, or as fingular facts in eflablifhing a theory,
and when they come in the way of the operations of
the, miner, to difcovcr their connexion with the conti-
guous ftrata ; while the wants and luxuries of man have
roufed ingenuity and exertion in exploring the former,
on account of the precious and ufeful metals with which
they are flored. Thus, the fplfndour and beauty of
fonie metallic fubftances, and the utility of others, have
made them in all ages be efteemed and valued by man-
kind ; and confequently they have been the conflant
objefts of purliiit and invefligation. It is obvious that
the beauty and utility of metals, on account of which
they are fo much valued and fought after, excite great-
er intereft in procuring them ; on the one hand, the
refearches and obfervations of the philofopher in fur-
iiifhing the hiftory and general principles, and, on the
other, the immediate application of this knowledge,
and of thefe principles, in the praftlce and operations
of the miner.

The hiffnry of whin dykes is, in general, qiiite ana-
logous to metallic veins ; but, of the latter, from what
has been ftated, we can fpeak with more certainty and
precifion. _ ,.,

Three different kinds of metallic veins have been de- Diftjndlion
fciibed by geological writers ; the y»«y>e/7(//c////;r vein, of veins.
the />ipe vein, and the ^at or dilated vein. We fhall
confider each of thefe in their order.

1. Of the perf)end!cular vein. — This kind of metallic Pctpfndicti^
vein occurs moll frequently. As may be expefled, it lar veins,
is various in its courfe or direilion, thicknefs, and in-
clination. Metallic veins are found running in every
diredlion ; but, in general, the moft powerful veins,
that is, the moft produftivc, are obferved to run from
north to foutb, or at leaft a few points deviation from
that courfe ; and when any deviation happens, it is

ufually to the eaft of north, and to the weft of fouth.
The courfe or direilion of a vein is called in tcrhni^ ^

cal

'5,1
ifc of

Chap. II.

GEOLOGY.

58i

cal langungo its bearittii. The extent of a vein in the line
of bearing, wc believe, rarely exceeds the range of
mountains in which it is Jifcovered. This is the cafe
with the principal vein at Leadhills. It is liinited to
the chain of mountains in which the operations are now
' carried on ; and although the mines of Wanloclthead
are not a mile diftant, new veini appear with galena or
lead ore, of quite a different quality, and all the ac-
companying minerals, whether forming part of the vein,
or found in cavities, are alfo quite different from the
lead oie and other minerals found in tlie veins at Lead-
hills.

The inclination of veins is various. Sometimes they
■ are nearly perpendicular ; fometimes they deviate con-
fiderably from a perpendicular line ; fometimes the
fame vein -in its courfe downward, inclines to one
fide ; fometimes it is perpendicular, and fometimes it
inclines to the other fide. When the deviation from
the perpendicular does not exceed lo*^, the vein is ftill
confidered as a perpendicular or vertical vein. When
a vein is inclined, the tu'o fides which include the me-
tallic fubftances are in very different politions, and have
confequently received from the miners different names.
That fide which fupports the metallic ore, or on which
it feems to lean, is called the ledger fide, or fimply the
ledger. The oppofite fide \vhich covers the ore, or
which overhangs it, is denominated the hanging fide,
or fimply the hanger. From the inclination of the vein
being varied in its courfe downwards, it muft appear
that the fame fides, according as the mclination varies,
muft change their pofitlon and denomination. This
will perhaps be more intelligible by the feiflion at
fig. 5. in which AA reprefents the vein ; BB, CC,
DD, EE, the ftrata interfered by it ; i. the hanger ;
2. the ledger ; 3. the hanger ; and, 4. the ledger.

The thicknefs of veins, and indeed of the fame vein,
is alfo extremely various. Sometimes they are only a
few inches thick. From this they increafe to the thick-
nefs of feveral feet. The veins which were wrought at
Leadhills, about feven years ago, were from two to
fix feet within the fides ; but lome years before that'
time the principal vein in thofe mines, by the addition
of two firings or fmall veins, affimied the extraordinary
thicknefs of 1 4 feet of pure ore. This unufual appear-
ance, both on account of its richnefs and grandeur,
excited fo much attention and admiration, that the
countefs of Hopetoun undertook a journey to thefe in-
ferior regions, not lefs than 1 50 fathoms below the fur-
face of the earth, to witnefs the fplendour and brilli-
ancy of this fubterraneous apartment. The uncommon
thicknefs and abundant riches of this vein are fiill talk-
ed of at Leadhills with entliufiafm. But a thicker vein
was once wrought at Slangunog in Wales. Fifteen feet
of clean ore were for fome time dug out of this vein.
Thefe are, however, far exceeded by the copper veins
in the Parys mountain in Anglefea, whicli are defcrib-
ed by Mr Pennant in his WeKh tour. The thicknefs
of one of thefe veins is 21 feet, and of another 66
feet.

The broadeft metallic vein, of which we have any
account, is, we believe, that of the Ec^on copper mine,
in Derbyftiire. In liiis mine there was worked, at one
time, a heap of ore, of the allonifliing e.xtent of 70
yards from fide to fide *.

The extent of veins do-.vnv/ards has in many cafes
Vo!.. IX. Pan II.

been afcertained. To the regret and difappuintment of Genera!
the miicr, they have been frequently intercepted and Diftnbu,
entirely cut off by the horizontal ftrata. The rich vein Material*
of lead ore at Slangunog in Wales, which we have al- of the
ready mentioned, was intercepted in this manner by a Karth.
ftratum of black fchillus or fhiver, the nature of which ~~^' ''

is not defcribed by Williams, 7.ho Hates the faiS '

' Kingdom,

Their refearches to recover their loft wealth, which were \
profecutcd for ieveral years, proved altogether fruiiiefs. p. 274.
The fmalleft trace of this unufually productive vein was
never afterwards difcovered. 15S

Two kinds of perpendicular mineral veins have been T«'o ''■"'d'
obferved and defcribed. In the one cafe the relative °[^P"P'J|^;-
pofition of the ftrata which contain the metallic fub-
ftances is exaftly fimilar to that of the coal ftrata when
they are interfetled by a whin dyke. On one fide of
the vein the ftrata are elevated or depreffed from their
former plane. This is illuftratcd by fig. 5. where the
letters BS, CC, DD, EE, mark the correfponding
ftrata which have been deranged or difplaced. In the
other kind of vein the mineral fubftances containing the
metallic ores are merely feparated without any eleva-
tion or depreffion ; for each fide of the fiffure ftill re-
maining in its former plane, the oppofite fides of the di-
vided ftrata exadly correfpond to each other. The
mines at Strontian in Argylelhire arc of this latter ds-
fcription.

Veins of this kind have frequently finaller veins, or,
as they are called in the language of the miners, /7/7>/fr,
which run off at an acute angle, preferve their courlb .
far fome diftance, not, in general, very great, gradual-
ly diminidi in thicknefs, and at laft are entirely loft
among the contiguous ftrata. At the place of janclion
the principal vein is aluays thicker, as has been alrea-
dy noticed with regard to the unufual thickne.^s of the
principal vein at Leadhills.

To this account of perpendicular veins we may add,
that fome veins are found crofting each other, and that
whin dykes have alfo been difcovered interfering me-
tallic veins. Examples of the latter occur in the iftand
of Iflay. 1^7

2. Of the pipe vein. — The perpendicular vein laft de-P'Pe vein,
fcribe'l, interfeclcd or cut the ftrata acrofs. What has

been denominated the pipe vein is extremely limited in
the line of bearing, but having the fame inclination as
the ftiata which include it. It may be confidered as in
fome meafure of a circular form, extremely irregular,
and always following the courfe of the ftrata between
which it is included, like the perpendicular veins ;
fometimes as it dips downwards, it is enlarged ; fome-
times it is diminiftied, and fometimes it is fo much con-
tradled, that the including ftrata come into clofe con-
tad. In a word, this kind of vein is fubjecl to all the
irregularities of the veins formerly defcribed, only that
its inclination is invariably the fame with the accompa-
n>ing ftrata. j^g

3 . The fat or dilated vein.—'Yhh kind of metallic Flat vcir j
vein, after what has been faid with regard to other

veins, will require but a ftiort defcription. It is e.'caiEl-
ly fimilar to the pipe vein, only that it is more extend-
ed in the line of be:!ring. It is included between the
horizontal ftrata ; and therefore its inclination or dip
mull be the fame as the including ftrata. A vein of
this kind might ^vith more propriety and accuracy be
regarded as a metallic horizontal ftratum, were it not
4 li ' th.^:'

586 G E O L

General that it is always found varying in its dimeiilions, and
Diftribu- equally irregular as the perpendicular veins which in-
%'l°rlnU ^"^^^ ^^^ horizontal ftrata.

' oUbe ' It is almoft needlefs to add, that the flat or horizon-
tirth, tal veins are fubjefl: to the fame derangement as the

^— -V ' coal ftrata, when they are interfered by a whin dyke.

The vein, along with the including ftrata, is either ele-
vated or depreffed, and the fame thing takes place
when they are tra\'erfcd by a metallic vein.
159 To finifti the Iketch of the hirtory of metallic veins,

Metailic ^^e have only to enumerate the diiierent metallic ores
'-''• that occur in them, and to mention the places where

thefe are found in gteateft abundance. In this enume-
ration we (hall fono\v the arrangement of metals given
by Brochant, in the fecond volume of his Traite Eie-
mer.taire de Mineralogie.

In naming the feveral fpecies, we (hall adopt the no-
menclature of Kirwan, adding the French and German
fynonyras to each. As it would far exceed our limits
to give even a curfory difcriplion of the feveral fpecies,
we refer the reader for that to the article Mineralo-
gy in this work, or to the elementary treStifes of Kir-
^van or Brochant, or the more extenfive treatife of
Hauy.

O G Y.

Chap. li.

160

I. Platina

Plaiina Has been found hitherto only in its metallic or native

""'• ffate, and it has as yet only been met with in South

America, efpecially at Choco in New Grenada. It is

found in the fand of rivulets, and probably comes from

the primitive mountains,

II. Gold.

-. '*' Native gold. — This is found principally in primitive

' mountains, fometimes in veins, and fometimes diffemi-
nated through the ftony matter. The fubfiances which
moft commonly accompany it are quartz, feldfpar, cal-
careous fpar, heavy fpar, pyrites, red lilvcr ore and
vitreous filver ore, and galena. Gold is ftill more com-
monly met with in the fand waflied from certain rivers.
The countries where gold is chiefly found in rocky fub-
ftanccs, are Hungary, Tranfylvania, Peru, Mexico,
Siberia, and Sweden. It has alfo been found in France,
near the to^vn of Oilans, in the department of the Ifere ;
Lut not in fufficient abundance to render the working
0/ the mine profitable. Among the rivers whofe fands
fumifti gold, we may enumerate the Rhine, the Da-
rube, and the Araniofch in Tranfylvania.

Gold has been found in feveral parts of the Britifh
dominions, efpecially at Silfoe in Bedfordfliire, in the
Wicklow hills in Ireland, and in the neighbourhood of
Leadhills in Lanarkthire. It is faid that a jeweller,
who died lately in Dublin, often declared tliat gold,
to the value of 30,000!. had paflcd through his hands,
%vhicb was brought from the Wicklow hills. This
mine is now in the hands of government, but we be-
lieve does not anfwer the expectation thai was firft form-
ed as to its produce. General Dirom in'^orms us, that
in the reign of James V. of Scotland, 300 men were
employed frr feveral fummers in wafhing the fand near
Leadhillp, for gold, of which they are faid to have col-
lefted to the amount of ioo,ocol. fterling. It is faid

, ^, ^.^ that pieces of gold, an ounce in weight, have been

yjirbvBitre ^ound 3t Leadhills, and that Lord Hop' tcun has a

? ij^. ' F"^^ "'li larj^er in his poficfTion *.

III. Mercury.
Native Mercury, or ^licifilv

Species I. Native Mercury, m ^ddjilver. Le Mer- m","!;'^*;'
cure natif. Gediegen (^iieckfilber. — This is found at rfthe
Idria in the Auftrian territories ; at Almaden in Spain, Earth,
at Stahlberg and Mofchellandlberg in the Palatinate, *~~v~— ^
and a few other places. Merc ?

We are told by Mr Jamefon, that a quantity ofc^s""^^
quickfilver was dilcovered fome years ago in a peat
mofs, in the illand of Illay, and he thinks it probable
that veins of it may be ftill found there *. * Min. cf

Species 2. Natural Amalgama. L'Araalgame na- '*' -i*"' '''°''
tif. Naturaliches Amalgam. — This confifts of mercury ''P' '-3'
and filver, in very variable proportions. It is found at
Saldberg in Sweden ; at Rofeneau in Hungary, and ef-
pecially at Molchellandlljerg in the duchy of Deux .
Ponts, where it is found mixed with common ferrugi-
nous clay, and with other ores of mercury.

Species 3. Mercury Mithcralijed hy tlie Sulphuric and
Muriatic ylcids. Mercure Cornee ou Muriate. Q^ueck-
filber Hornerz. — This fpecies was difcovered about 30
years ago, in the mines of Mofchellandfberg, and at
Morefeld, in the duchy of Deux Ponts, by M. Woulfe,
mixed with ferruginous clay, quartz, lithomarga, na-
tive quickfilver, and cinnabar. It has alfo been found
at Almaden in Spain, and at Herfowitz in Bohemia ;
but it is very rare.

Species 4. Native Cinnabar. Le Cinnabre. Zinno-
ber. — This ufually forms a gangart for the other ores
of mercury. It occurs in the ftratiformed mountains,
pretty near the furface. This ore is found in a great
many parts of Europe, efpecially at Almaden in
Spain, Idria in the Auftrian territories, at Mofchel-
landfherg, in Bohemia, in Saxony, in Hungary, in
Tranfylvania, in the Palatinate, and in France j but in
this laft it is found but in fraall quantity.

IV. Silver.

Species l. Native Silver. — A particular variety of Silver oreJi
this fpecies, mixed with gold, is very rare. It is prin-
cipally found in Conigfberg in Norway, and Schlan-
genberg in Siberia. In the former of thefe places it is
found diffeminated through calcareous fpar, fluor fpar,
and rock cryftal, in a vein running through a rock of
hornblende flate, and accompanied with blende, galena,
and pyrites. That of Siberia is found diftributed through
a mats of heavy fpar.

Common native filver is found in confiderable quan-
tity in Mexico and Peru. It is alfo met with in Sibe-
ria, Saxony, France, Sweden, Norway, in the Hartz,
and in Bohemia. It is principally found in the primi-
tive mountains, diftributed through maffes of heavy
fpar, quartz, calcareous fpar, fluor fpar, pyrites, blende,
cobalt, galena, red filver ore, and vitreous filver ore.

Silver has been found in feveral parts of Britain, ef-
pecially near Alva in Scotland. It is confidently af-
firmed, that a mafs of capillary filver, weighing l6oz.
was found in the lead mines at Garthonefs in the ille of
iilay, mixed with galena f. f Min t/

Species 2. Antimoniated Native Silver. L'Argent -5''", vol. s.
Antimonial. Spiefglas Silber. — This fpecies has hi-P-'S^-
therto been only found in the mine at St Wenceilas at
Altwolfach, and in the duchy of Wurtembtrg, in a
vein mixed with calcareour fpar. heavy fpar, native fil-
ver, r.nd <luarlz.

Species

IT. GEO

Species 3. Arfenia'.eil Kative Silver. L' Argent Ar-
fenical. Aifenik Silber. — This is alfo rare, having
° been found only at Andreafhero;, in the Hirtz, and at
KaiTala in Spain. In the Hartz it is mixed with na-
tive arfenic, red filver ore, galena, blende, and calca-
reous Ipar. Confiderable quantities of iilver, probably
of this fpecies of ore, are obtained from the lead ore of
Leadhills.

Species 4. Carneou! Silver Ore, or MitrialeJ Silver.
L' Argent Cornee ou Muriate. Horn Erz. — This has
been found in Peru, Mexico, Saxony, France, Sibe-
ria, and, as is affirmed, in Cornwall in England.

Species 5. Sooty Silver Ore. L' Argent Noir. Sil-
berfchwarze. — This is found in Saxony, France, and
Hungary, mixed with other ores of filver, and foraetimes
with native filver.

Species 6. Vitreous Siher Ore. L' Argent Vitreux.
Silberglaferz. — This is found in Bohemia, Saxony,
Norway, Swabia, Siberia, and in Hungary, mixed
with other filver ores, and ufually accompanying cal-
careous fpar, heavy fpar, and fluor fpar.

Species 7. Red Silver Ore. L' Argent Rouge. Roth-
gittegerz. — This is found in the Hartz, Bohemia,
Saxony, France, Swabia, and in Hungary, accompa-
nying native arfenic, realgar, vitreous filver ore, ga-
lena, calcareous fpar, and heavy fpar.

V. Copper.

Species I . Native Copper. — This is met inth in Sibe-
ria, the Uralian and Altaifchan mountains, Kamtfchat-
ka, Japan, Saxony, France, Sweden, Hungary, Palati-
nate, and near Redruth in Cornwall, in England. It
ufuaUy accompanies other ores of copper, efpecially
malachite and copper azure.

Species 2. Vitreous Copper Ore. Le Cuivre Vitreux.
Kupferglas. — This is found in Siberia, Hungary, Swe-
den, Norway, RufTia, Saxony, Silefia, Hefle, and irt
Cornwall.

Species 3. Furple Copper Ore. La Mine de Cuivre
Violette. Buntkupfererz.-i— This is always found in
the neighbourhood of other copper ores, efpecially with
the fpecies laft mentioned, and with copper pyrites. It
is found in Saxony, Bohemia, the Bannat in Tranfyl-
vania, the Hartz, Norway, RulTia, Sweden, Hunga-
ry, Hefle, and in Derbyfhire in England, efpecially in
the famous Efton copper mine.

Species 4. Yello'.v Pyrites, or Yello'ju Copper Ore.
La Pyrite cuivreufe. Kupferkies. — This is the mofl
common fpecies of copper ore, and is found both in primi-
tive and fecondary mountains, fometimes in beds, and
fometimes in veinc. It occurs moft abundantly in Bo-
hemia, Saxony, Hungary, Sweden, France, Spain, and
efpecially in Britain, where it forms one of the princi-
pal varieties of copper ores, found in the famous Parys
mine in the ille of Anglefea.

Species 5. White Copper Ore. La Mine de Cuivre
Blanche. Weifskupfererz. — This fpecies is very rare,
but it has been found in Saxony in the mines of Frey-
berg, in HelTe, in Wirteraberg, and in Siberia, ivith
other copper ores.

Species 6. Gray Copper Ore. Le Cuivre Gris.
Fahlerz. — This again is a very common fpecies, and is
found in all thofe countries that polTefs mines of cop-
per.

Species 7. Black Copper Ore. Le Cuivre Noir.

LOGY

587

Kupferfchwarze. — This is found mixed with malachite General
and with green and blue copper ores in Saxonv, Hun- Diftriba-
gary, in the Bannat, in Silclia, in Norway, i:'i Rullia, 'j^"t°riab
in Swabia, in Sweden, and in Siberia. It alfo occurs " of the
in the P.uys mine of Anijlefea. «;irth.

Species 8. Florid Red Copper Ore. Mine de Cuivr* -^-v ■*
Rouge. Rffith-kupfererz. — This ufually accompanies
native copper, malachite, and bro^vn earthy iron ore.
It is met with in Saxony, in the Bannat, in the Hartz,
in Norway, in Siberia, near Cologne, and in Corn-
wall.

Species 9. Brick-red Copper Ore. Le Mine de Cuivre
couleur de Brique. Ziegelerz. — Found in fimilar fitu-
ations with the preceding.

Species lO- Blue Calciform Cv^per Ore. L'Azur de
Cuivre. Kupperlazur. — Found in the Bannat, in
H>,lTc, in Saltzburg, in Poland, in Siberia, in Thurin-
gia, and in the Tyrolele. It is ufually imbedded in
flaty marl, or in fandfione, not far below the fuiface
of the earth.

Specias 1 1 . Malachite. — This is always found mixed
with other copper ores, and occurs in moft of the cop-
per mines that have been enumerated.

Species 1 2. Mountain Green. Le Vert de Cuivre,
Kupfergoun. — Tliis commonly accompanies fpecies 4,
6, 9, I o, and II. It is found in Saxony, in the
Hartz, in Nor^vay, Silefia, Siberia, Hungary, Wir-
temberg, and Britain, as at Leadhills and in Derby-
riure.

Species 13. Olive Copper Ore. Mine de couleur O-
live. Oiweiierz. — This fpecies is extremely rare. It
has been found chiefly near Karrarach in Cornwall,
where it is accompanied by fpecies 11 and 12, and
brown iron ore in a gangart of yellow lithoraarga mix-
ed with quartz. It is faid to have been found alfo at
Jonlbach near Ruftelltadt in Silefia.

VI. Iron. ,e;

Species I. Native Iron.-'—TKii fpecies is very uncom-^'"" "''?"
mon ; but it has been met with in feveral places, efpe-
cially at Kamfdorf and Eibenftock in Saxony, at Kranf-
najarlk near Jenifei in Siberia, at Olumba near St Jago
in South America, and OuUe near Grenoble in France.
The two moll remarkable fpecimens of native iron are
thofe found in South America and in Siberia. The
former of thefe forms a mafs weighing at leafl 300
quintals, or 15 tons. It is foft and malleable, and in
every refpecl like the pureft iron. That of Siberia is a
fpheroidal mafs, weighing about 1 4 quintals, refting on
the furface of the earth, near the furamit of a moun-
tain. Its texture is cellular, and its cavities are filled
with a tranfparent, grecnilh, vitreous matter. No
mines or veins of iron are in the neighbourhood of ei-
ther.

Species 2. Martial Pyrites. Pyrite Martiale. Schwe-
felkies. — This fpecies is one of the moft common
ores of iron, and is found abundantly in everj- couinry
where there are any other ores of iron. There are
three varieties of it dcfcribed by Brochant, which are
lefs common, but thefe are alfo found in many places.

Species 3. Magnetic Pyrites. La Pyrite Magnetique.
Mignetkies. — This has been found only in primitive
rocks, efpecially in micaceous fchiftus, accompanied
by quartz, hornblende, &c. and ufually lying in beds
iiiiAcd with other pyrite-. galena, and magnetic iron-
4 £ 2 fione,

588

General

Diftrinu-

tion 01 the

Materials

of the

Eaith.

G E O L

fione. It is found in Saxony, Bavaria, Norway, and
Sikfia.

Species 4. Magnelic Ironjlone. Le Fer Magnetique.
Magnetilcher Eifenllein. — Of this there are three
varieties, the common magnetic ore, which is very com-
B,on in primitive mountains, efpecially thofe that are
cornpofeJ of gneifs and ^micaceous fchillus. It is often
in great abundance, forming large beds, or even whole
mountains. It is found in grcalelt quantity in Saxony,
Bohemia, Italy, Corfica, Silefia, Siberia, Norway, and
efpecially in Sweden. The fecond variety, called fi-
brous m.ignetic ironftone, is uncommon, but is found at
Bibfturg in Sweden. The third, which Kirwan calls
magnetic fond, is found in the banks of fome rivers,
particularly of the Elbe, as alfo in Sweden and Italy,

Species 5. Specular Iron-ore. Le Fer Speculaire.
Eifenglanz. — This is found in many places, often in con-
fiderable quantity, efpecially in Sa.xony, Bohemia,
France, Normandy, PrulTia, Sweden, Siberia, Hungary,
Corfica, and the iiland of Elba. It is generally found
only in primitive mountains, fometimes in beds, fome-
times in veins, accompanied with quartz, hornftone,
martial pyrites, and magnetic iron ore.

Species 6. Red fcalij Iron-ore. La Mine de Fer Rouge.
Roth-Eifenftein. — This is rather rare, but is found in
feveral parts of Sa,xony, in the Hartz, in Naflau, in
Thuringia and Hungary.- Another variety of the fame
fpecies, the compaft red ironftone of Kinvan, is much
more common, being found in Saxony, Bohemia, the
Hartz, Hcfie, Siberia, and in France, fometimes in
veins, and fometimes in bed?, commonly mixed with
the two following fpecies, and with argillaceous iron-
flone, quartz, hornftone, and calcareous fpar.

A third variety, the common hematites or blood-
ftone, which is one of the moft produdlive iron ores, is
always foimd accompanying the laft variety, and is of
courfe met with in moft of the fituations above enume-
rated. It is procured in abundance in feveral parts of
England, as in Derbyfhlre, but more efpecially at
Ulverllon in Lancalbire, w'here there is one perpendi-
cular vein of it 30 yards wide, in a rock of limeftone.
Lai-ge quantities of it are carried to Carron, where it is
fmelted ^vith the common Carron ironftone.

Species 7. Brown Iron ore. La Mine de Fer Erune.
Braun-eillenftein. — Of this there are feveral varieties, of
which the compaft brown ironftone, and the brown hsema-
tites, arc verj' common ; but the brown fcaly iron ore is
rather rare. The laft is found at Kamfdorf in Saxony,
at Klaufthel, in the Hartz, at Lauterick in the Palati-
nate, and at Naila in the principality of Bareith.

Species 8. Calcareous iron ore. Le Fer Spathique,
Spathiger-ejftenflein.— This is found both in primary
and fecondary mountains, and there are few veins of
iron which do not contain it in greater or lefs quan-
tity.

Species 9. Black Iron/lone. La Mine de Fer Noire.
Schwarz-eillenftein.— This is found in the principality
of Bareith, in the Hartz, Saxony, Heffe, and Palati-
nate.

The common argillaceous iron ore of Kirwan, is
rarJ^ed by Brochant a? a variety of this. It is very
common in moft iron countries, and much of it is found
in Britain, efpecially in Colebrook-dale, Shropftiire, and
in D-.an foreft in GloucefttrQiire. The Carron ore is
principally of this kind.

O G Y.

Chap. II.

Species 10. Lowland iron ore. La Mine dc Fer de General
Gazon. Rafen-eifenllein. — There are feveral varieties of I^iftribu-
this, all of which are found in low, humid fituations,
in very extenfive beds, alternating with far.dftone, clay,
Sic. This Ipecies is much more abundant in the north
than in the fouth of Europe, efpecially in the duchy '
of Brandenburg, in Courland, Lithuania, Livonia,
PrufTia, Pruftian Polaiid, and Luface.

Species 1 1 . Blue Martial Earth. Le Fer Terreux
bleu. Blaue-eifenferde. — This is found imbedded in
clay and fimilar earths, and often accompanies the
laft fpecies. It occurs in Saxony, Silefia, Swabia, Ba-
varia, Poland, Siberia, and the Palatinate.

Species i 2. Green Martial Earth. Le Fer Terreux
vert. Grun-eifenerde. — This fpecies is uncommon, hav-
ing been found only at Braunfdorf, and Schneeburg
in Saxony, in veins, accompanying quartz and fulphur
pyrites.

Species 13. Emery. L'Emeril. Schmirgel. — This
is found in Saxony, diftributed in a bed of hardened
fteatites, in fandftone. It is alfo found in Italy, Spain,
Peru, the ifle of Naxos in the Archipelago, where there
is a cape called by the Italians, Capo Smeriglio, or the
Emenj Cape. It is often mixed with particles of mag-
netic iron ore, whence fome have fuppofed the emery to
be magnetic.

VII. Lead.

Species I. La Galene Commune. Gemeiner-Blei- 1^
glanz. — This is the moft common and abundant ore of
lead, and is found both in primitive and fecondary ftra-
ta, in beds and veins, accompanied with quartz, fluor
fpar, calcareous fpar, fparry iron ore, barytic earths,
blende, pyrites, and feveral ores of filver. It is found
in great abundance at Leadhills and at Wanlockhead in
Dumfrieslbire, in Derbyftiire, Strontian in Scotland, and
in the Mendip hills in Somerfetfnire. A variety of
this, called compaft galena, is found in the fame fitua-
tions, efpecially in Derbyftiire. It has often been con-
founded ^vith graphite, or plumbago.

Werner enumerates nearly 20 formations, as he calls
them, of galena, but Mr Jamefon thinks the galena
formation in Dumfriesftiire is different from any of thefe.

Species 2. Blue Lead Ore. La Mine de Plomb Bleue.
Blau-blei-erz. — This fpecies has as yet been found only
at Zfchopau in Saxony, accompan)ing fluor fpar, ba-
rytic fpar, white and black lead, and malaghite.

Species 3. Brown Lead Ore. La Mine de Plomb
Brune. Braun-bleierz. — This fpecies is alfo very rare,
but is found at the fame place with the laft, and alfo in
Bohemia, Britanny and Hungary.

Species 4. Black Lead Ore. La [Mine de Plomb
Noire. Schwarz-bleierz. — This is found in Saxony, at
Freyberg, at Zfchopau, in Cumberland, in fome parts
of Scotland, in Poland, and Siberia.

Species 5. White Lead Ore. La Mine; de Plomb
Blanche. Weifs-bleierz. — This is not a very abundant
fpecies, but it is found in feveral lead mines, efpecially
in Bohemia, Saxony, the Hartz, France, Siberia, Hun-
gary Carinthia, and in fome of the Britifti lead mineSj,
efpecially at Leadhills.

Species 6. Green Lead Ore. Phofphorated lead ore

of Kirwan. La Mine de Plomb Vert. Green-bleierz,

— This is found in veins, more commonly in the pri-

imitive mountains. It is met with in Bohemia, Saxony,

Bavaiia.

Chap. 11.

G --l Bavaria, Siberia, Brifjau, France, Peru, and at Lead-
P'ft^ ' ;- hills in Scotland.

Mate'i'^ls Species T. Re,/ Lea</S/>,-r. Le Plomb Rouge. Ro-
of the thes-bleierz. — This is one of the rareft ores of lead, be-
E.irth. ing as yet only fmnd at Ekatharenburg in Siberia.
*~~v~~~' Species 8. Yeliovi Lead Spar. Le Plomb jaune.
Gelbes-bleierz — This has been known only for a few
years. It has been found at Bleiberg in Carinthia, in
a pangart of calcareous llone. It has alfo been found
near Freyberg in Saxony, at Annaberg in Auftria, and
at Reczbanya in Hungary.

Species 9. Native Vitriol of Lead. Le Vitriol de
Plomb natif. Naturblher-blei-vitriol. — This is found
in the iile of. Anglefea, in a vein of brown iron ore,
mixed with copper pyrites. It is alio found at Lead-
hills in Scotland.

Species lo. Earthy Lead Ore. — Of this there arc two
varieties, the friable ar.d the indurated. The former
is found in Saxony, in Lorraine, in Poland, and Si-
beria, Bohemia, and Silefia. The latter is found in
molt lead mines. Mr Jaraefon notices tivo varieties of
lead earth, which he calls white-lead earth, and friable
lead earth, as met ^vith at Leadhills.

VIII. Tix.

Tin ore?. Species I. Tin Pyrites. La Pyrite d'Etain, Zinnkies.

This fpecies is very rare, and is, we believe, found only
in Cornwall, at Wheal rock, among copper pyrites.

Species 2. Common Tmjlone. La Pierre d'Etain.
Z'mnrtein. — This is is found chiefly in primitive rocks,
as in granite, gneifs, micaceous fchillus, and porphyry,
both In mafles and veins. It is the common ore of
Cornwall, and is found alfo in Saxony, Bohemia, and
the Eaft Indies.

Species 3. Wod Tin Ore. L'Etain greret. Zin-
nerz. — This is found in Cornvjall, in the parilhes of Co-
lomb, St Denis and Roach, accompanying the fot-

IX, Bismuth.
S'tmuth Species J. Native BifmutJi. — Bifmuth is a very rare

cres. metal, but is moft commonly found in its native ftate.

It is ufually in a gangart of quartz, calcareous fpar, and
and barytic fpar. It occurs in Bohemia, in Saxony, in
the territory of Hainault, in Suabia, in Sweden, and in
France, in the mines of Brittany.

Species 2. Sulphurated Bifimith. La Galene de Bif-
muth. Wifmuth Glanz. — This is very rare. It com-
monly accompanies the former, and is found at Joa-
chimrthal, in Bohemia, at Johann-Gcorgen-ftadt,
Schwarzenberg, and Altenberg in Saxony, and at Rid-
derhyttan in Sweden.

Species 3. Bifmuth Ochre. L'Ochre de Bifmuth.
Wifmuth Okker. — This is ftill more rare than the laft,
and is chiefly found near Schneebcrg in Saxony, and
at JoaChimfthal in Bohemia.

X. ZiSc.
Zinc ores. Species'!. Blende. This is fulphurated zinc, and is
one of the moft common ores of that metal. There
arc three varieties ; the brown, the yellow, and the
black. Of thefe the yellow is the moft r.ire,' and is
found in Saxony, in Bohemia, in the Hartz, in Norway,
TranfyJvania, and Hungary. The brovm and the

GEOLOGY.

5«9

black are found in moft of thefe places, and bdides in General
France and England, efpccially in Derbylhire. Uiftribu.

Species 2. Calamine. La Calamine. Galmel.— Of ':^"teria!s
this there are two varieties, compaEi zvAflriatcd. Both of the
occur only in particular ftratiform rocks, often form- E»rtli.
ing entire beds with indurated clay, and calcareous fpar. "— ~y^~^
The latter is ufually found in the cavities of the former.
Both occur in Bohemia, in Carinthia, and in moft of
the German lead mines. They are alio found in Bri-
tain, efpecially at Leadhills, War.lock-head, and in
Derbyftiire.

XL Antimony.

Species I. Native Antimony. — This is very rare. It Artimony
was difcovered at Sahlberg in Sweden, in the year^'*'-
1748, in a gangart of fome calcareous ftotie, and it
was alfo found fome years ago at Allemont in France,
accompanying other ores of antimony and of cobalt.

Species 2. Sulphurated Antimony. L'Antimoine
Gris. Grau-fpies glas-erz. — There are feveral varieties
of this, as the compact fulphurated antimony, found at
Braunfdorf in Saxony ; at Goldgronach in the princi-
pality of Bareith ; at Maguria in Hungary, and Au-
vergne in France: foliated fulphurated antimony, found
at Braunfdorf and Goldgronach, and in the Hartz, and
Tranfylvania : ftriated fulphurated antimony, found in
Saxony, Hungary, France, Swabia, Tufcany, Sweden,
the Hartz, Spain, and in England: plumofe antimonial
ore, found at Freyberg in Saxony, at Braunfdorf and
Stahlberg, and at Chemnitz in Hungary. All thefe
varieties are ufually found in a quartzofe rock.

Species 3. Red Antimonial Ore. L'Antimoine Rouge.
Roth-fpeis glas-erz. — This is found at Braunfdorf, at
Malalka and Kremnitz, in Hungary, and at Allemont
in France. It ufually accompanies the firft and fecond
fpecies,- efpecially at Allemont, or the next fpecies,
whicli jsthe cafe at Braunfdorf,

Species 4. Muriated Antimony. Antimoine blanc.
Weies-fpeis glas-erz. — White antimony is extremely .-
rare ; it is principally found at Przibran in Bohemia,
in quadrangular, fluning tables, difpofed in bundles
upon galena. It is faid alfo to have been foimd at
Braunfdorf and Malafka.

Species j. AiMnonial Ochre. L'Ocre d' Antimoine.
Spies g'as-okker. — This fpecies is alfo very rare ; it is
found at Braunfdorf, near Freyberg, and in Hungary,
always accompanying the fecond and third fpecies.

XII. Cobalt.

Species l. XVldte Cobalt Ore. Le Cobalt blanOi Cobalt ore:.
Weiffer fpeis-kobolt. — This is found in Norway, Swe-
den, at Anaberg in .Saxony, in Swabia and Stiria -, but
it is very rare. In Saxony and in Nonvay, it occurs in
beds of micaceous fchiftus, along with the 7th fpecies,
and with quartz, hornblende, and pyrites.

Species 2. Dull Gray Cobalt Ore. Le Cobalt gris.
Grauer-fpeis-kobolt. — ^This is found in Saxony, Bohe-
mia, France, Norway, Swabii, Hungary, Stiria, and in
a few mines in England. It is fometimes mixed with
ores of filver.

Species 3. Bright Wiite Cobalt Ore. Le Cobalt E-
clatant. Glanz-kobolt. — This is the moft common of
all the ores of cobalt, and almoft always accompanies
the ores of nickel, and of filver. It k found in Bo-

liemia,

59^

GEOLOGY.

Cha

jai:

Gnicr^l hernia, Saxony, Silefia, the Haitz, Heile, Siveden, Swa-
Uian|ni- ijij^ Norway, Stiria, Spain, Thuringia, and in England,
tion ui t c J j^ found in beds in the primitive rocks, and in veins
,f t!,e in the lecondary.

Earth. Species 4. B/aci Cobaft Ochre. Le Cobalt Terrcux

^""■v-— '' noir. Schwarzer-erd-kobolt. — This is found in Sax-
ony, in Thuringia, Swabia, Hcffe, the Palatinate, Saltz-
burp, and in the Tyrol, accompanying other ores of
cobalt, and feverai ores of filver, copper, and iron.

Species 5. Brown Cobalt Ochre. Le Cobalt Terreux
brun. Brauner-erd-kobolt. — This is found in confider-
able quantity at Saalfeld in Thuringia; at Kamsdorf
in Saxony, and at Alperfpach io Wirtemberg, accom-
panying other ores of cobalt.

Species 6. Yellow Cobalt Ochre. Le Cobalt Terreux
me. Geber-erd-kobolt. — This is one of the rarell
; of cobalt. It is fouwd at Saalfield in Thuringia, at
Alperfpach in Wirtemberg, and at Altemont in Dau-
phine in France.

Species 7. Red Cobalt Ore. Le Cobalt Terreux
rouge. Rother-erd-kobolt. This is found in Saxony,
Thuringia, HelTe, Swabia, Bohemia, Allemont in
France, and in Nonvay.

XIIL Nickel.
:. Species I. Sulphurated Niche/. Le Kupfer Nikel.
Kupfer Nikkei. — This is found in veins, both in primitive
and lecondary mountains, almoll always accompanying
fome of the ores of cobalt, to which it feems to bear
fome geological relation. It is alfo found in fome fil-
ver mines. It is met with in Bohemia, Saxony, Thu-
ringia, the Hartz, in Swabia, Hefle, Allemont in
Fiance, Stiria, and in fome parts of Britain. Its ufual
ganaart is quartz, baryticand calcareous fpar.

Species 2. Nickel Ochre. L'Ocre de Nikel, Nik-
kel-okker.— This is found in the fame fituations with the
laft, from a decompofition of which it appears to be
produced.

XIV. Manganese.
Species i . Gray ore cf Mangane/e. Le Manganefe.

• Graubraunflein-crz. — There are feverai varieties of
this, but they are all commonly found near each other,
in veins or in malTes, commonly in the primitive moun-
tains.

They are found in confiderable quantity in many
mines in Saxony, Bohemia, Bavaria, and Hungary.
They are aifo met with in France, and in feverai parts
in Britain, as in Derbyftiire, Leadhills, and Wan-
lockhead ; in the Mcndip hills, and the ifle of Jura.

Species 2. Red Manganefe ore. Le Manganefe
rouge. Roth-Cronftein-erz. This is very rare, but is
found at Katnick, Oflenbanya, and efpecially at Nag-
yag in Tranfylvania, at which laft place it is found in a
gold mine.

XV. MOLYBDENA.
Le Molybdene fulphure. WafTerbley. — This is found

in Bohemia ; at feverai places in Saxony j in Sweden ;
at Tillot in France, and at Chamouni at the foot of
Mont Blanc. It is commonly found in primitive rocks,
efpecially in tin mines.

Molybde-
Ba Olc^

hernia. Saxony, the Hartz, Carinthia, Swabia, Tnin-
fy'vania, and in France. It is always met with in veins,
in primitive mountains, accompanied by realgar, gale-
na, the ores of cobalt and nickel, and feverai ores of
filver.

Species 2. Arfenical Pyrites^ or Marcajite. La Py- '
rite -A.rfenicale. Arfenik-kies. This is found in Bo-
hemia, Saxony, and Silefia, accompanying the common
tin rtone, and galena, with fome other minerals.

Species 3. Realgar. Le Realgar. Raufchgelb. —
This is found in the Bannat, Bohemia, Saxony, Swa-
bia, the Hartz, the Tyrol, Hungary, and in the neigh-
bourhood of volcanoes, efpecially jttna and Vefu\'ius.

Orpiment, which Brochant makes a variety of real-
gar, is found in feverai of the above places, and alfo in
Natolia, in Servia, Tranfylvania, and Wallachia, ufual-
ly accompanying quartz and clay.

Species 4. Native calx ef Arfenic. L'Arfenic oxide
natif. Naturlechur-arfenik-kalk. — This is very rare,
but is found in a fmall quantity in Bohemia and Joachim-
fthal, in Saxony, at Rafchau, at Salatna, in Tran-
fylvania, and in Hungary.

.11,

neral

XVI. Arsexic.
Species 1. Native Arfenic. — This
3

XVII. TuKGSTEy.

Schiverflein. Tungftea

found in Bo

Species I . Tungflen. Le Tungftene
— This is a very rare mineral, but is found at Schlack- ores,
enwald in Bohemia, at Ehrenfriederdorf in Saxony, and
at Riddarkytten, Bifhurg in Sweden, ufually accom-
panying quartz, mica, talc, and tin ore.

Species 2. Wolfram. — This is alfo pretty rare, but Is
found in Bohemia, Saxony, and at Poldice in Corn-
wall.

XVIIL Uranium.

S^tcKi I. Sulphurated Vranite. L'Urane noir. Pe-uramu3»
cherz. — This is found at Joachimflhal in Bohemia, and ores,
at Johann-Georgen-Stadt, and Schneiberg in Saxony,
accompanying the two following fpecies, and lead and
copper ores.

Species 2. Micaceous Vranitic ore. L'Urane Micace.
Uran-glimmer. — This is found in the Bannat, Saxony,
Wirtemberg ; near Autun in France, and near Karra-
rach in Cornwall.

Species 3. Uranitic ochre. L'Ocre d'Urane. Uran-
okher. This has been found at Joachimfthal in Bohe-
mia, and at JohanGeorgen-Stadt in Saxony, but it is
uncommon.

XIX. Titanium,

Species 1. Menahanite. — This has been found chiefly Titanium
near Menakan in Cornwall. ores.

Species 2. Titanite. Le Ruthile. Ruthil. — This
is found at Boinik and Rhonitz in Hungary j in New
Caftile in Spain ; at Afchaffenbourg in Franconia ; at
St Yrieux in France, and in Mount St Gothard, and
fome other places in the Alps.

Species 3. Titanitic Siliceous ore. Le Nigrine. Ni-
grin.— This has been found near St Gothard in the
Alps, at Ohlapian in Tranfylvania, &C.

XX. Tellurium.

Species I. Sylvanite. Le Sylvane natif. Gedie- ''^^
gen Sylvan. — Tiiis is found chietly at Fatzeborg in Tran- ^res."'
iylvania, but is now become extremely rare. It occurs

Chap. III.

GEOLOGY.

Theories ofjn beds o/ gray wacke and fecondary (or tranfition)
»"g ^^"■^- limeaone.

' Species 2. Le Sylvane graphkjue. Sl-.rifterz.

—This is found at Offenbanya in Tranfylvanis, in a
bed of porphyrilic fienete, and granular limeftone.

Species 3. — — — Le Sylvane blanc. Weifs-Syl-
vanerz. — This was brought to Brochairt from Freyberg
in Saxony.

Chap. III. 0/ the-tnoji Remarkable Theartes of the
Earth.

©bjeil of A LATE writer confiders the proper objefl of a theory
theories of of the earth, to be the tracing the feries of thofe revolu-
the earth. {Jq^s which have taken place on the furface of the
earth ; to explain their caufes, and thus to conneft to-
gether all the indications of change that are found in the
mineral kingdom. Hejuflly obferves, that the forma-
tion of fuch a theory requires an accurate and extenfive
examination of the phenomena of geology, and that it
is inconflflent v.ith any, but a very advanced ftate of
the phyfical fciences. There is perhaps no refearch in
thofe Iciences more arduous than this ■, none where the
fubjeA is fo complex, where the appearances are To di-
verfiiied, or fo widely fcattered ; and where the caufes
that have operated are fo remote from the fphere of or-
• Playfd'irs dinary obfervation *.

tlluf.rutUns- With fuch requifites, and under fuch difficulties,
it is not furprifing that fo many who have aimed
at conftructing theories of the earth, have faikd in
the attempt^ It certainly requires a prodigious ac-
cumulation of fafts, together with a talent for obfer-
vation, and for arrangement, which are feldom found
tinited. We (hall prefently fee how far thofe theo-
ries which have hitherto been framed to account for
the changes that the earth has undergone, have been
fuccefsfuL

It is not, however, to be fuppofed, that a corre£l
theory of the earth is irapoffible, though fome may
think it an arrogant, if not a prefumptuous undertaking,
to attempt explaining how the prefent ftate of the globe
and the revolutions which it has undergone, were
brought about. The time is perhaps not far diftant
when the prefent prevailing hypothefis will be i;r.-
proved into a rational, and fo far as is confiftent with
the knowledge and acquirements of man, a perfefl
fyrtem.

Dr Kirwan has laid down certain laws of reafoning ;
which (hould be adhered to inviolably in inveftigations
cf this kind. The firft is, that no effed (hould be at-
tributed to a caufe whofe known properties are inade-
<iuate to its produftion. The fecond is, that no caufe
(hould be adduced, whofe exiftence is not proved either
by actual experience or approved tcftimony. Many na-
tural phenomena have arifen or do arife, in times or
places fo diftant, that well conditioned teftimony con-
cerning them cannot, without manifeft abfurdit)', be re-
jected. Thus the inhabitants of the northern parts of
Europe, who have never felt earthquakes, nor fcen vol-
tanoe<^, muft neverthelefs admit, from mere teftimony,
that the frft have been, and that the ferond do adual-
ly «xift. The third is, that no powers (liould be afcribed
to an allcdged caufe, but thofe that it is known by
a<flual oLfcrvation to poffcfi in appropriated •:iicv.!a-
ftancts -f .

SlXT. I. Theory of Burnet.

The firft who formed this amufement of earth-making xheor' of
into a fyftem, was the celebrated Thomas Burnet; aBumct."
man of polite learning, and rapid imagination. His
/acred theory, as he calls it, defcribing the changes
which the earth has undergone, or (hall hereafter un-
dergo, is well known for the ^varmth with which it is
imagined, and the weaknefs with which it is reafoned }
for the elegance of its ftyle, and the meannefs of its
philofophy. The earth, fays he, before the deluge, was
very differently formed from what it is at prefent ; it
was at firft a fluid mafs ; a chaos compofed of various
fubftances, differing both in denfity and figure ; thofe
which were heavieft funk to the centre, and formed In
the middle of our globe a hard folid body ; thofe of a
lighter nature remained next ; and the waters, which
were lighter ftill, fwam upon its furface, and covered
the earth on every fide. The air, and all thofe fluids
which were lighter than water, floated upon this alfo, •
and in the fame manner encompaffed the globe ; fo that
between the furrounding body of waters, and the cir-
cumambient air, there was formed a coat of oil, and o-
ther uncluous fubftances, lighter than water. However,
as the air was ftill extremely impure, and muft have
carried up with it many of thofe earthy particles with -
which it once was intimately blended, it foon began to
defecate, and to depofe thefe particles upon the oily
furface already mentioned, which foon uniting, the
earth and oil formed that cruft which foon became an
habitable furface, giving life to vegetation, and dwell--
ing to animals.

This imaginary antediluvian abode was very diiTerent
from what we fee it at prefent. The earth was light
and rich, and formed of a fubftance entirely adapted to
the feeble ftate of incipient vegetation j It was a uni-
form plain, everyivhere covered with verdure, without
mountains, without feas, or the fmalleft Inequalities. It
had no difference of feafons, for its equator was in the
plane of the ecliptic, or. In other words, it turned di-
reftly oppoCte to the fun, fo that It enjoyed one perpe-
tual and luxuriant fpring. However, this delightful
face of nature did not long continue in the fame ftate,
for, after a time, it began to crack and open in fiflurcs :
a circumftance which always fucceeds when the fun ex-
hales the molfture from rich or marfhy Ctuatlons. ' The
crimes of mankind had been for fome time preparing to
draw down the wrath of heaven ; and they at length
induced the deity to defer repairing thofe breaches in '

nature. Thus the chafms of the earth every day be-
came wider, and, at length, they penetrated to the
great abyfs of waters, and the -.vhole earth in a manner
fell in. Then enfiied a total dlforder in the uniform
beauty of the firft creation, tlie terrene furface bting
broken down ; as it funk, the waters guftied out in its
place ; the deluge became unlverfal ; all mankind, ex-
cept eight perfons, were deftroyed, r.nd their poritray
condemned to toil upcn the rains of defolated nature.

It remains to mention the manner in which he re-
lieves the earth from tliis unlverfal wreck, which Vvould
fr'.m to be as difficult as even its firft fomiation,
Thefe great malTes of earth falling into the abyfs, drew
down with them vaft quantities of air ; and by daft;-
ing agalnll e-ch other, and breaking into linall part?

50 J G E O L

•rheoi.esof by the violence of tlic (hock, they at length left be-
tlieEanli. t^.gg^ {^^^ large cavities filled with nothing but air.
"• Thefe cavities naturally offered a bed to receiTC the
influent waters ; and in proportion as they filled, the
face of the earth became once more vifible. The
higher parts of its broken furface, no%v become the tops
of mountains, were the firll that appeared ; the plains
ioon after came forward, and at length the whole globe
was delivered from the waters, except the places in the
lowell fituations ; fo that the ocean and the feas are
ftill a part of the ancient abyfs that have not had a
place to return to. lOands and rocks are fragments of
the earth's former crufl ; kingdoms and continents are
larger maffes of its broken fubftance ; and all the inequa-
lities that are to be found on the furface of the prefent
earth, are owing to the accidental confufion into which
both earth and waters ivere then throun.

Sect. II. Theory of Woodward.
__ in
Theory of The nest who attempted a theory of the earth was
■^•/oodwarc!. ivir Woodward, who in his elTay towards a natural
hiftory of the earth, endeavoured to give what he con-
fiderea as a more rational account of its appearances
than had been given by any preceding writer. He was
indeed much better qualified for fuch an undertaking
than any of his predeceflbrs, as he was one of the moft
induftrious naturalifts of his time. Hence though his
fyftem muft be confidered as weak and untenable, his
work contains many important fafb relating to natural
hiftory.

Woodward fets out by afferting that all terreftrial
fubftances are difpofed in beds of various natures, lying
horizontally, one over the other, like the coats of an
onion, and that they are replete with Ihells and other
marine produftions ; thefe ihells being found in the
deepeft cavities, and on the tops of the higheft moun-
tains. From thefe obfervations, which ^vere warranted
by the experience of naturalifts at tliat time, but which
we now know not to be univerfally corretl, he proceeds
to remark that thefe (hells and extraneous folhls are not
produftions of the earth, but are all aftual remains of
thofe animals which they are kno%vn to referable ; that
all the beds of the earth lie below each other in the
order of their fpecihc gravities, and that they are dif-
pofed as if they had been left in this fituation by fub-
fiding waters. All this is affirmed with much eameft-
nefs, although many of the circuraftances are contra-
diaed by daily experience. Thus, we not'unfrequent-
ly meet with layers of Rone above the lighteft foils,
and find the fofteft earth below a ftratum of hard ftone.
Wood\vard, however, having taken for granted, that
all the ftrata of the earth are arranged in the order of
their^ fpecific gravities, the lighteft at the top, and the
heavicft near the centre, he deduces as a natural con-
fequence, that all the fubftances of which the earth is
compofed %vere once in an aflual ftate of folution. This
univcrfal folution he conceives to have happened at the
time of the flood. He fuppofes that at that time a
body of water, which was then in the centre of the
earth, uniting with that which was found on the fur-
face, fo far feparated the terrene parts as to mix all to-
gether m one fluid mafs ; the contents of which after-
wards finking according to their refpeflive gravities,
produced the prefent appearances of the earth. Being
3

O G Y. Chap. HI.

aware, however, of an objection that foflU fubftances Theories of
are not found diffolved, he exempts them from this '''^ Earth.
univerfal diflblution, and for that purpofe, endeavours ^"""^'"'"'^
to ftiew that the parts of animals have a ftronger cohs-
fion than thofe of minerals ; and that, while even the
hardeft rocks may be diffolved, bones and fliells may
ftill continue entire.

Sect. III. Theory ofr//ilJlo

I S3

Of all the theories of the earth that have been The
formed, pre^■ious to thofe of Hutton and Werner, none VVhifton.
has been more applauded or more oppofed than that of
Whifton. Nor is this furprifing ; for this theory being
fupported with all the parade of mathematical calcula-
tion, confounded the ignorant, and produced the ap-
probation of fuch as defired to be thought learned,
fince it implied a confiderable knowledge of abftraft
fcience, even to be capable of comprehending what the
writer aimed at. It is not eafy to divert this theory of
its mathematical garb, but the refult of our philofo-
pher's reafoning appears to be as follows.

He fuppofes the earth to have been originally a
comet, and he confiders the hiftory of the creation, as
given us In fcripture, to have its commencement juft
^vhen it W'as, by the hand of the Creator, more regular-
ly placed as a planet in our folar fyftem. Before that
time, he fuppofes it to have been a globe without beau-
ty or proportion J a world in diforder, fubjeft to all the
viciflitudes which comets endure ; fome of which have
been found, at different times, a thoufand times hotter
than melted iron ; at others, a thoufand times colder
than ice. Theie alternations of heat and cold, conti-
nually melting and freezing the furface of the earth, he
fuppofes to have produced, to a certain depth, a chaos
entirely rcfembling that defcribed by the poets, fur-
rounding the folid contents of the earth, %vhich ftill
continued unchanged in the midft, making a great
burning globe of more than two thoufand leagues in
diameter. This furrounding chaos, however, was fat
from being folid; he compares it to a denfe though fluid
atmofphere, compofed of fubftances mingled, agitated,
and ihocked againft each other ; and in this diforder
he defcribes the earth to have been juft at the eve of
creation.

But upon its orbit being then changed, when it was
more regularly ^vheeled round the fun, every thing
took its proper place, every part of the furrounding
fluid then fell into a fituation, in proportion as it was
light or heavy. The middle or central part, which al-
ways remained unchanged, ftill continued fo, retaining
a part of that heat which it received, in its primeval
approaches towards the fun ; which heat he calculates,
may continue for about fix thoufand years. Next to this
fell the heavier parts of the chaotic atmofphere, which
ferve to fuftain the lighter ; but as in deicending they
could not entirely be feparated from many watery parts'
with which they were intimately mixed, they drew
down a part of thefe alfo with them ; and thefe could
not mount again after the furface of the earth was con-
folidated ; they therefore furroundcd the heavy firft de-
fcending parts, in the fame manner as thefe furround
the central globe, Thu?;, the entire body of the earth
is compofed internally of a great burning globe, next
which is placed an heavy terrene fubftance that encoiu-

paJTes

Chap. TIT,

G E O I

Then'ic; I ! palTos it, round wliich alto ;s circumfured a body of
tht: Earth, water. Upon this body ot water, the crxiii of the
*'""*"""' earth on which we dwell is p'riced, fy that, according
to him, the globe is compoled of a number of coats, or
(hells, one witiiin the other, all of difterent deniitics.
The body of the earth being thus formed, the air,
which is the lighteit iabftance of all, furrounded its
lurface, and the beams of the lun darting through,
produced that light which, we are told, firll obeyed the
Creator's command.

The whole economy of the creation beins; thus ad-
jufted, it only remained to account for the rilings and
depreffions on the fiu-face of the earth, with li-;e other
feeming irregularities of its prefent appearance. The
hills and valleys are conlidered by him as formed by
their prefling upon the internal fluid, which fuftains the
outward ilieil of earth with greater or lefs weight; thofe
parts of the earth which are heavieft, fink into the fub-
jacenlF rluid more deeply, and become valleys ; thofe
that are lighter, rile highell upon the earth's i'urface,
and are called mountains.

Such was the face of nature before the deluge ; the
earth was then more fertile and populous than it is at
prefent ; the life of man and animals was extended to
ten times its prefent duration ; and all thofe advantages
aiofe from the fuperior heat of the central globe, which
ever fmce has been cooling. As its heat was then in
fuil power, the genial principle was alio much greater
than at prefent , vegetation and animal increafe we

carried on with more vi

■igour ;

and all nature feeraed

teeming with the feeds of life. But thefe phyfical ad-
vantages were only productive of moral evil ; the
warmth which invigorated the body, increafed the paf-
fions and appetites of the nind ; and as man became
more powerful, he grew lefs innocent. It was found
neceflfary to puni.Tj this deprawy ; snd all living crea-
tures were overwhelmed by the deluge in univerfal de-
liruftion.

This deluge, which firaple believers are willing to
afcribe to a miracle, philofophers have been long de-
firous to account for by natural caufes. They h.ave
proved that the earth could never fupply from any re-
fervoir towards its centre, nor the atmofphere by any
difcharge from above, fuch a quantity of water as would
cover the furface of the globe to a certain depth over
the tops of our highert mountains. Where, therefore,
■was all this water to be tound ? Whidon has found
enough, and more than a futhciency, in the tail of a
comet J for he feems to allot comets a very aclive part
in the great operations of nature.

He calculates with great feeming precilion> the year,
the month, and the day of the week on which this
comet (whi»h has paid the earth fome viilts iince,
though at a kinder diftance) involved our globe in its
tail. The tail he fuppofed to be a vaporous fluid fub-
'.tance, exhaled from the body of the comet, by the
extreme heat of the fun, and increaling in proportion
iS it approached that great luminary. It was in this
that our globe was involved at the time of the deluge ;
and as the earth ftill acted by its natural attraflion,
:t drew to itfelf all the watery vapours which were in
the comet's tail j and the internal waters being alfo at
the fame ti.me let loofe, in a very fhort fpacc the tops
0! the higheft mountains were laid under the deep.

The punifhment of the deluge being thus completed
Vol. IX. Part 11.

, O G Y. 593

and all the guilty deftroyed, tLe ei.th, which had been Theories of
broken by the eruption of the internal waters, was alfo '""^ i^^'^'H.
enlarged by it ; lb that upoo the comet's reccfs, there '
was found room fufficient iji the internal abyls for the
rccefs of the fupcrfluous waters, whither they all re-
tired, and left the earth uncovered, but in fome refpecls
changed, particularly in its figure, which, from being
round, was now become oblate. In this univerfal
wreck of nature Noah fu! vived, by a variety of happy
caufes, to repeople the earth, and to give birth to a
nee of men llov.- in believing ill-imagined theories of
the earth.

Sect. IV. neori/ ofEuffon.

Less abilrafted and more popular than the theory of Theory of
Whillon, but equally fanciful and pompous, was the Buffon.
hypotheiis of BufFon. This fyftem, which was receiv-
ed with great admiration, depends principally on two
facls which, though generally true, were by Buffon
extended much too far.

It had been long obferved, that fuch flinty or fili-
ceous bodies as form a part of the compofition of glafs,
are among the moft abundant materials which compofe
the earth, and that many of them nearly refemble glafs
in colour, tranfparency, luftre, hardnefs, and fpecific
gravity. As glafs is produced by fufion in a ftrong
heat, it was inferred by Button, that the tiinty bodies
found on the earth derived their origin from a fimilar
fafion ; and as no heat fufficient to produce fo great ar.
effeft, could be found on our globe, the author has
recourfe to the fun as its fource. He fuppofes the
planets, and the earth among the number, to have ori-
ginally formed a part of the body of the fun. In this
fituation a comet falling in on that great body, might
have given it fuch a ihock, and (o ihaken its %vholc
frame, that lome of its particles might have been driven
off, like ftreaming fparkles from red-hot iron ; and each
of thefe Hreams of fire, though very Imall in comparifon
of the fun, might have been large enough to form a
planet much greater than our earth, or any other of
the planetary lyilem. In this manner the planets, to-
gether with the globe which we inhabit, might have
been driven off from the body of the fun by impulfion j
and in this way they ivould have continued to recede
from it for ever, had they not been arretted by the fu-
perior power of attradion, e.terted on them by the fun \
and thus, by the combination of the centrifugal and
centripetal forces, they were whirled round in the or.
bits which they now defcribe.

After giving a number of reafons for the credibility, or
at leall poffibility, of the foregoing fuppoCtion, the author
concludes that it is evident, that the earth affumed its
prefent figure when in a melted (late. It is natural to
think, fays he, that the earth, when it iflued from tfie
fun, had no other form but that of a torrent of melted
and inflamed matter ; that this torrent, by the mutual
attraition of its parts, took on a globular figxue, which
its diurnal motion changed into a fpheroid ; that, when
the earth cooled, the vapours, wliich were expanded hk^
the tail of a comet, gradually condenfed, and fell down
in the form of water upon the furface, depofiting at tlie
fame time a flimy fubllance mixed with fulphur and
falts, part of which was carried by the motion of the
waters into the perpendicular filTures of the ftrata, and
4 F produced

594 G E O L

Theories of produced snetals, and tfie reft remained on the Turfacc,
the Eaiih. ^^j g^yg ^\(^ jq ^^e vegetable mould which abounds in
* different places, vvit'i more or lefs of animal or vege-

table particles, the organization of which is not obvious
to the fenfes.

Thus the interior parts of the globe were originally
eompofed of vitrified matter, and probably they are To
at prefent. Above this were placed thofe bodies which
had been reduced by the heat to the fmalleft pnrticles,
as fand, which are only portions of glals, and above
thefe pumice flunes, and the fcorii* of melted matter,
from which were afterwards produced the feveral kinds
of clay. The whole mafs was covered with water to
the depth of fi%'e or fix hundred feet, arifing from the
condenfation of the vapours when the earth began to
cool. This water depofited a ilratum of mud, mixed
with all thofe fubftances ^vhich were capable of being
fublimed, or exhaled by fire ; and the air was formed
of the mail fubtile vapours, which, from their fmall fpe-
cific gravity, floated above the water.

Such was the condition of the earth, when the tides,
the winds, and the heat of the fun, began to introduce
changes on its furface. The diurnal motion of the
earth, and that of the tides, elevated the waters in the
equatorial regions, and neceffarily tranfported thither
great quantities of iliiae, clay, and fand ; and by thus
elevating thofe parts of the earth, they perhaps funk
thole under the poles about two leagues, or a 230th
part of the whole ; for the waters would eafily reduce
into powder pumice fiones, and other fpongy parts of
the vitrified matter upon the furface ; and by this means
excavate feme places and elevate others, which, in
time, would produce iflands and continents, and all
thofe inequalities on the furface, which are more con-
fiderable towards the equator than towarsU the poles.
The higheft mountains lie between the tropics and the
middle of the temperate zones, and the lowed from the
polar circles towards the poles. Indeed, both the land
and lea have mort inequalities between the tropics, as, is
evident from the incredible number of iQands peculiar
to thefe regions.

The other circumftance which forms a principal part
of the bafis of this theory, is derived from the compofi-
tion of fea fliells. It is well known, that thefe Jhells
ccnfift chiefly of an earth like that which conflitutes
the principal part of linieftone or marble ; and it was
hence inferred that, after a fcrics of ages, thefe (hells
being broken down into minute particles, produced
thofe immenfe maffes of calcareous fubllances which are
now found either in vail mountains, or in flratified plains,
in almoft every part of the earth.

BufFon conceives very naturally, that the furface of
the earth muft, at the beginning, have been much lefs
foHd than it is at prefent, and confequently the fame
caufes which nt this day produce but flight changes,
muft then, on fo yielding abody, have been attended
with very confiderable offe£ls. There is, he thinks,
«very reafon to fuppofe, that the earth was at that time
covered with the waters of the fea ; and that thefe wa-
ters were above the tops of our higheft mountains, fince,
<?ven in fuch elevated iituations, we find ftiells and other
marine produflions in very great abundance. It ap-
pears alfo that the fea continued for a confiderable time
upon the face of the earth •, for as thefe layers of (hells
m found fo very frequently at fuch great depths, and

O G Y. Chap. IIL

in fuch prodigious quantities, it fccms impoflible for'fheoiiesof
fuch numbers to have been fuppoited all alive at one t''e£.iith.
time ; fo that they muft have been brought there bv '
fucceffive depofitions. Thefe (hells alfo are found in
the bodies of the hardeft rocks, where they could not
have been depofited all at once, at the time of the del-
luge, or at any fuch inftant revolution ; fince that would
be to fuppofe, that all the recks in which they are found
were, at that inftant, in a ftate of di'Jolution, which would
be abfurd to aSert. The fea, therefore, defonted them
wherever they are new to be found, and that by flow
and fucceflive degrees.

" It will appear alfo, that the fea covered the whole
earth, from the appearance of its layers, which lying
regularly one above the other, kem all to referable
the fediment formed at different times by the ocean.
Hence, by the irregular force of its waves and its cur-
rents, driving the bottom into fand-banks, mountains
muft have been gradually formed within this uKivcrfal
covering of waters ; and thefe fucceftively raifing their
heads above its furface, muft, in time, have formed the
higheft ridges of mountains upon land, together with
continents, iflands, and low groun:!?, all in their turns.
1 his opinion will receive atlditional weight by confi-
dering, that in thofe parts of the earth, where the |.ower
of the ocean is -greateft, the inequalities on the furface
of the earth are higheft ; the oceai.'s power is greateft
at the equator, where its winds r.nd tides are moft con-
ftant ; and in fail;, the mountains at the equator are
found to be higher than in any other parts of the world.
(Vid. N" 1 29.) The fea, therefore, has produced the
principal changes in our earth ; rivers, volcanoes, earth-
quakes, ftorms, and rain, having made but flight alter-
ations, and only fuch as have affefted the globe to very
inconliderable depths."

" In the formation of this theory, fays Mr Kinvan, jgj
genius ( I mean genius in its primitive fenfe, the fu-
blime talent of fafcinating invention, and not the ener-
getic power of patient, profound, and fagacious invefti-
g'stion,) unhappily prefided. Yet dazzled by the fplen-
did but delulive fcenery, prefented by an ardent imagi-
nation foaring to the fource of light, and rending from
its flaming orb the planetary maffes that furround it ;
then marking w'ith daring r.nd overweening confidence,
fancied fucceffive epochs of the confolidated fabric of
the terraqueous globe ; the public attention was long
arrefted by the magical reprefentation, and the under-
Handing nearly betrayed into a partial, if not a total, af-
fent to it.

" This proud gigantic theory was, however, like an-
other Goliath, foon demoliihed by a comnron flint or
pebble, the very fubftance it fprung from. Common
glafs effenlially contains an alkaline fait, to which
alone it owes its fufibility ; filiceous fubftsnces contain
none, and are abfolutely infufible ivhen unaffociated
with any. Macquer found them infufible not only in
furnaces, but in the ftill incomparably fuperior heat of
inflamed oxygen. Hence the hypothefis grounded on
the affumed identity of thefe fubftances and common
glafs, vaniflied like the unembodicd vifions of the night.
\Vith refpcft to limeftone, the other pillar on which
this theory refts, Cronfted, Ferber, Born, Arduini, and
Bergman, demonftrated the exiftence of numerous and
immenfe mountains, in which not only no velliges of
fliells could be traced, but whofe internal ftrufture of

pofition

Chap. IIT.

G E O L

Thcoi £5 ofpolkton was incompatible t'^ith the fuppofition of an ori-
the Earth, ginatioa thence derived." •

Cnhricjl Sect. V. Theory ofWhitehurJl,

Spy'--

iS'j The firrt perfon who founded a theory of the earth

Theorr of on accurate and indullrious obfervation was the late

■Whitehurft jyjj. j^hn Whitehurlt, who, in an inquiry into the orijji-
nal llate and formation of the earth, has advanced opi-
nions which differ confiderably horn thofe of preccdin;;
naturalii^s, and in fome meafures refemble thofe which
are at prefent in greatefl repute.

Mr Whitehurll fets out with dating his opinion, that
the terraquous globe, which we now inhabit, was origi-
nally in a riuid it ate, and this, not from any folvent
principle or lubfequent folution, but owing to the firll
aflemblage of its component parts ; whence he prefuraes
that the earth had a beginning, and has not cxirted
from eternity. He refts his proof of this original fluid
ftate of the earth on its fpheroldai form, which a fluid
globe in its revolution would naturally acquire, but
which could not eafily be produced in a folid body.
The fluidity of the earth and the infinite divilibility
of matter, an opinion which generally prevailed at that
time, prove, according to him, that the component parts
of the elements were uniformly blended together, none
being heavier or lighter than another ; hence they com-
pofe a uniform mafs of equal conilftence throughout,
from the furface to the centre, and confequently the
new formed globe was not adapted to the fupport of
anim^ or vegetable life. It would therefore be abfurd
to luppofe, that organized bodies were created during
the chaotic ftate of the earth ; and there is a great
prefumption that mankind were not created till the
earth was become fuitable to the nature of their ex-
iftence.

The component parts of the chaos were heteroc;ene-
ous, and endowed \vith peculiar chemical affinities,
whereby fimilar fubftances were difpofed to unite and
form felecl bodies of various denominations , and thus
the chaos was progreflively formed into a habitable
world.

The Srft operation of nature which prefents itfelf to
our confideration is the produdlion of the fpheroidal
figure of the earth, acquired from its diurnal rotation,
and the laws of gravity, fluidity, and centrifugal force.
When this form was once completed, the component
parts began to afl on each other according to their af-
finities : hence the particles of earth, air, and water,
united to thofe of their own kind, and with their union
commenced their fpecific gravities ; and the uniform fuf-
penfion which had hitherto prevailed throughout the
whole of the chaotic mafs, was deflroyed.

On the component parts feparating into homogeneous
maflfes, thofe of the greatell denfity began to approach
towards the centre of gravity, and thofe of the greateft
levity afcended towards the lurface. As the fpecific
gravity of air is fo much lefs than that of water, it
is prefumed that the former efcaped from the general
mafs fooncr than the latter, and formed an impure at-
mofphere furrounding the newly-formed globe. Water
being next in levity, fucceeded the air, and formed one
vaft ocean about the earth. In procefs of time thefe
elements became perfectly pure, and fit for the preferva-
tion of animal and vegetable life.

O G Y. . 595

When the component parts of the chaos had been llif ones of
thus progreflively Separated, and colletled into diftinft the Eanb.
mafles, the following confequenccs are fuppofed to have '
enfued. The folids could not uniformly fublide from
every part of the furface, and be equiHy covered by
Water} for, as the.fun and moon were coeval with the
chaos, in proportion as the feparation of the folids and
fluids increa'.cd, fo, by the action of thofe bodies on the
fea, the tides became greater, and removed the folids from
place to place, without any order or regularity. Hence
the fea became unequally deep j and thofe inequalities
daily increafing, dry land gradually appeared, and di-
vided the waters wiiich had hitherto been univerfally
diffiifed over the caith. The primitive iilands being
thus formed, gradually became firm and dry, and fit for
the reception of animals and vegetables,

Tlie atmofphere, the fea, and the land, being thus
formed, Mr Whitehurft proceeds to confider the order in
which animal and vegetable bodies were fcverally
created. He firft fuppofes that, as the ocean became
pure, and fit for animal life, before the formation of the
primitive iilands, fifli were the firft animals produced,
and he fupports this opinion by many ingenious argu-
ments and fafts. He obferves, that in every inftance
upon record, the fragments of fea-lhells are infinitely
more numerous than the bones and teeth of fifh. The
latter, too, are but rarely depofited in any other matter
than in beds of fimd and gravel, and not in the folid
fubllance of Ivmeflone, as the fliells of fifli generally are,
even to the depth of many hundred yards, and difperfed
throughout the whole extent of the fecondary ilrata.
Hence it is probable, that fliell-fi'h were produced in
prodigious quantities, fooner than any other kind of
animal. The ocean being thus flocked with inhabi-
tants, previous to the formation of the primitive iilands,
many of them became enveloped, and were buried in
the mud by the aclion of the tides; and this would
happen more particularly to the fliell-filh, as they were
lefs able to extricate themfelves. Since the remains of
marine animals are thus imbedded at various depths in
the earth, there is fuflicifnt proof that thefe marine
bodies were entombed at fucceffive periods of time,
and that they were liken-ife created before the primi-
tive iflands, and confequently before any terreftrial
iilands.

That the earth has, at different times, fuffcrcd very
violent convulfions, producing extenfive ruptures of its
folid parts-, may reafonably be concluded from the
rugged and uncouth appearance of many of the moun-
tainous parts of the world. We fee rocks in iome
places torn afundcr, or appearing as if cut with a iaw%
and we find, in various parts, fubftances both mineral
and organized, which are not generally met with, ex-
cept in very dirtant regions. Moft of the irregularities
of the earth's furface are attributed by Mr Wliitehurft
to the general deluge. This would, in fome inllances,
have the effect of reducing large mafles of matter to a
fccond ftate of folution ; many eminences would be le-
velled, and fome of the valleys would be filled up,
while fome parts which were before covered with water,
might receive fuch an acceflion of matter as to fill u{f
their ca\-ities, and on the fubfiding of the waters become
a vaft level plain. On the other hand, thofe elevated
regions which were chiefly compofed of the hardeft
ftones, by having the lighter portium of earth waflied
4 r a ivvay

LOGY. Chap. in.

differ in quality ; yet they follow each otlicr in regular Theories of
fucceflion, both as to tbicknefs and quality, infomuch, tUeEarth.
that by knowing the incumbent ftralum, together with '

with the arrangement thereof in any particular part of
the earth, we may come to a pcifeft knowledge of all
the inferior beds, fo far as they have been previouily
difcovered in the adjacent country. With refped to
the ftrata that accompany coal, forae inftances are ap-
parently, but not really, contradiftory to this rule.
We noxv know, however, that Mr Whitehurft's ob-
' ' ' ' mines

GEO

faway from their bafis, would appear confiderably In-
creal'ed in height. Mr Whitehurft attributes the pro-
du<flion of pit-coal alfo to the deluge, as it is difficult to
account for the depofition of fuch a quantity of vege-
table matter (fuppofing pit-coal to be of vegetable
origin) below the i'urface of the earth, on any other
hypothefis. The animal matters found in a fofiil ftate,
efpecially thofe remains of animals which^are not now
found upon the earth, can only be accounted for, on the
luppofition of a deluge.

Mr Whitehurft, however, is not content with attri- fervations do not univerfally apply. In the old
outing to the deluge moft of the changes which have in the valley of Planen, in Saxony, the ftrata, though
taken place on the furface of the earth, but he derives they are near each other, vary confiderably in thickneis,
from the fame fource the curtailed longevity of man, from that of a few inches to feveral feet, and the ftratura
and many of the evils incident to mankind. " At that of coal, in particular, varies from two to thirty-two feet,
dreadful era, fays he, and not before, the year became Again, in Mount Salive, the ftrata of coal, though in a
divided into fu'mmer and winter, fpring and autumn, calcareous mountain, vary confiderably ; and Mr \\Tiite.
and the fpontaneous produfts of the earth no longer hurft himfelf informs us, that at Benfal moor, thofe
fufficed the calls of human nature without art and la- ftrata which are in other places the lowell, are found at
hour ; wherefore he who fowed would expeft to reap, the furface. Even in Derbyfhire, to which Mr White-
and he who built an hut for his proteftion, would na- huift's obfervations chiefly apply, we are informed that
turally expect to enjoy the fruits of his own labour ; even when the arrangement is the fame, the thicknefs

necelfuy, therefore, was the parent of property, and
property created a thoufand imaginary wants, which its
poflelTors endeavoured to gratify, and their example ex-
cited fjmilar ideas in thofe v.-ho had it not, but never-
thelefs rtudiouily endeavoured to gratify their artificial
wants by unjuftifiable means. Hence the neceflity of
laws, domirjon, and fubordination, which had no exill-
ence in the antediluvian world."

" To that great revolution in the natural world, we may
therefore afcribe many of the evils incident to mankind;
for experience fliews, that men who are bom in rude and
favage climates are naturally of a ferocious difpofition ;
and that a fertile foil, which leaves nothing to wi(h
for, foftens their manners, and inclines them to hu-
manity."

The above is a general outline of Mr Whitehurft's
theory, fome parts of ivhich are very ingenious, and are
corroborated by obfervation, while others are not a
little fanciful and improbable. In his fuppofition that
the earth ^vas originally in a fluid ftate, he agrees with
moil other theorifts, -as this is a circumftance which ad-
raits of little doubt •, though, as Kirwan has flievra, it is

not necelTary to fuppofe that the whole mafs of the more ancient than themfelves,
.i_ /I • 1 1 . 1 .1 /■ , f •. • 1 ■ t - 1-1 r._^ 1 :.i

of the ftrata varies confiderably.

Sect. VI. Theory of Dr Ilutton.

IBS

The next theorj- which we have to confider, is that Theory (
propofed by Dr James Hutton, which has become fo button,
much the object of inquiry and debate, as to give name
to one of the t^vo principal feCls into which geologifts
are now divided.

The leading principles of the Huttonian theory, as
concifely laid dowii by one of its greateft admirers and
fupporters, are the folloiving.

I. The firft circumftance which Dr Hutton has
conildered as a general fad is, that by far the greater
part of the bodies which compofe the exterior cruft of
our globe, bear the marks of being formed of the mate-
rials of mineral and organized bodies, of more ancient
date. The fpoiis or the wreck of an older world are,
he thinks, everywhere vifible in the prefent, and though
not found in every piece of rock, they are ditlufed fo
generally as to leave no doubt that the ftrata which
now compofe our continents are all formed out of ftrata

Geologicmt
F.fT.'y,.
EiTay i.
.87

irth was fluid, but only thofe parts of it which
near the furface. In his play of affinities, and confe-
quent feparation of the materials of the earth into ho-
mogeneous maffes, Whitehurft has been followed by Dr
Kirwan, who has framed a beautiful and ingenious fpe-
culation on the fuccelTive changes that took place from
the aftion of the materials on each other J.

Mr Whitehurft has been betrayed by his fondnefs for
a favourite theory, into feveral errors refpeCting the
ftratification of the earth, which require to be men-
tioned. Thus, though the arrangement of the ftrata,
efpecially where it has not been difturbed by fome
evident and violent caufe, is extremely uniform •, he has,
however, extended this regularity farther than it really
obtains. He tells us that the ftrata invariably follow
each other, as if it were in an alphabetical order, or a
fcries of numbers, whatever be their denomination.
Not that they are alike in all the different regions of
the earth, ehher in (juality or in thicknefs, but that
their order in each particular part, kowevei they may

2. The prefent rocks, with the exception of fuch as
are not ftratified, having all exifted in the form of
loofe materials collefled at the bottom of the fea, muft
have been confolidated and converted into ftone Iiy
virtue of fome very powerful and general agent. The
confolidating caufe which he points out is fubterrane-
ous heat, and the objections to this hypothefis have
been attempted to be removed, by the introduttion of
a principle new and pecuUar to himfelf. This prin-
ciple is the comprefllon which muft have prevailed in
that region where the confolidation of mineral fub-
ftances was accompliftied. Under the weight of a fu-
perincumbent ocean, heat, however intenfe, might be
unable to volatihze any part of thofe fubftances which,
at the furface, and under the lighter preffure of our
atmofphere, it can entirely confume. The fame pref-
fure, by forcing thofe fubftances to remain united,
which at the furface are eafily feparated, might occa-
fion the fulion of foKie bodies which in our fires are
only cskined.

3. The

Chap. ni.

GEOLOGY.

Ti^eoriesif ^, Xhe third general circutnflance which this theory
^the£Aith. jj founded on is, that the gratified rocks, iiiQcad of being
' either horizontal or nearly fo, as they no doubt \vere
originally, are now found polTelTing all degrees of ele-
vation, and fome of ^them were perpendicular to the
horizon ; to which we muit add, that thofe ftrata
which were once at the bottom of the fea are now
raifeJ up, many of them feveral thoufand feet above
its furface. Fiom this, as well as from the inflexions,
the breaking and feparation of the ftrata, it is inferred,
that they have been raifed by the action of fome ex-
panfive force placed under them. This force, which
has burft in pieces the folid pavement on which the
ocean relis, and has raifed up rocks from the bottom of
the lea into mountains 15,000 feet above its furface,
exceeds any which we fee actually exerted, but fceras
to come nearer to the caufe of the volcano or the earth-
quake than to any other, of which the eilefts are di-
rectly obferved. The immeiife disturbance, therefore,
of the ilrata, is in this theory afcribed to heat afting
\vith an expanfi\e power, and elevating thefe rocks
which it had before ccnfolidated.

4. Among the marks of dilturbance in which the
mineral kingdom abounds, thofe great breaches among
rocks, which are filled with materials different from the

■ rock on either fide, are among the moft confpicuous.
Thefe are the veins, and comprehend not only the me-
tallic veins, but alfo thofe of whinftone, of porphyry,
and of granite, all of them fubftances more or lefs cr)'f-
tallized, and none of them containing the remains of
organized bodies. Thefe are of poiterlor formation to
the ftrata which they interfecl, and in general alfo
they cany with them the marks of the violence with
\vhich they have come into their place, and of the
diiturbances which they have produced on the rocks
already fonn:d. The materials of all thefe veins, Dr
Hutton concludes to have been melted by fubterrane-
ous heat, and, while in fufion, ir.jefled among the fif-
fures and openings of rocks already formed, but thus
dilturbed, and moved from their original place.

This conclufion he extends to all the maffes of whin-
ftone, porphyry, and granite, which are interfperfed
among the llrata, or raifed up in pyramids, as they
often appear to be, through the midlt of thera. Thus,
in the fufion and injection of the unilratined rocks,
we have the third and lall great operation which fub-
terraneous heat has performed on mineral fubltanccs.

5. From this Dr Hutton proceeds to confider the
changes to which mineral bodies are fubject v.hen raifed
into the atmofphere. 'Here he finds, without any ex-
ception, that they are all going to decay ; that, from
the fliore of the fea to the top of the mountain, from
the fofteit clay to the hardeft quartz, all are wafting
and undergoing a feparation of their parts. The bodies
thus refolved into their elements, whether chemical or
mechanical, are carried do-(vn by the rivers to the fea,
and are there depofitcd. Nothing is exempted from
this general law ; among the higheft mountains and the

• FJ- i i^^rded rocks, its eiFeds are moft clearly difcemed ;

fiil'Tr^nf.^"^ it is on the objefls which appear the moft durable

vol V. P. ;i:.and fixed, that the characters of revolution are moft

p. 52. deeply imprinted •.

It is not furprifing that this theory (hould have met
with many advocates among the more fuperficial obfer-
v.crs of nature. The produflian of a nia-.i in whom g<i-

597

nius, obfervation and induftry were united, and who Theories of
paflV;d a confiderable part of along life in chemical and t'n-: Earili.^
geological refearches, was calculated to dazzle the iraa- '
gination by the grandeur of its defign, and to captivate
the judgement by its appearance of regularity and con-
fillence. it lias been confidered as a peculiar excel-
lence of this theory, that it al'tiibes to the phenomena
of geology an order fimilar to that which exills in tjie
provinces of nature with which we are beft acquainted ;
that it produces feas and continents, not by accident,
but by the operation of regular and uniform cau-Hes ;
that it makes the decay of one part (ubfervient to the , . ,

reftoration of another, and that it gives ftability to the ,„ '^^^f," '
wnole, not by perpetuating mdmduals, but by ri-pro-p up.
ducing them in fuccefllon *. iSp

An hypothefis with fuch pretcnfions could not fail of Ot>J«'S'0"s
being minutely examined and feverely criticlfed by the "* '.''^ 'f"'"
raore enlightened part ot geologilts, and accordrnglypf,.
very fcrious objections have been made to it by Kirwan
and others. We ftiall ftate a few of what appear to us
to be the moft convincing arguments againft Dr Hut-
ton's theory, referring thofe who wilh to fee a more de-
tailed refutation of it to the geological writings of Kir-
wan, and A Comparative View of the Huttonian and
Neptunian Theories. jj-,

Some of the ftrongeft arguments agalnll this theory From the
are drawn from the nature of caloric, and what we"2'."f^ ^rd'
know of its aflion on other bodies. We know that ^"^1'°"^°^
caloric is of fo diflFiifible a nature, that it is always com-
municated, from that body or fct of bodies, in wliich it
is moft abundant, to that in which it is lefs fo, till an
equilibrium of temperature is produced. But Dr Hut-
ton's theory fuppofes a fubterraneous^eat as conftantly
exifting, capable of fufing the moft oMurate rocks, and
ot raifing them by its expanfibility from the bottom of
the ocean, and yet incapable of extending its influence
through the fuperincurabent ftrata at all times, fo as to
fufe or evaporate fuperior bodies, and gradually expand
itfelf, fo as to acquire that equilibrium which is one of
its natural effefts. Again, fuppofing fuch a fubterranc-
cus heat to e.tift, it is furely extraordinary, that fub-
llances which we are Inapable of fufing by the ftrong-
eft heat that we can excite, even in the greateft ftate of
divifion, Ihould, by .this fubterraneous heat be fo com-
pletely fufed, and in fuch vaft maflTes, as to have af-
fumed the appearance under which they wovr prefent
themfelves. If the folar rays, in the utmoft ftate of
concentration, if a united ftream of inflamed hydrogen-
ous and o.xygenous gaffes from the tube of a blow-pipe
or gazometer, caiinot melt the fmalleft vifible portion of
calcareous fpar or rock cryftal, ho^v can ^ve conceive
that the immenfe mountains of limeftone and of quaitz
which are met with in fo many places could have been
fufed into a ftate of perfect fluidity ? Or even if they
could be fiifed, how is it poflib'.e that the carbonic acid
of the limeftone fliould not have been diflipated by fo
ftrong a heat ? If we fuppofe with Dr Hutton, that
this fubterraneous heat acts with tlie affiftance of im-
menfe preffure from the fuperincumbtnt ftrata and wa-
ters of the ocean, hence preventing the dillipation of
volatile matters, flill it Ihould act uniformly, and ftiould
fufe all thofe bodies which come in its way, th.it are
capable of fufion. Now, we know that feldfpar, fchorl,
mica, and chlorite, are much more fulible than quarti,
and of courfe, v hen a mafs compounded of thefe comiK

uudT

:55>3

GEOLOGY.

Chap. irr.

Th oiies cf under t^e influence of lliis lieat, all thefe more fufible
the £«'''' fubftances lliould be melted as well as the quartz. But
" • ill Tome llones in which moft of thefe ingredients meet,
as in the granite 'of Portloy, there is every reafon to
luppofe that feme of them have been in a !luid ftate,
while the others were folid or lefs lluid, as cryftils of
the latter are impretled on a bed of the former, viz. in
the inftance cited, cryllals of feldfpar in a mafs of
quartz. As it is certain, according to the advocates of
the Huttonian theory, that at leall the quartz was
tluid when it was moulded on the feldfpar, how happen-
ed it that this comparatively fufible ftone %vas not alfo
melted, and blended in one compaft mafs with the
qua^^z ? We alfo frequently find cryllals of quartz pe-
netrated by fchorl and chlorite, which is a proof that
the latter mull have been hard while the former was
in a fluid ftate. Hence it is evident that thefe appear-
ances could not have been the efFeifl of fulion by heat.
Again, we find fearas of coal penetrated by thin lami-
nae and cryftals of quartz, an effeil which, according to
this theor}-, mull have taken place while the quartz
was in a ftate of fufion. But, in this cafe, the ftrata of
* Ihale above and belo^v the coal fliould alfo have been

fufed (ftiale being much more fufible than quartz, and
thus the whole ihould have acquired a (laty texture ;
and befides in this intenfe heat, the coal ftiould have
been entirely charred and loft all its vegetable impref-
fions.

Tlie very e.Niftence of fuch a fubterraneous heat, that
conftantly maintains itfelf without fuel, ready to aft on
any emergency, when a quantity of the old world has
been abraded and tranflated, fufficient to furnilh the
materials of a new; one, is avowedly hypothetical, as we
have no proof thaf it exifts. Nay, we have direft proof,
as far as rational induftion can carry us, to the con-
trary. It was long ago obferved, by Irving and For-
fter, that the heat of the fea diminifties in proportion to
the depth to which xve proceed in examining it, and
the fame has been more lately proved by Peron, by
various trials in many different latitudes •. Now the
contrary of this ought certainly to happen, (unlefs this
fubterraneous heat is entirely unlike common heat) if
there conftantly exifted in the bowels of the earth a
htat capable of fuiing quartz and limeftone.

The ftructure of whin dykes, detailed in Se£lion II. of
lart Chapter, affords additional arguments in oppofition
to the Huttonian theory.

The evidence which Dr Hutton has adduced to
prove the fubterraneous eruption of dykes, is drawn
from the apparent derangement of the horizontal ftrata
at a place where they are interfered by a dyke, and tlie
peculiar appearance of the coal in their immediate vici-
nity, which he fuppofes to be in a ftate of calcination,
from having been in contaft with the ejefted matter
of the dylLe in fufion. Let us firft attend to the effeft
of this eruption of a dyke, the apparent derangement
of the ;lrata ; and let us confidcr for a moment, what
muft be the mechanical operation of a mafs of this li-
quid matter burfting upwards through tlie coal ftrata.
Suppofe a coal field of a mile fquare in extent ; fuppofe
that the coal and concomitant ftrata are perfeflly re-
gular, having a moderate dip or inclination to the
fouth ; and fuppofe that this coal field is to be inter
fefted by a dyke, ejeflcd in a ftate of fufion from the
bowels of the earth. Confidering the nature of the ftrata

J'h:ir. to

Jcp.Si

Jykes.

which ufually accompany coal, fuch as fandftone, lime-Tlieoriesof
ftone, iroartone, &c. which are very hard and coropaft, '"<^ E^rtb.
we muft allow, that the refiftance from fuch fubllances '
would be very great. In this previous ftate of circum-
ftances, then, what would be the elFeS: of the eruption
of a dyke in the middle of the field, in a direfllon from
north to fouth \ Can it even be imagined, that this
liquid mafs in its progrefs upwards through the fuper-
incumbent ftrata to the furface of the earth, would
merely deftroy the continuity of theie ftrata, and not in
its irrefiltible ccurfe, carry along with it part of all the
iubftances compofing that ftrata through which it paiTed *
But farther, one of the moft obvious confequences cf
fuch an eruption, would be the elevation of part of the
whole range of the ftrata on both fides of the dyke, and
the extent of this elevation will be in proportion to the
power or thicknefs of the dyke ; and, not only is it na-
tural to expect this elevation of the ftrata to a certain
extent, but from the operation of an agent fo tremen-
dous and irrefiftible, that the whole ftrata fliould be
broken, disjointed and confiifed. But does this ftatj-
ment correfpond with the phenomena ? From the hi-
ftory of dykes traverfing coal ftrata, we know that it
does not. On the contrary, the whole of the ftrata, in
moft cafes, preferve the fame thickneft, the fame paral-
lelifm, and the fame inclination to the horizon on both
fides of the dyke. It is true, the half mile of ccal field,
interfefted by a dyke, as we have foppofed above, will
on one fide of it be elevated or deprefTed. If the dyke,
which runs north and fouth in its courfe upwards, in-
clines to the weft, the weftern divifion will be elevated.
But this is not a partial elevation only in the immedi-
ate vicinity of the dyke. It extends over the whole
field on the weft fide of the dyke, and the ftrata con-
tinue fair and regular, in all refpefts correfponding to
thofe from which they have been detached, till they are
interfered by another dyke.

From this reafoning, we. think the conclufion fair
and obvious, that dykes inlerfefting coal ftrata have not
been formed by fubterraneous eruption, and therefore,
that the elevation or deprellion of the ftrata is not ow-
ing to this caufe. Dr Hutton's theory, in this refpeft,
is oppofed by the fads which it profeifes to explain, and
confequently it is untenable.

Let us now confider the argument drawn from the
fuppofed calcination of the coal which has been in con-
tact with the matter of the dyke in a ftate of fufion.
Here Dr Hutton feems to have overleaped the bounds
of his own theory, and loft fight of his own principles,
which fuppofe, that all the ftrata and ftonv matters of
which the globe is compofed, have been confolidated
by means of heat ; that the exhibition of the common or
ordinary phenomena of heat is not to he looked for in the
grand procelTes of nature; hecaufe thefe operations have
taken place at great depths in the bowels of the earth,
or under immenfe prelTure at the bottom of the fea ;
and this is the reafon that coal, and lime ftrata, for in-
ftance, which have been fubjefted to this intenfe degree
of heat difcover no marks ot calcination, the one being
deprived of its carbonic acid, and the other of its bitu-
men. Now, granting this hypothetical argument to be
well founded, what is the reafon t'.Jac the coal, which is irj
contaft with a dyke, has undergone the proceffes of cal-
cination, when this coal is at as great a depth in the
bowels of the earth, under as immenfe preiTure, and as

much

Chap. Ilf.

GEOLOGY.

599

Th;o;it>t' much excluded froa atrr.o'plieric -air, as any coal at its
t;ic i:.*.-!'^ original foimation. But ail the coal in contaiil with a
' dylie, is not in this flate. Clean coal is fometimes

found in immediate contail; and, in m.iny places, clean
coal is alio found intercepted between rej;ular ranges of
bafaltic columns, and this coal difcovers not the fraallell
mark of calcination. 0" the other hand, coal in this
fuppofed ftate of calcination, has been frequently dif-
covercd, at a great diltance from any dyke or bafaltic
fubftance whatever. Maflfes of this foul coal often oc-
cur, to the regret and difappointment of the miner, in the
miJll of Ihata otherwife perfectly clean ajid regular.
This lad fa£l lliews us, that ive muft look, for the caufe
of this lingular phenomenon elfewhere than in the cir-
cumftance of the coal having been in contaft ivith a
dyke wliile in fiifion ; for it appears that the efFedl does
not always follow in the fame circur.i (lances, and tliat
the fan;e cfiecl is produced in very different circum-
ftances.

Thefe obfcrvations are probably fufficient to fhew
that the above argument in proof of the fabterraneous
eruption of dykes, is equally unfatisfaftory in explain-
ing the phenomena, and coui'equently equally untenable
with the former. Both, therefore, mail fall to the
151 ground.
From the The w^eJge-like form of dykes might be adduced as
ftru(5l>ire o!" another argument againU their formation by fubterrane-
mecalhc ^^^ eruption ; for it is not eafy to conceive that a dyke
'^""' in a itate of fufion (hould, in its eruptive progrefs to-

wards the furface of the earth, enlarge and become
thicker.

The hiftory of metallic veins furnithes us with flronger
ojjeflions againft Dr Mutton's theory. If, according
to this theory, metallic veins have been formed by the
fabSances they contain being ignited in a ftate of fufion
from the bowels of the earth, it vnll naturally follow,
that the veins thus formed might be traced to the
greatert depths, and even to the fabterraneous fiirnace
from which they iflued. But we know that the facl is
quite otherwife. The termination of many veins doivn-
wards has been difcovered. Even the moil powerful and
produflive have been unexpeitedly cut off by the hori-
zontal firata, and no veiiige of them could ever be
traced. This was the cafe with the rich vein of lead
ore at Sla:igunog in Wales. It is the cafe alfo with
many veins in their courfe dovvnwards, to diminilh gra-
dually in form of a wedge, and then they are loil for
ever. Now, this certainly could never have happened,
bad they been formed by i'ubterraneous eruption. Some
trace of their progrefs, fome mark of their courfe
through the ir.terfefted llrata, would llill have remai.ned.
But no fuch iadications, no luch traces, are found. We
mull therefore conclude, that metallic veins have not
been formed in this way, and that this theory, which ap-
pears to be fo much at variance with facls, will not ac-
count in a fatisfaclory manner for their formation.

The maiTes of Hone of the fame fpecies with the
neighbouring fuperior ftrata, fometimes rounded and
worn by the acHon of water, which are found at great
depthi in mineral veins, and organized fubllances, petri-
faflions of vegetables and animals, prefent us with ano-
ther objeilion to this theory, equally ftrong and infur-
mountabk. Thefe fubflances arc the produftions of
the furface of the earth j and even fuppofing them to
hdve €.\jfted ill the bowels of the earth, it is incon-

celveable that they llurald have retained their primitive Thtoriis of
lorn, after they were fubjeftcd to fo high a temperature the Earth.
as is r.ecciTary to hold metals iu a llate of fufion. '

Sect. VII. TUry of Werner.

153
The lateft, and perhaps moft celebrated, theory that Theory cf
lias yet appeared, is that of ProfelTor Werner of Frey- Werner,
berg, with an account of which, and fome obferva-
tions on Mr Kirwan's opinions, we fliall clofe this chap-
ter.

We have fald alrendy, (N° I.) that the fubjecl of
which we are now treating is called by Wcmen geogno-
fy, and his pupils are commonly called gcognojls,

Werner is of opinion, that our knowledge is already
fuihcJently advanced to form a rational theory refpedt-
ing the formation of the exterior cnij} of our globe ;
f yr he does not deny thut we cannot reafon with refpett
to ^vhat is below this, fmce we have no fatl which can
give us the leaR notion with refpecl to it. We are on-
ly certain that fome part of our globe has been in a
fluid llate, as is proved by its fpheroidal form. The
cryllalline form of granite and other rocky fubllances
which conllitute the bafe of that part of the earth with
wliich we are acquainted, are, according to Werner,
futhcient prooK that this part at leall has been in a ftate
of minute diflblution. Again, the flratified appearance
of moll mountains and rocks fliew that they are an ac-
cumulation of precipitates or fediments \vhich hav*- been
depofited one over another. The numerous remains of
marine animals which are found imbedded in many
rocks, and of which fome fpecies are llill found in our
feas, allow us to believe that this foiutlon was aqueous j
that it was a vail ocean which has covered our globe
to a very confiderable heigiit. The exterior part oftlie
globe, then, has been entirely dijfolved by the "waters \

which furrounded it, and from this folution certain che-
mical precipitations look place, which have formed the
crtijl that we now fee.

In framing his theory, Werner profelTes to banifh
every thing that is hypothetical, and only to draw from
general fads fuch immediate confequences as he be-
lieves it impoflible not to deduce from them, and on
thefe alone he founds his geognofy. The objetl of
this theory, according to one of his difciples (the tran-
flator of ills book on metallic veins), is to .icquire a
knowledge of the llrudure of the folid cruft of the
terraqueous globe, and the relative difpofition of the
materials which compofc it ; the means of doing this are
to be derived from oLlerviition, Werner fets out with
Hating, that the chemical precipitates that took place
from the chaotic fluid, did not form a regular furface,
but that they collecicd here and there lb as to produce
the primitive mountains. Thefe mountains he calls cha-
otic, becaufe, fays he, they have been formed during the
period when the furface of the jarth was a fort of chaos.
After the retreat of the waters, thefe elevated parts
were f.rll difcovered. They were expofed to the de-
ftriiftive atlion of the elements, and the Ihock of tides
and torrents. The valleys were hollowed out, and the
mountains acquired nearly the form in which we now
fee them.

Obfervation has fliewn that the ftrata of which the
earth is compofed, may be divided into a certain num-
ber of congeries, each of which is compofed of a ccr-

oco G E

Theories o:"tam fet of mir.erals that are nearly the fame in what-

theEitt!) g„gj. p-j-t^ of the ivorld the corgeries is found. To thefe

"• congerrss Werner has given the name of formations,

of which he diilinguiOies fix kinds or clafles, four uni-

O L O G Y

Chap. Ill,

rfal, bt

id all over the globe, and tivo partial,

found only in particular di Iritis. Thefe formations h(
has arranged according to the order in which he con-
ceives them CO have been produced, beginning with
that formatic:. which lies next the folid nucleus of the
earth, and which may therefore be conceived to be the
oldell, and ending v.ith the moft fuperficial, which is
confidered as the neweft form«ion.

The firll of thefe claffes is called by Werner that
of primitive formalions, which confift cf a number
of formations lying above each other, being thofe
which are fuppofed the oldeft, as in thefe no organic
remains have been difcovered. The fubl*ances confti-
tutiiig this clafs are gr^ani.'e, gneifs, micaceous fchiflus,
argillactou! fchijius, primitive Umepme, primitive trnp,
Jienite, and porphyry. Of thefe the granite is the
lowefl, and therefore is confidered as the oldeit ; and
next this follow the others in the order in which we
have enumerated them, except that the primitive lime-
ftone, and primitive trap, are found in an uncertain or-
der, alternating with gneifs, argillaceous fchiiius, or
. micaceous fchiflus ; and are therefore confidered as fub-
ordinate to thefe formations.

When the waters had fubfided, and the fumraits of

nraitive moimtams

had been uncovered, organiz-

the

ed bodies were produced ; and part of thefe being
tercepted among the chemical precipitations which were
Hill going onj and the mechanical precipitations which
now began to take place, were carried with thefe to
the flanks of the primitive mountains, and the valleys
between them. Hence were produced a fecond feries
of formations, which are called by Werner trartjition
formations , or rocks of tranfition, as he coniidered them
to be dcpofited during the period when the earth was
paffing from an uninhabited to an inhabited ftate. A-
mong thefe formations, however, the organic remains
are but few. The fubftances compofing this clafs, are
tranfilion limeftone, grai/ ivacie, gray ivache Jlate, tran-
Jition trop, Jiliceous fchtjius. Ot thefe the two laft are
fubordinate, alternating with gray wacke and gray
wacke ilate.

Tlie third formation is what Werner calls fioet'z, for-
mation, or that, in which the beds or ftrata lie nearly
horizontal, appearing as if they had been depofited
from water. This formation comprehends raoft of what
are ufually called fecondary Hrata. It is divided by
Werner into three fubformations, named from the va-
riety or fituaiion of the fandilone, which forms a prin-
cipal part of each ; as I . Old red fandfione formation,
com^oici oi jloet-z lime/ione, old red fandftone, and _/»-

Hated

2. Second fandilone formation, compo-
fed gI' fandjlone^ f^ef^i limejlone, znd fibrous gypfurh.

m!'

3. Third fandilone formatioti, cctncofed o^ _/hni[/?cr;r, Theories ni
'ivncf.one, and ckali, &.c. Of thefe, as before, the firft the Earthy
mentioned is the oldeft, and in this, fumewhere liear '
the gvpfum, there is ufually found fait or fulphur. Ir»
this formation, organic remains are firft feen in any
great quantities.

The fourth formation is called independent coal for-
mation, becaufe in this coal is bzA found, and becaufe
it is not univerfally fpread over the earth as the three
preceding, but is collecled in infulated mafies, indepen-
dent of each other. This is alfo divided into three, each
fucceilivcly more recent than the preceding. The firft
feries of llrata confift oi Jlate clay, litne/lone, marl, foft
faiidjlcne, green/lone, argillaceous iron/lone, Jhole, and
coal i the fecond of indurated clay, jnarl, limejlone, por-
phifritic Jlone, and coal; and the third of looje fand-
Jione, conglomerate, (a variety of fandilone), _/?r;/f i-Zi?^,
and coal.

The fifth is called _;?3f/z trap formation, fo called be-
caufe the beds cf which it is compofed, confift of ma-
terials that are moftly of the nature of trap, or whiil-
ftone. The fubftances that compofe this formation are
gravel, J'andjione, /i/iceous fandjlone, clay, wade, ba-
falt, greenf.one, fchijlofe porphyry, pitchfione, and gray-
Jione. Coal is alfo found in this formation, fomewhere
among the beds oi Jiliceous fcndj} one, clay, ivacke, antl
bafalt, to which it is therefore confidered as fubordi-
nate (f)

The fixth and laft formation is the alluvial forma-
tion, or that which has arifen from the aflion of lakes
and rivers, wafhing down part of the older ftrata.
This is divided into two feries of ftrata ; the firft being
thofe that have arifen from the aftion of lakes newly-
drained, comprehending marl, fand, clay, and coal ;
and the fecond, th6fe which have been produced from
the adlion of rivers, comprehending mud, ironflone,
fand, peat, &c. This formation is the moft recent of
any, but, like the fourth, it is only partial;

The above is an outline of Werner's geognofy, which
is confidered as an improvement of what is called the
Neptunian theory, or that which explains geological ap-
pearances by the aftion of water, in oppofition to what
is called the volcanic theory, or that which attributes
thefe appearances to an igneous origin. j^.

One of the principal objeftions to the Neptunian Objeiiion?
theory is drawn from the inlolubility in water of many '0 t*"! '*','"
of the fubftances which compole our globe j but this°'-^ " *"
the Neptunians endeavour to explain, by fuppofing that
at the very commencement of their exiftence thefe fub-
ftances w-ere in that ftate of minute divifion which a-
queous folutions require, but which no known esilling
quantity would be able to effeft, atter the fubftances
had acquired their utmoft confolidatlon, as it is well
known, that a folid fubftance may be kept in folution,
at leaft for a fliort time, in a lefs quantity of fiuid than
was originally requifite to diffblve it.

A

(f) We may here notice Werner's opinion with refpei51 to the formation and fituatlon of bafalt ; as this is the
nnly theory of importance rcfpetling it, that has not been mentioned under the article Basaltf.s. " I am per-
fectly convinced (fays Werner in a late memoir) that all the varieties of bafalt have been produced In the humid
way, and that th'y are of a very recent formation ; that they formerly compofed a great bed of immenfe extent,
covering both the primitive and fecondary ftrata ; that time has aneiv deftroyed a confiderable part, and has lef^
aaljr the bafaltic cainences, which we now fee." Vid. Jamefon's Mineralogy of Dumfries, p. 184.

IIT. GEO!

if A fecond obj^ilion i,- ilerivid fiom tlie difliculty of
• fappofing that thefe fubft-.'.ncfs coiilit liavc been conloli-
' dated below water, or that the water could completely
(hut up the pores of a body, to the entire exclufion of it-
feU'i fo that had the mineral fubllances been confolidated
as htrc fuppofed,the folvent ought cither to remain within
them in a liquid ftate, or, if evaporated, (houM have left
the pores empty, and the body pervious to water.

Mr Playfair argues RrenuouAy againlt the notion of
thcle fubllances being precipitated from the chaotic
fluid, which has been fo ingcnioully fupportcd by Kir-
wan, who afcribes the folution of all iiibftances in the
chaotic fluid to their being finely pulverifed, or created
in a rtate of the mod minute divilion •, and the folvent
being then infufficient in quantity, he fuppofes that, on
that account, the precipitation took place the more ra-
pidly.

" If, fays Mr Playfair, he means by this to fay, that
a precipitation without folution would take place the
fooncr, the more inadequate the menftruum was to dif-
folvc the whole, the propofition may be true, but will
be of no ufe to explain the cryllallization of minerals,
the very objeft he has in \'ievv ; becaufe to cryilalliza-
tion it is not a bare fubfidence of particles fufpended in a
fluid, but it is a paflage from chemical folution to non-
folution, or infolubility, that is required.

" If on the other hand he means to fay, that the fo-
lution afluaily took place more quickly, and was more
immediately follc^ved by precipitation, becaufe the
quantity of the menftruum was infufficient, this is to
aflcrt that the %veaker the cauie, the more inftantaneous
' will be its eflfea." »

'' Werner's theory of dykes and veins requires a more
particular contideration.

This theory fuppofes, that the fpaces which are now
occupied by vertical ftrata, or dykes, including alfo me-
tallic veins, were originally iiflures, formed by the ope-
ration of different caufes.

1. The unequal height and denfity of irountains,
are confidered as the moil general caufes of fiflures.
When the mountains were in a foft and humid ftate,
that fide which was leaft fupported not only feparated
by Its own weight, but the whole ftrata of the fide
gave way, and funk below their former plain. This
alfo feems to be the opinion of SauiTure, with regard to
the formation of filTures, It is not to be e\petled,
that events of this kind ihould be of frequent occur-
rence, now that mountains have acquired fufficicnt
firmnefs and ftability to relift the force of gravity, ope-
rating in confequence of the inequality of weight and
diverfity of the materids of which they are compoi'ed.
Inftances, however, of the operation of fuch caufes are
not altogether wanting, even in modem times. After
a fcafon of excedive rains, in the year 1767, fimilar
iiflures were formed in mountains in Bohemia and Lu-
fatia.

2. Allien the waters covered the furface of the
earth, the unequal weight of the mountains was fup-
ported by their preffure j but when the waters retreat-
ed, this preffure was removed, the e<iuilibrium was de-
Itroyeil, the unfupported fide of the mountain fepara-
ted and funk j and in this manner a filTure was
formed.

3. The evaporation of the moifture, after the re-
treat of the waters, and the confequcnt diminution of

Vol. IX. Part II.

O G Y.

bulk by contraftion of the fubftances wliich enter into Thf
the compofition of mountains, are alfo confidered as ^
the caufes of fiffures.

4. FilTures, too, derive their origin from other lo-
cal and accidental caufes, and efpecially from earth-
quakes. In the year 1783, when Calabria was afflift-
ed with this moll dreadful of all calamities wliich vifit
the earth, mountains were feparated, exhibiting filTures
fimilar to thofe which are now occupied by vertical
ftrata.

Tiie fecond part of the theory is employed in prov-
ing that the empty fpaces, occafioned by the operation
of one or other of the caufes which have been enume-
rated, were filled from above ; that the different fiib-
ftances, of which the vertical ftrata are compcfed,
were held in folution by the waters which covered the
earth ; and that they were precipitated, by different
chemical agents, according to the order of chemical af-
finity, and depoiited in the place; which they now oc-
cupy. In fupport of the opinion, that thefe fiflures were
filled from above, Werner adduces facls of angidar .^nd
rounded fragments of ftones of various fpecies, and orga-
nized bodies, as marine ftiells and vegetable.-, having
been found in vertical ftrata, at the immenfe depth ot
150 and 2CO fathoms. It may be doubted, on good
grounds, whether this theory, fupported by all the in-
genuity and experience of its author, will account, in a
fatisfadory manner, for that regularity of pofition and
arrangement which are difcovered in the vertical ftra-
ta ; for, notwithftanding the feeming difordcr wliich a
fuperficial vein may exhibit, they are not lefs regular
and uniform than the horizontal ftrata. And when out
refearches are extended beyond the narrow bounds
within wliich they are at prefent limited, when we are
better acquainted with their relative pofitions and con
nexions, this uniformity and regularity will become
more confpicuous. It may be doubted whether the
fortuitous operation of fuch caufes as have been ftated,
be equal to the eftcft of the formation of the vertical
ftrata, as they now appear.

But, fuppofing that fiflures were produced by foms
of the caufes which have been mentioned, few of thefe
caufes could operate till the retreat of the waters left
the mountains uncovered. It was only then, that the
mountains, by the inequahty of height and denfity,
being left unfupported, feparated, and funk from their
former fituation ; it was then only that the proceii of
evaporation could take place, fucceeded by diminu-
tion of bulk and confequcnt contraftion. In Ihort,
none of the caujes which have been ftated, could have
any eftcd before the waters had retreated, excepting
earthquakes ; of the operation of which there is no
proof previous to that period. The materials which
compofe the vertical ftrata, it is faid, were formed by
depofition from the waters which covered the moun-
tains, holding them in folution. But before the fiflures
could be formed to receive thefe materials by precipi-
tation and depofition, the waters had retired. A fe-
cond deluge muft therefore have happened, from the
waters of which the various fubftances \vhich enter in-
to the compofition of vertical ftrata have been depofited.
This the theory does not fuppofe to have taken place ;
and, without fuch a (uppofilion, it feems to be attended
with confiderablc difticulty. But another difficulty ftill
remains. It does not appear how the peculiarity of
4 G ftruftiu-e,

631

theory of
th" dtcliv

GEO

flrufiure, '.vl;icl-. was jtiemionfd in out account of u'lin
dvkes, Scft. II. of the laft chapter, can be accounted for
by the principles of this theory. If it be granted, that the
horizontal fttata were formed in the humid way, the
materials of which they are compofed muft have been
precipitated from the waters \vhich held them in folu-
tion, by the laws of chemical affinity. But the verti-
cal Itrata are fuppofed to have been formed in the fame
manner, and according to the fame procefs. Now,
this being the cafe, What is the reafon that the verti-
cal ftrata (hould exhibit a peculiarity of ftrudure and
arrangeuient, different from the horizontal ftrata ?
Some of the whin dykes which have been already de-
fcribed, are very remarkable for this fmgular ftrucSure,
efpeclally thofe which aiVume the form of prifmatic co-
lumns. Thefe columns are in the horizontal poiition,
and, excepting the latter circuraftance, thefe dykes, in
every refpeft, referable a bafaltic ftratum, in which the
columns are perpendicular.

More arguments might be adduced in oppofition to
the theory of Werner ; but we muft hafien to conclude
this chapter, with mentioning a few of Dr Kirwan's
peculiar opinions.

Among thefe, the manner in which he accounts for
the unequal declivities of the iides of mountains, forms
"one of the moft confpicuous objefts ; and to this we
fliall principally confine ourfelves, and fhall give it in
his own words, as extra(Sied from his elTay on the decli-
vities of mountains, to which we were obliged in the
£ift feflion of Chap. II.

" To affign the caufes of this almoft univerfal allotment
of unequal declivities to oppofite points, and why the
greateft are directed to the weft and (outh, and the
gentleft, on the contrary, to the eaft and north, it is
neceffary to confider,

" I. That all mountains were formed while covered
with water.

" 2. That the earth was univerfally covered with wa-
ter at two different oras, that of the creation, and that
of the Noachian deluge.

" 3. That in the firft era we muft diftinguidi two dif-
ferent periods, that which preceded the appearance of
dry land, and that which fucceeded the creation of filh,
but before the fea had been reduced nearly to its pre-
fcnt level. During the former, the primeval moun-
tains were formed •, and during the latter, moft of the
fecondary mountains and ftrata were formed.

" 4. That all mountains extend either from eaft to
Weft, or from north to fouth, or in fomc intermediate
direction between thefe cardinal points, ivhich need not
be particularly mentioned here, as the fame fpecies of
reafor.ing muft be applied to them, as to thofe to whofe
afpec> they approach moft.

" Thefe preliminary citcumftances being noticed, we
are next to obferve that, during the firfl era, this vaft
mafs of water moved in two general direftions, at right
angles with each other, the one from eaft to weft,
which needs not be proved, being the courfe of tides
which ftill continue, but were in that ocean neceffarily
ftronger and higher than at prefent ; the other from
r.orth to fouth, the water tending to thefe vaft abyfies
then formed in the vicinity of the fouth pole, as fliewn
in my former effays Before either motion could be
jropagated, a confiderable time muft have elapfed.

" Now the primeval moimtains formed at the com-

LOGY.

Chap. Ill,

mencement of the f:rft era, and bc'or* this double di- Theories of
re<^ion of the waters took place, muft have oppofed a '^ Earth,
co-fjderable obftacle to the motion of that fluid in the *
fenfe that croffej that of the direflion of thefe moun-
tains. Thus the mountains that flretch from north to
fouth muft have oppofed the motion of the waters from
eaft to weft ; this oppofition diminiftiing the mc:ion of
that fluid, difpofed it to faffer the earthy particles ivith
which in thofe early periods it mu'l have been impreg-
nated, to cryftallize or be depolited on thefe eaftem
flanks, and particularly en thcie of the higheft moun-
tains, for over the lower it could eafily pafs •, thefe de-
pofitions being inceffantly repeated at heights gradually
diminilhing as the level of the waters gradually loiver-
ed, muft have rendered the eaftem declivities or def-
cent, gentle, gradual, and moderate, while the wellem
fides receiving no fuch acceffions from depofitions, muft
have remained fteep and craggy.

" Again, the primeval mountains that run from eaft
to weft, by oppoCng a fimilar refiftance to the courfe of
the waters from north to fouth, raaft have occafioned
fimilar depol'.tions on the northern fides of thefe moun-
tains, againft which thefe waters impinged, and thus
fmoothed them.

" Where mountains interfeft each other in an oblique
diredlion, the north-eaft fide of one range being conti-
guous to the foulh-weft flanks of another range, there
the influx of adventitious particles on the north-eaft fide
of the one, mull have frequently extended to the fouth-
weft fide of the other, particularly if that afflux were
ftrong and copious ; thus the Er%gebirge of Saxony,
which run from weft to eaft, have their north-eaft fides
contiguous to the fouth-weft fide of the Riefengebirge
that feparate Silefia from Bohemia, and hence thefe
latter are covered with the fame beds of gneifs, &c.
as the northern fides of the Saxon, and thereby are
rendered fmooth and gentle, comparatively to the op-
pofite fide, which, being ftieltered, remains fteep and
abrupt, v.hich' explains the feventh obfervation.

" The caufes here affigned explain why the covering
of adventitious ftrata on the higheft mountains is gene-
rally thinneft at the greateft height, and thickeft to-
wards the foot of the mountain ; for the bulk of the water
that contained the adventitious particles being propor-
tioned to its depth, and the mafs of earthy particles
with which it was cjiarged being proportioned to the
bulk of the water that contained them, it is plain, that
as the height of water gradually decreafed, the depofi-
tions from it on the higher parts of the mountains muft
have been lefs copious than on the lower, where they
muft have been often repeated.

'' Hence, 2. granite mountains, generally the moft
ancient, frequently have their northern or eaftem fides
covered with ftrata of gneifs or micaceous fchiftu?, and
this often with argillite or primeval fandftone, or lime-
(lone, thefe being either of fomewhat later formation,
or longer fufpendible in water.

" Hence, 5. different fpecies of fione are often found
at different heights of the fame flank of a mountain,
according as the water which conveyed thefe fpecies,
happened to be differently impregnated at different
heights. During the firft era its depofitions formed the
primitive ftony maffes ; after which the creation of fifli,
limel'one, fandftone, (^puddingslone^ and fecondary argil-
lites, in which pifcine remains are found, were depofi-

Chap. IV. GEO!

Theories of ted. But during the fecond era, that of the Noachian

the Earth, (j^jugg^ by reafon of the violence and irregularity of its
' Kggrelhon, the depofitions were more mifcellaneous,
and are found at the greateft heights ; yet in general
they may well be diftingtiilhcd by the remains of land
animals, or of vegetables, or of both, which they pre-
fent in their ftrata (or at leall by the imprelTions of ve-
getables which they bear) as thefe mull have been con-
veyed after the earth had been inhabited. Bat moun-
tains regularly llralitied bearing !uch remains, for in-
ftance the carboniferous, cannot be deemed to have
been formed in a period fo tumultuous. During this
deluge the waters alfo held a difl'erent courfe, proceed-
ing at Srft from fouth to north, and afterwards in both
oppolite directions, as ftiewn in treating of that cata-
ftroplie in my fecond etlay.

" Hence, and from various contingent local caufes, as
partial inundations, earthquakes, volcanoes, the erolion
of rivers, the elapHon of llrata, difintegration, the dif-
ruption of the lofty mounds by which many lakes were
anciently hemmed in, feveral changes were produced
in particular countries, that rcay at firft fight appear,
though in reality they are not, exceptions to the opera-
tions of the general caufes already ftated.

" Thus the mountains of Kamtfchatka had their eaftern
flanks torn and rendered abrupt by the irruption of the
general deluge, probably accompanied by earthquakes.
And thus the Meiflener had its eall and north flanks
undermined by the river Warre, as Werner has (hewn ;
thus the eighth and fixteenth obfervations are accounted
for, as is the thirteenth, by the vaft inundations fo fre-
quent in this country, (i. Pallas, p. 172 ), which un-
dermined or corroded itS eaft fide, while the weftern
were fraoothed by the calcareous depofitions from the
numerous rivers in its vicinity.

" Hence, 4. we fee why on dififerent fides of lofty
mountains different fpecies of flones are found, as Pal-
las and SauiTure have obfervcd, (2. Saujf.^ 98l.)j acir-
cumftance which SauJure imagined almoft inexplicable,
but which Dolomieu has fince happily explained, by
flieiving that the current ^vhich conveyed the calcare-
ous fubllances to the northern, eaflem, and north-eall-
cm fides of the Alps, for inftance, was flopped by the
height of thefe mountains, and thus prevented from
conveying them to the fouthem fides, and thus the
north-eaftern fides were rendered more gentle than the
oppoCte, (3. AViu Ro7<. p. 423.), conformably to the
theory here given.

" Hence, 5. where feveral lofty ridges nm parallel to
each other, it muil frequently happen that the external
ihould intercept the depofitions that do not furround
them, and thus leave the internal ridges Ifcep on both
fides.

" Hence, 6. low granitic or other primitive hills are
frequently uncovered by adventitious ftrata on all fides,
as at Phanet in the county of Donegal, or are covered
on all fides ; the impregnated waters either eafily paf
fing over them, or ftagnating upon them, according to
the greater or lefs rapidity of its courfe, and the obfta-
j cits it met with."

Krrwan's i^r Kirwan's theory of the formation of whin dykes,

thccrv of is as follows.

dykes. pfg fuppofes that the dyke exifted in the fpot where

it is found previous to the formation of the horizontal
ftrata ; that, during the formation of the latter by de-

- O G Y. 60J

pofition, their equal cxtenfion on each fide of the dyke Eirt i-
ivas obllrucled by its height preventing the palfage of l^''^-" =>•"*
the current of waters j that the ftrata on that fide of ^° ""f^.'
the dyke which were firlt formed, occafii>ned a much
more confiderable preffure than on the fide on which
the ftrata of latter formation repofe, and mull have
pulled the upper and more moveable extremity of the
flip gradually towards the fide on which there was leall
preffure 5 on that fide it muft therefore overhang : this
preffure being of earlier date than on the oppoiite fide,
muft have had a more confiderable effeft in depreflinT
each particular ftratum, and forcing their integrant
particles into clofer contaft, than could have been pro-
duced in thole of later formation j and confequently
the ftrata muft be lower. The ingenious author has
added, ivith good reafon, that he is not fatisfied with
this explanation. It is undoubtedly quite incompatible
^\ith the phenomena %vhich it attempts to explain. For
it has been already obferved, that the coal and conti-
guous ftrata are, in every refpeft, the fame on both
fides of a dyke, to whatever diftance they may have
been elevated or deprefled, which demonftrates clearly,
that their formation muft have been coeval. But, be-
fides, the fame derangement takes place in a flip uhere
there is merely a folution of contiguity of the horizon-
tal ftrata, one fide being only elevated or dc;)reffed
above or below the correfponding fide from \vhich it
has been detached without having a vertical ftratum or
dyke interpofed.

Chap. IV. Of Earthquakes and Volcanoes,

Ik the preceding chapters we have given a (hort ac- 19S
count of the materials which conftitute the globe of
the earth ; we have taken a view of the relative pofi-
tion and connexion which fubfill amor.g thefe materials,
fo far as they are known, and we have confidcred forae
of the changes which are fuppofed to have taken place
in their arrangement and dillribution, and fome of the
theories which have been propofed to account for thefe
changes. We have hitherto contemplated na.ure in a
ftate of feeming repofe, conducting her operations by a
gradual and ulent procefs, and accoraplilhing the moft
beneficial and wonderful effecls, unheeded and unobfer-
ved. We are now to take a viciv of thofe more terri-
ble and fudden changes which are exhibited in the de-
vaftation and ruin which accompany the earthquake and
the volcano ; — changes awful in the contemplation,
but dreadful and terrible in their tremendous effefls.

Many of the phenomena which accompany earth-
quakes and volcanoes, are common to both. Earth-
quakes are fiequtntly the forerunners, and fometimes
the attendants, of volcanic eruptions ; but earthquakes
have oftin exifted, and their terrible eft'efls have been
feverely felt, where no volcano was ever known.

In the nrefent chapter, we propofe to confider the
phenomena, hiftory, and caufes of earthquakes and vol-
canoes, which will form the fubjecls of the two follow-
ing fcftions. In the firft we (hall treat of earthquiikcs,
and in the fecond of volcanoes.

Sect. I. Of the Phenomena and lli/iory of Earthquakes. ,y„

Places
Earthquakes have been felt in moft countries ofwhere
the world. There are, however, particular places, ^*f''"I"»kM
4G2 ^liichP"""'-

GEOLOGY.

cede and
accompaoy

wliicli feeni to be more mbjecl to this dreadful calami-
ty tViaiV otiiers ; and this does not feem to depend on
any local circumllancc?, with regard to particular re-
gions of the earth. It may be obferved in general,
that earthquakes are more frequent within the tropics ;
but there are places within the torrid zone, which are
more rarely vilited by earthquakes than lome of the
more temperate, or even the colder regions of the
earth. In the iflands of the Well Indies, and in fome
parts of the American continent ^vhich lie between
the tropics, the earthquake is more frequently felt than
in moft other regions of the eartli. But the north-
ern ihores of the Mediterranean, the kingdom of Por-
tugal, and fome other places without the tropics, have
been oflener die fcene of defolation, by the effetls of
the earthquake, than many of the iflands and extenfive
continents ivithin the torrid zone. From this circum-
Itance in the hiliory of earthquakes, it would appear
that they are not limited to particular regions, on ac-
count of proximity to the equator or diltance from it,
on account of inlular fituation or extent of continent.
Particular iflands, however, and particular parts of
continents, have undoubtedly been oftener vifited by
earthquakes than others. Of all the illands of the Well
Indies, Jamaica has moll frequently experienced their
dreadful erTecls. Indeed, fcarcely a year pafles, with-
out feveral ihocks of an earthquake being felt in that
illand. Mexico and Peru in South America, are more
fubjeCl to earthquakes than the other regions of the A-
mencan continent. Portugal has been often ihaken to
the very foundations, by terrible earthquakes, while
Spain, immediately adjoining, or it may be faid, in-
cluding it, is, comparatively, almoft exempted from
their effeifls. It has been obferved, that earthquakes
have been lefs deftruftive in Italy than in Sicily, which
are in the immediate vicinity of each other, and are
both volcanic countries.

Obfervations on phenomena fo awful and terrible,
can fcarcely be expetled to be very numerous. The
operation of the caufes which produce them is too ra-
pid, the efFetls are too fudden and unexpected, to be
re;;dered the fubjefl of accurate or attentive philofophi-
cal inveftigation ; or, perhaps, we might acknowledge
at once, that they are too extenfive and too obfcure for
the powers of man. They are beyond the gralp of the
human mind.

It has been already obferved, that earthquakes are
more frequent in volcanic countries than in any others.
In thefe regions they are oftener dreaded and expefted
than in other places. Where a volcano exifls, and
when it has ceafed to throw out flame and fmoke for
any long period, lliocks of earthquakes begin to be
dreaded. This has been very generally the cafe with
the principal volcanoes of the world, the events of
whofe hiftory have been recorded. An earthquake is
often the forerunner of an eruption, and the very firll
warning of its approach.

Earthquakes are often preceded by long droughts.
The earthquake, however, does not immediately fuc-
ceed the ceiTation of the drought, or the fall of rain.
Some electrical appearances are obferved to take pface
in the air, before the earthquake comes on. The au-
lora bortalis is frequent and brilliant, and bright me-
teors aie ofiei> Ijeen darting from one region of tlie

Chap. IV.

heavens to another, or from the utniofphere to the Eurth-
earth. quakts a

Before the fliock comes on, the waters of the ocean ^""^^^'^
appear to be unufually troubled ; without the eiTeS of ^^"^'~~
wind, or any perceptible caufe, it fwells up with great
noilc. Fountains and fprings are alfo greatly diflurbed,
and their waters are agitated, and become muddy.
The air at the time of the (hock has been obferved to
be remarkably calm and ferene, but afterwards it be-
comes dark and cloudy.

The noife which accompanies th.e fliock of an earth-
quake is fomctimes like that of a number of carriages,
driving along the pavement of a flreet with great ra-
pidity. Sometimes it is like a rufhing noife, fimilar to
that of wind, and fometimes it refembles the explofions
occaQoncd by the firing of artillery. The noife which
accompanied the earthquake, which was pretty general-
ly felt over Scotland about three years ago, we recoi-
led, refembled that of a heavy pcrfon walking rapidly,
and barcfdoted, trrou-h ^r. adjoining room.

The t:R'e& u" , : ' ' ,i,, i1:e I'urface of the earth
is various. !: . .; 'antaneouily heaved up

in a perpcnditi.'. , .1 .d iometimes affunies a

kind of rolling iri^-iiun, noni hue to fide. Sometimes
the fliock commences with the perpendicular motion,
and terminates with the other.

Great openings or fiffiires are made in the earth by the
fliock, and thefe in general throw out vail quantities of
water, but fometimes fmoke and tiame are alfo emit-
ted. Flame and Imoke are often feen ifluing through
the furface of the earth, even where no chafm or fiflure
has been produced.

The effedls of an earthquake on the ocean are not
lefs terrible than thofe on land. The fea fwells up to
a great height ; its waters fometimes feem to be entirely
feparated, and from the place of feparatlon, currents of
air, fmoke, and flame are difcharged. Similar effefts
have been obferved to take place in lakes, ponds, and
rivers. Their waters are thrown into great agitation,
and are fometimes fwelled up. Places in which there
was a confiderable body of water, have become dry land,
and dry land has been converted into an extenfive lake
by the fliock of an earthquake.

The moll terrible earthquake that has yet vifited the
earth, has never been felt over its whole furface. Their
effefls, however, extend to very difl;ant regions, from
the centre or principal fcene of defolation. The ex-
iilence of an earthquake is indicated much more exten-
fively by water than by land. Where its efledls have
not been at all perceived on dry land, the agitation pro-
duced on the waters in the ocean, -or in lakes and rivers,
has been often communicated to a very great dif-
tance.

The duration of the fliock of an earthquake rarely
exceeds a minute, and perhaps very few continue for
near that length of time. But the ftiocks are fome-
times repeated in rapid fucceflion; and perhaps from the
efFe£l on the fenfes, and the dread and alarm which are
thus occafioned, it is luppofed that their duration is much
longer than it really is.

But as no general account of the phenomena which
accompany an earthquake, from the difhculty or fcanti-
ncfs of obfervation, can be complete, it will he render-
ed much more intelligible and interefting, if we enter a.

Lttle

Chap. IV.

H6j8.

GEO

i-.nh- little more into the detail of tlie hiilory of particular
quarts i:i>! earthquakes ; and in the account of i'ome of tliem which
Voicaroes. ^..^ p^gpofg tj, ijy before our readers, it will be found
that riioft of the appearances and effeSs which have
20! been enumerated, were obferved.
Earihquike xhe firft earthquake, the hiftory of which we (hall
"" '••■^'^"'"" now detai)^ happened in Calabria, in the year 16^8.
This earthquake is Hiilicr to be coniidered as an excep-
tion to what was faid vnth regard to their not taking
pkce in tlie neighbourhijod of a volcano, foon after an
eruption. The volcanoes in that vicinity had experien-
Ci-d violent eruptions a very (hort time before. Five
years before, there had been an eruption of Mount Vcfu-
vius, and two years only had elapfed from the time that
a hmilar event had befallen j^tna. This mountain, in-
deed, at the very time, threw out a great body of fmoke,
which feeitied to cover tVie whole iiland, and entirely
concealed the ihorcs from view. 'I he air over the fea
at a little dillance was calm and ferene, and the fur-
face of the water was perfectly fmooth. Seemingly
without any caule, it began to be flightly agitated, as
happens to the furface of water in a heavy ihower of
rain. A dreadful noife fucceeded, and the fraell of
fulphureous vapours was perceived. The noife, hke the
rattling of chariots, grew more frequent and loud, and
the Ihock at lalt was terribly felt, when the earth was
heaved up, or rolled in the form of waves.

This earthquake is particularly defcribed by Kircher,
the celebrated geographer. " On the 24th of March,
(fays he), ive departed in a fmall boat from the harbour
of Mefhna in Sicily, and the fame day arrived Pt the
promontory of Pelorus. Our dcftination was for the
city of Euphemia in Calabria, but iwfavoiuable weather
obliged U3 to remain at Peloras tliree days. Wearied
at length with delay, we dctti mined to proceed on our
voyage, and although the lea feeraed unufually agitat-
ed, yet it did not deter us from embarking. As we
approached the gulf of Charybdi>, the waters feemed
whirled round ^vilh fuch violence, as to form a large
hollow in the centre of the vortex. Turning my eyes
"to Mount ^tna, I faw it throw out huge volumes of
fmoke, which entirely covered the ifland. This awful
appearance, with the dreadful noife, and the fulphureous
fmell v.hich accompanied it, filled me with flrong ap-
prehenfions that feme terrible calamity was approaching.
The ilea Itfelf exhibited a very unufual appearance, its
agitation refembling that of the waters of a hke which
is covered with bubbles in a violent (hower of rain.
My furprife was flill increafed by the calmnefs and
ferenity of the weather; not a breeze ftiried, not a
cloud obfcured the face of the Iky, which might be fup-
pofed to produce thefe dreadful commotions. I there-
fore warned my companion, that the unufual phenome-
na which we obfer^ed, were the forerunners of an earth-
quake. Soon after we flood in for the (hore, and land-
ed at Tropaea ; but v.e had fcarcely arrived at the
Jefuits college in that city, when a horrid found, which
rcfembled the rattling wheels of an infinite number of
chariots, driven furioufiy along, flunned our ears. Soon
after a terrible fliaking of the earth began ; the ground
on which we flood feeraed to vibrate, as if we were in
the fcale of a balance, which conti.nucd waving. The
motion foon grew more violent ; I could no longer keep
my legs, but was thrown proftrate upon the ground.
After fome time had elapfed, v.hen I had recovered

LOGY. 60s

from the conflernation ; and finding that I wm unhurt Earth-
amidfl the general crad., I refohed to make the beft of *[J'„*'^^'„"",''
ihy way to a place of fafety, and running as fart as I ' J

could, 1 readied the Ihore. 1 foon found the boat i^'
which 1 had landed, as well as my companions ; and
leaving this Icene of defolation, we profecutcd our voy-
age aloiig the coaft. Next day we arrived at Rochctta,
where we landed, although the earth Hill continued in
violent commotion. But we had fcarcely reached (he
inn ivhen we were again ohUged to return to the boat.
In about half an hour we faw the greateft part of the
town, as well as the inn where we had ilopped, levelled
with the ground, and moll of the inhabitants buried in
its ruins. As we proceeded onv,-ard, "we landed at
Lopezium, which is a caflle about half way between
Tropa;a and Euphemia, to which we were hound : and,
here, wherever I looked, nothing but fcenes o' ruin and
liorror prefented themfelves. Towns and caftles we; -
levelled \V;th tlic ground, and Stroroboli at the diilancc
of 60 miles threw out an immenfe body of flames, ac-
companied with a noife which could be dillinftly heard.
But our attention was quickly drawn from more remote
to prefent danger. The rattling found which immedi-
ately precedes an earthquake, again alarmed us ; e%'ery
moment it feemed to grow louder and louder, and to
approach nearer the place on v.hich we flood. A
dreadful fhaking of the earth now began, fo that be-
ing unable to (land, my companions and I caught
hold of \vhatcver Ihrub was next us, to fupport our-
' felves. After fome time the violent commotion ccafed,
and we Hood up, and propofcd to profecute our voy,
age to Euphemia, which lay within fight, but in the
meantime, while we were preparing ourfelves, I turn-
ed my eyes towards the city, but could fee nothing
but a thick, black cloud, ivhich feeraed to rell on the
place. This appeared an extraordinary circumftance, as
the fky all round was calm and ferene. We waited till
the cloud pafled away, and then turning to look for the
city, it was totally funk, and where ^t formerly flood,
nothing remained but a difmal and putrid lake." j-t

In the year 1693, an earthquake happened in Sicily, Tn Sicily in
which not only (hook the whole iflanl, but alfo reached '^'J'
to Naples and Malta, Previous to the (hock, a black
cloud was feen hovering over the city of Catania, which
was deftroyed at this time. The fea began to be vio-
lently agitated ; the fliocks fucceeded like the difcharge
of a great number of artillery ; the motion of the earth
was fo violent, that no perfons could keep their legs.
Even thofe who lay on the ground were toDfed from
fide to fide, as on a rolling billow ; high walls were
razed from their foundations, and were thrown to th.e
diftance of feveral paces. Almoll every building in
the countries which it vifited was thrown downj 54
cities and towns, befides a great number of village-;,
were either greatly damaged, or totally deftroyed. A-
mong thofe which we have already mentioned, was the
city of Catania, one of the moll ancient and llouridiing
in the kingdom. After the thick cloud which remain-
ed after the earthquake had dilhpated, no remains of'
this magnificent city could be feen. Of 18,900 ii\ha-
bitants, not fewer than l8,ooo petifhed by this dread-
ful calamity. ,

The terrible earthquake which vifited the ifland of fn Jamaici
Jamaica in 1692, alTords us another example of almofl in lOjj.
ths ivhole of the phenomena which were enumerated

6o6 GEOLOGY.

Earth- as the forerunners or attendants of eartliquakes. It
quakes anil yvgs on the 7th of June, in that year, that this dread-
. "•'^^''°_^'\ ful c;ilaraitv, which in two ir/mutes totally deftroyed
the tot^Ti of Port Royal, on the fouth fide of Jamaica,
and at that time the capital of the illand, took place,
'i"he eflefl of the Ihock on the furface was immediately
preceded by a hollow rattling noife, like that of
tliunder. The ftrects were heaved up like waves of
the fea, and then inftantly thrown down into deep pits.
All the wells difcharged their waters with prodigious
agitation ; the fea buril its bounds, and deluged a imall
part of the town which was not entirely overwhelmed.
The fiffurcs produced in the earth were fo great, that
one of the llreets feemed twice as broad as formerly,
and in fome places the earth opened and clofed again
for fome time. A great many of thefe openings were
feen at once. In fome of them, the houfes and inhabi-
tants, and every thing that was near, were fwallowed
up. Some perfons were fwallowed up in one of thefe
chafras, and what ^vill appear moft extraordinary, and
indeed almoft incredible, were thrown out alive from
another. Whole flreets funk in fome, and from others
an immenfe body of water was projefted high into the
air. Smells which were extremely ofFenSve now fuc-
ceeded ; nothing but • the diftant noife of falling moun-
tains was heard, and the Iky, which before the (hock
vas ftill and ferene, aflumed a dull red colour.

The efTeifts of this earthquake were not limited to
this fpot. It was feverely felt through the ^vhole illand,
which in many places fuftained very material damage.
Indeed there were few houfes which were not either in-
jured or thrown down. In fome places the inhabitants,
houfes, trees, and whole furface, were fwallowed up in
the fame chafm •, and what was formerly dry land was
left a pool of water. The wells in almoft every corner
of the ifland, whatevenvas their depth, threw out their
water with great violence. The rivers were either en-
tirely Hopped, or ceafed to How for 24 hours j and
many of them formed to themfelves new channels. At
the dillance of 12 miles from the fea, an immenfe body
of \vater fpouted out from a gap which was formed in
the earth, and was projefled to a great height in the
air. Such was the violence of the ftiock, that many
perfons were thrown down on their faces, even in places
where the furface of the ground remained unbroken.
It was obferved that the fliock was moft feverely felt
in the immediate vicinity of the mountains. Could this
arife from the greater preffure, and confequently the
greater refiftance, or was it becaufe the force which
produced thefe terrible effefls exifted near them ?

After the great ftiock which deftroyed the town of
Port Royal, the inhabitants who efcaped nent on
board fliips in the harbour, where many of them remain-
ed for two months, during which time the ftiocks were
repeated, and were fo frequent, that there were fome-
times two or three in the courfe of an hour. Thefe
were ftill accompanied with the fame rattling noife,
like that of thunder, or like the rulhing noife occafion-
ed by a current of air in rapid motion. They were al-
fo attended with what are called hrimjlone hlafls.
Thefe, it is probable, were fulphureous vapours which
ilTued from the openings made by the earthquake.
The atmofphere, however, feemed to be loaded with
poifomc vapours, far a veiy general fickntfs foon fuc-

Chap. IV,

ceeded, which in a ihort time fwept off not fewer than Eaitli-
3000 perfons. quakes and

But of all the earthquakes, the hiftory of which is on ^^^J^^-
record, that which happened at Lilbon, in the year ^^^
1755, was by far the moft extenfivc in its efFcfts, and, At Lifton
from its recent occurrence, v.ill probably be deemed '" '753-
the m^ift interefting. In the year 1 750, feveral ftiocks of
earthquakes had been fenfibly felt. The -four following
years were remarkable for exceffive brought. The fprings
which formerly yielded abundance of v.-ater, were to-
tally dried up and loft ; the winds which chiefly pre-
vailed were from the north and north-eaft. During
this period alfo there were flight tremors of the earth ;
the feufons in 1755, were unulually wet, and the fura-
mer, as the confequence of this, proved unufually cold.
But for the fpace of 40 days before the earthquake hap-
pened, the Iky was more clear and ferene. On the laft
day of Otlober the face of the fun was confidcrably ob-
fcured, and a general gloom prevailed over the atmo-
fphere. The day following (the ift of November) a
thick fog arofe, but it was foon dilTipated by the heat of
the fun. Not a breath of vAr\A was flirring ; the fea
was perfeflly calm, and the heat of the weather was
equal to that of June or July in this country. At 35
minutes after nine in the morning, without any previ-
ous warning, excepting the rattling noife refembling
that of diftant thunder, the earthquake came on with
ftiort, quick vibrations, and ftiook the very foundation
of the city, fj that many of the houfes inftantly fell.
A paufe, which was indeed juft perceptible, fucceeded,
and the motion changed. The houfes were then tofied
from fide to fide, like the motion of a waggon driven
violently over rugged rtones. It was this fecond ftiock
which laid great part of the city in ruin, and, as might
be expefled, great numbers of the inhabitants v/ere de-
llroyed at the fame time. The whole duration of the
earthquake did not exceed fix minutes. When it be-
gan, fome perfons in a boat, at the diftance of a mile
from the city, and in deep water, thought the boat had
flruck on a rock, in confequence of the motion which
was communicated to it. At the fame time they per-
ceived the houfes falling on both fides of the river.
The bed of the Tagus was in many places raifed to the
very furface of the ivater ; fliips v.ere driven from their
anchors or moorings, and were tofled about with great
violence ; and the perfons on board did not for fome time
know whether they were afloat or aground. A large
new pier with feveral hundreds of people upon it, funk
to an unfathomable depth, and not one of the dead
bodies was ever found. The bar of the river was at
one time feen dry from fide to fide ; but fuddenly the
fea came rolling in like a mountain, and in one part of
the river the water rofe in an inftant to the extraordi-
nary height of 50 feet. At noon another ftiock hap-
pened ; the walls of fome houles that remained were
feen to open from top to bottom, rear a foot wide, and
were afterwards fo exa61Iy clofed, that Icarcely any
mark of the injury remained. j.

But what was the moft fmgular circumftance attend- The flijck
ing this earthquake was, the prodigious extent to which ot this
its elR-as reached. At Colares, 20 miles from Lift>on,^_;';''=S"''e
and two miles from the fea, the weather was uncom- I'^'j'^,'*' "' I
monly warm for the fcafon, on the la(! day of Oftober.
About four o'clock in the afternoon, a fog arofe which,

proceeding |

Chap. IV.

GEOLOGY.

icS

; Opa.-to.

pvoceedlng fronrf the fea, covered the vaiUys. This was an
quakes ard mmfu-ji occurrence at that feafon of the year j but foon
V>.cano.s. „j-j^^ jj^^ ^^..^^j ihii'ting, the fog retunitd to the fea, col-
leeled over its furface, and became veiy thick and
dark. J and as the fog difpeifed, the fea was violently
agitated, and with great ncifc. Oa the firfl of Novem-
ber, at the da»\-n of day, t'le {ky was fair and ferene ;
about nine o'clock the fun was overclouded, and be-
came dim. Half an hour after, the rattling noife hke
that of chariots was heard ; and this foon increafed to
fuch a degree, that it refembled the explollons of the
largeft artillery. The Ihock of an earthquake was im-
mediately felt, and was quickly fucceedcd by a fe-
cond and a third. In thefe ihocks it ivas obferved,
that the walls of buildiiig«: moved from call to weft.
From iome of the mountains iiames were feen iiluing,
fomewhat refcmbiing the kindling of charcoal ac-
companied with a great deal of thick black fmokc.
The imoke which arofe from one mountain was at the
fame time accompanied %vith noile, which increafed wiih
the quantity of fmoke. When the place from which
the fmoke iilued was afterwards examined, no ngns of
fire could he perceived.

At Oporto, near the trouth of the river Douro, the
earthquake began at 40 minutes palf nine. The Iky
was quite ferene when the hollow rcttiing noife was
lieard, and it was immediately attended with a commo-
tion of the earth. In the fpace of a minute or tivo,
the river rofe and fell five or fix feet, and continued
this motion for tour hours. In fome places it feemed
to open, and difcharge great quantities of air. The lea
ivas alfo violently agitated, and indeed the agitation
was fo great, to the diftance of a league beyond the bar,
that it was fuppofed the difcharge of air from that place
muft alfo have been very coniiderable.

St Ubes, 3 fea-port town twenty miles fouth of
Liibon, was entirely fwallowed up by the repeated
(hocks of this earthquake, and the iramenfe furf cf the
fea which was produced. Large mafies of rock were de-
tached from the promontory at the extremity of the
tov,-n. This promontory conllfts of a chain of moun-
tains compofed of a very hard ftone.

The fame earthquake was felt in almoft every part of
Spain. The only places which efcaped from iis effefts
were the provinces of Arragon, Cat donia, and Valen-
cia. At Ayamonte, which is near the place where the
Guadiana falls into the bay of Cadiz, the earthquake
was not felt till a little before ten o'clock. It was
here alfo preceded by the hollow rattling noife. The
fhocks continued with intervals, for 14 or 15 minutes,
and did very coniiderable damage. Scarcely half an
hour i.ad elapfed from the time that the commotion
firft began, v.hen the fea, the river, and canals, role
violently over their banks, and laid every place near
them under water. The fea rolled in in huge mountains,
and carried every thing before it.

The earthquake began at Cadiz fome minutes after
nine in the morning, and lailed about five minutes.
The water in the ciilerns under ground was fo much
agitated, that it rofe in the form of froth. About ten
minutes after eleven, a hugh wave was feen coming
from the fea, at the diftance of eight miles, v.hich was
fuppofed not to be lefs than 60 feet high, and burft in
upon the city. The water returned with ti)e fame vio-
Lnce with lihich it approached, and places which were

607

Earth-
continued, but gradually lelTening till the evening. quakes and

i^olcanoer.

107

Dcftr-,NS

St Vbes.

Felt,
Spain

deep at low water were left quite dry. Similar waves

The earthquake was not felt at Gibraltar tiU after ^.
ten o'clock. There it began with a tremulous motion
of the earth, v.hich continued for about half a minute.
A violent ftiock then folloued j th.e tremulous motion
again commenced, and continued for five or fix feconds,
and then fucceeded a fecond fliock, but lefs violent than
the firrt. The whole time did not exceed two minutes j
the earth had an undulating motion ; fome of the guns
on the batteries were ^ten to rife, and others to fink.
Many people, fcizcd with ficknefs and giddinefs, fell
down. Some who were walking or riding, felt no
(hock, but were attacked with ficknefs. The fea had
an extraordinary llux and reflux ; it ebbed and flowed
every 1 5 minutes ; it rofe fix feet, and then fell fuddenly
fo loiv, that a great many fifii and fmall boats were left
en the ihore.

The fliock was felt at Madrid nearly at the fame
time as at Gibraltar. It continued for fix minutes, and
the fame ficknefs and giddinefs prevailed. It was not
felt by thofe who ^valked fmartly, or who ivere in car-
riages, and no accident happened excepting two per-
fons ivho were ki'led by the fall of a ftone crofs from
the porch of a church.

Malaga, a fea-port to-.vn on the Mediterranean, ex-
perienced a violent fliock •, the bells were fet a ringing
in the fteeples, and the water of the wells overflowed,
and as fuddenly retired. St Lucar, at the mouth of
the Guadalquiver, fufTeied much from a fimilar (hock,
ai well as from an inundation of the fea, which broke
in, and did great damage. At Seville, 16 leagues
above this, a number of houfes was thro\\-n down ; the
celebrated tower of the cathedral, called La Giralda,
opened in the four fides; the waters v,-ere thrown into
violent agitation, and the veffels in the river were driven
on fiiore.

In Africa this earthquake was felt nearly as feverely In Africa.
as in Europe. Great part of the city of Algiers was
deftroyed. This happened about ten in the morning.
About the fame time at Arzilla, a town in the king-
dom of Fez, the fea fuddenly rofe with fuch impetuo-
fiiy, that it lifted up a veffel in the bay, and forced it
on (hore with fuch violence that it was broken to
pieces. A boat was alfo found within land, at the di-
ftance of two mulket iliots from the (la. At Fez and
Mequinez, many houfes were thrown down, and num-
bers of perfons were buried in the ruins.

Many people were deftroyed at Morocco by the fall-
ing of houfes. Eight leagues fiom the city the earth
opened, and fwallowed up a village with all its inhabi-
tar.ts, to the number of 8,000 or 1 0,00c, as well as all
their cattle. Soon after the earth clofed, and they
were feen no more. The town of Sallee alfo fulfereJ
greatly ; a third part of the houfes were thrown down ;
the waters rudied into the ftrccts wiih great violence,
and when tliey retired, they left behind them a large
quantity of fi(h. The earthquake began at Tangier at
ten in the morning ; its whole duration was about ten
or twelve minutes. The fea came up to the walls with
great violence, and retired immediately with the fame
rapidity, leaving behind a great quantity of fifli. This
agitation of the water was repeated no lefs than 18
times, and continued till about fix o'clock in the ev:;n.
ing. It began at the fame time at Tctuan, but its du-

109 ■

C'o8 GEO

E?.rth. raticnvras only about feve;-. or eight minutes. Three o*^ the
quakes and (}^j,ck3 ivere fo violent as to excite great apprehenfions
■ °,"'''' that the city would be deltroycd. Siruilar effe£ls were
produced by the fame eaithquake at different places
,,o aIor;g the African (liore ot the Mediterranean.
In Madeira At the town of Funchal in Madeira, the firft fliock
and the of this earthquake was. felt at ^3 minutes part nine. It
Weftlndie .^^_,j preceded by the rattling noife, which feemed to be
piodiiced in the air ; the Ihock, it was fuppofed, con-
tinued for more than a minute ; the earth moved ivith
a vibratory, undulating motion, and feme of the vibra-
tions iucreafed greatly in force. The noife in the air
which accompanied the (hocks, lafted fome feconds after
the motion of the earth had ceafed. At three quarters
pad eleven, the day being calm and ierene, the lea re-
tired fuddenly, then, without the leaft noife, rofe with
a great fwell, overriowcd the lliore, and entered the
city. It rofe 15 feet perpejidicular above high- water-
mark. Having thus flutluated four or five times, it at
laft fubfided, and refumed its former lUllnefs. In the
northern part of the ifland, the inundation was ftill
more violent. It firft retired to the diftance of lOO
paces, and fuddenly returning, overflowed the ibore,
broke dmvn walls of magazines and florehcufes, and
left behind it great quantities of fi(h in the ftreets of a
%illage. At this place the fea rofe only once beyond
the high-water mark, although it continued to flu^^u-
ate much longer before it entirely fubfided than at Fun-
chal.

Such were the eifects of this earthquake, in thofe
places where it was accompanied with coniiderable dan-
age. It was, however, perceptibly felt to a great dif-
tance in every direi51ion, either, by a flight motion of
the earth, or by the agitation of the waters. At the
illand of Antigua the fea rofe to fuch a height as had
never been before knowni, and afterwards the water at
the wharfs, which ufed to be fix feet deep, was not more
than two inches. About two in the afternoon, the fea
ebbed and flowed at Barbadoes in a very unufual man-
ner. It overflowed the wharfs, and rulhed into the
rtreets. This flux and reflux continued till 10 at

in Iiaiice. Shocks were djftinftly felt in different parts of France,
as at Bayonne, Bourdeaux, and Lyons. The waters
were alfo obferved to be agitated in different places, as
at Angouleme, and Havre de Grace, but with a lefs
degree of violence than fome which have been men-
tioned. At Angouleme, a fubterraneous noife like
thunder was heard, and foon after a torrent of water, mix-
ed with red fand, was dilcharged from an opening in the
earth. Mofl of the fprings in the neighbourhood funk,
111 and continued dry for fome time.
In Gcr- The effefts of this earthquake were alfo very per-

minj. ceprible in many places of Gernmny. Throughout the

duchy of Holflein, the waters were greatly agitated,
particularly the Elbe and Trave. The water of a lake,
called LihfcC, in Brandenburg, ebbed and flowed lix
times in half an hour, and although the weather was
then perfectly calm, this motion was accompanied with
a great noife. A fimilar agitation took place in the
waters of the lakes called Mufidgafl and Ne.'zo, but
here there was alfo emitted a mofl offcnfive fmell.

The fea was greatly agitated round the iiland of
C«Jtfica, and many of the rivers of the iiland overflowed
M-eit banks. The fame earthquake was felt in the city

L O G Y. Chap. IV.

of Milan in Italy, and its neighbourhood. Turin in Sa- E irth-
vov experienced a very fmart ftrock. quakes and

Many of the rivers of Switzerland became all at ^ °'"''°"'
once mj.ddy, although there had been no rain. The jj,
lake of Noufchatel rofe to the height of two feet above In Switzer.
its ufual level, and continued at this height for a few'^"^-
hours. 1'he waters of the lake of Zurich were a!fo
greatly agitated. 214

The commotion of the waters in Holland was ftill la Holland,
more remarkable. In the afternoon of the ift of No-
vember, the waters of the Rhine at Alphen, betvveen
Leyden and Woerden, were fo violently agitated,
that the buoys were broken from their chain-;, large
vcfels parted from their cables, and fmaller ones were
thrown upon the dry land. At 11 in the forenoon at
Amfterdam, when the air was perfeClly calm, the wa-
ters in the canals were throw-n into great commotion, fo
that boats broke loofe from their moorings, chandeliers
were obferved to vibrate in the churches, although it is
faid no motion of the earth was perceptible. In the
forenoon at Haarlem, not only the water in the rivers,
canals, (kc. but, it is alierted, fmaller quantities of fluids
contained in velTels, were greatly agitated, and fome-
times dalhed over the fides of the veffels. This con-
tinued for about four minutes. Between 10 and 1 1 in
the forenoon, in fome of the canals at Leyden, the wa-
ters rofe fuddenly, and produced very perceptible im-
dulations. j,.

The effefts of this earthquake extended as far north In Noiway,
as Nonvay and Sweden : many of the rivers and lakes "'^•
in Norivay were greatly agitated ; {hocks were felt in
feveral of the provinces of Sweden, and commotions of
the waters, with the rivers and lakes, efpecially in
Dalecarlia, were obferved. The river Dala fuddenly
overflowed its banks, and as fuddenly retired ; and at
the fame time, a lake which is a league diftant from it,
bubbled up with great violence. Several fmart Ihocks
were felt at Falilun, a toivn in Dalecarlia, 3,5

In many places of Great Britain and Ireland, thel:i Biitaiii
agitation of the waters was very perceptible. At Eaton
bridge in Kent, near a pond of an acre in extent, fome
perfons heard a fudden noife, which they fuppofed was
occafioned by fomething falling into the pond, for it
was then a dead calm, and ran to the fpot, where they
faw the pond open in the middle, while the water
dalbed over a perpendicular bank two feet high. This
motion was repeated feveral times, and ftill accompanied
with a great noife.

At Cobham in Surry, between 10 and 11 p'xlock
A. M. a perfon was watering a horfe at a pon"3',*the
waters of which were derived from fprings. At the
moment the animal was drinking, the waters retired
from his mouth, and left the bottom of the pond dry.
It then returned with great violence, and when it re-
tired, its progiefs was towards to the fouth. About
the fame time at Bulbridge, in the fame county, while
the weather was remarkably calm, the waters of a ca-
nal 700 feet long and 58 broad, were greatly agitated,
and this was accompanied with an unufual noife. The
waters rofe between two and three feet above the ufual
level, in the form of a heap or ridge, extending 30
yards in length. This ridge then heeled towards the
north fide, and flowed •vlth great impetuofity over the
grafs walk ; it then re'ur-.ed to the canal, again heaped
up in the middle, and then heeled to the fouth fide

with

Chap. IV. G E O L

Earth- with ftilJ greater violence, flowing o%-cr the grafs walk,
quake^and gj,j leaving ievtral feet at the bottom of the canul on
Volcanoes. ^^^ north lide perfedly dry. Thefe motions contimicd
' V for 1 5 minutes, after which the waters refumed their
former tranquillity. During-tiie agitation of the wa-
ters, the fand and mud at the bottom were thrown up,
and mixed with them.

In Suffolk, the water of a pond at Dunrtal rofe
gradually for feveral minutes in the form of a pyramid,
and then fell down like a wixter-l^out. In other ponds
in the fame neigiibourhood, the waters of which were
lefs agitated, thci< was a fmooth flux and reflux from the
one extremity to the~«jher.

At Earfycourt in Bcrkfliire, about II o'clock, a
perfon Uuiiding near a hlh pond, felt a violent tremb-
ling of the earth, which continued for about a- minute.
He obferved immediately after, the water move from
the fouth to the north end ot the pond, leaving the
bottom of the Ibiilh end quite dry, to the extent of fix
feet. It then returned, iloived at the fouth end, rofe
three feet up the bank, and immediately after returned
CO the north bank, where it rofe to the lame height.
Setween the flux and redux the waters formed a ridge
ill the middle of the pond, 20 inches higher than the
level on each fide, and boiled up with great vio-
lence.

Similar phenomena were obferved about half after ten,
near Durham. A perion was alarmed with a fudden
ruifiing noife, which (eemed to proceed from a pond.
The water rofe gradually up without any fluctuating
motion. Hood fome inches higher than the ufual level ;
it then fubfided and fwelled again, and continued in
this manner riling and falling for the fpace of lix or
feven minutes, riling four cr five rimes in a minute.

The effeds of this earthquake in Derbyfhire excited
coniiderable alarm. At Barlborougii, between 1 1 and
1 2 o'clock, in a boathoule on the well fide of a large
body of water, called Pib/eij dam, which is fuppoled
to cover not lefs than 30 acres of land, there was heard
a fudden and terrible nolle ; a fwell of water proceed-
ing from the iouth, rofe two feet on the llope dam head
at the north end. It then fubfided, but immediately
returned. The water continued thus agitated for 45
minutes, but became gradually lefs violent. At Eyam
bridge in the Peak, an overfeer of the lead mines, fit-
ting in his room abcnit 1 1 o'clock, felt a fiidden fliock.,
by which tlie chair on which he lat was iuddeiily raif-
ed, and fome pieces of plaller were broken ofl^ from
the fides of the room. The commotion was fo great
that he thought the engine ftiaft had fallen together,
and he ran out to fee what was the matter, and found
every thing in fafety. Some miners employed at the
time in a drift 120 yards deep, were greatly alarmed
firft with one Ihock, and then with a fecond, which
ieemcd to be fo violent as to make the rocks grind
upon one another. Three other shocks fucoeeded the
t.r.0 firft at intervals of a few minutes, and became
gradually weaker.

A little after i o o'clock in the morning, the water
in a moat which furroimds Shireburn cattle in Oxford-
ihire, exhibited a very unufual appearance. A thick
io'^ pre\'ailed, the air was perfectly llill, and the furface
oi the water quite fmooth. At one corner it was ob-
ferved to flow towards the ihore, and then again to re-
tire ; and this flux and reflux continued for Ibme time
Vol. IX. Part II.

o G y. 609

quite regular. Every flux bega:» llowljr ; but iiicreaf- Enth-
ed in its velocity till near its fiiU height, when it rufli- 1" •=-"' aid
ed with great iinpctuofity ; and having remained for a ^'''''''"'"'*-
(iiort time llationary, it then retired, at firlt llowly, but '
at lall it funk with great rapidity. What will appear
mott Angular in this coimnotion of the water is, that
it was limited to one part of the moat. At a different
comer about 25 yards dilt.mt no motion could be per-
ceived. But in that part of the moat directly oppofite
to the place where the motion of the water was firlt
obferved, tlie water rofe towards the Ihore at the fame
time as at the other iide. In a pond at a little dilbnce
the waters were agitated in a limitar manner, but the
rifings and finkings took place at different times from
thefe in the moat.

On the evening of the fame day, about three quarters
after fix, and about the time of two hours ebb of the
tide, at White rock in Giamorganlhire, a great body
of water rullied up accompanied with great noife. It
was in fuch quantity that it Hoated two veli'els not lefs
than 200 tons burden ;oh, drove them from their
moorings, and carried incm acrofs the river. The
whole length of time of the rife and fall of this body of
water did not exceed 10 minutes, fo that it fcemed to
have i)i;rrt from the earth at the fpot where it appeared.
It teems tingular, if the accomit of it be correcl, that on
this fpot the effetts of the earthquake fliould be felt at
the diftance of feven or eight hours from the time it
was felt in other parts of the idand.

The waters of the lakes in Scotland were alfo great- inScotUnd.
ly agitated from the fame caufe. Half an hour after
nine in the morning, without the leaft breath of wind,
the water in Loch Lomond role fuddenly and violently
againfl its banks. It immediately fell very low, again
returned to the fliore, and in five minutes rofe as high
as at finl. This commotion continued till ij minutes
after 10, with an alternate flux and reflu\ every five
minutes. From this time, till 1 1 o'clock, the height to
which the ^vater rofe gradually diminilhed, till it refumed
its former tranquillity. But each flux and reflux con-
tinued for a period of five minutes as at firfl. Here
the \-iolence of the ihock was fuch, that a large ftoiie
lying at fome diflance from the iTiorc in fliallow water,
was moved from its place and carried to dry land, leav-
ing a deep furrow in the ground along which it had
moved.

About the fame time the waters of Loch Nefs in the
north of Scotland exhibited alfo a very unufual agita-
tion. About ten o'clock the river Oich, which falls
into the head of the loch, Iwelled very much, and ran
upwards from the loch with a high i^ave tivo or three
feet above its u!ual level. Ihe motion of the wave was
in a direction contrary to that of the wind, and it pro-
ceeded with great rapidity up the river for the fpace of
200 yards, broke on a ihallow, and overflowed the
banks. It then returned gently to the loch. This eb-
bing and flowing continued for about an liour, the
height of the waves gradually diminifliing. till, about
J 1 o'clock, a ivave higher than any ot the former
broke w ith fuch violence ou the bank on the fide of the
river, that it ran upwards of 30 feet from the bank. ,

Between two and three o'clock in the afternoon, at In Irelarlv

Kinfale in Ireland, when the weather was perfeftly

calm and the tide neafly full, a great body of water

fuddtnly burft into the harbour, and with fuch vio-

4. H lence.

On f[>iings,

knee, iVial it Lrokc the cables of two veflels, eacli
moored with two anchors, and of feveral boats vvliich
!ay near the town. The veflels ^vcre whirled round
feveral times by an eddy formed in the water, and then
hurried back again with the fame rapidity as before.
Thefe motions were repeated different times ; and
while -the current rufhed up along one fide of the har-
Isour, it ran down with the fame violence along the
other. The muddy bottom of the harbour was greatly
altered ; the mud was removed from fome places and
depofited in others. At one place the height of the
water, where it was meafured, was found to be five
feet and a half ; in other places it is faid to have been
much higher, particularly where it flowed into the
market-place with fuch rapidity, that many perfons had
not time to efcape, but were immerfed, knee deep, in
the water. Thefe commotions extended feveral miles
up the river, and were moft perceptible in (hallow
places. The alternate elevation and depreflion of the
T.'nter continued about ten minutes, when the tide
returned to its ufual level. In the evening, between
fix and feven, the water rofe again, but with lefs vio-
lence than before, and contiiHied to ebb and flow till
three next morning. The rife of the waters was not at
firll gradual, but, accompanied with a hollow noife,
rofe fix or feven feet in a minute, and rulhed in like a
deluge, after which it as fuddenly fubfided. llie wa-
ters, too, became thick and muddy, emitting at the
fame time a mod offenfive fmell. Similar agitations of
the waters were obferved all along the coaft to the
well ward of Kinfale.

Such were the phenomena of this earthquake, as
they were obferved on land in the different places
which have been mentioned. Its effects were alfo fe-
verely felt at fea. A frigate off St Lucar received fo
violent a fliock, that it was fuppofed (he had flruck the
ground. Another veffel in N. Lat. 36. 24. betiveen
nine and ten in the morning, ivas fo much ihaken and
ftrained as if fiie had flruck upon a rock. The feam
of the deck opened, and the compafs was overturned.
The fenfation experienced by fome perfons on board of
another veffel, which was then in N. Lat. 25°. W.
Long. 40°. were fuch as If (he had been fuddenly r.iifcd
up and fufpended by a rope. One perfon looking out
at the cabin window, thought he faw land about a mile
dirtant ; but when he reached the deck, no land was to
be feen. A flrong current was obferved eroding the
Ihip's way to leeward. The current returned in about
a rninute with great violence ; and, at the dillance of
about a league, three craggy pointed rocks were feen
throwing up water of various colours, and feemingly
refembling fire. This appearance terminated in a thick
black cloud, which arofe heavily in the atmofphere.
Between nine and ten in the morning another (liip,
49 leagues off St Vincent, received fo violent a (liock,
that the men cm deck were thrown a foot and a half
above its furface, and the ancliors, although they were
laflicd down, bounced up. Immediately after the (hip
funk in the water fo low as the main chains. On heav-
ing the kad a great depth of water was found, and the
line was of a yellow colour, and gave out the fmell of
fulphur. The firft (hock was the moft violent ; but
ftiialkr ones were repeated for 24 hours.

The f ffefls of this earthquake on fprings ivere very

G E O L O G Y. Chap. IV.

remarkrible. On the afternoon of the 3 i_fl of OftuLer, the Earth-
water of a fountain at Colares was oblerved to be great- <]"^kfsaud
ly diminilhed. On the morning of the ift of Novem- " '^°""'^'''.
bcr, the day on which the earthquake happened, it be-
came thick and muddy, but afterwards recovered its
ufual quantity and limpidity. In fome places fprings
appeared where there had been formerly no water, and
continued afterwards to flow. At Varge, on the river
Alacaas, many fprings of water burlf forth at the tim.e

of the earthquake, ^d fome threw up their waters
mixed with fand of various colours, to the height of
iS or 20 feet. In Barbary, a flream of water, which
was as red as blood, burft forth from a mountain, which
was fplit in two. At Tangier all the fountains were
dried up during the whole of the day on which the
earthquake happened. 1'he mineral waters of Toplitz,
a villirc r' F, ■ibr'-'-^. which have been celebrated fince
the y<:: , - ■ . < riL-nced a very remarkable change.
'I'he pi' , i ' ' i:ig had continued to flow from

the t;a.(j :^ \,ub Ji.tuvcred, of the fame temperature and
the fame in quantity. On the moming of the earth-
quake, between i i and I 2 o'clock, the waters of this
fpring increafed lb much in quantity, that all the baths
ran over in the fpace of half an hour. A (hort time
before the water increafed, it flowed from the fpring
thick and muddy ; and then having entirely (topped
for about a minute, it burff out with great violence,
carrying before it a great quantity of reddilh ochre.
It afterwards became limpid, and flowed as former-
ly ; but in larger quantity, and of a higher tempera-
ture. At Angouleme in Fiahce the earth opened in
one place, and difcharged a great body of water, \vhich
was mixed with reddi(h fand. Moft of the fprings in
the neighbourhood funk fo low, that for fome time it
■was fuppofed they had become quite dry.

Such were the extraordinary effeifls of this terrible
earthquake, which extended over a fpace not lefs than
four millions of fquare miles. Other earthquakes, al-
though of more limited extent, hav'e produced effeils
not lefs deftruftive, and particularly fome of the earth-
quakes which have viiited Italy and Sicily in modern
times ; accounts of which have been drawn up with ac-
curacy and attention. Some of thefe we (hall now de-
tail. J, I

One of the moft calamitous earthquakes ivas that Earth-
which bcfel Calabria in the year 1783. Of this earth- ^"fl^e in
quake Sir William Hamilton, who, foon after the ^
earthquake happened, vifited the fcenes ^of defolation
which it left behind, has drawn up a particular ac-
count. He obferves, that " if on a map of Italy, and
with your compafs on the fcale of Italian miles, you
were to meafure oft' 2 2, and then fixing the central
point on the city of Oppido, which feemcd to be the
fpot w here the earthquake had exerted its greateft force,
form a circle, the radius of which will be 22 miles,
you will then include all the towns, villages, &c. that
have been utterly ruined, and the fpots where the
greateft mortality happened, and where there have Jaeen
the moft vifible alterations on the face of the earth.
Then extend your compafs in the fame fcale to 72
miles, preferving the fame centre, and form another
circle, you will include the whole country that has any
mark of having been affetlcd by the earthquake. A
gradation was plainly obferved in the damage done to

the

Calabri:

Chap. IV. G E O I

Earth- the buildings, as alfo in tlie degree of mortalily, in pro-
quakes and portion as the countries were more or lefs dillant from
Volcarofs. ^jjij f^ppoied centre of the evil."

' This earthquake, it has been remarked, diftered ve-

ry confidcrably from others in one circumllance, which
was this. Where it happened tliat two towns were fi-
tuated at the fame dilfance from the centre, one of
which was placed on a hill, and the other on a plain,
it was found that the town on the lowelf iituation al-
ways fullained the greatell damage from the ftiocks of
the earthquakes which are alluded to above.

That part of Calabria which moft feverely felt this
dreadful calamity, lies between the 38th and 39th de-
grees of latitude, and the force of the earth(|uake ex-
tended from the foot of the Appenines called Monte
Dijo, IWonte Sacro, and Monte Caulene, as far to the
welfward as the Tyrrhene fea. By the Ihock of the
5th of February, every town, village, and farmhoufe
neareft to the mountains, whether fituated on forae part
of the elevated ground or on the plain, was left a heap
of ruins. In proportion to the diftance from the centre,
as has been already hinted, the damage fullained was
more or lefs confiderable. But even the more dillant
towns and villages fuffered greatly from the ftiocks
which happened on the 7th, 26th, and 28th of Fe-
bruary, and on the III of March. From the time the
firft fliock came on, the earth continued in a conftant
tremor ; the ihocks were felt with difierent degrees of
force in different parts of the provinces which were the
fcene of this terrible calamity ; and the motion was ei-
ther in a whirling direftlon, as in a vortex, or horizon-
tal, lOr pulfatory, the beatings proceeding from the bot-
tom upwards. The apprehenlions and alarms of the
miferable inhabitants were terribly increafed by this va-
riety of changing motions, dreading that every moment
the earth would open under their feet and fwallow
them up. That part of Calabria which fuffered from
this earthquake, was alio drenched with long continued
and heavy rains, accompanied with frequent and furious
fqualls of wind. Thefe rains prevailed particularly on
the wellem lide, ivhere many filTures had appeared in
the mountains. Some mountains had been lowered
greatly, and others had been entirely fwallowed up.
The roads were rendered impaflable by the deep chafms
which were left by the Ihock ; valleys were filled up
by the parts of mountains which were fplit afunder ;
the courfe of rivers was changed ; Iprings were dried
up, and new fprings burll out where none exilled be-
fore.

At Laureana in Farther Calabria, two houlcs, fur-
rounded with extenfive plantations of olive and mul-
berry trees, fituated in a valley, were removed by the
force of the earthquake, with all their trees, and car-
ried to the diftance of a mile ; and on the Ipot where
they formerly flood, hot water burll from the earth,
and was projected to a confiderable height into the air.
The water was mixed with fand of a reddiih colour.
Some countrymen and (liepherds, who were employed
in rural affairs near this fpot, were fwallowed up, v.ith
their teams of o.ven, and their whole llocks of goats
and Iheep. The number of inhabitants who lofl their
lives in this calamity, exceeded, according to fome cal-
culations, 3 2,oco •, but it i-i fuppofed by others, that,
including ftrangers, the number was not lefs than
40,000.

O G Y. 611

The inhabitants of the town of Scllla, on the firft Enrth-
fiiock of the earthquake on the 5th of February, had ^'"'^''' "';'''
lied along with their prince to the fea Ihore for I'afety, " 'a""*-''-
and remained either on the ftrand or in boats near the
fiiore. In the '.'ght time a tremendous wave overllow-
cd the land to the dillance of three miles from tlie fhore,
and, in its return, fwcpt off near 30DO of the inhabitants,
among \vhoni was the prince. This water was laid by
fome to have been boiling hot, fo that many of the peo-
ple were fuppofed to have been fcalded with it. A
mountain, it is alVerted, of 500 palms in height, and
1300 palms in circumference at its bafe, was detached
from the place where it Hood, and carried to the di-
llance of four miles. It was about the fame time that
the hill on which the town of Oppido flood, and which
extended three miles in length, was fplit in two, and
filled up on each fide the bed of a river. Two great
lakes were formed by the current of the rivers being
Hopped ; and, as they increafed in extent, infecled the
air vi'nh their putrid and noifome exhalations.

Sir William Hamilton, who was then refident at Na-
ples as ambalfador from Britain, was indefatigable in
obtaining every kind of information with regard to the
effecls of this earthquake. With this view he made an
extenfive r«.ur over thofe parts of the country which had
been vilited hy this calamity. Some of the accounts
which were firft publiQied feemed to have been fome-
what exaggerated, either from the love of the marvellous
in thofe who framed them, or from the exccflive alarms
of the furviving fufftrers. On the 2d of May following
Sir William landed on the coall of Nether Calabria.
The effefls of the earthquake were firll perceived at
Cedraro. The iidiabitants had quitted their houfes,
but it did not appear that the town had fullained any
material damage. Moll of the inhabitants of St Lu-
cido were then living in barracks, and the baron's
palace, as well as the church llceple, had fuffered
greatly. He afterwards landed at the town of Pizzo
in Farther Calabria. This town Hood on volcanic tufa.
It fullained great injury from the Ihock of the i;th Fc-
bniary, but was completely dellroyed by that of the
28lh. Here he was informed, that Stromboli, a vol-
canic mountain which is nearly oppofite, and in full
view, but ?o miles dillant, had ejetled much lefs mat-
ter, and had thrown up lefs fmoke, during the time of
the earthquakes, than it had done for many years be-
fore. Even at this time flight ihocks of earthquakes
were occaiionally felt. One indeed happened the fame
night. The boat in uhirh he llcpt received a fmart (hock,
and feemed to be lifted out of the water ; but this Ihock
was unaccompanied with noifc.

The town of Monteleonc is fituated on a hill which
overlooks fome fine rich plains and the fea below.
Thefe plains, formeriy covered with numerous towns and
villages, now exhibited a gloomy fcene of utter defola-
tion. The town of Monteleone itfclf had not fuffered
materially from the firll Ihock on the 5th of February ;
bnt it was coniiderably damaged by fome of thofe which
took place afterwards. It was generally obferveJ, that
the Ihocks of the earthquake came on with a rattling
noife, which feemed to proceed from the wcllward.
They ufually began with a horizontal motion, and ter-
minated with a whirling motion, during which moll of
the buildings In the province were thrown down. It
was generally obfcrved too, that previous to a (hock the
4 H 2 i-loudj

GEOLOGY.

Chap. IV.

clouds kerned to be unuiually ftill and motionlefs,
""" and that a ftiock quickly fucceeded a heavy ftiower of
'^'^ rain.

Approaching the plain, it was obferved, according to
the general remark made above, that the towns and
vilhiges were more or lefs defolated in" proportion to
their vicinity to the plain. Of the town of Mileto,
which flood in a bottom, not a houfe remained. Sori-
ano and the noble Dominican convent prefented a heap
of ruins. According :o the fame general remark, all
the buildings which liood upon the high grounds, the
foil of which is a gritty fandllone, fuftained lefs da-
mage than thofe lituated in the plain, for the latter were
univerfally thrown down. The foil of the plain is a
iandy clay of various colours, and full of fea lliells. It is
frequentU' interfefled by rivers and torrents which have
formed wide and deep ravines. Faffing through St
Pietro, a town in ruins, Sicily was fcen and the fum-
mit of Mount ^tna, which at this time threw out a con-
iiderable quantity of fmoke. In a fwampy plain through
which he pafled. Sir William examined a number of
fmall holes in the earth, of the (liape of an inverted
cone. 1 hefe holes ^vere covered with fand as well as
the furrouiiding foil. During the earthquake of the
5th of February, water mixed with fand ir^ted up to
a confiderable height from each of thele openings.
The river, it was obferved, before thefe fountains burlt
out, was dded up ; bat foon after the waters returned,
and overduwed their banks. It ap;ieared from more ex-
tenlive obfervation, that the fame thing had uniformly
happened to all the other rivers in the plain during the
Ihock of the 5th of February. This has been afcribed
to the firft impulfe of the Earthquake proceeding from
the bottom upwards, and this feemed to be the general
opinion. The furface of the plain then rifmg fuddenly,
the rivers which are Ihallow naturally difappeared ; and
the plain returning with violence to its former level,
the rivers returned and overflowed from the fudden de-
prelTion of the boggy grounds, which would naturally
force out the water under their furface.

The town of Rofamo, with the duke of Monteleone's
palace, was a heap of ruins ; fix feet high of the walls on-
ly remained. It was fomewhat Angular, that the only
building which efcaped uninjured was the public jail.
At Laureana Sir William afcertained the truth of the
circumllance of the two tenements which were faid to
have been removed from their fituations. Thefe flood
in a valley furroundtd with high grounds. In the fame
valley were obferved hollows in the form of inverted
cones fimilar to thofe which he had formerly examined.
Between this place and the town of Poliftene he did
not fee a fingle houfe, after travelling four days through
a rich and beautiful country. Every thing prefented
the mofl indefcribable mifery : the violence of the earth-
quake was fo great that all the inhabitants were buried
in an inflant alive or dead in the ruins of their houfes.
This town was fituated between two rivers that were
occafionally fubjcifl to overiiow their banks. Of fix thou-
fand inhabitants, more than two thoufand loft their lives
by the ihock on the 5th of February.

The princefs Gerace C rimaldi, with four thoufand
of her fubjefls, perilhed at Cafal Nuova on the fame
day ; fome perfons who were dug alive out of the ruins
obferved, that they felt their houfes fairly lifted up
whhout any previous warning. An inhabitant of this

town, being at that moment on a hill which overlooked Earth-
the plain, when he felt the iliock turned round towards qu»ke« .1
the town, but he could fee nothing excepting a thick _°f^^
white cloud of duff. So completely was this town de-
flroyed, that no velHge of lioule or flreet remained ; all
lay in the lame confufed heap of ruins. Other towns
had fuffered in the lame manner, and now exhibited the
fame fcene of defolation.

Terra Nuova fuffered feverely from the fame earth-
quake. It is fituated between two rivers which had
formed deep and wide ravines in their courfe ; one of
thefe was not lefs than 500 feet deep, and three quar~
ters of a mile broad. In confequence of the great
depth of this ravine, and the ^^o!ent motion of the
earth, two large malles of the foil on which a great
part of the town, conlifting of fome hundred houfes,
had been thrown into the ravine at the dilhnce of half
a mile from the place where they formerly flood.
Many of the inhabitants who had been carried along
with their houies, were dug out of the ruins alive, and
even fome of them efcaped unhurt. Of 1600 inhabi-
tants, 400 only remained alive. In other places in the
fame neighbourhood, great trails of land had been re-
moved and carried to a confiderable diflance, with all
their plantations and crops, which continued to grow
and thrive in their new fituation as well as formerly.
The river here difappeared at the moment of the earth-
quake ; but foon after returned, and covered the bottom
of the ravine to the depth of three feet. This water
was obferved to be fait like that of the fea.

The whole touii of Molochi di Sotto I)^d been
thrown into the ravine, and a vineyard of many acres
lay near it in an inclined fituation, but had not fuffered
any other injury. In feveral parts of the plain, the foil,
with all its trees and crops of corn, to the extent of
many acres, had funk eight and ten feet below the
level of the plain ; and in other places it had rifen the-
fame height. The foil of this plain, it is to be ob-
ferved, is compofed of clay mixed with fand, which
readily affuraes any form. ^j.

Sir William next proceeded to Oppido, which, it will Deftruaio
be recoUefted, was confidered as the central point on of Oppido
which the greateft force of the earthquake was exerted.
This city flands on a mountain of gritftone oi a reddifli
colour. It is furrounded by two rivers, which run in a
deep ravine. It had been reported, that the mountain
on which the city flands, had been iplit in two, and
flopped up the courfe of the rivers ; but it appeared on
examination, that huge maffes of the plain on the edge
of the ravine, had been detached ivito it, and had fu
far filled it up, as to flop the courfe of the rivers, the
waters of which were colleding, and forming lakes to •
a great extent. Part of the rock, it was found, on
which the city flood, was feparated, and with feveral
houfes upon it, was thrown into the ra\ine. Great
trafts of land, with plantations of vines and olives,
were tranfported from one fide of the ravine to the other,
to a diflance exceeding half a mile.

" Having walked, (fays Sir William,) over the ruins
of Oppido, I defcended into the ravine, and examined
carefully the whole of it. Here I faw, indeed, the
wonderful force of the earthquake, which has produced
exacfly the fame effects as thofe defcribed in the ravine
at Terra Nuova, but on a fcale infinitely greater. The
enormous maffes of tlie plain detached from each fide

of

Chap IV.

Volcanoes.

GEO!

Earth- of the ravine, lie fometimes in confufed heap?, forming
quaK.'anil real mountains, and having flopped the courfe of two
(one of which is very confiderable), peat lakes
are already formed ; and if not aHided by nature or art
fo as to give the rivers their due courfe, mull intallibly
be the caufe of a general infeOilion in the neighbour-
hood. Sometimes I met with a detached piece of the
furface of the plain (of many acres in extent) with the
large oaks and olive trees, with corn or lupins under
them, growing as well and in as good order at the bot-
tom of the raraie, as their companions from whence
l!iey were feparated do on their native foil, at Icall 500
feet higher, and at the dillance of about three (juarters
of a mile. I met with whole vineyards in the fame'
order in the bottom, that had likcwife taken the fame
journey. As the banks of the ravine fiom whence
thefe pieces came are now bare and perpendicular, I
perceived that the upper foil was a reddilh earth, and
the under one a fandy white clay, very compact, and
like a foft ftone. The impulfe thefe huge malTes re-
ceived, either from the violent motion of the earth
alone, or that allifted with the additional one of the
volcanic exhalations fet at liberty, feems to have ailed
with greater force on the lower and more compacl ftra-
timi than on the upper cultivated cruft : for I conllant-
ly obferved, where thefe cultivated lands lay, the
under ftratum of compaft clay had been driven fome
hiuidred yards farther, and lay in confufed blocks ;
and, as I obferved, many of thefe blocks were in a cu-
bical form. The under loil, having had a greater im-
pulfe, and leaving the upper in its llight, naturally
accounts for the order in which the trees, vhieyards,
and vegetation fell, and remain at prefent in the bot-
tom of the ravine.

" In another part of the bottom of the ravine there
Is a mountain compofed of the fame clay foil, and
which was probably a piece of the plain detached by
an earthquake at fome former period : it is about 250
feet high, and 400 feet diameter at its bails. This
mountain, as is well attefted, has travelled down the
ravine near four miles ; having been put in motion by
the earthquake of the 5th of February. The abun-
dance of rain which fell "at that time, the great weight
of the freln detached pieces of the plain which I law
heaped up at the back of it, the nature of the foil of
which it is compofed, and particularly its fituation on
a declivity, account well for this phenomenon; where-
as the reports which came to Naples of a mountain
having leaped four miles, had rather the appearance of
a miracle. I found fome fmgle timber trees alfo with
a lump of their native foil at their roots, Handing up-
right in the bottom of the ravine, and which had been
detached from the bottom of the plain above mention-
ed. I obferved alfo, that many confufed heaps of the
loofe foil, detached by the earthquake from the plains
on each fide of the ravine, had aftually run like a volca-
nic lava (having probably been afTilled by the heavy
rain), and produced many effecl.t much refembluig thofe
of lava during their courfe down a great part of the ra-
vine. At Santa Chrillina, near Oppido, the like phe-
nomena have been exhibited, and the great force of the
earthquake of the 5th of February feems to have been
exerted on thefe parts, and at Cafal Nuova, and Terra
Nuova."

T''e nest places which were viCted were the totvns

u:kc« and
iiuoes.

. O G Y. 613

of Scminara and Palmi. Palm! is nearer the fea, and Earth
had fullVrcd moft ; not fewer than 1400 of the inhabi- ^
tauts having been dellroyed. In the courfe of his tour _
in this part of the country, he was informed that the fca
was obferved to be hot, and fire was feen iffuing frotfl
the earth.

At Reggio, although the (liock had been moch Ids
violent than in other places, no houfe was yet habi-
table. During the earthquakes which vifited this place
in 1770 and 1780, near 17,000 inhabitants hved for
feveral months encamped in the fields, or in barracks.

Having examined the different places on the Cala-
brian coail, w^hich had (ufFered from this terrible earth-
quake, Sir William Hamilton failed for MelTma in Si-
cily, to be informed of its effecls there. He found that
the fliock had been very violent, but far lefs fo than on
the opponte ihores. Many of the houfes, even in the
lower part of the town, were Handing, and fome of
them had fullained little damage ; but in the more ele-
vated iituations the (hocks feemed to have had fcarcely
any effecl. This Hill correfponds with the general re-
mark, which was already made, A ftriking inllance
of this appeared in two convents, which are htuateJ on
elevated places, and had fuffered nothing from the
earthquakes which had arfliiled the country for tout"
months. It was faid that fire had been feen ilTuing
from fiflures of the earth near th? ihore. The tltock of
the earthquake on the 5th of February, feemed to pro-
ceed from the bottom up \arJs ; but the fucceeding
fliocks came on with a horizontal or whirling motion.

A remarkable circumftance with regard to fiih, was*
taken notice of at Memna, and Indeed the fame thuig
was obferved along the coall of Calabria, where the
effecls of the earthquake had been molt fevere, A
fmall hih, fomewhat larger than the Englllh white bait,
but refembling It, and which ufually lies at the bottom
of the fea, burled in fand, had remained for feveral
months after the commencement of the earthquakes,
near the furface, and was taken in great abundance to
be the common food of poor people. Before the earth-
quake, this filli was extremely rare, and was confidered
as a great delicacy. After the earthquake, indeed, it
was obferved, that filh of all kinds were foiuid in great-
er abundance.

Thefe earthquakes, of which we have now given
fo detailed an account, continued for many months
afterwards ; tremulous motions of the earth continued
to be felt, and they were not perfettly fettled even iu
the year 1784. ^13

The fouthern continent of America is often vifited E'lrtli-
by earthquakes. In the year 1797, Peru was atHi£lcdqu»ke»in
with this dreadful calamity, which perhaps in the ex- ^'""'
tent of furface which experienced the dreadful ihock,
exceeds that of any earthquake, the hillory of which is
on record. The following is a Ihort account of this
earthquake, by M. Cavanilles. " In the midll, (fays
he), of the moft profound calm, there is frequently
heard a dreadful bellowing noife, the forerurmer of
earthquakes, to which this part of the world is often
expofed. After the year 1791, this noife was frequent-
ly heard in the neighbourhood of the mountain of
Tun^uragua. Antonio Pin^-da and Nee, the two na-
turalills employed in the expedition round the world,
when examining the declivity of this volcaho, the lava
of which had been hWcned more by the internal fire-

tlKin

6 14

Eaith- ilian bv the aijour of the fuv;, were ftruck. with terror
Volrrnces' ''■" '''^'horrible found which they heard, and llie heat
. v.hich they experienced. Pined.i, that valuable mem-

ber of fociety, whofe premature death is ftill deplored
by the friends of fcience, foretold that a'terrible erup-
tion was preparing in the mountain of Tunguragua ;
and his conjeflures were confirmed by the event. On
the 4th of February 1797, at three quarters paft feven
in the morning, the fummit cf the volcano was mote
iree from vapours than ufual ; the interior part of the
mountain was agitated by frequent fliocks, and the ad-
jacent clicins burft in fuch a manner, that in the fpace
of four minutes an immenfe trad of country was con-
vulfed by an undulating movement. Never did hillory
relate the effecls of an earthquake ib extraordinary,
and never did any phenomenon of nature produce mote
misfortunes, or dellroy a greater number of human be-
ings. A number of towns and villages were dellroy-
ed in a moment : fome of then), fuch as Riobamba,
Quero, Pelileo, Patate, Pillaro, were buried under the
ruins of the neighbouring mountains ; and others in the
jurifdiflions of Harnbata, Latacunga, Guaranda, Rio-
bamba, and Alauii, were entirely overthrown. Some
iuflaincd prodigious lofs by the gulfs which were form-
ed, and by the retlux of rivers intercepted in their
.courfe by mounds of earth; and others, though in
part faved, were in fuch a fliattered ftate as to threaten
their total ruin. The number of perfons who perillied
during the firft and fucceeding fliocks is eftimated at
16,000. At ten o'clock in the morning, and four in
the afternoon, the fame diy, (February 4.) after a
dreadful noife, the earth was again agitated with great
violence, and it did not ceafe to (hake, though faintly,
for the whole months of February and March ; but, at
three quarters paft two in the morning of the 5th of
April, the villages already ruined were again expofed
to fuch violent lliocks as would have been fufficient to
deftroy them. This extraordinary phenomenon was
felt throughout the extent of 1 40 leagues from eaft to
weft, from the fea as far as the river Napo ; and with-
out doubt farther, for we are little acquainted with
thefe diftrifts which are inhabited by the favages. The
dirtance north-eaft and fouth-ueft between Popayan and
Piura, is reckoned to be 170 leagues; but in the cen-
tre of that diftrid, i degree 1 6-6 from thefe places, is
fituated the part totally deftroycd, and which compre-
hends 40 leagues from north to fouth between Guaran-
dam and Machache, and twenty leagues from eaft to
weft. But, as if an earthquake alone had not been fuf-
ficient to ruin this fertile and populous country, another
misfortune, hitlierto unknown, was added. The earth
opened, and formed immetile gulfs ; the fummils of the
mountains tumbled down into the valleys, and from
the fiflures in their fides there ilTued an immenfe quan-
tity of fetid water, which in a little time filled up
valleys a thoufand feet in depth and fix hundred in

G E O ]. O G Y

Chap. IV.

breadth. It covered the villages, buildings, and in- Earth-
habitants; choaked up the fources of the pureft fprings, quakes arl
and being condenfed by deficcation, in the courfe of a V°'<:^^'^'"-
few days into an earthy and hard pafte, it intercepted '
the courfe of rivers, made them tlow backwards for the
fp';ce of 87 days, and converted whole diftriiits of dry
]?nd into lakes. Very extraordinary phenomena, which
will doubtlefsbe one day mentioned in hiftory, occurred
during thefe earthquakes; I fiiall, however, content rov-
felf with mentioning only two of tliem. At the fame
moment that the earth fhook, the lake of Q^uirotoa,
near the village of Infiloc, in the jurifdiftion of Lata-
cunga, took fire, and the vapour which rofe from it fuf-
focated the cattle and flocks that were feeding in the
neighbourhood. Near the village of Pelileo, a large
mountain named Moya, which was overturned in an in-
ftant, threw out a prodigious ftream of the before-men-
tioned thick fetid matter, which deftroyed and covered
the milerable remains of that city. Naturalifts will one
day find, in thefe ravaged countries, objects worthy of
their refearches. Fragments of the minerals and eaiths
of Tunguragua are about to be tranfported to Spain :
but it is not in fuch fragments that we ought to fearch
for the caufe of thefe furprifing phenomena ; we muft
vifit the country itfelf, where this condifl of the ele-
ments took place, and where the ruins it occafioned are
ftill to be feen (g.)" 2,4

To the hiftory of earthquakes now given, we Ihall In Scotland,
only add the following account of the earthquakes
which have taken place at Comrie in Perthftiire, in
Scotland, which was communicated to the Royal So-
ciety of Edinburgh, by Dr Finlayfon, in a letter from
MrTaylor.

" The earthquakes which have lately (January 1 790)
taken place at Comrie (h) and its neighbourhood, are
certainly very defer ving of attention. I ftiall therefore
cheerfully comply with your reqiieft, and give you as
particular a defcription as 1 can of fuch of thcra as have
been moft remarkable. To give a particular account
of all the noifes or conculTions which, during the laft
half year, have been heard or felt at Comrie, and with-
in a ftiort diftance to the north, eaft, and weft of that
\'illagc, is beyond my power, and would indeed be of
little ufe. With regard to thefe fmall concuftions, it
will be fufficient to fay, that many of them have fome-
times been obferved to fucceed one another in the fpace
of a few hours ; that they take place in all kinds of
weather ; that they are thought by fome people to pro-
ceed from north-weft to fouth-eaft, and by others from
north-eaft to foirth-wefl ; that they have not been ob-
ferved to, afte6l the barometer ; that they do not extend
in any direfticn above three or four miles from Comrie ;
and that towards the louth they are bounded by the
Earn, which is in the immediate vicinity of the village.
The fame perfon, though bellowing the minuteft atten-
rion, is often uncertain whether they proceed firom the

earth

(c) The volcano of Tunguragua occafioned an earthquake in 1557.

(h) Comrie is a village about 22 miles weft of Perth, fituated in the valley of Strathearn, and on the north
fide of the river Earn, about four miles below the place uhere it ilTues From the lake. The remains of a Roman
camp on the oppofite fide of the river, haye made the name of this village very well known to Scotliflj anti-
quaries.

Chap. rV

G E O 1. O G V

615

eartli or from the air, fometimes believing tlicm to come
■ ^'-^ from the one, and romeliiiies from the other ; neither
"°'^' do all af;rcc v, ith refpecl to the feat of any one of them.
" After the ftriileil inquiry, Ifind it impofriblc to de-
termine with accuracy the date of any of the coucuf-
lions which took place before the 2d of September laft.
Some people in the neighbourhood of Killin r.flcrt pofi-
tiveiy, that they heard unufual rumbling noifes in the
month of May ; but the imprefiion which thefe noifes
made was fo faint, that they would probably Imve been
foon forgotten altogether, had they not been fucceeded
by concuilions of a lefs equivocal nature. Towards the
end of Augiift, two or three ihccks are faid to have
been felt at Dundurn, Dunira Lodge and Comrie ; but
I haveiiot been able to learn the precife day or hour
on which any of them happened. The truth is, the
concuflions hitherto obferved were feeble, • and the
minds of the people feem not to have been roufed to
particular attention till the 2d of September. About
eleven o'clock that evening, a fmart Ihock was felt at
Comrie. 1 myfelf heard here, for the firft time, a rum-
bling noife, which I took for that of a large table,
dragged along the tloor above Hairs, and which I pro-
bably would never have thouglit of again, unlel's my
attention had been turned to it by the alarm which it
had excited in the neighbourhood. Many other fee-
ble noifes or conculhons are faid to have been obferved
in Glen Leadnach and about Comrie during the months
of September and Ociober. At tliat time, however, I
confefs I was difpofed to doubt the numerous reports of
earthquakes with which the country was filled, and to
afcribe them to the workings of an imagination, on
which, the alarm of the 2d of September ftill continued
to be impreffed.

" On the 5th of November, a concuiTion took place
two or three minutes before fix o'clock P. M. which
was too violent to be miftaken. Some compared the
noife which accompanied it to that of heavy loaded
waggons, dragged with great velocity along a hard
road or pavement, and thought, that it pafled under
their feet. To rae it feemed as if an enormous weight
had fallen from the roof of the houfe, and rolled « ith
impetuofity along the floor of the rooms above ; and it
mull have made a iimilar impreluon on the fervants, for
forac of them inftantly ran up (tairs to difcovcr what
. had happened. Others were fenfible of a tremulous
motion in the earth, perceived the flames of the candles
to vibrate, and obferved the miifors and kitchen-uten-
fils placed along the walls to fliake and clatter. There
is alfo reafon to believe, that the waters in the loch of
Monivaird, in the near neighbourhood of Ochtertyre,
fufFered unufual agitation, as the wild fowl then upon
the loch were heard to fcream and flutter. The noife
on this Gccafion, as far as I can judge, did not laft
above ten or tivelve feconds. During tlie courfe of the
day, the mercury in the barometer rofe and fell feveral
times, and at fix o'clock it flood at 28 r inches. The
iky was ijien perfeftly ferene, and hardly a breath of
wind w js to be felt ; but next morning, about fix
o'clock, a violent terapeft rofe, which raged without
interminion for 24 hours.

" At Glen Leadnach, Comrie and Lawers, this con-
culTion wiis much more violent, and the noife that ac-
companied it much more alarming. , The inhabitants
of thefe places, ?.nd of AbcruchlU and Dunira, declare,

tliat they perceived diltinCtly the earth heaving under Eattli-
theni, and the motion communicated to their chairs, ^''1''^'""''
and other furniture. They imagined that the flatts "■'^°''°''^,
and ftones ^vere tumbling from their houfcs, and many
of them ran out in the greateft trepidation, from the
notion, that the roofs were falling in. Even the do-
mtllic animals were alarmed, and contributed, by their
howls and fcreams, to increafe the terrors of the people.
Though I have not been able to difcover ^vhether Loch
Earn was ever agitated by thefe concuilions, tliere is
little doubt, that the river near Comrie was affeftcd on
this occafion, as two men then on its banks heard the
dalh-ng of its waters. This great fliock was fucceeded
by a number of thofe flighter rumbling noifes which
have been already mentioned. Not lefs than 30 of
them were counted in the fpace of two hours after it
happened ; but they did not extend above two miles to
the call, north and weft of Comrie.

" On the icth of November, at three o'clock P. M.
we had here another" ihock of much the fame length,
violence and extent, as that on the 5th. The mercury
in the barometer on this day was more ftationary than
on the former, and at the time of the earthquake was
X9 inches high. The weather was calm and hazy. It
was a market-day at Comrie ; and the people, who
were affembled from all parts of the country, felt as if
the mountains were to tumble inftantly upon their
heads. The hard-ware expofed for fale in the fliops
and booths (hook and clattered, and the horfes crowd-
ed together with figns of unufual terror.

" About one o'clock P. M. of the 29th December,
we had another pretty fmart (hock, during a violent
florm of wind and rain, which continued the whole
day, and which was at its height during the time cf
the earthquake. Indeed, as has been remarked al-
ready, thefe concuffions ieem to have no dependence
on the weather. According to the accounts of thofe
who live neareft to the centre of the phenomena, rum-
bling noifes, like thofe above defcribed, may be heard
in all (fates of the atmofphere.

" Though I mention no more of thefe earthquakes,
you are not to conclude, that many more have not
taken place, and fome of them perhaps equally violent
with thofe of the ;th and 10th of November. Several
fliockl have happened during the ftillnefs of the night,
which, even at this diftance from Conjrie, where their
centre feems to be, have been abundantly terrifying.
But the great refemblance, or rather the perfeft umi-
larity of their effefts, and of the jmprellion they make
on our minds, renders it unnecellary for me trouble
you with a particular dcfcription of each of them.

" The direction of all the noil'es or conculTions I
have obferved, great as well as fmall, .ippcared to be
in the fame line from N. W. to S. E. OiiTfers defcribe
them as fometimes proceeding in that direction, and
fometimes as coming from N. E. to S. \V. I have
not heard any other line of dircflion afcribed to
them.

" Upon the fullcft enquiry, I find, that thefe earth-
quakes have been very limited in point of extent. The
greater fliocks have been feebly felt at Loch Earn
head, about Killin, and at Ardonlch, on the fouthern
bank of Loch Tay. 'J'hcy do not appear to have ex-
tended farther eaftward on that lake ; and, what is
mere remarkable, they liave not been felt in Glen Al-
mond, .

61-6

Earth-
quakes an

Volcanoe

GEO

riiOiid, orthe fmall gltii through ^vhich the military
'' road from Crieff to Tay-bridge palles. The farmer at
I Auchnafree, (which lies at the head of Glen Almond,
and is feparated from Glen Leadnach only by the
mountain Benechoni, over the northern fide of which
bis lliepherds daily travel), has allured nie, that neither
he, nor any of his people, have been at any time fcn-
r,ble of the lead extraordinary noife or concufiion.
il'owards the eaft, the tivo firft great (hocks extended
to IVIonzie, Cultoquhey and Dollary, about feven miles
diftant from Comrie. The Ihock of the 5th bt No-
vember reached iHll farther, and was felt, though bi:t
faintly, at Ardoch and Drummond Caiile towards the
S. ^. In the direction of the fouth, however^ the
banks of the Earn feem to be its general boundary, as
tlie noife of the moll \'iolent concuinons was heard but
faintly at the manfe of Corar'.e, and along the llrrith
on the fouth fide of the river. The limits of the lelfer
concuflions, I am confident, do not extend abcve three
miles in any direction from their centre. They are
commonly obferved at Lawers on the eaft ; throut;hout
the whole of Glen Leadnach, at Dunira, Dalchonzie
and Aberuchill, on the north and weft ; an.l do not
reach fo far as the manfe, which is about three quarters
of a mile on the fouth of Comrie (l)"

In another communication, dated in 1793, from the
fame gentleman-, he obferves, that " there is no reafon
to beheve that thefe phenomena are yet come to an
end. After temporary intermiflions, fon'etimes of fe-
veral months, they have returned, ever fince their firft
appearance in 1789, without any apparent difference
in their extent or force. The rumbling noifes or
fljghter concuQionSj as ufual, are obferved at Comrie,
in Glen Leadnach, and the places in their near neigh-
bourhood ; the more ^^olent extend to much the fame
diftance as formerly defcribed. Having been only oc-
cafionally in that country fince February 1791, I have
not been able to afcertain dates. On the 2d of Sep-
tember 1791, at five minutes paft five in the afternoon,
a (light fliock was felt at Ochtertyre. The barometer
vas not in order, on which account the weight of the
atmofphere could not be rifcertained. Its eieftrical
ftate was tried by Sauflure's eleftrometer, but no indi-
cation of any thing unciimmon was perceived. Smce
that period, fliocks have been obferved at different
times till within thefe few weeks paft.

" From this account, it will be obferved, that all the
greater ftiocks have taken place in the feafon of autumn
or the beginning of winter ; that this has been now re-

LOG Y.

Chap. IV.

peated for more than four years ; and tKat thdfe greater Earth-
(hocks have been fucceeded at ihort intervals by rum- <J''a'^e5and
bliiig noifes or more feeble concullions. It has alfo ° "°°^'*-
been remarked, that they have in general been pre-
ceded or foUoived by great rains or boirterous wenther ;
but variations in the ^veat'ier take place fo frequently
in cur climate at that feafon of the year, that the con-
nection between thenl and the phenomena above defcrib-
ed, is probably altogether accidental;" jj.

After the view which we have given of the pheno- "ju o of
mena and hiftory of earthquakes, we now proceed to ''''-
the conliJeration ot the caule-, by the operation of'^'' '
v.'iiich, according to the ipeculations of pliilofcphers,
trefe terril)le convulfions of nature, which fpread ruin
and defolation in lome of the faireft portions of the
earth, are to be accounted for. Various opinions liave
been formed, and various Iiypotheles have been propof- ,
ed, for the e?cplanation of thefe dreaded phenomena.
Acco. ding to fome of the ancient phllo.'opher!^, lubter-
raneous clouds exilled in the iniernal cavities of ike
earth, and thefe burfting into lig; tning, ftiock and de-
moliQied the vaults which contained them. This was 126
the opinion of Anaxagoras, It was fuppofed by others, according
that earthquakes were oiving to the talJing in of im- ''^ ''''^ *"*
n^enfe arched roofs, which confined fubterraneous fires; '^'*^"'"'
the vaults or arches being weakened by the conftant
burning of thefe fires. Some afcribed earthquakes to
the vapour of water which was produced, and greatly
rarefied, by means of internal fires, while others, among
whom was Epicurus and fome of the peripatetic phi-
lofophers, fought for the explanation of the phenomena
of earthquakes, in the explolion of certain inflanmiable
fubftances, which were exhaled from the internal cavi-
ties of the earth. 127
Some of the modem philofophers, as Gaffendi, Kir- th ™o-
cher, Varenius, Des Cartes, and others, have adopted ^^'"^
the laft hypothefis, according to which it is fuppofed,
that there are immenfe cavities in the earth, communi-
cating with each other. Some of thefe cavities contain
water, and others contain vapours and exhalations,
ariling from bitumi:;ous, fulphureous, and other in-
flammable fubftances. Thefe combultible materials be-
ing kindled by iome fubterraneous Ipark, or by (ome
aftual dame, proceeding through narrow fiffures from
without, or by the heat evolved during the mixture of
different fubftances, and the formation of new ones,
produce comniotions on the furface of the earth, ac-
cording to the extent of the cavitie>, and the quantity
and aftive nature of the indamed matter. Thole who

fupport

(1) " The tract within which the concuffions defcribed in this letter appear tb have been confined, is a fpace of a
reftangular form, which extends from eaft to weft along the north fide of the Earn about 22 miles in k-ngth, by
a little more than five in breadth ; reckoning the utmoft length from about Monzie to the head of Loch Tay,
and the breadth from a little fouth of the Earn northward to the ridge which feparates the branches of that river
from thofe of the Almond. The whole of this tract is mountainous, c.vctpt towaid the eaftern extremity, where
it joins the low country, and on the banks of the river Earn on the fouth. It is interfcfted by narrow glens or
valleys, the moft confiderable of which is Glen Leadnach, where the centre of the concuilicns feems to be placed.
'I'he mineralogy of this part of the country has not hitherto been accurately examined; but it is krovn in general,
that the ftone is the primary 'chiftus, and in fome places granite ; that no mineral veins, nor any hot fprings, have
been found in it, and that no volcanic appearances have been obfer\'ed. In the valleys, among the moimtains,
iron ore, of the kind that is called bog ore, is faid to abound. Dr Hutton has remarked, thut the line which
terminates this traft on the fouth eaft, feems to be nearly the fame ivith that where the primary ftrata fink under
the furfac, and are covered by the fecondary or horizontal ftrata. Note by Mr P/aiifair."
2

Chap. I\

rij-,..,hef
CI" Wood,
ward.

Gf E O L O G Y.

fupport tills hypotliefis t1;ink, that it receives illuftratiaii generated in the cavities of the earth, or by any pro-
■^ from a common experiment of. mixing together iron ccfs like fermentation, in which elallic fluids are'forra-
l filings and fulnhur, and burying them in the earth; and ed and difengaged, to uhich fuch cffefts could be a-

in coiifcquence of the chemical adion of thcfe fubrtan- fciibtd. He is of opinion, that no evidence has yet

ces on each other, and the elallic vapours thus produ- been brought to eftablilh the probability of the exift-

ced, the ihakiiig of the earth is effedted. ' "

i A different hypothefis has been propofed by Dr

Woodward. According to this hypotliefis, water is

continually raifed by means of fubteuancous heat, from

the abyfs which he fuppofes to occupy the centre of

tlii: earth, to fumiih rain and deiv. Obftrudions may

5i7

Earth.
uakes and
'oIcan<ws.

ence of extenfive cavities within the earth. On the
contrary, he thinks there is good reafon to prefume,
in a great meafu:

that it is in a great meafure fohd, fo that there is Tittle
fpace for thofe changes which arc fuppofed to be efFefi-
ed within the cavities, to take place. Coal pits, he
adds, ^vhich have been frequently known to be on fire,

take place in this procefs of nature, and whenever this and for a great length of time, never exhibited any o
happens, a fuelling and commotion are occafioned by the phenomena which accompany an earthquake on the
the heat in the waters of the abyfs. This force is at furface of the ground abov

the fame time exerted againll the incumbent ikata, r.nd
thus the agitation and concuflion, with the other phe-
nomena which accompany earthquakes, are produced.

Another hypothefis, different from any of thefe, h-xs
been propofed by M. Amontons, of which the folloiv.
ing explanation is given. Tl.e atmofphere being taken
at 45 miles high, and the denfity of the air increafing
in proportion to the abfolute height of the fuperincum-
bent column of iluid, it is (hewn that at the depth of
43,528 fathoms below the furface of the earth, the air
is but one-fourth lighter than mercury. But this depth

The earthquake which vifited London and other
places of Britain, in March 1749, was felt in a circuit
of 30 miles diameter ; but there was no eruption of fire
or vapour, and it was unattended with fmoke or fmell.
From this confideration alone, of the extent of furfaca
which felt the effects of the earthquake, he fuppofes
that it could not be afcribed to the expanfive force of
fubterraneous vapours ; for, he obferves, fmall fire-balls
ivhich are expbded in the air, emit a fulphureoiis fmell
to the didance of feveral miles. Now, it cannot be
imagined, that io prodigious a force, acting inllanta-

is only about one feventy.fourth ot the femljiameter of neoufly, on fo great an extent of ground, fliould

' '^' ' 1-11... jj^^^ break the furface, nor indicate its prefence either

by the light or fmell. But if this effe£l is to be afcribed
to fermentation, this procefs is not inflantarteous ; it con.
tinues many days, and the evaporation of fuch a quan-
tity of infiaramable matter \\ould require a long fpace
of time. Such an effed, therefore, can only be account-
ed for on electrical principles, the operation of ivhich is
always inflantaneous.

If earthquakes were occafioned by vapours and fub-
terraneous fermentations, explofions and eruptions, fuch
procelTes would entirely deflroy fprings and fountains,
wherever they had once exilled. This, however, iscon->
trary to what happens, for although fprings are flopped,
or otherwife changed, previous to an earthquake, or a-
bout the time it happens, they very often recover their
former flate. In the great earthquake which happened
A. D. 1 7, in Afia Minor, and which fliook a mafs of

the earth. The immenfe fphere beyOnd this depth, the
diameter of which is 6,451,538 fathoms, may perhaps
be only filled nith air : this air murt be here greatly
condenfed, and heavier than the heaviett bodies with
which we are at prefent acquainted. It is found by
experiment, that the more air is compreCfed, the more
do equal degrees of heat increafe its elalHc force, and
the more capable it becomes of producing violent ef-
fefts. As, for inftance, the temperature of boihng wa-
ter increafes the elafticity of the air beyond its natural
force in temperate climates, by a quantity equal to
one-third of the weight with which it is preffed. Hence
it , is concluded, that a degree of heat ivhich on the
furface of the earth produces only a moderate effedl,
may occafion violent convulfions by the rarefaftion of
the denfer air at great depths ; but if it be ccnfidered
that this condenfed air may be expofed to much higher

degrees of heat than that of boiling water, the elaffic earth 303 miles in diameter, and deftroyed 13 great

force of the air thus produced, and a'Jifted by the great cities, neither the fprings nor the face of the country

weight of a high column, may be more than fufficient received any injury.

to convulfe and break up the folid orb of 43,528 If it be confidered, that a fubterraneous power capa-

fathoms, the weight of which, comparing it with that ble of moving 30 miles in diameter, as in the earth.

of the included air, would be tririing. quake mentioned above, which happened at London,

Thefe hypothefes, however infufticient they may ap- mull exift and operate at lead 15 or 20 miles under

pear for explaining in a fatisfaflory manner the phe- the furface, the hypothefis of earthquakes being oc-
cafioned by the force of vapours will be found totally
inapplicable, becaufe this force mud move an inverted
cone of folid earth, the bafe of which is 30 miles in dia-
meter, and the axis 15 or 20. This is an effeft which
is impoflible to any known natural power, excepting that
of eleftricity.

But befides, no fubterraneous explofion can account
for the fingular efftifls of an earthquake on fliips that
are far out in the ocean. It has been already obfcr\-ed,
that they feem as if they llruck en a rock, or as if fome
fohd body ftruck :igainil their bottom. Even filhes, it
is found, are particularly affedled by the Ihcck of an
earthquake ; but a fubterraneous explofion could only
produce on the water a gradual fwell. It could not
4 I communicate

of earthquakes, were generally adopted till a-
bout the middle of the i8th century, when the know-
ledge of eleftricity began to be cultivated and extend-
ed. This principle was appUed fuccefhvely in the ex-
planation of many natural phenomena, and, among o-
thers, the plienomena of earthquakes were afcribed to
the fame principle. An earthquake which was felt at
London in the month of March, 1749, direded the at-
tention of pniiolophers to this explanation. The firfl
who made this attempt, we believe, was Dr Stukelcy,
who had been much occupied about that time with
eleftrical experiments. The confideration of the phe-
nomena which accompanied this earthquake, led him
to fuppofe that it could not be occafioned bv vapours
Vol. IX. Part; II.

6i8 G E O L

Eiith. communicate to it that impulfe by wliich it produces ef-
quikf 5 ami fe t^j 35 \( it were a ftone projefted with great foi.ce a-
I::l^gainllfolid bodies.

From the confideratioii of all thcfe circumflanccs,
Dr Stukeley is of opinion, that the phenomena of earth-
quakes can only be fatisfaftorily explained on eleclrical
principles. He was particularly led to this opinion by
dircding his attention to the phenomena which accom-
panied the earthquakes which took place in England in
1749 and 1750. For five or {ix months previous to
this time, the weather had been unufually warm ; the
wind was from the foutli and fouth--vveIl, and there had
been no rain, fo that the earth was particularly prepared
to receive an eledlrical ihock. The tiat country of Lin-
colndiire had fuffered greatly from extreme drought,
and hence, as dry weather is favourable to eleftricity,
earthquakes and other fimilar phenomena are more fre-
quent in fouthern regions of the world. Before the
earthquake at London, all vegetables had been unufual-
ly premature, and it is well known how much eleftri-
city quickens vegetation. About the fame time the
aurora borealis had been very frequent. A very fliort
time before the earthquake, it had exhibited unufual
colours, and its motions were to the fouth, contrary to
the ordinary direction. From thefe circumftances an
earthquake was predicted by Italians and others who
had been accuftomed to the appearances which precede
them. During this year, too, meteors of different kinds,
as fire-balls, lightnings, andcorufcations, had been com-
mon ; and particularly it was obferved in the night pre-
ceding the earthquake, and early in the morning on
the day on which it happened, that corufcations were
very frequent. In . thefe circumftances nothing was
wanting to produce an earthquake, according to this
hypothefis, but the touch of a non-eleftric body. This
body mull be derived from the air or atmofphere •, hence
it is inferred, that if a non-eleclric could difcharge its
contents upon any part of the catlh, in this prepared
and highly elfcflrical Hate, a violent commotion or
earthquake muft b« produced ; and as the difcharge
from an excited tube produces a ihock on the human
body, fo the difcharge of eleftric matter from an ex-
tent of many miles of folid earth, mufl produce an
earthquake. The rattling, uncouth noife which attends
It, is to be afcribed to the fnap which is occafioned by
the contaft.

Before the earthquake alluded to came on, a black
tloud iuddcnly covered the atmofphere to a great ex-
tent ; the difcharge of a Ihower, according to this hy-
pothefis, probably occafioned the ihock ; and as the
eleftrical fnap precedes the (hock, a found was obferved
to roll from the Thames towards Temple-bar, before
the motion of the hcufes ceaied. This noife, which is
generally the forerunner of earthquakes, it is fuppofed
can only be accounted for on the principles of eleftri-
city. The contrary to this %vould take place, were thefe
phenomena- ovsing to fubtcrraneous eruptions. The
flames and fuJphurcous fmells which accompany earth-
quakes, might, it is thought, be more eafily accounted
for on the fame principles, than by eruptions from the
bowels of tlie earth. The fuddeii concuffion, too, feems
to be produced by a motion which could only be ex-
cited by eleftricity, not proceeding from any convul-
fion in il)c interior parts of the earth, but from a uni-
fof m viuiation along ua furface, like that of a inufical

O G Y. ^ Chap. IV.

firing, or like the vibratory motion of a glai's, when ICarth-
the edge is rubbed with the finger. From the circum- l^akes and
fiance that earthquakes are chiefly fatal to places near , " '•^"°^'-,
the fea coafts, along the courfe of rivers, and elevated
fituations, a farther proof is derived, that they depend
on the operation of eleftricity. The courie or direc-
tion which the earthquake above alluded to took, af-
fords an illullration of this point. Another argument
in favour of the eleftrical hypothefi-;, is drawn from the
effefts of the earthquake, or the liate of the weather
at the time, on perfons of weak or nervous conflitu-
tions. To fome thefe diforders proved at that time fatal ;
and its effefts, in general, were fimilar to thofe of arti-
ficial eleftricity.

A fimilar hypothefis was propofed by Beccaria, toofBecca-
account for the phenomena of earthquakes. He fup-ria.
pofes that the eleftric matter to which thefe phenome-
na are owing, is lodged deep in the earth, and that it
is this matter difcharged from the earth, to reftore the
equilibrium or deficiency which the clouds in the atmo-
fphere have fuftained during thunder ftorms, by giving
out their eleftrical matter to another part of the earth.
This, he fuppofes, is confirmed by the noife refembling
thunder, and the ilafhes of lightning which are perceived
during earthquakes.

Dr Prieftley piopofes to confiruft, on the P"nci- p,- p^-|Jjj^
pies of Stukeley and Beccaria, an hypothefij which he ley.
thinks will explain the phenomena in a more fatisfac-
tory manner. For this purpofe he fuppofes the eleftric
matter to be fome way or other accumulated on one
part of the furface of the earth, and on account of the
drynefs of the feafon, not eafily to ditfule itfelf. It
may, as Beccaria fuppofes, force its nay into the high-
er regions of the air, forming clouds in its paffage out
of the vapours -svhich float in the atmofphere, and oc-
cafion a ludden (hower, which may farther promote
the paffage of the fluid. The whole furface thus un-
loaded will receive a conculTion like any other conduft-
ing fubftance, on parting with or receiving a quantity
of the eleftric fluid. The rulhing noife will likewile
fweep over the whole extent of the country ; and upon
this fuppofition silo, the fluid, in its difcharge from the
country, W'ill naturally follow the courie of the rivers,
and alfo take the advantage of any eminences, to facili-
tate its afcent into the higher regions of the air. In
making fome experiments on the paffage of the eleftri-
cal fluid over water, he obferved that it produced a tre^
mulous motion, and therefore he concludes that it mufl
receive a co.icuffion refembling that which is given to
the waves of the fea by an earthquake. To try this
flill farther, he immcrfed his hands in water, while an
eleftrical flafh paffed over its furface, and he felt a
fudden concufTion, like that which is fuppofed to af-
feft fhips at fea during an earthquake. The impulfe,
which was felt in different parts of the water, was
fltongefl near the place where the explofion was made.

" Pleafed with this refemblance of the earthquake,
he obferves, I endeavoured to imitate that great natu-
ral phenomenon in other refpefts ; and it being frolf y
weather, I took a plate of ice, and placed two iticks
about three inches high on their ends, fo that they would
juil ftand with eafe ; and upon another part of the ice
I placed a bottle, from the cork of which was fufpend-
ed a brafs ball with a fine thread. Then making the
eleftrical ilafli pafs over the ftirfacc of the ice, which h

did

£ita.

Of Dolo-
n-'icu.

Chap. IV. GEO

Earth- did with a very load report, the rearer pillar fell dowii,

quakes anH ,vhile the more remote flood, and the ball wliich had

^^^^|"2^'' hung nearly ftill, immediately began to niake vibra-

' tion?, about an inch in length, and nearly in a right

line from the place of the llafli.

" I afterwards diverfificd this apparatus, ereiJling
more pillars, and fufpending more pendulums, fome-
times upon bladders liretched on the mouth of open
veiTels, and at other times on wet boards fivimming in
a \eflel of ivater. This lall method feemed to aniwer
the bed of any ; for the board reprefcnting the earth,
and the water the fea, the phenomena, of them both
during an eartliquake may be imitated at the fame time 5
pillars, &c. being ereded on the board, and the elec-
tric tlaih being made to pafs, either over the board, over
the water, or over them both *."

The ingenious Dolomieu propofes to account for
thcfe phenomena on different principles. On this fub-
jeft he makes the following obfervations with regard
to the earthquakes which defolated Calabria in 1783,
and the caules by which they ^vere produced. " The
fea, fays he, during the earthquakes of 1783, had little
fliare in the Ihocks on the main land. The mafs of wa-
ter experienced no general movement, or flufluation,
or ofcillation ; the ^vaves did not rife above their or-
dinary limits. Thofe which on the night of the 5th
February beat againil: the coaft of Sicily, and which
■afterwards covered the point of the Faro of IVIeflina,
were only the effects of a particular caufe. The fall
of a mountain into the fea railed the waters, which re-
ceived an undulating motion, as happens always in fi-
milar cafes. The undulation reached from the point
of Sicily beyond the cape of Rofacolmo, extending
in length along the coaft which runs to the fouth ; but
always with a decreafe in elevation as it ^vas more re-
mote from Sicily. Whatever inquiries the author has
made, he has not been able to difcover, in all the de-
tails which have been given him, any proofs of the ex-
ifl;ence of eledlrical phenomena ; no fpark, no difen-
gagement of the eleftrical fluid, which the Neapo-
litan naturalifis wifh to afTign as the caufe of earth-
quakes.

" The flate of the atmofphere ivas not the fame in
the whole range of earthquakes. While the tempells
and the rain feemed to have confpired with them for
the deftruction of Mefhna, the interior part of Calabria
enjoyed very fine weather. A li'.tle rain fell in the plain
in the morning of the jth of February ; but the iky
was clear during the rell of the day. This month and
that of ]\Iarch were not only pretty fercne, but likewife
warm. There were fome ftorms and rain j but they
were the natural attendants of the feafon.

" The mo%-ing force feems to have refided under
Calabria itfelf, fince the fea which furrounds it had no
fliare in the ofcillations or vibrations of the continent.
This force feems alfd to have advanced along the ridge
of the Apennines in afcending from the fouth to the
north. But what power in nature is capable of pro-
ducing fuch effects ? I exclude eleclricity, which can-
iiot accumulate continually during the courfc of a year,
in a country furrounded with water, where every thing
confpires to place this fluid in equilibrio. Fire remains
to be confidered. This element, by ailing direftly
upon the folids, can only dilate them ; then their ex-
panfion is progrefTive, and cannot produce violent and

LOGY.

inftantaneous movements

619

When fire afls upon tluids, Euth-
fuch as air and water, it gives them an allonifliing ex- '^y^'''^ "'^'^
panfion ; and we know that then their elaflic force is ^'°''^^"°'"",
capable of overcoming the grcatcU refiQances. Thcfc '
appear "the only means which nature could employ to
operate the etfc£\s we fpeak of: but in all Calabria
there is no veflige of a volcano •■, nothing to point out
any interior combuftion ; no fire concealed in the centre
of mountains, or under their bafe ; a fire which could
not exiil without fome external figns. The vapours
dilated, the air rarefied by a heat conflantly aftivc,
muft have efcaped through fome of the crevices or
clefts formed in the foil ; they mult there have formed
currents. Both flame and fmoke mult have illued by
fome one or other of thefe paffages, Thefe once open-.
ed, the preflure would have ceafed •, the force not meet-
ing v.ith any more refiflance, %vould have loft its effeft ;
and the earthquakes could have no longer continued.
None of thefe phenomena took place : we mull then
renounce the fuppofition of a combuftiona £ling direft-
ly under Calabria. Let us fee whether, having recourfe
to a fire at fome diftance from this province, and aft-
ing upon it only as an occafional caufe, we fhall be able
to explain all the phenomena which have accompanied
the fliocks. Let Ub take for example Mxn?i in Sicily,
and fuppofe large cavities under the mountains of Ca-
labria ; a fuppofition which cannot be refufed. It is cer-
tain that immenfe fubterraneous cavities do exiil, fince
^tna, in elevating itfelf by the accumulation of its ex-
plofions, muft leave in the heart of the earth cavities
proportioned to the grcatnefs of the mafs.

" The autumn of 1782 and the winter of 1783 were
very rainy. The interior waters, augmented by thofe
of the lurface, may have run into tholi: caverns which
form the focus of ^tna : there they muft have been
converted into vapour capable of the higheft degree of
expanfion, and muft have prefled forcibly againft every
thing which oppofed their dilatation. If they found ca-
nals to conduft them into the cavities of Calabria, they
could not fail to occafion there all the calamities of
■which I have given the defcription.

" If the firft cavity is feparated from the fecond by
a wall (fo to fpeak) or fome flight divifion, and this
feparation is broken down by the force of the elaftlc
vapour, the ^vhole force ^vill act againft the bottom
and fides of the fecond. The focus of the ILocks ivill
appear to have changed place, and become weaker ia
the fpace which ^vas agitated moft violently by the firft
earthquake.

" The plain, which was undoubtedly the moft {len-
der part of the vault, yielded moft eafily. The city
of MefTina, placed upon low ground, experienced a
fhock which the buildings on higher giounds did not.
The moving force ceafed at once as fuddcnly as it aft-
ed violently. When, at the periods of the 7th of Fe-
bruary and the 28th of March, the focus appeared •
changed, the plain fcarce fuffcred any thing. The
fubterraneous noife, which preceded and accompanied
the fliocks, appeared always to come from the fouth-
wcft, in the direflion of Mellina. It feemed like thunder
under ground, which refounded beneath vaults.

" If iEtna, then has been the occafional caufe of

the earthquakes, it has alfo prepared, for fome time, the

misfortunes of Calabria, by gradually opening a paf-

fage along the coaft of Sicily to the foot of the Neptu-

4 I 3 uiau

020

E.nh-
Volcano;

GEOLOGY.

Al'cribed 1
the f.rce
of fteam.

.36
Numbtrol
tlem.

uian mountains : for during the earthquakes of 1780,
' V hicii dillurhcct Mi lina the whole fnmmer, they felt, for
the whole length of that coaft, from 'I'aormina even to
the Faro, confiderable ftiocks ; but near the villages of
AUi nnd Fiume de Nifi, which are fituated about the
middle cf that line, iliocks fo violent were experienced,
that they dreaded left the mouth of a volcano fliould
open. Esch Ihock reftmbled the effort of a mine that
had not rtrength to make an exploiion. It appears,
that then the volcano opened a free paffage for the ex-
]>anfion of its vapours, and that they have fince circu-
lated without rellraint ; fmce in the year 1783 the
earthquake was almoft nothing upon that part of Sici-
ly, at the time that Meffina buried under its ruins the
half of its inhabitants."
> By others the phenomena of earthquakes have been
afcribed to the force of vapour or rteam, which, no
doubt, is an agent fufficiently powerful, if it is con-
fined fo, that its prodigious elalHc force may be exert-
ed ; but it is denied by thofe who oppofe this hypothefis,
that earthquakes, though very frequent in regions where
fubterrauean fires are really known to exift, as in vol-
canic countries, always happen in fuch places, and
therefore water cannot be converted into vapour. But,
belides, it is well kno«Ti, that this vapour, even ad-
mitting the poffibility of its produftion in fubterrauean
cavities, would be re-converted into water, the mo-
ment it came in contaft with a cold body, which would
deprive it of the principle of heat, in combination with
which water aiTumes the form of vapour.

Many objeftions might have been made to the hy-
potheles which have been propoied to account for earth-
quakes. Many of thefe will probably occur to the at-
tentive reader, who is a little acquainted with the na-
ture and properties of the agents by which they are
fuppofed to be produced j but whatever may be the
caule of thefe extraordinary phenomena, it appears that
it is very far from being clearly afcertained. Perhaps
all the agents which have been ftated as the caufe of
earthquakes, may have fome influence in contributing
to the effeft, and may operate at different times, and
in different circumflances.

Sect. II. Of Volcanoes.
VoLCAKOES exift in almoft every part of the world,
from the north to the fouth pole. Hecla in Iceland,
and a volcano which has been obferved in Terra del
Fuego, at the termination of the fouthem continent of
America, nearly comprehends the extremities of the
globe ; and having mentioned thefe boundaries, it is
unneceffary to obferve, that they exift in all climates,
f The number of volcanoes at prefent known, is not
lefs than 1 00. The volcanoes of Europe are well
known : thefe are Vefuvius in Italy, iEtna in Si-
cily, and Hecla in Iceland. To thefe may be added
the volcanoes in the y^olian or Lipari illands on the
coart of Italy, of which Stromboli is remarkable for
having thrown out flames, without the eruption of other
volcanic matter, for more than 2000 years. In Afia
there is a volcano in Mount Taurus ; five in Kamtf-
chaika, 10 in the iflands of Japan ; one in the peak of
Adam in the ifland of Ceylon ; four which have been
obferved in Sumatra •, and fome others in diflerent parts
of the Afiatic continent or iflands. There arc alfo
Iquj? vokanoM on the Africaa wntinent, as wcU as in

Chap. IV.

fea,

^38

fome of the illands. Volcanoes exiil alfo \x\ the Ame- Karth-
rican continent, and in many of the illands which have <]"»ke5 aixf
been dilcovered in the South leas. o canoes.^

Almoft all volcanoes are in the immediate vicinity of ,,,
the fea. Mount Taurus, in the interior of Afia, and .Are a.l
fome of the volcanoes in the Andes, are the only ex-
ceptions to this.

Another general remark which may be made with ^ _

regard to volcanoes is, that they always occupy the tops of

tops of mountains. No volcano was ever found burft- mountains.

ing out in plains. The e.xillence of volcanoes at the

bottom of the ocean feems to be an exception ; but it

is to be obferved, that thefe are alio in the peaks of

mountains, which have been railed up from great depths

at the bottom of the ocean. 2.^9

The firft fjTnptom of an approaching eiuption is an Symptoms
increafe of the fmoke, if fmoke has been emitted, ;„ o' ="» "■"•-
fair weather. This fmoke is of a whitilh colour ; hxsX,
after fome time, black fmoke is obferved to ftioot up
in the midft of the column of white fmoke. Thefe ap-
pearances are ulually accompanied with e.xploflons.
The black fmoke is then followed, at a fliorter or
longer diftance of time, by a reddilh-coloured flame.
Showers of ftones are afterwards thrown out, and fome
of them are pvojefted to great heights in the air, which
Ihews that the force by which they are impelled is
very great. Along witi thefe, allies are likewife ejeft-
ed. Thefe phenomena, which daily increafe in fre-
quency and violence, are alfo ufually preceded and
accompfnied by earthquakes, and hollow noifes from
the bowels of the earth, fomething like thofe that precede
earthquakes unaccompanied with volcanic eruptions.
The fmoke, flame, and the quantity of ftones and afhes,
increafe, and the flones are at laft thrown out red hot.

The fmoke which ilTues from the crater has been
obferved to be fometimes in a highly eledlrified ftate.
The afhes are ftrongly attrafted, and carried up along-
with the fmoke to great heights in the atmofphere,
forming a denfe black column of vaft height and fize.
Flaliies of lightning are ieen darting in a zigzag direc-
tion, through the column of fmoke and afhes j and this
lightning is fometimes attended with thunder. But
from fome oblervations which have been made, this
thunder and lightning are feemingly lefs intenfe than
atmofpheric electricity. When thefe terrible appear-
ances have continued for four or five months, or for a
longer or fhorter time, according to the nature of the
eruption, the lava begins to flow. This is a current of
melted matter, which fometimes boils over the top, and
fometimes, when the mountain is high, as is the caie
with jEtna, burfts out at the fide, and makes a paffage
for itfelf. The period of the duration of the eruptioi*.
is very different. Sometimes it continues to flow, ar in-
tervals, fur the fpace of feveral weeks. j^^
The matters ejected from volcanoes are lavas, which Mntieis
are either more or lefs confolidated ■■, atlies, flags of dif- ''"
ferent kinds, and ftones which have undergone little'"'
or no fulion. For an account of the nature and pro-
perties of volcanic pioduifions, fee MlNER.\LOGV.
Stones have been projected into the air from Mount
iEtaa, to the height of 7D00 feet. A flone which
ivas ejeifled from Vefuvius, meafured 1 2 feet long, and
45 feet in circumference ; and even larger raaffes have
been thrown out from .^tna.

Water has been fre<juently ejected from vokanoesi.
This

, o! Yolca.

Chap. IV.

GEOLOGY.

Eitth- This water is fon-.etimes cold, and fometimes hot. E-
quakes and j^ptJons of water have taken place, both from Vefu-
\o canoes. ^ -^^ ^^j /Etna. At one time fait water was ejefted
from Mount Vefuvius. Different opinions have been
held concerning the origin of this water, or its con-
nexion with the volcano. This is founded on the cir-
cumftance already taken notice of in the general re-
mark \vhich wa5 made, that almoft all volcanoes are in
the vicinity of the fea.

It feems to be a fingular circumftance in the hiftory
of volcanoes, that when once eruptions have commen-
ced, thev follow each other in rapid fucceflion ; and
at other times that they ceafe for a long period. From
the year 1447, JEtna ceafed to throw out any fire till
the year I 536, when a terrible eruption took place,
accompanied with fmoke, flame, alhes, and burning
ftones. This conflagration continued to rage with great
violence for many weeks. The following year a river
fwelled and overflowed its banks to a great diflance ;
furious fqualls of wind fucceeded, after ivhich there
was a terrible eruption from JEtna. The torrents of
flaming and fufed matter which flowed out, deftroyed
towns, \-illages, and vineyards, to a great extent. Af-
ter the conflagration, the fummit of the mountain fell
in with a dreadful crafh. For lOO ye-.rs after this pe-
riod, the eruptions feemcd to obferve fome kind of re-
gularity, returning periodically every 25 and 30 years.
From the year 1686 to 1755, the fame year on which
the earthquake at Lilhon happened, for more than half
a century, JE.fna enjoyed profound repofe.

The firft confiderable eruption of Vefuvius, the ac-
count of which is recorded in hiftory, happened in tTie
year 79 of the Chrlftian era. It was this eruption
which dellroyed Herculaneum and Pompeii ; but this
was not the firll; eruption of this mountain, for the
ftreets of thefe cities have been fince difcovered to be
paved %nth lava. Since that time, 30 different erup-
tions have taken place. ■ There was a very remarkable
one in 1538.

It would appear that volcanoes feem to become quite
extinft, and are rekindled. Some of the Roman writ-
ers, as Diodorus Siculns, Vitrmaus, and others, fpeak
■ of Vefuvius only as having been a volcano. After this
period it burnt for looo years, and again became ex-
tinft, from 1 136 to 1506. Pools of water had col-
lefled in the crater, and woods were growing on its
fides, and eren in the crater itfelf. Vefuvius has now
burnt for three centuries pafl, as furioufly as ever ; but
particularly, during the 1 8th century. Of 29 erup-
tions which have taken place from Vefunus, fince the
reign of Titus, half of the number have happened in
the 18th century.

Befide the volcanoes, the hiftory of which we have'
now briefly detailed, volcanoes are known to exift at
the bottom of the ocean. Thefe are dillinguifhed by
the name oi fulmar ine volcanoes. Excepting in fitua-
tion, fo far as the liillorv of fubmarine volcanoes is
known, they refemble the volcanoes on land. It would
appear that they e.xifl in the tops of mountains at the
bottom of the ocean, and ejeft immenfe burning maf-
fes of matter in whirlwinds of alhes and pumice, with
prodigious torrents of lava. Submarine volcanoes are
either very fev- in number, or the places where they
exift have nrt ben aVertained. Thofe that are cer-
tsii.ly known are at Santorin, the Azores, and Ice-

141

land. The illand of Santorin, formerly called Thera
and St Irene, was denominated by the Greeks, in al-^
luflon to its origin, Kxtma, or " burnt."' According
Pliny, there is a tradition that it rofe out of the fea, at
a very remote but unknoivn period.

Without going far back into hillory, to inquire con-
cerning the early eruptions of this volcano, wt (hall
mention fome of a later date, the exiftence of \rhich is
better afcertained. In 1457, ''" eruption took place,
at which time afhes and red-hot rocks were ejedlcd,
with a great quantity of lava. This event, with the
date of it, is recorded on a marble ftone, erefted near
the gate of Fort Scarus, in Santorin. An eruption
alio took place in 1570. This produced a new illand,
called the Lin/e Kaminoi. In 1650, the agitations ot
the volcanoes continued for the greater part of a year.
Smyrna and Conftantinople were incommoded with the
alhes, which rulTied from the ocean in whirlwinds of
flame. The fame volcano opened again in 1707. The
Little Kaminoi, mentioned, was increafed, and it is now
more than three leagues in circumference. A violent
eruption took place in 1767, which ftiook the earth
greatly for fome days, and raifed the fea in fuch a
manner, as to excite apprehenuons of the dertruclion
of the iflands in the neighbourhood. A thick black
fmoke darkened the air, which was fo infecled with a
ftrong fraell of fulphur, that many perfons and animals
were fuffocated by it. Black alhes refembling gun-
powder were dilperfed around, and torrents of flame
iffuing from the fea, and waving above it, to the height
of feveral feet, lighted, at internals, the horrid fcene.
At the end of 10 or 12 days tlie eruption began to be
more moderate ; and a new illand which had been
thrown up was dlicovered. When it was examined,
many parts of it were ftill burning ; but the next day^
thofe «-hom curioiity had drawn to the fpot, were com-
pelled to betake themfelves to flight. They felt the
new foil moving ; in fome parts it rofe, and funk in
others. The earth, fea, and Iky, foon refuraed their
formidable appearance ; the boiling fea changed co-
lour ; flames in rapid fucceffion ilTued as from a fur-
nace, but accompanied ^vith alhes and pumice. The
frightful noife of fubterranean thunders was heard ; it
feemed as if enormous rocks, darting from the bottom
of the abyfs, beat againlf the vaults above it, and were
alternately repelled and thrown up again. The repeti-
tion of their blows leenied to be diftinflly heard. Sbme
of them finding a paiTage, were feen flying up red hot
into the air, and again fallijig into the fea from which
they iiad been ejeCled. MalTes were produced, held
together for fome days, and then difappeared. In this
general diforder, large portions of the Little Kaminoi
were fwallowed up. Meanwhile the labour of the vol-
cano took a larger furface. Its ejections became pro-
digioufly abundant, and a neiv ifland was feen forming.
By fuccelTive additions continued for near four months,
it made a junftion with that produced in June. From
the colour of its foil it v,as named the Black Ijland. It
is larger than the Little Kaminoi, and is feparated from
it by a narrow ftrait. After frequent alarms for feve-
ral months, the volcano opened again on the 15th of
April in the followii g year ; but the eruption was on-
ly for a moment, when it threw out a multitude ot
burning rocks, which fell at the dill.ince of twa
milfs.

Sbjikr

622 G E O L

Earth- Similar fubniarir.e volcanoes have been obferved near
q.iakcsand {'„g n\^„^ ^f St Michael, one 'of the Azores or Weftern
■ " ^y"*^^- iflands in the Atlantic ocean. In the year 1638, near
the illan.d of St Michael, ■where the fea ^vas known to
be 120 feet deep, there arofe, after an agitation of fe-
veral weeks, an iiland about fix miles round. It xvas
again fwailowed up in about the fame fpace of time
that had elapfed during its fomiation. In the year
1691, this volcano was in great agitation for a month.
It convulfed the whole iiland of St Michael, and by
the heat and violent commotion of the fea, as well as
by the eruption of dames, alhes, and pumice, occafioned
great damage ; but in this cafe no iiland appeared.
Similar eruptions ivere known hi 1720, and in 1757.
During the latter eruption, fome of the iflands were
fliaken to their foundations.

After this account of fubmarine volcanoes, of their
effeils, and of the idsnds formed by them, it v.ould
be unneceiTary'^to enter into any detail of the fubma-
rine volcano which threw up an iiland off the coaft
of Iceland, in the year 1783. This ifland, the exift-
ence of which feeraed to be fully afcertaincd, was
again fwallowed up in the ocean, and was fcen no
„., more.
Wud vol. Volcanoes of a very different kind have been de-
canoes, fcribed. The volcanoes to which we allude, have re-
ceived the name of mud vo/ca/ioes, from ejefling a great
quantity of mud. Thefe, however, are fimilar to thofe
which have been already defcribed, in having volcanic
motions and convullive eruptions. The firll volcano
of this kind which was difcovered is in the iiland of
Sicily, near a place called Maccalouba, between Ar-
ragona and Girgenti. It is in a hill of a conical
fliape, truncated at the top, and 150 feet high. The
fummit is a plain, half a mile round, and the whole
furface is covered with thick mud. The depth of the
mud, which is fuppofed to be imftlenfe, is unknown.
There is not the flightefl appearance of vegetation upon
it. In the rainy fcafon the mud is much foftened j the
furface is even, and there is a general ebullition over
it, which is accompanied with a very fcnfible rumbling
noife. In the dry feafon, the mud acquires greater
ronliflency, but without ceafmg its motion. The plain
affumes a form fomewhat convex ; a number of little
cones are thrown up, which rarely rife to the height
of two feet. Each of them has a crater, where a black
mud is feen in conftant agitation, and inceffantly emit-
ting bubbles of air. With thefe the latter infenfibly
riles, and as foon as the crater is full of it, it difgorges.
The refidue finks, and the cone has a free crater until
a new emiffion.

This hill is fometiraes fubjeft to alarming convulfions.
Earthquakes are felt at the diftance of two or three
miles, accompanied with internal noifes, refembling
thunder. Thefe increafe for feveral days,_-and termi-
nate in an eruption of a prodigious fpout of mud, earth,
and ftones, ivhich rifes two or three hundred feet into
the air. This explofion is repeated twice or thrice in
the courfe of 24 hours. Some years pafs over without
any eruption, but it generally happens that the erup-
tions continue yearly for five years fucceffively. An
eruption from this mud volcano took place in 1777.
Phenomena fomewhat fimilar have been defcribed by
Pallas, which he obferved partly in 5jie peninfula of
the Kercha, the boundary of Europe to the fouth-eaft of
3

O G Y.

Cliap. IV.

Little Tartary, now Taurida, and partly in the ifland Earth,
of Taman, which is feparated from Kercha only by q"'<-=es avd
one of the mouths of the river Cuban. The iiland of " ^"""'^
Taman is fituated in Afia. Thefe places, he obferve?,
are in Hat countries where there are few hills, and thofe
very little raifed above the level of the fea. The whole
is covered with beds of llime, mixed with fand, with
fome beds of marl and fea-fhells. From this !:e con-
cludes that no real volcanic pit can cxill here. Copious
fprings of petroleum are found in feveral places, and alfo
pools or fyphons of various dimenfions, through moft
of which a briny muJ is difgorged in bubbles. Pallas
obferved feveral of thefe pools, both in the peninfula
and in Taman. The laft eruption which took place,
he obferves, was in 1794- This was the greateil and
moft copious that had been known. It proceeded
from the top of a hill at the north point of Taman.
The place where the new gulf opened was a pool,
ivhere the fnow and rain water uiually remained for
a long time. The explofion came on with a noife
like that of thunder, and with the appearance of a
mafs of fire in the form of a flieaf. This lafted on-
ly for about half an hour, and it was accompanied
with a thick fmoke •, but the ebullition which threw
up part of the Uquid mud, continued till the next day,
after which the mud ran (lowly in ftreams down the
hill. The mud difcharged was of a foft clay, of a
bluifli alli colour, every where of the fame nature, and
mixed with brilliant fparks of mica, with a fmall quan-
tity of marl, calcareous and fandy fragments of Ichif-
tus, which feemed to have been torn from their beds.

"Pallas fuppofcs that a very deep coal mine had
been for ages on fire, under Kercha and Taman, and
that the fea having accidentally broken into the burn-
ing cavities of the mine, the expanfion produced by
the water converted into fleam, and the ftruggle of the ,
different aeriform fubflances to get free, forced the up-
per beds, broke them in pieces, and formed a paffage
to themfelves. The vapours, as they efcaped, carried
the mud along with them. But others have fuppofed
that thefe phenomena are not produced by fire ; that
the appearance of the flieaf of fire rauft have been ex-
traneous, or, that it was only a quantity of inflammable
air, which exploded when it came to the furface •, or,
perhaps it was altogether an iUulion, from the appear-
ance of the vapours which were emitted.

An account is given of a lingular phenomenon, fome.
what fimilar to the above, which was obferved in 171 1,
at Bofely near Wenlock, in Shroplliire. After a great
hurricane, the inhabitants were aivakened in the middle
of the night by commotions of the earth, which were
accompanied with noiie. Some perfons went to an
eminence from which the noife proceeded, and they
faw water oozing through the turf, while at the fame
time inflammable air was emitted. The water was not
hot. This continued for fome time, but at laft'it
ceafed to throw out any inflammable air for fome years,
previous to the year 1746, when a fecond eruption took
place, attended with fimilar circumftances.

We lliall not duell longer on the hiftory of volca-
noes. For a particular account of the moft remarkable
eruptions of the principal volcanoes in the world, the
reader is referred to the hiftory given under JEtsa,
Hecla, and Vesuvius. We Ihall now proceed to
ftate fome of the opinions and conjeftures of philofo-

phers,

Chap. IV. G E O L

Enrih- pliers, with regard to the caufc of thefe extraordinary

flakes and phenomena.

y^''^^""^^'. Volcanic eruptions have been afcribeci to the aiSlion
,^^ of the waters of the fea, burning in upon an immenfe

Caufes of quantity of fufed or burning matter ; to the aclion of

■jolcanoes. central fires, and to tlie decompofition of different fub-
ftances, by which a great quantity of heat and inflam-
mable iubltances is produced.

Water, according to fome philofophers, is abfolutely
neceflai-y for the formation of volcanoes. This opinion
is fupported by the circumftance of almoft all volca-
noes beingnear the fea. According to this opinion, they
were all formed under the furface of the waters of the
ocean. The firrt explofion at the formation of a volca-
no, it is fuppofed. Wis preceded by an earthquake.
The firft eruptions would be extremely violent, and im-
menfe quantities of matter would be ejeded. Torrents
of lava would continue to be difcharged for a long
feries of ages, and thus the foundations of the burning
mountain are laid in the bottom of the ocean. But it
becomes a quellion, in \vhat way the internal fire ^vas
preferved from extinction by the incumbent waters of
the ocean ' To this M. Houel replies, that the fire
having difpofed the fubftances in fufion to make an
eruption, next laid open the earth, and emitted as much
matter as it could difcharge, with a force fufficient to
overcome the refiftance of the column of water, whicli
would oppofe its afcent •, but as the ftrength of the fire
{liminithed, the matter difcharged was no longer ex-
pelled beyond the mouth ; but, by accumulating
there, foon doled up the orifice. Thus, only fmall
orifices would be left fiifficient for giving vent to the
vapours of the volcano, and from which only fmall bub-
bles of air could afcend to the furface of the water, un-
til new circumftances, fuch as orighially give occafion
to the eruption of the volcano, again took place in the
bowels of the earth, and produced new eruptions, either
through the fame or other mouths. The appearance of
the fea over the new formed volcano, in Its ft ate of tran-
quillity, would then be flmilar to what it is betwixt the
iflands of Baulizzo and Pariaria. Columns of air bub-
bles are there afcending at the depth of more than 30
feet, and burft on their arriving at the llirface. This
air would continue to difengage itfelf with little difturb-
ance as long as it iffues forth only in fmall quantity,
until, at the very inftant of exploiion, when prodigious
quantities, generated in the burning focus, would make
their way at once, and the fame phenomena which
originally took place would again make their appear-
ance."

A volcano, while under water, cannot acl prccifely
as it does in the open air. Its eruptions, though equal-
ly ftrong, cannot e.\tend to fa great a diftance. The
lava accumulates in greater quantity rou!id the crater ;
the fand, afhes, and pozzolana are not carried away
by the winds, but are depoiited around its edges, and
prevent the marine fubflances which are driven that
way by the waters from entering. Thus they agglome-
rate with thefe bodies, and thus a pyramidal mount is
formed of all the materials together.

In this manner M. Houel iuppofes that the mountain
was gradually raifed out of the fea by the accumulation
of lava, &c. at every eruption, and that the cavern of
the volcano was gradually enlarged, the lava being dri-
ven down into the bottom of the cavern by the continued

O G Y.

623

aftion of the ftones wliich the volcano is conftantly Eartlr-
throwing up ; that it was there fufed, and at laft thrown ^""^^ s"''
out at the top of the mountain to accumulate on its fides. ^°'""°^';
M. Houel's opinion about the volcanic fire we Ihall give '
in his own words.

" We cannot form any idea of fire fubfifting alone,
without any pabulum, and unconnedled with any other
principle. We never behold it but in conjunftion with
fome other body, which nouriihes and is confumed by it.
The matter in fufion, which ilTucs from the focus, is but
the incombuftible part of that %vhich nouriflies the fire,
and into the bofom of which that adive principle pene-
trates in fearch of pabulum. But as the fire ads only
in proportion to the facility with which it can diflblve
and evaporate, I am of opinion, that it is only the bot-
tom of the volcano on which it ads ; and that its ac-
tion extends no farther than to keep thefe fubffances
which it has mehed in a conftant ftate of ebullition.
That fufible matter being difcharged from the mouth
of the volcar.o, and hardening as it is gradually cooled
by tlie adion of the air, produces that fpecies of ftones
which are diftinguilhed by the name of /av/js. This
lava, even when in the focus, and in a llate of fluidity,
mull alio pofTefs a certain degree of folidity, on account
of the gravity and denfity of its particles. It there-
fore oppofes the fire with a degree of refiftance which
irritates it, and requires, to put it into a ftate of ebul-
lition, a power proportioned to the bulk of the mafs.

" That quantity of matter, when diflolved by the ac-
tion of the fire, inuft conftantly refemble any other thick
fubftance in a ftate of ebullition. Small explofiotn are
produced in various parts over the furface of every
fuch fubftance while in a Ifate of ebullition ; and, by
the burfting of thefe bubbles, a great number of fmall
particles are fcattered around. This is the very pro-
ctCs carried on in the focus of a volcano, thoiij^h on
a fcale immenfely more large ; and the vaft cxplofions
there produced expel ev£ry body which lies in their
way with the utmoft violence ; nor is there any piece
of lava which falls down from the upper part of the
arch, of weight fufticient to refift this violent centrifu-
gal force.

The pabulum by which the internal fire is fupport-
ed, M. Houel thinks to bo fubftances cOnt.iincd in
the mountain itfelf, together with bitumen, fulphur, and
other inflammable materials, which may from time to
time flow into the focus of the volcano in a melted ftate
duds

through the fubterraneous duds, and the explofions he
afcribcs to water making its way in the fame manner.
The water is converted into ftcnm, wliich fills the cavern
and pufhes the melted lava out at the crater ; this opi-
nion is corroborated by the copious Imoke which always
precedes an eruption. But, combined witU the water,
there is always a quantity of other fubftances, whofc
effcds precede, accompany, or follow the eruptions, and
produce all the various phenomena which they dilplay.
The eruption of water from /Etjia in the year 1 77J
proceeded undoubtedly from this caufc. The lea, or
ibmeof the rcfervoirs in j'Etna or the adjacent moun-
tains, by fome means difcharged a vaft quantity of
water into the focus of the volcano. That water
was inftantly refolved into vapour, which filled the
whole cavern, and iil'ucd from the mouth of the crater.
As foon as it made its way into the open atmofphcre, it
v,;;s co:»denfed agabi into water, which llrcamcd down

llic

624

GEOLOGY

*Hil!.K.
di Miner.
-torn. V.

Earth- tlie fides of the mountain in a dreadful and deflruSive

Volcanoes'' '°"ent,

. Others have attempted to account for the exiftence

of volcanic fire, on the fuppofition that it is derived
from central fires, and to thefe it is fuppofed that vol-
canoes aft the part of chimneys ; while others are of
opinion that they are owing to the chemical decompo-
fition of different fubilances, by which inllammable
matters are evolved, with a great deal of heat, and by
means of the latter the combulfible materials are kin-
dled, and exhibit the phenomena \vhich are thus propo-
fed to be accounted for.

M. Patrin is one of the lateft naturalifts who, witli
the aflillance of modern chemiftry, has attempted to
account for the phenomena of volcanoes on the princi-
ples of this fcience. For a full view of his theory, or
rather of his fiinciful conjeftures on this fubjei:!, ive
• muft refer the reader to the work itfelf. * But the fol-
lowing is a recapitulation of the principles on which he
gives this explanation. All volcanoes, he obferves,
in a ftate of aftivity, are in the vicinity of the fea, and
are never found but in thofe places where fea lalt is a-
bundant. The volcanoes of the Mediterranean ab-
ftraft the fait which the \vaters of the ocean hold in
folution, and are conftantly pouring in by the fl raits of
Gibraltar. The ftrata of primitive fchiftus are the
great laboratories in which volcanic matters are prepa-
red, by a conftant circulation of different fluids ; but
according to this theory, thefe ftrata contribute no part
of their own fubftance. They fuffer no wafte in the
procefs..

The fphere of the aftivity of volcanoes may be far
extended in thefe ftrata, but they have no other outlet
befide fpiracles, by which the gafeous fubftances efcape,
flf which one part is diftipated in the atmofphere, and
the other becomes concrete by its combination v.-ith
oxygen. The concretion of thefe fluids is fuppofed to
be analogous to the concretion of the primitive matters
of the globe, according to the theory of La Place ;
and the eleftive attraftions determine, in the fame way,
the formation of ftony cryftals.

Volcanic eruptions are proportioned, in regard to
their violence and duration, to the extent of the ftrata
of fchiftus in which the volcanic fluids are accumulated.
Thefe fluids are,

1 . Muriatic acid, which carries off the oxygen from
the metallic oxides of the fchiftus.

2. The oxygen of the atmofphere, which conftantly
replaces in the metals that which was carried off by
the muriatic acid.

3. Carbonic acid gas, which the water abforbs from
the atmofphere, and conveys to the fchiftus, which al-
ways abounds in carbone.

4. Hydrogen, which proceeds from the decompofition
of water. A part of this hydrogen is Inflamed by e-
leftric explofions ; the other united to carbonic acid
forms oil, which becomes petroleum by its combination
with fulphuric acid ; and it is to this petroleum that
the bitternefs of fea water is owing.

5. The cleBric fluid, which is attrafted from the at-
mofphere by the metals contained in the fchiftus. Sul-
phur feems to be the raoft homogeneous portion of this
fluid, which has become concrete. Phofphorus is a
modification of it, and it contributes to the fixation of
oxygen. The fulphur formed in the fchillus by means
3

Chap. IV

of tlie eleftiic fluid, combines with the oxygen, and Earth-
forms fulphuric acid, ivhich decompofcs the fea fait. quakes ani

6. The nieia/iferous find. This forms the iron inVol"iioe«.
lavas. It is the origin of metallic veins, and the co- •
louring principle of organized bodies. This fubftance

in its undecompofed ftate affords iron, but by decom-
pofition it produces other xnetals. It is conjeftured to
be one of the principles of muriatic acid, and it con-
tributes, along with phofphorus, to fix oxygen under
an earthy form.

7. The laft of the volcanic fluids is a'zotic gas, Ta
this gas is owing the formation of the maffes of car-
bonate of lime which^ ase ejefted by Vefuvius, and of
the calcareous earth contained in lavas.

Such are the materials with which the author pro-
pofes to form the different fubftances which are produ-
ced in volcanoes, and by the operation of which he
propofes to explain the phenomena of volcanic erup-
tions. Our readers ^\ ill probably agree with us in
thinking, that the prefent ifate of chemical fcience,
even with the aflillance of fuch hypothetical fubftances
as the metalliferous fluids, is yet inadequate to give any
degree of lupport to fuch opinions, even in the form of
conjefture. We fliall therefore difmifs it without far-
ther remark. j.-

We fhall now conclude this fubjeft with fome inter- Obferva-
efting obfervations by M. de Luc, on the nature of the''°"5on the
ftrata in which volcanic fires exift.

" Volcanoes, he obferves, have been more numerous
on the furface of our continents, when they were under
the waters of the ancient fea ; and as this clafs of moun-
tains, raifed by fubterranean fires, manifeft themfelves
ftill on the ftiores of the prefent fea, and in the middle
of its waters, it is of importance to geology and the
philofophy of the earth to obtain as juft ideas of them
as poffible.

" I have attended a great deal to this fubjeft from
my own obfervations ; and I have ftiovvn, at different
times, the errors into which feveral geologifts and na-
turalifts, in treating of it, have fallen.

" Tliis clafs of mountains, in particular, requires that
we ftiould fee them, that ^ve Ihould behold them during
their eruptions, that we ftiould have traced the progrefs
of their lava, and have obferved clofely their explo-
fions ; that we Ihould have made a numerous colleftion
of the matters which they throw up under their diffe-
rent circumftances, that we might afterwards be able
to ftudy them in the cabinet, and to judge of their
coropofition according to the phenomena which have
been obferved on the fpot.

" This ftudy is highly necefliiry when we apply it to
geology and the philofophy of the earth, in order that
we may avoid falling into thofe miflakes which make
us afcribe to fubterranean fires what does not belong to
them, or which leads us to refufe them what really be-
longs to the

are of
the ftrata.

We read in the Journal de Physiqite for January
4, under the ti " ' '
following affertions :

1804, under the title, On the caufe of Volcanoes, the

iiysique 1
'e of Vol

What is the nature of the matters which maintain
thefe fubterranean fires ? We have feen that Chimbo-
ra^o, all thefe enormous volcanoes of Peru, and the
Peak of Teneriffe, are compofcd of porphyry.

' The Puy-de-D6me is alfo compofed of porphyry,
as well as the Mont d'Or and the Cantal.

' i¥:tna,

Chap. IV. G E O L

' .i^tha, Solfatara, and Vefuvius, are alfo of' the por-
phyry kind.

' Thefe fails prove that the moft confiderable volca-
noes with which we are acquainted are of porphyry,'

" This opinion, that the fires of volcanoes have their
centres in fuch or fuch a rock, and that their lavas are
produced from thcfe rocks, has always appeared to me
not to be founded on any certain data. Opinions alfo
on this fubjcct have varied ; fome having placed the
origin of lava in horn rock, others in granite or fchill,
and at prcfent it is affigned to porphyry.

" I have always been of opinion that nothing certain
could be determined in icgard to this point. It ever
remains uncertain whether the feat of the matters of
Svhich lava is formed be in compaft rock>, or in flrata
in tiie ftatc of foftnefs, pulverulent, and muddy.

" Thole who fee lava iflue from a volcano in its flate
of fuiioii and incandefcence, and in its cooling, are con-
vinced that the nature of e^'cry thing is changed, that
it exhibits a paile in which nothing can be known, ex-
cel t the fubliances which the volcanic fires have not
reduced to fufion.

" But thefe fubflances contained in the parte of lava,
and thofe which are the molf numerous, (how us, that
the ftrata from which they proceed cannot be fimilar to
thofe expofed to the view, nor even to the moll pro-
found ftrata to v.hich ^ve cbu penetrate.

" Admitting the hypothefis, that the ilrata from
which the lavas proceed are in a pulverulent and mud-
dy llate, containing elements of all thefe finall crydals,
one may conceive hov.- they are formed there, infulated,
grouped, or folitary, and are found then in the lava in
that llate of infolution.

" The fragments of natural rocks thrown up by Ve-
fuvius are not of the fame kind as the matters of which
the lava is compofed. Moft of thefe fragments are mi-
caceous rocks, v.ith lamhia: of greater or lefs fize, and
of a kind of granite called ficnitc. I have found fome
rompofed of white quartzy rock j it is found fometiraes
of calcareous rock.

" The moft probable idea that can be formed in re-
gard to the origin of thefe fragments is, that they have
been carried from the borders of the ftrata through
which the lava, that comes from great depths, has
opened for ttfelf a paffage, Thefe fragments are car-
ried to the furface of the lava as far as the bottom of
the chimney of the crater, whence they have been
thrown out by explofions, mixed with fragments fepa-
rated, or rather torn, from the lava ; for it is not by
the lava that they have been brought forth to view, but
by explofions.

" Som.c of thefe fragments of natural rocks have not
been attacked by the tire ; others have more or lefs ;
ivliich depends, no doubt, on the place which they oc-
cupied in the volcano, and on the time which they re-
mained in it. The moft of the latter have retained at
their furface a cruft of lava, and this cruft contains fub-
flances which are not the fame-as that of the fragment
it covers.

" On Vefuvius the ftrata pierced by eruptions arc
lower than the liirface of the foil ; in Auvergne and fe-
\eral places of Germany they are above ; for this rea-
fon there are feen there in their place fchifts or granites,

^•o^. IX. Part II.

O G Y. ■ 625

which the eruptions have broken to form for them- E..ftii.
felvcs a paffage. qM:,ke ai.d

" No volcano refis on natural ftrata: they fometimes " ^^""'j.
fliow themfelves on tlie e.\.terior ; but they have been
opened by eruptions, and their edges have remained in
their place.

" The focus of no volcano exifts or has exiilcd in the
cone which appears above the furface of the ground.
They have been railed by eruptions, which, proceeding
from great depths, have thrown them up through the
upper ftrata. When it is laid, therefore, that the vol-
canic mountains of Auvergne reft on granite, tliis is a
miftake, and an incorreft expreflion has been ufed by
thofe who have not formed a juft idea of the phenome-
non. Lava may have llowed upon granite or any other
rock, and refted upon it ; but this is never the cafe
with the volcano itfeif : its bales are below all the rocks
vilible.

" It is from the bofom even of the lava, when in a
flate of fuiion in the interior of the volcano, that all
the explofions proceed. In that llate of fuiion they
contain all the matters which produce fermentations,
and the difengagement of expanlible tluids.

" I have been enabled to afcertain this on Vefuvius
as far as was pollible. The continual noife which was
heard through the two interior mouths of the crater
which I had before my eyes, was that of an ebullition,
accompanied with inflammable vapours, and the gerbes
of burning matters which they threw up at intervals
were feparated pieces of the lava in its ftate of fijfion.
I liiw feveral of them in the air change their form, and
fometimes become tiat on the bodies vvhicli they itruck
or embraced in falling. And among the moft apparent
of tiiefe fragments there are always a multitude of faiall
ones of the fize of peas and nuts, and Hill fmaller ones,
which Ihow at their furface, by their afperities, ail the
charafters of laceration.

" The name oi fcorue has been given to thefe frag-
ments, to diftinguilh them from compacl lava, though
their compolliion be the fame as that of the hardeft la-
va ; and it is for want of retleifling properly on this
point that it has been faid that it is the compad part
only that we muft obfervc, in order to judge of their na-
ture, 1 he pieces which I took from the tlowing lava
with an iron hook, have at their furface the lame lacera-
tions and the fame afperities as the fragments thrown up
by explofions, and both contain tlie fame fubftances.

" This feparation, by tearing off the parcels of the
lava effc6led by fermentations and explofions which pro-
ceed from their bofom, ferves to explain thofe columns,
fometimes prodigious, of volcanic fand, which rife from
the principal crater. When feen with a magnifying
glafs, this fand exhibits nothing but lava reduced very
fmall, the particles of which, rough with inequalities,
have the bright black colour and the vamifti of recent
lava,

" Parcels of fubftances which exift in our ftrata, fuch
as fragments of quartz, fcales of mica, and cryftals of
feldfpar, are found fometimes in lava. Similar matters
muft no doubt be diffeminated in the compofition of our
globe, without there being reafon to conclude that the
ilrata from which they proceed are the fame as the ex-
terior flrata. It is neither in the granites, the porphy-
4 K ries.

626 G E O L

Earth- ries, nor the horn rock, and ftill lefs in the fchills and

quakoand calcareous rocks, that the fchorls of volcanoes, the leu-

\ olcance.. ^.j^gj^ ^^jj perhaps olivins, will be found. Thefe fmall

cryftals are brought to view by the lava, otlierwafe they

ivould be unknown to us.

" Thefe lavas contain a great deal of iron, which
they acquire neither from the granite nor porphyries.
Might not one fee in the ferruginous fand which is
found in abundance on the borders of the fea near
Naples, and in the environs of Rome, fpecimens of
that kind of pulverulent ftrata from which lava pro-
ceeds ?

" I have here offered enough to prove that it cannot
be determined that lava proceeds from ftrata fimilai to
thofe with which we are acquainted. The operations
of volcanoes, thofe vail laboratories of nature, will
alwavs remain unkno\vn to us, and on this fubjedl our
conjeclures will always be very uncertain.

What is the nature of that mixture which gives
birth to thefe eruptions, that produce lava and throw
up mountains ? What we obferve as certain is, that
the introduiftion of the water of the fea is neceffary to
excite thefe fermentations, as containing marine acid
^nd other falts, which, united to the fulphuric acid,
'^hc bafes of which are contained in abundance in the
fubterranean ftrata, determine thefe fermentations,
which produce the difengagement of fire and other
fluids, and all the grand eflfecls that are the confe-
quence.

" Several naturalifts have believed, and ftill believe,
that frefti or rain water is futhcient for this purpule ;
'^ but they are miftaken : this opinion is contradicted by
every fafl: known. To be convinced of this, nothing
is neceflary but to take a ftiort view of them. I have
done it feveral times, as it is neceflary to confider them
often. I ftiall here enumerate the principal ones : —
No burning mountain exifts in the interior part of the
earth ; and all thofe which ftill burn are, \vithout ex-
ception, in the neighbourhood of the fea, or furround-
ed by its waters. Among the deliquefcent falts de-
poiited by the fmoke of volcanoes, we diftinguifti chiefly
the marine f^lt, united to different bafes. Several of
the volcanoes of Iceland, and Hecla itfelf, fometimes
throw up eruptions of water, which depofit marine fait
in abundance. No extent of frefti water, however vaft,
gives birth to a volcano. Thefe fails are fulhcient to
prove that the concurrence of fea-water is abfolutely
neceflary to excite thofe fermentations which produce
volcanoes. '

" I ftiall here repeat the diftinftion I have already
made between burnt-out volcanoes and the ancient vol-
canoes, that I may range them in two feparate clafles.

" When we limply give the name of burnt-out or ex-
tinguijhed volcanoes to volcanic mountains which are in

O G Y.

Chap.lV.

the middle of the continents, it is to reprefent them as Earth-
having burnt while the land was dry, and inhabited asll'^,"**^* ""
it is at prefent ; which is not a juft idea. Thefe vol- °'^''"°'^'
canoes have burnt when the land on which they are
railed was under the waters of the ancient fea, and
none of them have burnt fince our continents became
dry. It is even very apparent that moft of them were
extind before the retreat of the fea, as we find by
numerous examples in the prefent fea.

" Thofe which I denominate extinft volcanoes are
fuch as no longer burn, though furrounded by the fea,
or placed on the borders of it. They ivould ftill burn,
were not the inflammable matters by which they were
raifed really exhaufted and confumed. Of this kind
is the volcano of Agde, in Languedoc. Of this kind
alfo are many of the volcanic illands which have not
thrown up fire fince time immemorial.

" M. Humboldt, in his letters written from Peru,
fpeaks of the volcanoes which he vifited, but what he
fays is not fufRciently precife to enable us to form a juft
idea of them. He reprefents Chimbora90 as being
corapofed of porphyry from its bottom to its fummit,
and adds, that the porphyry is ipco toifes in thicknefs ;
afterwards, he remarks, that it is almoft improbable
that Chimbora^o, as well at Pifhincha and Antifana,
ftiould be of a volcanic nature : ' The place by which
we afcended, (fays he,) is compofcd of burnt and fcori-
fied rock, mi.xed with puraiceftone, which refembles all
the currents of Lava in this coimtry.'

" Here are two charadlers very different. If Chim-
bora^o be porphyry from the top to the bottom, it is
not corapofed of burnt and fcorified rocks, mixed with
pumiceftone ; and if it be compofed of burnt rocks, it
cannot be porphyry. This expreflion, burnt and fcori-
fied racks, is not even exact, becaufe it excites the idea
of natural rocks, altered in their place by fire, and they
are certainly lava which has been thrown up by the
volcano. But the truth muft be, that Chimbora^o,
and all the other volcanoes of Peru, are compofed of
volcanic matters, from their bafe at the level of the fea
to the fummit.

" I have juft read in the Annates du Miijeum d'Hi-
Jloire Naturel/e*, a letter of the fame traveller, written
fiom Mexico, on his return from Peru, where, fpeak-
ing of the volcanoes of Popayan, Pafto, Q^uito, and
the other parts of the Andes, he fays, ' Great mafifes of
this foflll {obfidian) have ifliied from the craters ; and
the fides of thefe gulfs, which we clofely examined,
confift of porphyry, the bafe of which holds a mean be-
tween obfidian and pitchftone [ pechjlein).'' M. Hum-
boldt therefore confiders obfidian, or black compaft
glals, as a natural foflil or rock, and not as volcanic

no 9,

N'l

CORRIGENDA in GEOLOGY

N" 9. 2d par. read, Lehman was followed in his own country by Ferber, Gmelin, Bom, and Werner ; in Swe-
den, by Bergman, Cronftedt, rnd 'i'ilas ; in Italy, by Arduini ; &c.

N° II. It was propofed at firft to divide the article into only three chapters; but from the length of what was in-
tended as the firi>, and the number of fedtions which it contained, it ^vas afterwards thought better to divide it
into two.

N° 6j. For Ingleborough in Weftmorcland, read Ipgleborough in Yorkftiirc,

INDEX.

Cricoid o i; \

I'lMf CCX.WVil

©f^...

r^.

f

.C?i.

. ""/yy^// /'^,-.'„ . ff^/\/r„/,->fr,y;^.

(•(• \\\ I.V

^

>i^

V

b

Index.

GEOLOGY

627

INDEX.

A.

Earthquakes, in Jamaica, N"

' 203

Granite, ftratified, Inftances of, N

'° 20

Alabaster defcribed, n° 6^

at Lilhon,

204

where found,

21

gypfeous,

85

felt at Colares,

205

decay of,

22

Amontons^! theory of earthquakes,

229

at Oporto,

206

metals found in.

23

/imy^daloid defcribed,

72

deftroys St Ubes,

207

Gray wacke defcribed.

68

Antimony, ores of, enumerated,

170

felt in Spain,

208

flate defcribed.

ib.

A'fenic, ores of, enumerated.

175

in Africa,

209

where found.

69

in Madeira,

210

rich in metals,

70

B.

in France,

211

Greenjone defcribed.

74

Bafah defcribed,

100

in Germany,

212

Cyp/um defcribed,

79

Werner's opinion refpeaing.

in Switzerland,

2'3

common,

81

Note (f) p. 600.

in Holland,

214

lenticular,

ib.

'Beccariai's theory of earthquakes,
Bifmuth, ores of, enumerated.

231

in Norway,

215

cryrtallized.

82

168

in Britain,

ei6

fibrous.

83

Breccia defcribed, Note (c) p. 556.

effefls of, at fea.

219

ftalaftitic,

84

examples of.

49

in Calabria, in 1783,

221

Buffon^s remarks on mountains,

117

deftruftlon of Op-

H.

theory of the earth,

184

pldo, by.

222

Herman's remarks on mountains.

ii3

objections to,

185

in Peru,

223

Hornblende flate defcribed.

40

Burnet's theory of the earth,

181

in Scotland,

224

metals found in,

41

caufes of.

225

Hornjlone defcribed.

37

C.

according to

Hoiiel's theory of volcanoes.

244

Chalk,

88

the ancients,

,226

Hutton''s theory of the earth.

188

where found,

89

according to

objeftlons to,

189

C/ay,

90

the modems.

,227

indurated.

91

theory of, by Wood-

I.

flate, defcribed,

32

ward,

228

"jafper defcribed.

35

Coal,

104

by Amontons,

229

where found.

36

general clrcumftances attending,

. 105

by Stukcley,

230

Iron, ores of, enumerated.

As

where found,

106

by Beccarla,

231

Ironjlone, argillaceous, defcribed.

97

mines of France,

107

by Prieftley,

232

IJlands formed by fubmarine volcanoes,

242

England,

108

by Dolomieu,

233

flrata at Newcaftle, table of, p

.566

afcribed to ths force of

K.

Whitehaven, table of.

568

fleam,

234

Kirwan''s remarks on the declivities

bovey, defcribed, N"

no

of mountains, 114—

-124

Cobalt, ores of, enumerated.

171

F.

theory of do.

196

Copper, ores of, enumerated,

164

Fluor fpar defcribed,

where found,

86
87

of dykes,

197

D.

FoJJils, vegetable.

1C9

L.

T)ekmetherie''s remarks on the decli-

animal.

1 1(

Lead, ores of, enumerated,

166

vities of mountains.

119

G.

Limcflone, granular, defcribed.

54

Dolomieu's theory of earthquakes,

233

Geognofy, definition of.

t

where found,

55

Dykes, account of.

142

Geolo7ii, definition and objeft of.

//'.

metals found in,

5<5

names of.

M3

divifionof.

2

fecondary, defcribed,

64

courfe of.

144

importance of.

3

where found.

65

inclination of,

145

to naturalifls.

4

metals found in

,66

extent of.

146

miners.

%

Litliomarga,

92

thicknefs of.

147

landed proprietors, 6

Luc's (de) obfervations on the flrata

materials of.

148

Chriftians,

7

in the neighbourhood of

whin, peculiar ftruflure of,

149

difficulties attending the ftudy

volcai ".es,

245

Earthquakes, account of, 198

where moft prevalent, 199
phenomena preceding

and accompanying, 200
at Calabria, in 1 63 J, re-
lation of, 201
in Skilv, 20 2

of, not infurmountable, 8

principal Improvers of, 9

method of fludylng, 10

Gneifs defcribed, 24

where found, 25

metals found in, 26

Gold, ores of, enumerated, 16 1

Granite defcribed, I S

its different flatcs, j 9

M.

Manganefe, ores of, enumerated, 173

Marl defcribed, 06

Materials compofing the earth,

general dillribution of, 12

divifion of, j -j

Mercury, or s of, enumerated, 162

Molybdena, where found,

4K 2

Mountains,

628

G E 0 L 0 G

Y.

Index.

Mountains, definition of, N"

H2

Theory of Hutton, N°

188

chains of,

i'3-

p.

obje6\ions to,

189

declivities of,

124

Palriri's theory of volcanoes, N°

244

of Werner,

193

Kirwan's obfervations on.

114

Pilclipone defcribed.

3«

Tin, ores of, enumerated,

167

fteep fide of, faces the low

where found,

39

Titanium, ores of, enumerated.

178

country.

"5

Platina, where found.

160

Toodjlone defcribed.

72

neftern fide of, fteepeft.

116

Porphyry defcribed.

44

Tf/Jrtz rock defcribed.

60

remarks on bv BufFon,

117

where found,

AS

Trap, primitive, defcribed,

57

by Herman,

118

metals found in.

46

where found, _

58

by Delame-

fchiftofe,

47

metals found in,

59

therie.

119

PrieJIIpfs theory of earthquakes.

232

fecondary, defcribed, 71

—74

fouth and fouth-eaft fides

Puddiiigstone,

50

globular.

72

of, the fteepeft,

120

Tungsten, ores of, enumerated,

176

account of, in Europe,

122

Q-

in Afia,

123

^iart% defcribed,

30

U.

in America

,124

where found.

ib.

Uranium, ores of, enumerated.

177.

height of, table of, p.

576

no metals found in.

31

'

courfe of, N"

126

V.

ftrufture of.

127

S.

Veins, metallic, account of.

150

primary and fecondary.

Salt rock defcribed.

ID-I

diftinclion of,

151

how diftinguilhed,

128

where found.

102

perpendicular.

152

equatorial, not the higheft

129

mines at Northwich,

103

two kinds of,

156

Uralian, courfe of.

Sandjlone defcribed.

IS

courfe of.

'^53

Altaic, courfe of.

132

argillaceous.

76

inclination of.

>54

Alpine,

^Si

where found,

77

thicknefs of.

^S5

Afiatic,

134

filiceous.

78

pipe, defcribed.

157

fouthern.

136

SchlJIiu, micaceous, defcribed.

27

flat, defcribed,

>58

of North America,

137

where found.

28

Volcanic fluids.

244

England,

•38

metals found in.

29

Volcanoes exift atmoft in every part of

Scotland,

140

argillaceous, defcribed.

32

the worid.

23?

Ireland,

141

where found.

33

number of.

236

metals found in

> 34

all near the fea.

237

N.

filiceous, defcribed.

61

all on the tops of moun-

Niciel, ores of, enumerated,

172

where found.

62

tains.

238

Northwich, fait mines at.

103

Sieuile defcribed.

Ji

fymptoms of the eruption

v.here found.

52

of.

239

0.

metals found in.

53

matters thrown out by.

24c

Oret, metallic, enumerated, IS9—

179

Silver, ores of, enumerated.

163

become extinft, and are re-

of platina.

160

Slate,

94

kindled.

241

gold,

161

clay.

93

fubmarine.

24;

mercury,

162

Strata of the earth.

13

of mud,

243

filver.

163

horizontal and vertical.

'4

caufes of difculTed,

244

copper,

164

derangement of.

>3

iron.

165

in general regular,

16

W.

lead.

.66

in various parts of Europe, ta-

Wacie defcribed.

99

tin.

167

ble of, p.

573

Werner''s theory of the earth,

'93

bifrauth,

168

Stulcletfs theory of earthquakes, N°

230

objeSions to.

194

zinc.

169

opinion on the formation of

antimony.

170

T.

bafalt. Note (f) p. 600.

cobalt.

171

Tellurium, ores of, enumerated.

179

theory of veins.

19J

nickel.

172

Theories of the earth, objeft of,

180

Whinjlone,

98

manganefg,

•73

of Burnet,

181

Whijion''s theory of the earth.

183

raolybdena,

174

of Woodward,

182

Whitehiiijl^s theory of the earth.

186

•arfenic.

175

of Whillon,

183

objeftions to,

187

tungften,

176

of BufFon,

184

Woodward's theory of the earth,

182

177

objeflions to.

185

titanium.

178

of Whitehurft,

186

Z.

teUuri;>m,

179

objeftions to,

187

Zinc, ores of, enumerated,

160

GEOMANCY,

GEO

Ceomincv. GEOMANCY, GroMAvriA

kmA of
performed by me;ii!S of a number of little points, or
dots, made on paper at random : and coiilidering the
various lines and figures which thofe points prefent ;
and thence forming a pretended judgment of futurity,
and deciding any queflion propofed.

'llie word is formed of the Greek yij. terra, " earth ;"
and uuPiiix, " divination ;" it bein); the ancient cu-

[ 629 ] GEO

vination, Horn to cafl little pebbles on the ground, and thence f"?o''>-*
to form tiieir conjefturts : inftead of the points after- *"
w;irds madc^^ufe of.

Folydore Virgjl defines geomancy a kind of divina-
tion performed by means of clefts or chinks made in
the ground j and takes the Pcrfian Magi to have been
the inventors thereof.

G E 0 M E T 11 Y.

INTRODUCTION.

' I 'HERE is reafon to believe that geometry, as well
•*- as molt of the other fciences, was firll cultivated in
Egypt; and, according to fome authors, it had its origin
in the necellity there was of afljgning to the inhabi-
tants every year their particular Ihares of laud : for as
the country was, annually overflowed by the Nile, it
has been taken for granted (perhaps without good rea-
fon), that the land-marks would be obliterated, and the
poiTeflions rendered undiftinguiiliable from one another.
Such is faid to have been the origin of land-meafuring,
the form under which geometry was firft known, and
from which it has taken its name ; for geometry liter-
ally fignifies t//e meafuriiig of the earth.

The hillorian Herodotus refers the origin of geome-
try to the time when Sefoflr'u iiiterfecled Egypt by
numerous canals, and divided the country among the in-
habitants ; and this account of the beginning of the
fcience has been confidered by Ibme as very probable.

From Egypt geometry was carried into Greece by
Thales of Miletus about 600 years before the Chrifti:in
a:ra. This celebrated philolopher is faid to have made
numerous difcoveries in geometry ; and in particular
to have firft obferved that any angle In a femicircle is
a right angle ; a difcovery which gave him great joy,
and for which he thanked the mufes by a facrifice.

Among the difciples of Thales were Anaximander
and Anaxagoras : the firft of thefe wrote an elemen -
tary treatife or introduction to geometry, the earlieft of
which there is any mention in hiilory ; and the laft is
faid to have attempted the quadrature of the circle, a
problem which has baffled the {kill of mathematicians
of every age.

Pi/lhagoras followed Thales, and had the merit of
difcovering one of the moft beautiful and important
propofitions of the whole fcience, namely, that the
fquare of the hypothenufe of a right-angled triangle
was equal to the fquares of the two other Tides. He is
faid to have been fo tranfported with joy at this dif-
covery, that he facrificed a hundred oxen to the gods
as a tellimony of his gratitude. The truth of this
anecdote has however been doubted, on account of the
philofopher's moderate fortune and religious opinions
concerning the tranfmigration of fouls.

Zenodorus is the earlieft of the geometers whofe
writings have reached modern times, a part of them
having been preferved by Theon, in his commentary
on Ptolemy.

Hippocrates of Chios cultivated geometry, and dif-
•inguiilied liiraftlf by the quadrature of the curvilineal

fpace contained between half the circumference of Introdu
one circle, and the fourth part of the circumference of ^'°"'
another circle, their concavities behig both turned the
fame way, and the radius of the former to that of the
latter as i to ^/z. He alfo wrote elements of geome-
try which are now loft.

The founding of the fchool o£ Plato forms one of
the earlieft and moft important epochs in the hiftory of
geometry ; for to that philofopher we are (aid to be
indebted for the diicovery of the Geometrical Aiialijfis,
by which the fcience has been greatly extended, and
which is indeed ablolutely neceifary for the relolutioa
of problems of a certain degree of difficulty.

'J'he Conic Sections, and the theory of Geometrical
Loci, are commonly reckoned among the improvement*
which geometry received from his difciples; and there
is reafon to fuppofe that thefe, as ivell as many other
important difcoveries which we have not room here to
enumerate, were firft fuggefted by the attempts of the
geometers of the Platonic fchool to refolve two cele-
brated problems, namely, to trifecl, or divide into
three equal parts, a given angle ; and to conftruft a
cube which ftioidd be the double of another cube ;
which laft problem Hi[>[>ocrates had (liewn to be equi-
valent to the finding of two mean proportionals between
two given lines. The elleem in which Plato held the
fcience of geometry is fully evinced by the following
infcription over the door of his fchool: Let no one enter
liere that is ignorant of geometry.

The fcience of geometry was likewlfe cultivated in
all its branches by the phiiofophers of the Alexandrian
fchool, among whom Euclid claims in a particular
manner our attention. This celebrated mathematician
lived about 300 years before the chrillian a;ra, and
probably ftudied geometry at Athens under the difciples
of Plato. From Greece he went to Alexandria, allur-
ed thither no doubt by the fame of the cek-brated
fchool of that city, and by the favours conferred by
the firft Plolemi/ upon learned men. He coinpofed
elements of geometry in a iyftematic forai, compre-
hending in them Inch propofitions belonging to the firll
principles of the fcience hs had been dii'covcred by
mathematicians previoas to his time. This work has
had the fingular good fortune to prcfcrve the liighell
reputation in all ages and in all countries where fcience
has been cultivated, and it hasTerved as the ground-
work of innumerable other trcatifes, few of which, if
any, have excelled it. Many coramentariLS have been
written on it, and it has been tranflated into almoit ail

€so

GEOMETRY.

mroJuc- the European and Oriental languages. Euclid is like-
^'°°' wife known to have written other works on geometry ;
^^ of thefe we have his Dala, which may be regarded as
a continuation of his elements j and an account of a
work of his on porifms (fee PoRISJis) preferred in the
writings of Paf>pis, but which has futfered fo much
from time as to be alraoft unintelligible.

After Euclid, lived Jlrchimedes, who cultivated and
improved all the branches of the mathematics known
at that period, and in a particular manner geometry.
He was the firll that found nearly the ratio of the dia-
meter of a circle to its circumference, and he fquared
the parabola. He likewife wrote treatifes on the Sphere
and Cylinder, on Spirals, on Conoids and Spheroids,
beiides others on mixt Mathematics. He alfo extend-
ed and improved the Geometrical Analyfis, the prin-
ciples of which had been eltabliihed in the fchool of
Fla'.o. Many of the writings of Archimedes have been
loll ; but fuch as remain prove him to have been one of
the greateft geometers that ever lived, and indeed the
NlwtoN of antiquity.

yi/iol/oitius of Perga ^vas nearly contemporary with
Archimedes, that is, he flourifhed about the end of the
fecond century before the chriftian a;ra. He fludied
geometry in the Alexandrian fchool under the fucceflbrs
of Euclid, and he greatly extended the theory of the
conic feftions (fee introdudlion to CoNic Sections).
He alfo compofed treatifes on different parts of Geome-
trical Analyfis, but of thefe only one has come down
to us entire ; it is entitled de fectione rationis, and was
difcovered in the Arabic tongue, from which it has
been tranflated into Latin by Dr Halhij. Such accounts
ho\vever are preferved in the mathematical colleciions of
Pa/ipus of his other treatifes, that feveral of them have
been rcftored by modern mathematicians. We may
mention in particular his treatifes de Locis Plants, de
Seciinne Sfiatii, de Scclione Delerminala, de TaSiionibus,
" each of which is divided into two books.

Having mentioned Archimedes and Apollonius, by
far the moil illufirious mathematicians of the period in
which they lived, we fhall pafs over feveral others who
contributed nothing to the improvement of the fcience,
2nd therefore are but little known to us. We (hall
however, briefly notice Theodojius, who lived about 50
years A. C. and who is the author of a work on
Spherics, which is confidered as one of the moft valu-
able of the books on the ancient geometry.

Pappus and Theon of Alexandria deferve to be men-
tioned as among the moft celebrated of the commen-
tators and annotators of the ancient geometry. We
are particularly indebted to Pappus (who lived about
the middle of the fourth century) for our knowledge of
various difcoverles and treatifes of the ancient geome-
ters, which, but for the account he has given of them
in his mathematical collecHons, would have been for
ever loft to mathematicians of modern times.

Proclus, the head of the Platonic fchool at Athens,
cultivated mathematics about the middle of the fifth
century; and although it does not appear that he made
any difcovcries in the fcience, yet he rendered it
fome fervice by his example and inftruftion. He wrote
a commentary on the firft bock of Euclid, which con-
tains many curious obfervations refpefting the hiftory
and metaphyfics of mathematics.

We have now briefly noticed the principal epochs in

the hiftory of geometry, and the moft celebrated men Ictroduc-
who have contributed to its improvement from the ''""•
earlieft periods of hiftory to the end of the fifth cen- '
tury ; but long before [his time the Jera of difcovery
feems to have been paft, and the fcience on the decline.
Still however the Alexandrian fchool exifted, and it
was poftible that a Euclid or an Apollonius might again
arife in that feminary. Put the taking of Alexandria
by the Arabs in the year 641 gave a death-blow to
the fciences, not only in that capital, but throughout
the whole Greek empire. The library, a treafure of
infinite value, was burnt, and the ftores of learning
which had been accumulating for ages were annihilated
for ever.

Although by this unfortunate event the fciences fuf-
fered an irreparable lofs, it muft be attributed to the
fanaticifm of the new religion ■ivhich the conquerors
had adopted, rather than to national ignorance or bar-
barity ; for before that period, the fcience?, when on
the decline in Greece, had found an afylura among
them, and about I 20 years after the death of Moham-
med they again took them under their protection.

The Arabs tranflated the greater part of the works
of the Greek geometers, and chiefly thofe introdudlory
to aftronoray. They even began to ftudy the more
fublime geometry of the ancients ; for Apollonius^s
Conic Se<51ions became familiar to them, and fome of
the books of that work have only reached us in an
Arabic verfion. They gave to Trigonometry its pre-
fent fimple and commodious form, and greatly fim-
plified its operations by the introduflion of fines inftead
of the chords of double arcs, which had been formerly
ufed.

After geometry, as well as its kindred mathematical
fciences, had remained for feveral centuries under the
proteftion of the Arabs, it was again received into
Spain, Italy, and the reft of Europe, about the year
1 400. Among the earlieft writers on the fubjeifl after
this period, were Leonardus Pi/anus, and Lucas Pa-
ciolus or de Burgo.

The limits within ^vhich we muft neceflarily confine
this (ketch of the hiftory of the fcience, will not, how-
eier, allow us to enumerate all the improvements
which it has received fince the reftoration of letters in
Europe; for a lift of the names of thofe who have con-
tributed more or lefs to its extenfion, would include al-
moft every mathematician of note from the time of
Leonardus Pifanus to the prcfent day.

The writings of the ancient geometers have been
afliduoufly fought after, and held in great repute ; for
it appears that as far as they carried fome of their
theories, they left but little room for improvement,
and of this remark we think the writings of Euclid,
of Archimedes, and of Apollonius, afford remarkable
inftances. Euclid's elements of geometry have been
confidered, at leaft in this country, as one of the beft
books that could be put into the hards of the mathe-
matical ftudent, particularly thtit edition of its firft fix
and eleventh and twelfth books which was given to the
world by the late Dr Simfon. An excellent fyftem of
geometry, comprehending the firft fix books of the il-
luftrious ancient, together with three fupplertientary
books, has of late years been publiftied by Mr Profeffbr
Plaijfair, of the Univerfity of Edinburgh. We be-
lieve no modem fyftem has excelled that of Euclid

G E O M

(as reftored to its original purity by Dr Simfon) in
refpecl of logical accuracy and fyrtematic Errangemcnt.
There is one however, which we muft particularly
mention on account of its great excellence, and the

E

ufe«
prcfe

T R Y. 631

; have made of it in the fyftcnj ^ve are now to J"li
t to our readers. It is that of Mr Legandre ,'""""1'''';.
hich we confider as the moft complete and exteniive
that has yet appeared.

SECT. I. TILE FIRST PRINCIPLES.

Defikitions.

I. Geometry is a fcience which treats of the pro-
perties and relations of quantities having extenfion, and
which are called magnitudes. Extenfion is dillinguiih-
ed into length, breadth, and thicknefs.

II. A Point is that which has poiition, but not mag-
nitude.

III. A Line is that which has only length. Hence
the extremities of a line are points, and the interfeftions
of one line with another are alfo points.

IV. A Straight or Right Line is the Ihorteft %vay from
one point to another.

V. Every line which is neither ftraight, nor com-
pofed of liraight lines, is a Curve Line. Thus AB is a
ftraight line, ACDB is a line made up of ftraighl lines,
and AEB is a curve line.

VI. A Superficies, or Surface, is that which has only
length and breadth. Hence the extremities of a fuper-
ficies are lines, and the interfedions of one fuperficies
with another are alfo lines.

VII. A Plane Superficies is that in which any two
points being -^iiken, the liraight line between them lies
wholly in that fuperficies.

VIII. Every fuperficies which is neither plane nor
compofed of plane fuperScies, is a Curve Superficies.

IX. A Solid is that ivhich has length, breadth, and
tricknefs. H nee the boundaries of a folid are fuper-
ficies ; and the boundary which is common to two folids,
which are contiguous, is a fuperficies.

X. A Plane Re^iiineal Angle is the inclination of two
ftraight lines to one another, which meet together, but
are not in the fame ftraight line. The point in which
the lines meet one another is called the Vertex of the
angle.

V\ hen there is only one angle at a point, it may be
exureflfed by the letter placed at that point j thus the
angle contained by the lines EF and EG may be called
the angle E : if, Iiowever, there be feveral angles, as at
B, then each is exprelTed by three letters, one of which
is the letter that ftands at the vertex of the angle, and
the others are the letters that Hand fomewliere upon the
lines containing the angle, the letter at the vertex being
placed between the other two. Thus the angle con-
tair!"d by the lines BA and BD is called the angle
ABD or DAB.

Angles in common with other quantities admit of
addition, fubtra^ion, multiplication, and divifion. Thus
the fura of the angles ABD and DEC is the angle
ABC -, the difference of the angle ABC and ABD is
the angle DBC.

XI. When a ftraight line (landing on another ftraight
line m;i!ies the adj icent angles equal to one another,
each of them is called a Right Angle, and the ftrai>iht
iiae which ftands ou the other b cilled a Perpendicular

to it. Thus, if DC meet AB, and make the angles
ACD, DCB equal to one another ; each of them is a
right angle, and DC is a perpendicular to AB.

XII. An Oblifc Angle is that which is greater than af.g. ^.
right angle, and an Acute Angle is that which is lefs than

a right angle. Thus ABC being fuppofed a right angle,
DBC is an obtufc angle, and EBC an acute angle.

XIII. Parallel Straight Lines are fuch as are in the Fig. s-
fame plane, and which being produced ever fo far both
ways, do not meet.

XIV. A Plane Figure is a plane terimnated every
where by lines.

If the lines be ftraight, the fpace which they en- Fig. S.
clofe is called a RcBilineal figure, or a Polygon, and the
lines themlelves conftitute the Perimeter of the po-
lygon.

XV. When a polygon has three fides (which is the
finalleft number it can have) it is called a Triangle;
when it is has four, it .is called a ^adrilateral ; when
it has five, a Pentagon ; when fix, a Hexagon, &c.

XVI. An Equilateral tiizngle is that which has Fig. 7. 8. 9.
three equal fides (fig. 7.) ; an Ijofcelcs triangle is that

which has only t«o equal fides (lig. 8.) ; and a Sca-
lene triangle is that wliich has all its fides unequal
(fig. 9.).

XVII. A Right-angled triangle is that which has p^g ,j^
a right angle ; the fide oppofite to the right angle is
called the Hijpothenufe. Thus in the triangle ABC,
having the angle at B a right angle, the fide AC is the
hypothenufe.

XVIII. An Obttfe-angled ts\?iw^e. is that which haspjg. ,. „_
an obtufe angle (fig. 9.) j and an acute-angled trian-
gle is that which has three acute angles (fig. 11.).

XIX. Of quadrilateral figures, ay^ttar^ is that which p. ^^
has all its fides equal, and all its angles right angles ,^^,^_ ■,^_
(tig. 12.). AReclangle is that which lias all its angles

riijht angles, but not all its fides equal, (fig. 13.). A
Rhombus is that whicli has all its fiJcs equal, but its an-
gles are not right angles, (fig. 14.). A Parallelogram,
or Rhomboid, is that ivhich has its oppofite fides parallel
(fig. 15.). A Trr.pc-zoid is that which has only two of
its oppofite fides parallel, (fig. 16.).

XX. A Diagonal is a ftraight line which joins the ^.^ ^
vertices of two angles, which are not adjacent to each "'
other; fuch is AC.

XXI. An Equilateral Polygon hx\\7A which has all
its fides equal ; and an F./juiangular Polygon is that
which has all its angles equal. If a polygon be both
equilateral and equiangular, it is called a Regular Po-
lygon.

XXII. Two polygons are equilateral hetvttzn them-
felvcs, when the fides of the one are equal to the fides
of the other, each to each, and in the fame order; that
is, when in going about each of the figures in the fame
direfiion, the firft fide of the one is equal to the firft
fide of the otlierj the fecond fide of the one is equal to

the

•63-.

G E O M

ift t^c fecond fido of the other ; the third to the third, and
'J^ fo on. The fame is to be underftood of two polygons
' v.hich are equiangular betivecn themfelves.

Explanation of Terms.

An AxiatTi is a propofition, the truth of which is evi-
dent .tt firft fi)j;ht,

A Theorem \s, a truth which becomes evident by a pro-
cefs of reafoning called tiemonjiration.

A Problem is a queftion propofed, vvhich requires a
folution.

A Lemma '\i a fubfidiary truth erriployed in the
demonlbation of a theorem, or the folution of a prob-
lem.

1"he common name of Propofition is given indifferent-
ly to theorems, problems, and lemmas.

A Corollary is a confequence which follows from one
or fcveral propoCtions.

A Scholium is a remark upon one or more propofi-
tions that have gone before, tending to (hew their con-
neiiion, their rellridion, their extenfion, or the man-
ner of their application.

A Hijpothefis is a fuppofition made either in the enun-
ciation of a propofition, or in the courfe of a demon-
rtration.

Exph

anation o,

of Signs.

That the demonftrations may be more concife, we
fiiall make ufe of the folloiving figns borrowed from
Algebra ; and in employing them we (hall take for
granted that the reader is acquainted with at leaft the
manner of notation and firft principles of that branch of
mathematics.

To exprefs that two quantities are equal the fign r: is
put between them; thus A =: B, fii^nif^.es that the quan-
tity denoted by A is equal to the quantity dtnotcd by B.

To exprefs that A is lefs than B, they are written
thus; A.^B.

To exprefs that A is greater than B, they are written
thus ; A -z^ B.

The fign 4- (read/i/wr) written between the letters
v.hich denote two quantities, indicates that the quanti-
ties are to be added together ; thus A-J-B means the
fum of the quantities A and B.

The fign — (read minus') written between two let-
ters, means the excefs of the one quantity above the
other •, thus A — B means the excefs of the quantity
denoted by A above the quantity denoted by B. The
(igns -}. and — will fometimes occur in the fame es-
prelTion ; thus A-f-C — D means that D is to be fub-
trafted from the fum of A and C, alfo A — D+C
means the fame thing.

The fign X put between two quantities means their
produft, if they be confidcred as numbers ; but if they
be confidercd as lines, it figni(ies a reftangle having
thefe lines for its length and breadth ; thus A X B
means the produft of two numbers A and B ; or elfe
a reiSlangle having A and B for the fides about one of
its right angles. We (liall likewife indicate the pro-
duct of two quantities, in forne cafes, by writing the
letters clofe together ; thus m A will be ufcd to exprefs
the produft of m and A, and fo on with other expref-
fions, agreeable to tlie common notation in algebra.

E T R Y. Sccl.

The expre(rion A' means the fquare of the quantity FJift
A, and A' means the cube of A ; alfo PQ^", and PO' Prin'^ip'
mean, the one the fquare, and the other the cube, of a ^"""V"
line ■(vhofe extremities are the points P and Q^.

On the other hand, the fign y' indicates a root to
be extrafled ; thus v^ A X B means the fquare "root o^'
the product of A and B.

Axioms.

1. Two quantities, each of which is equal to a third,
are equal to one another.

2. The whole is greater than its part.

3. The whole is equal to the fum of all its parts.

4. Only one ftraight line can be drawn between two
points.

5. Two magnitudes, whether they be lines, fur-
faces, or folid';, are equal, when, being applied the one
to the other, they coincide with one another entirely,
that is, when they exadlly fill the fame fpace.

■ 6. All right angles are equal to one another.

Note. — The references are to be underflood thus :
(7.) refers to the 7th propofition of the fe£lion in which
it occurs ; (4. 2.) means the 4th propofition of the 2d
feclion ; (2. cor. 28. 4.) means the 2d corollary to tVie
28th propofition of the 4th feftion.

Theorem I.

A ftraight line CD, which meets with another Fig 17.
AB, makes with it two adjacent angles, which,
taken together, are equal to two right angles.

At the point C let CE be perpendicular to AB.
The angle ACD is the fum of the angles ACE, ECD;
therefore, ACD-f BCD is the fum of the three angles
ACE, ECD, BCD. The firft; of thefe is a right
angle, and the two others are together equal to a right
angle ; therefore, the fum of the two angles ACD,
BCD, is equal to two right angles.

CoR. I. If one of the angles is a right angle, the
other is alfo a right angle.

CoR. 2. All the angles ACE, ECD, DCF, FCB,F;g. iS
at the fame point C, on the lame fide of the line AB,
are, taken together, equal to two right angles. Fur
their fum is equal to the two angles ACD, DCB.

Theore.m II.

Two ftraight lines wliich coincide with each otlier
in two points, alfo coincide in all their e.\tent,
and form but one and the fame ftraight line.

Let the points which .are common to the two lines p- j
be A and B ; in the firft place it is evident that they
muft coincide entirely between A and B -, other-vife,
t^vo ftraight lines could be drawn from A to B, which
is impolTible (axiom 4.) Now let us fuppofe, if pofTi-
ble, that the lines when produced feparatc from each
other at a point C, the one becoming ACD, and the
other ACE. At the point C let CF be drawn, fo as
to make the angle ACF a right angle ; then, ACE be-
ing a ftraight line, the angle FCE is a right angle
(i. cor. I.) ; and becaufe ACD is a ftraight line, the

angle

Sea. I.

GEOMETRY.

(^35

Firft angle FCD is alio a rig'it !*"gle» therefore the angle
Principles. p(;£ Jg equal to TCD, a part to the whole, which is
""""^ impoflible ; therefore the ftraight lines which have the

common points A, B cannot feparatc when produ-
ced, therefore thev muft form one and the fame ilraight
line.

Theorem III.

Fig. JO. If two adjacent angles ACD, DCB make together
two right angles, the two exterior lines AC,
CB, which form thefe angles, are in the fame
ilraight line.

For if CB is not the line AC produced, let CE be
that line produced, then, ACE being a Uraight line,
t>^e angles ACD, DCE are together equal to two
right angles (l.); but, by hypothefis, the angles

ACD, DCB are together equal to two right angles,
therefore ACD + DCB=rACD+DCE. From thefe
equals take away the common angle ACD, and the
remaining angles DCB, DCE are equal, that is, a
part equal to the whole, which is impoflible, therefore
CB is the line AC produced.

Theorem IV.

Fis- 2t. If two ftraight lines AB, DE cut each other, the
vertical or oppofite angles are pqual.

For fince DE is a ftraight line, the fum of the
angles ACD, ACE is equal to two right angles (l.),
and fince AB is a Ilraight line, the fum of the angles

ACE, BCE is equal to two right angles, therefore
the fum ACD+ACE is equal to the'fum ACE +
BCE ; from each of thefe take away the fame angle
ACE, and there remains the angle ACD equal to its
oppofite angle BCE.

In like manner, it may be demonftrated, that the
angle ACE is equal to its oppofite angle BCD.

CoR. I. From this it appears, that if two ftraight
lines cut one another, the angles they make at the
point of their interfeftion are, together, equal to four
right angles.

CoR. 2. And hence all the angles made by any
number of lines meeting in one point are, together,
equal to four right angles.

Theorem V.

Fig. 11. Two triangles are equal, when they have an
angle, and the two fides containing it of the
one equal to an angle, and the two fides con-
taining it of the other, each to eacli.

Let the triangles ABC, DEF have the angle A
equal to the angle D, the fide AB equal to DK, and
the fide AC ci;ual to DF ; the triangles Ihall be equal.
Vi.rifthe triangle ABC be applied to the triangle
DEF, fo that the point A may be on D, and the line
AB upon DE, then the point B Ihall coincide with
E, becaufe ABrrDE j and the line AC Ihall coincide
with DF, becaufe the angle BAC is equal to EDF ;
.Tnd the point C (hall coincide with F, becaufe AC=
DF ; and fince B coincides with E, and C with F,
the line BC ftsall coincide with EF, and the two tri-

VoL. IX. Part II.

angles ftiall coincide exaftly, the one with the other j Firft
therefore they are equal (a.\. 5.) Prncijilc

CoR. Hence it follows, that the bafes, or third fides "
BC, EF of the triangles are equal, and the 1
angles B, C of the one are equal to tlie 1
angles E, F of the other, each to each, namely, thofe
to which the equal fides are oppofite.

Theorem \T.

Two triangles are equal, when they have a fidCjFlj. j;.
and the two adjacent angles of the one equal to
a fide, and the two adjacent angles of the other,
each to each.

Let the fide BC be equal to the fide EF, the angle
B to the angle E, and the angle C to the angle F,
the triangle ABC fliall be equal to the triangle DEF.
For if the triangle ABC be applied to the triangle
DEF, fo that the equal fides BC, EF may coincide ;
then becaufe the angle B is eqaal to E, the fide BA
(hall coincide with ED, and therefore the point A Ihall
be fomewhere in ED ; and becaufe the angle C is
equal to F, the fide CA fliall coincide ivitli FD, and
therefore the point A fliall be fomewhere in FD ; now
the point A being fomewhere in the lines ED, and
FD, it can only be at D their interfedlion ; therefore
the two triangles ABC, DEF muft entirely coincide,
and be equal to one another. .

Cor. Hence it appears that the remaining angle;
A, D of the triangles are equal, and the remaining
fides AB, AC of the one are equal to the remaining
fides DE, DF of the other, each to each, viz. thofe
to which the equal angles are oppofite.

Theorem VII.

Any two fides of a triangle are together greater Fig. j«.
than the third.

For the fide BC, for example, being the ftiorteft
way between the points B, C, ("def. 4.) muft be lefs
than BA-f-AC.

Theorem VIII.

If from a point O, witliin a triangle ABC, there F'g. jj.
be drawn ilraight lines OB, OC to the extre-
mities of BC one of its fides, the fum of thefe
lines fliall be lefs than that of AB, AC the two
other fides.

Let bo be produced to meet CA in D ; becaufe
the ftraight line OC is lefs than OD-j-DC, to each of
thefe add BO, and BO-|-OC.i:.BO-l-OD.f DC 5 that
Is B04-0C.-1BD + DC.

Again, fince BD.r^BA-f-AD, to each of thefe add
DC and we have BD-|-DC,i:l.BA-f AC, but it has
been fliewn that BO-|-OC^ilBD + DC, much more
then is BO+OC.:^BA + AC.

Theorem IX.
If two fides AB, AC of a triangle ABC are equal Fip- si-
te two fides DE, DF of another triangle DEF, p|^' ^ j"
each to each ; but if the angle BAC contained
4 L by

G E O M

bv the former is greater dian the angle EDF
contained by the latter ; the third fide BC of the
firft triangle lliall be greater than the third fide
EF of the fecond.

Suppose AG drawn fo that the angle CAGrrD,
take AG=DE and join CG ; then the triangle GAG
is equal to the triangle EDF, (6.) and therefore'
GC=EF. Now there may be three cafes, according
as the point G tails without the triangle BAG, or on
the fide EC, or within the fame triangle.

Fig. --4- C^SE I. Becaufe GC.:^GI + IC, and AB.^

AI + IB, (7.) therefore GC + AB.^GI+AI + IG
+ IB, that is, GC + AB^^AG + BC, from each of
ihefe unequal quantities take away the equal quantuies
AB, AG, and there remains GC^^BC, therefore
EF--1BC.

Fig- ii- Case II. If the point G fall upon the fide BC,

then it is evident that GC, or its equal EF, is lefs than
BC.

Tig. 26. C\SF. III. Laftlv, if the point G fall within the

triangle BAC, then AG+GC--1AB + BC, (8.)
therefore, taking away the equal quantities AG, AB,
there remains GC^i^lBC or EF.iilBC.

CoR. Hence, converfely, if EF be lefs than BC, the
angle EDF is lefs than BAC ; for the angle EDF can-
not be equal to BAC, becaufe then (5.) EF would be
equal to BC ; neither can the angle EDF be greater
than BAC, for then ( by the theor.) EF would be greater
than BC.

Theorem X.

Fig. 2 J. Two triangles are equal, when the three fides of
the one are equal to the three fides of the other,
each to each.

Let the fide AB=DE, AC=DF, and BC=EF ;
then ihall the angle ArrD, B=E, C=F.

For if the angle A were greater than D, as the fides
AB, AC, are equal to DE, DF, each to each, it would
follow, (9.) that BC would be greater than EF,and if
the angle A were lefs than the angle D, then BC would
be lefs than EF ; but BC is equal to EF, therefore the
angle A can neither be greater nor lefs than the angle
D, therefore it muft be equal to it. In the fame man-
ner it may be proved, that the angle B^E, and that
the angle C=F.

Scholium.

It may be remarked, as in Theorem V. and The-
orem VT. that the equal angles are oppofite to the
equal fides.

Theorem XI.

T g. 17. In an ifofceles triangle the angles oppofite to the
equal fides are equal to one another.

Let the fide AB=AC, then fiiall the angle C=:B.

Suppofe a ftraight line drawn from A the vertex of
the triangle to D the middle of its bafe •, the two tri-
anglrs ABD, ACD have the three fides of the one
equal to the three fides of the other, each to each,
namtly AD coniinon tobcth, AB=:AC,by hypotbefis.

E T R Y. Sea. I.

and BDrrDC,by conftrueticm, therefore (preced. theor.) Fi.ll
the angle B is equal to the angle C. /'"'"-''P ";

Cor. Hence every equilateral triangle is alfo equian- '
gular.

Scholium.

From the equality of the triangles ABD, ACD, it
follows, that the angle BAD = DAC, and that tlie
angle BDA=ADC ; therefore thefe two laft are right
angles. Hence it appears, that a llraight line drai\n
from the vertex of an ifofceles triangle to the mid-
dle of its bafe is perpendicular to that bafe, and divides
the vertical angle into two equal parts.

In a triangle that is not ifofceles, any one of its three
fides may be taken indifferently for a In/e ; and then its
vertex is that of the oppofite angle. In an ifofceles
triangle, the bafe is that fide which is not equal to the
others.

Theorem XII.
If two angles of a triangle are equal, the oppofite Fig. iS

fides are equal, and the triangle is ifofceles.

Let the angle ABC=ACB, the fide AC Ihall be
equal to the fide AB., For if the fides '■e not equal,
let AB be the greater of the two ; take BDru AC, and
join CD ■, the angle DEC is by hypothefis equal to
ACB, and the two fides DB, BC are equal to the tuo
fides AC, BC, each to each ; therefore the triangle
DEC is equal to the triangle ACB ; (5.) but a part
cannot be equal to the whole ; therefore the fides AB,
AC c*nnot be unequal, that is, they are equal, and the
triangle is ifofceles.

Theorem XIII.

Of the two fides of a triangle, that is the greater Fig. 29.
which is oppofite to the greater angle ; and con-
verfely, of the two angles of a triangle, that is
the greater which is oppofite to the greater
fide.

First, let the angle C^^B, then (hall the fide AB
oppofite to C be greater than the fide AC oppofite to
B. Suppofe CD diaivn, fo that the angle BCD=B ;
in the trlanijle BDC, BD is equal to DC, (12.) but
AD + DC-:^AC, and AD-f-DC=AD+DB=:AB,
therefore AB-:::^AC.

Next, let the fide AB'rP'AC, then (hall the angle
C oppofite to AB, be greater than the angle B, oppofite
to AC. For if C were lefs than B, then, by what has
been demonftrated, AB^i^AC, which is contrary to
the liypothcfis of the propofition, therefore C is not lefs
than B : and if C were equal to B, then it would fol-
low that AC=AB, (12.) which is alfo contrary to the
hypothefis ; therefore C is not equal to B, therefore it is
greater.

Theorem XIV.

From a given point A without a ftraight line DE, Fig. 30.
no more than one perpendicular can be drawn
to that line.

For fuppofe it polfible to draw two, AB,

ind AC;
produce

Seal. G E O M

Firft produce one of them AB, fo that BFrrAB, and join
Principle'. CF. The trianc;le CBF is equal to the triangle ABC,
*~~^' for the angle CBF is a right angle, as well as CBA,

and the fide BFzr:BA ; therefore the triangles are equal,
(5.) and hence the angle BCF=iBCA; but the angle
BCA is by hypothefis a right angle ; therefore the
angle BCF is alfo a right angle; hence AC an4
CF lie in a llraight line, (3.) and confequently two
flraight lines ACF, ABF may be drau-n between two
points A, F, which is irapoffible, (ax. 4.) therefore it
is equally impotTible that two perpendiculars can be
drawn from the fame point to the fame ftraight line.

Theorem XV.

Fig- 33- If from a point A, without a ftraight Hue DE, a
perpendicular AB be drawn upon that line, and
alfo different oblique lines AE, AC, AD, &c.
to different points of the fame line.

Firft, The perpendicular AB Ihall be fliorter than
any one of the oblique lines.

Secondly, The two oblique lines AC, AE, which
meet the line DE on oppofite fides of the per-
pendicular, and at equal diftances BC, BE from
it, are equal to one another.

Laftly, Of any two oblique lines AC, AD, or AE,
AD, that which is more remote from the per-
pendicular is the greater.

Prodl'CE the perpendicular AB, fo that BF=BA,
and join FC, FD.

1. The triangle BCF is equal to the triangle BCA ;
for the right angle CBF=CBA, the fide CB is com-
mon, and the fide BF=BA, therefore the third fide
CF=zAC, (5.) but AF.i:.AC+CF, (.7.) that is
2AB.cil2AC ; therefore AB.£^AC, that is, the per-
pendicular is Ihorter than any one of the oblique lines.

2. If BE=BC, then, as AB is common to the two
triangles ABE, ABC,and the right angleABE=ABC,
the triangles ABE, ABC (hall be equal, (5."! and
AE=AC.

3. In the triangle DFA, the fum of the lines AD,
DF is greater than the fum of AC, CF, (8) that is,
2 AD-p='2 AC ; therefore AD^P^AC, that is, the
oblique line, which is more remote from the perpendi-
cular, is greater than that which is nearer.

CoR. I. The perpendicular meafures the didance of
any point from a ftraight line.

Cor. 2. From the fame point, three equal ftraight
lines cannot be drawn to tenninate in a given ftraight
line ; for if they could be drawn, then, two of them
would be on the fame fide of the perpendicular, and
eq\ial to each other, which is impoftible.

Theorem XVI.
r»g. 31. If from C, the middle of a ftraight line AB, a per-
pendicular CD be drawn to that line. Firft,
Every point in the perpendicular is equally
diftant from the extremities of the line AB.
Secondly, Every point without the perpendi-
cular is at unequal diftances from the fame ex-
tremities A, B.

J. Llt D be any point in CD, thcn^bccaufe the tuo

E T R Y. 63s

oblique lines DA, DB are equally diftant from the fitft
perpendicular, they are equal to one another ( 1 ij.), l'i'""^'P''"'-
therefore every point in CD is equally diftant from the '
extremities of AB.

2. Let E be a point out of the perpendicular; join
EA, EB, one of thefe lints mull cut the perpendicular
in F;join BF, then AFzrBF, and AEzrBF-|-FE ;
but BF-)-FK^^BE, (7.) therefore AEt^LE, that
is, E any point ojl of the perpendicular is at unequal
diftances from the e.vtremities of AB.

Theorem XVII.

Pia-'-
CCXLI.

Two light-angled triangles are equal, when theF'g-3'-
hypothenufe and a fide of the one are equal to
the (hypothenufe and a fide of the other, each
to each.

Let the hvpothenufe AC=DF, and the fide
-A.B=DE ; the' triangle ABC ihall be equal to DEF.
The propofition will evidently be true (lO.\ if the re-
maining fides BC, EF are equal. Now, if it be polftble
to fuppofe that they are unequal, let BC be the greater,
take BGrrEF, and join AG; then the triangles ABG,
DEF, having the fide ABrrDE, BG=EF, and the
angle BirrE, mil be equal to one another (;.), and will
have the remaining fide AGnrDF ; but by hypothefis
DFrrAC,; therefore AGzzAC; but AG cannot be
equal to AC (15.), therefore it is impoftible that BC
can be unequal to EF, and therefore the triangles
ABC, DEF are equal to one another.

Theorem XVIII.
Two ftraight lines AC, ED, which are perpendi- Ff^ ;,;
cular to a third ftraight line AE, are parallel to
each other.

For if they could meet at a point O, then two per-
pendiculars OA, OE, might be drawn from the fame
point O, to the ftraight line AE, which is impoffible
(14.).

In the next theorem, it is necelTary to affume ano-
ther axiom, in addition to thofe already laid down in
the beginning of this fection.

7. If two points E, G in a ftraight line AB are Fig. 34.
fituated at unequal diftances EF, GH from another
ftraight line CD in the fame plane, thefe two lines,
when indefinitely produced, on the fide of the leaft
diftance GH, will meet each other.

Theorem XIX.

If two ftraight lines AB, CD be parallel, the per- fig. ss-
pendiculars EF, GH to one of the lines, which
are terminated by the other line, are equal, and
are perpendicular to both the parallels.

For if EF and GH, which are perpendicular to CD,

were unequal, the lines AB, CD would meet each

other (by the above axiom) which is contrary to the

fuppofition that they are parallel. And if EF, GH be

4 L 2 not

6^6

GEOMETRY.

Sea. I.

Firft not perpendicular to AB, let EK be perpendicular to
Principles. £p^ meeting GH in K ; then becaufe EK and FH are
' *' perpendicular to EF, tliey are parallel (18.), and there-

fore, bv what has been juft lliewn, the perpendiculars
EF, KH mull be equal ; but by hypothefis EF=GH,
therefore KH=rGH, which is impollible ; therefore EF
is perpendicular to AB ; and in the fame way it may
be iliewn that GH is perpendicular to AJB.

Cor. Hence it appears, that through the fame point
E, no more than one parallel can be drawn to the fame
ftraight line CD.

Theorem XX.

Fig 3<s- Straight lines AB, EF, which are parallel to the
fame ftraight line CD, are parallel to each
other.

For let HKG be perpendicular to CD, it will alfo
be perpendicular to both AB and EF (19.), therefore
tliefe laft lines are parallel to each other.

Theorem XXI.

F'S- 37- If a ftraight line EF meet two parallel ftraight
lines AB, CD, it makes the alternate angles
AEF, EFD equal.

Let eh and GF be perpendicular to CD, then
thefe lines will be parallel (18.), and alfo at right
angles to AB (19-)) and therefore FH and GE are
equal to one another (19.), therefore the triangles
FGE, FHE, having the fide FG=HE, and GE=FH,
and FE common to both, will be equal ; and hence the
angle FEG will be equal to EFH, that is, FEA will
be equal to EFD.

Cor. I. Hence if a ftraight line KL interfeft two
parallel ftraight lines AB, CD, it makes the exterior
angle KEB equal to the interior and oppofite angle
EFD on the fame fide of the line. For the angle
AEF=KEB, and it has been ftiewn that AEF=EFD -,
therefore KEB=EFD.

Cor. 2. Hence alfo, if a ftraight line EF meet two
parallel ftraight lines AB, CD, it makes the two inte-
rior angles BEF, EFD on the fame fide together, equal
to two right angles. For the angle AEF has been
Ihewn to be equal to EFD, therefore, adding the angle
FEB to both, AEF -I- FEB = EFD -1- FEB; but
AEi"-|-FEB is equal to two right angles, therefore
the fuin EFD-f-FEB is alfo equal to two right angles.

^ Theorem XXII.

'''?■ 3S- If a ftraight line EF, meeting two other ftraight
lines AB, CD, makes the alternate angles
AEF, EFD equal, thofe lines fhall be parallel.

For if AE is not parallel to CD, fuppofe, if poftible,
that foBM other line KE can be drawn through E, pa-
rallel to CD ; then the angle KEF muft be equal to
EFD (21.), that is (by hypothefis), to AEF, which is
impoflible ; therefore, neither KE, nor any other line
rfiawn through E, except AB, can be parallel to CD.

Cor. If a ftraight line EF interfering two other Firft
ftraight lines AB, CD, makes the exterior angle GEB Principles,
equal to the interior and oppolite angle EFD on the '

fame fide •, or the two interior angles BEF, EFD on
the lame fide equal to two right angles •■, in either cafe
the lines are parallel. For, if the angle GEBrrEFD,
then alfo AEF=EFD, (4.) And if BEF-j-EFD=
two right angles, then, becaufe BEF-f- AEF=ztwo
right angles (i.), BEF-)-EFD=BEF-t-AEF, and
taking BEF from both, EFD=AEF, therefore (by
the theorem) in each cafe the lines are parallel.

Theorem XXIII.

If a fide AC of a triangle ABC be produced to-

wards D, the exterior angle BCD is equal to '^' ■^''
both the interior and oppofite angles BAG,
ABC.

Let CE be parallel to AB, then the angle BzrBCE,
(21.) and the angle A=ECD, (l cor. 21.) therefore

B-f a=bce+'ecd=bcd.

Cor. The exterior angle of a triangle is greater than
either of the interior oppofite angles.

Theorem XXIV.

The three interior angles of a triangle ABC taken p; 40.
together are equal to two right angles.

For if AC be produced to D, then A-f-B = BCD,
(23.); to each of thefe equal quantities add ACB, then
ftiall A+B + ACB=BCD+BCA; but BCD-fBCA
= two right angles, (l.) therefore A-f B-f ACB
rz two right angles.

Cor. I . If two angles of one triangle be equal to
two angles of another triangle, each to each ; the
third angle of the one (hall be equal to the third angle
of the other, and the triangles ftiall be equiangular.

Cor, 2. If two angles of a triangle, or their fum,
be given, the third angle may be found, by fubtratling
their fum from two right angles.

Cor. 3. In a right-angled triangle, the fum of the
two acute angles is equal to a right angle.

Cor. 4. In an equilateral triangle, each of the
angles is equal to the third part of two right angles, or
to two thirds of one right angle.

Theorem XXV.

The fum of all the interior angles of a polygon is fig 41.
equal to twice as many right angles wanting
four as the figure has fides.

Let ABCDE be a polygon ; from a point F within
it draw ftraight lines to all its angles, then the polygon
ihall be divided into as many triangles as it has fides ;
but the fum of the angles of each triangle is equal to
two right angles, (24.) therefore the fum of all the
angles of the triangles Is equal to twice as many right
angles as there are triangles, that is, as the figure has
fides ■, but the fum of all the angles of the triangles is

equal

GEOMETRY.

Sea. II.

O! ti>e equal to tlie fum of all the angles of the polygon, to-
Citcle. ge;her with the fum of the angles at the point F, which
^—-v—-^ li(l fuTB is e jual to four right angles, (2 Cor. 4.) there-
fore the fura of all the angles of the polygon togetlier
with four right angles, is equal to Hvice as many right
angles as the figure has lides, and confequently the fum
of the angles of the polygon is equal to twice as mKiiy
right angles, wanting four, as the figure has fides.

Cor. The four ir.terior angles of a quadrilateral
are taken together ^ual to four right angles.

Tni;oREM XXVI.

Fig. 42. 1^2 oppofite fides of a parallelogram are equal,
and the oppofite angles are alfo equal.

DR-VW the diagonal BD ; the two triangles ADB,
DEC have the fide BD common to both, and AB,
DC being parallel, the angle ABD=BDC (21.) alfo,
AD, BC being parallel, the angle ADB=DBC,
therefore the two triangles are equal (6.), and the fide
AB, oppofite to the angle ADB, is equal to DC, op-
pofite to the equal angle DBC. In like manner the
third fide AD is equal to the third fide BC, therefore
the oppofite fides of a parallelogram are equal.

In the next place, becaufe of the equality of the fame
triangles, the angle A is equal to the angle C, and alfo
the angle ADC compofed of the two angles ADB,
BDC is equal to the angle ABC compofed of the
angles CBD, DBA ; therefore the oppofite angles of
a parallelogram are alfo equal.

Thlorkm xxvir.
If the oppofite fides of a quadrilateral ABCD are F13.
equal, fo that AB=: DC, and AD = BC ; then
the equal fides are parallel, and th« figure is a
parallelogram.

DRAtv the diagonal BD. The two triangles ABD,
CDB have the three fides of the one equal to the three
fides of the other, each to each, therefore the triangles
arc equal (lo.) ; and the angle ADB, oppofite to AB,
i'i equal to DBC oppofite to DC, therefore the fide AD
is parallel to BC (22.). For a firailar reafon AB is
parallel to DC ; therefore the quadrilateral ABCD i5
a parallelogram.

Theorem XXVIII.

If two oppofite fides, AB, DC, of a quadrilateral F'S-
are equal and parallel, the two other fides are
in like manner equal and parallel •, and the
figure is a parallelogram.

Draw the diagonal BD. Becaufe AB is parallel
to CD, the alternate angles ABD, BDC are equal,
(21.) ; nov/ the fide AB=:DC, and DB is common to
the triangles ABD, BDC, therefore thefe triangles are
equal, (5.) and hence the fide AD=BC, and the angle
ADBrrDBC, confequently AD is parallel to BC,
(22.) therefore the figure ABCD is a parallelogram.

Of the

SECT. II. OF THE CIRCLE.

Definitions.

^■€•43- I. A Circle is a plane figure contained by one line

which is called the circumference, and is fuch, that all

ftraight lines drawn from a certain point within the

figure to the circumference, are equal to one another.

And this point is called the centre of the circle.

II. Every rtraight line CA, CE, CD, &c. dra«-n
from the centre to the circumference, is called a radius
ox femidiameter ; and every ilraight line, fuch as AB,
which paiTes through the centre, and is terminated
both ways by the circumference, is called a diameter.

Hence it follows that all the radii of a circle are equal,
and all the diameters are alfo equal, each being the
double of the radius.

III. An Arch of a circle is any portion of its cir-
cumference, as FHG.

The chord or fubtenfe of an arch is the ftraight line
FG which joins its extremities.

IV. A Segment of a circle is the figure contained by
an arch, and its chord. If the figure be the half of
the circle it is called a Semicircle.

Note. Every chord correfponds to two arches, and
confequently to two fegments ; but in fpcaking of thefe,
it is always the fraalleft that is meant, unlefs the con-
trary be expreifed.

V. A Secior of a circle is the figure contained by
an arch DE and the two radii CD, CE, drawn to the
e.>Ltremities of the arch. If the radii be at right angles
to each other it is called a ^wdrant.

VI. A ftraight line is faid to be placed or applied \n

a circle, ^vhen its extremities are in the circumference p]

of the circle as FG. CCXLlIf:;

VII. A redihneal figure is faid to be infcribed in a Fig. 115.
circle when the vertices of all its angles are upon the cir-
cumference of the circle ; in this cafe the circle is faid

to be circumfcrihed about tlie figure.

VIII. A ilraight fine is lliid to touch a circle, or to
be a tangent to a circle, when it meets the circumference
in one point only ; fuch, for example, is BD, fig, 49.
The point A which is common to the ftraight line and
circle is called the Point ofConlaB.

IX. A polygon is faid to be defcribed or circum-T'S- ii&
fcribed about a circle when all its fides are tangents to

the circle ; and in this cafe the circle is faid to be in-
fcribed in the polygon.

Theorem I. pj^^.

CCXLU

Any diameter AB, divides the circle and its cir- Fig. 43.
cumference into two equal parts.

For if the figure AEB be applied to AFB, fo that
the bafe AB may be common to both, the curve line
AEB rauft fall exaftly upon the curve line AFB ;
otherwife there would be points in the one or the other
unequally diilant from the centre, whkh is contrary to
the definition of a circle.

Theopi-

6;8

GEO M E

rig- 44-

'"riiEORi::.! II.
Every chord is lefs than the diameter.

Let the radii CA, CD be drai-ni from the centre to
the extremities of the chord AD ; then the ftraight
line AD is lefs than AC+CD, that is AD^s::lAB.

Theorem III.

A ftraight line cannot meet the circumference of
a circle in more than two points.

For if it could meet it in three, thefe three points
would be equally dillant from the centre, and there-
fore three equal llraight lines might be drawn from the
fame point to the fame ftraight line, which is impolh-
ble (2 cor. 15. I.).

Theore:m IV.

*"'£• 45- In the fame circle, or in equal circles, equal- arches
are fubtended by equal chords, and, converfely,
equal chords fubtend equal arches.

If the radius AC be equal to the radius EO, and
the arch AMD equal to the arch ENG ; the chord
AD fhall be equal to the chord EG.

For the diameter AB being equal to the diameter
EF, the femicircle AMDB may be applied exatlly
upon the femicircle ENGF, and then the cUrve line
AI\IDB (hall coincide entirely with the curve line
ENGF, but the arch AMD being fuppofed equal to
ENG, the point D muft fall upon G, therefore the
chord AD is equal to the chord EG.

Converfely, if the chord AD=:EG, the arch AMD
is equal to the arch ENG.

For if the radii CD, OG be dravm, the two trian-
gles ACD, EOG have three fides of the one equal to
three fides of the other, each to each, viz. AC^EO,
CDzrOG and AD=EG, therefore thefe triangles are
equal, (10. I.) and hence the angle ACD^rEOG.
Now if the femicircle ADB be placed upon EGF, be-
caufe the angle ACD=:EOG, it is evident that the
radius CD will fall upon the radius OG, and the point
* D upon G, therefore the arch AMD is equal to the
arch ENG.

Theorem V.

Cig. 45. In the fame circle, or in equal circles, the greater
arch is fubtended by the greater chord, and,
converfely, (if the arch be lefs than half the cir-
cumference) the greater chord fubtends the
greater arch.

For let the arch AH be greater than AD, and let
the chords AD, AH, and the radii CD, CH be drawn.
The two fides AC, AH, of the triangle ACH, are
equal to the two fides AC, CD, of the triangle ACD ;
and the angle ACH is greater than ACD ; therefore
the third fide AH is greater than the third fide AD,
(9. I.) theiefore the chord which fubtends the greater
arch is the greater. Converfely, if the chord AH be
greater than AD, it may be inferred (cor. 9. I.) from
<hc fame triangles that the angle ACH is greater than
I

T H Y.

, and that thus the

Se6l. II.

arch AH ii greater tha

ACD,
AD.

Note. Each of the arches is here fuppofed lefs than ^~'^f^
half the circumference ; if they were greater, the con-
trary property would have place, the arch increafing as
the chord diminiflies.

Theorem VI.

The radius CG, perpendicular to a cliord AB, f 'g 4?-
bifects the chord (or divides it into two equal
parts), it alfo bifeds the arch AGB fubtended by
the chord.

Draw the radii CA, CB ; thefe radii are two equal
oblique lines in refpeft of the perpendicular CD, there-
fore they are equally diftant from the perpendicular
(15. I.) that is AD=DB.

In the next place, becaufe CG is perpendicular to
the middle of AB, every point in CG is at equal di-
ftances from A and B, (16. I.) therefore, if GA, GB

be drawn, thefe lines are equal, and as they ar

e the

chords of the arches AG, BG, the arches are

alfo

equal. (4.)

SCHOLIUJI.

Since the centre C, the middle D of the chord AB,
and the middle G of the arch fubtended by that chord,
are three points fituated in the fame llraight line per-
pendicular to that chord ; and that two points in a
llraight line are fufficient to determine its pofition ; it
follows, that a ftraight line which paifes through any
two of thefe points muft neceifarily pafs through the
third-, and muft be perpendicular to the chord. It alfo
follows, that a perpendicular to the middle of a chord
paifes through the centre, and the middle of the arch
fubtended by that chord.

Theorem VII.

If three points A, B, C, be taken in the circum-Fig 47.
ference of a circle, no other circumference which
does not coincide with the former, can be made
to pafs through the fame three points.

Let the cliords AB, BC be drawn, and let OD,
OF be drawn from the centre, perpendicular to, and
confequently bifefling thofe chords. The centre of
every circle palhng through A and B mull ncctflarily
be fomewhere in the perpendicular DO, (laft theor.)
and in like manner the centre of every circle palling
through B and C, muft be fomewhere in the perjiendi-
cular OF, therefore the centre of a circle pafling
through A, B, and C, muft be in the interfeflion of
the perpendiculars DO, FO ; and confequently can on-
ly be at one and the fame point O ; therefore, only one
circle can be made to pafs through the fame three points
A, B, C.

Cor. One circumference of a circle cannot interfeft
another in more than two points, for if they could have
three common points they would have the fame centre,
and confequently would coincide with each other.

Theorem VIII.

Two equal chords are equally diftant from thej-ig ^s.

centre,

Se'X ir. GEO M

Oftm- centre j and of unetjual chords, that wliicli is
^•"''^''^' nearer the centre is greater than that which is
more remote.

Lkt the chord ABrrDE, fuppofe the chords bi-
fecled by the perpendiculars CF, CG from the cen-
tre, and drav,- the radii CA, CD. The right-angled
triangles CAF, CDG have equal hypotlienufes CA,
CD ; the fide AF (=; AB) of the one is alfo equal
to the fide DG (:=tDE) of the other, therefore, tScir
remaining fides CF, CG (which are the dillanccs of
the chords from the centre) are equal ( 17. !.)•

Next let the chord AH be greater than DE ; tl/e
arch AKH fliall be greater than DME. Upon the
arch AKH take ANB equnl to DME; draiv the
chord AB, and fuppofe COF drawn from the centre
perpendicular to AB, and CI perpendicular to AH.
It is evident that CFt^CO, and (if. l.) CO-^^CI ;
much more then is CF'i^^CI ; but CFrrCG, becaule
the chords AB, DE are equal; therefore CG -::^CI-,
that is, the chord nearer the centre is greater than that
which is farther from it.

Theorem IX.

F'g- 49- The perpendicular BD, drawn at the extremity of
a radius CA, is a tangent to the circle.

For any oblique line CE is greater than the perpen-
dicular CA, (15. I.) therefore the point E is without
the circle ; tberetore the line BD has but one point A
common with the circumference, and confequently it is
a tangent to the circle. (Def. 8.)-

Scholium.

Through the fame point A, only one tangent, AD,
can be drawn to the circle. For if it be pofiible to
draw another, let AG be that other tangent ; draw
CF perpendicular to AG; then CF (hall be lefs than
CA, (15. I.) therefore F mult be within the circle;
and confequently AF when produced muft necelTarily
meet the circle in another point befides A; therefore it
Cannot be a tangent.

Theorem X.

f'g- 5^- If BC, the diftance of the centres of two circles,

""^ -'• be lefs than the fum of their radii ; and alfo the

greater radius lefs than the fum of the diftance

of their centres and the leffer radius ; the two

circles interfecl each other.

For that the circles may interfed each other in a
point A, it is neceJTary that the triangle ABC be pof-
fible ; therefore, not only mull CB be lefs than CA
4-AB, but alfo the greater radius AB muft be lefs
than AC-j-CB; (7. I.) and it is evident, that as of-
ten as the triangle ABC can be conftrucled, the cir-
cumferences defcribed on the centres B, C, (hall intcr-
fcfl each other in two points A, D.

Theorem XI.
^g-5^- If the diftance CB of the centres of t\v( • : ;•

E T R Y. 6sc^

be equal to the fum of the radii CA, BA, the Of the
circles fhall touch each other externally. , '"'^^'^- ,

It is evident that they have a common point A ;
but they cannot have more ; for if they had two, then
the dilhmce of the centres muft neceffarily be lefs tiian
the fum of the radii.

Theorem -XII.

If the diftance CB of the centres of two circles Fig. 53.
be equal to the differeace of the radii, the two
circles fliall touch each other internally.

In the firft place, it is evident that the point A is
common to them both ; they cannot, however, have
another ; for that this may happen, it is neceflary that
the greater radius AB be fmaller than the fum of the
radius AC and the diftance CB of the centre, (10.)
which is not tlie cafe.

CoR. ! hereforc, if two circles touch each other, ei-
ther internally or externally, their centres and the
point of contaft are in the fame ftraight line-

Theorem XIII.

In the fame circle, or in equal circles, equal an- ^'S 5**
gles ACB, DCE, at the ceatres, intercept up.
on the circumference equal arches AB, DE.
And, converfely, if the arches AB, DE are
equal, the angles ACB, DCE are equal.

First, if the angle ACB be equal to DCE, the"
one angle may be applied upon the other ; and as the
lines containing thera are equal, it is manifelt that the
point A will fall upon D, and the point B upon E.j
thus the arch AB will coincide with, and be equal to
the arch DE.

Ne.xt, if the arch AB be equal to DE, the angle
ACB is equal to DCE; for if the angles are not
equal ; let ACB be the greater; and let ACI be taken
equal to DCE; then, by what has been already demon-
ftrated, the arch AI=DE; but by hypothefis AB=DE;
therefore, A I:^ A B which is inipolhble ; therefore the
angle ACB=:DCE.

Theorem XIV.

The angle BCD at the centre of a circle is double r^'g- iS-
the angle BAD at the circumference, wlien '»' -*'
both ftand on the fame arch BD.

First let the centre of the circle be within the an- Fig. 55.
gle BAD ; draw t>he diameter AE The exterior an-
gle BCE of the triangle BCA is equal to both the in-
ward and oppofite angles BAC, CBA; (2^. i.) but the
triangle BCA being ifofreles, the angle BAC=CBA;
thTcfor-; the angle BCE is double of the angle BAC.
F;;r the fame reafon, the angle DCE is double of the
angle DAE, therefore the whole angle BCD is double
of the whole angle BAX).

Suppofe in the nt.xt place that the centre is 'with- r- -
out tile angle BAD; then, drawiig the diameter AE,
•t may be dc-r.onftratcd, as in the firlt cafe, that the an-
•'• ECD is double of the Tv;1e ICATX and that the

■.:agj''

640

G E O- M •£ T

Of Proper, ar.jrle ECB, n part of tlie firfl, is double tlie angle
, ^ ""'^' EAB a part of the other; therefore the remaining an-
gle BCD is double the remaining angle BAD.

fis- 57-
rig- iS.

Tig. 57-

r's- 58.

Theorem XV.

All angles BAD, BFD in the fame fegment BAFD
of a circle are equal to one another.

If the fegment be greater than a feraicircle, from
the centre C draw CB and CD; then the angles BAD
and BFD being (by latt theorem) each equal to half
BCD; they muft be equal to one another.

But if the fegraent BAFD be lefs than a femicircle,
let H be the interfeflion of BF and AD ; then, the
triangles ABH and J'DH having the angle AHB of
the one equal to FHD of the other, (4. 1.) and ABH
rrFDH, (by cafe i.) will have the remaining angles
of the one equal to the remaining angles of the other ;
that is the angle BAHzrHFD, or BADrrBFD.

Theorem XVI.

The oppofite angles of any quadrilateral figure
ABCi) defcribed in a circle are together equal
to two right angles.

Draw the diagonals AC, BD ; becaufe the angle
ABD=ACD, and CBD^rCAD, (lall theor.) the fum
ABD-f CBD=ACD+C AD ; or ABC=ACD4 C A D;
to each of thefe equals add ADC, and ABC + ADCrr
ACD-f-CAD-f-ADC; but the lail three anolcs, being
the angles of the triangle ADC, are taken together equal
to two right angles, (24. i.), therefore ABD-|-CBD=:
two right angles. In the fame manner, the angles BAD,
BCD may be fliewn to be together equal totwo right
-angles.

R Y. Sed. III.

Theorem XVIl. 01 Propor-

In a circle, the angle BAD in a femicircle is a ■ — /'' j
right angle, but the angle ABD in a fcgrnent Fig. 60.
greater than a femicircle is lefs than a right an-
gle ; and the angle AED in a fegment lefs
than a femicircle is greater than a right angle.

Let C be the centre, join CA, and produce BA to
F. Becaufe CB=CA, the angle C\B=:CBA;
(II. I.) and becaufe CD=CA, the angle CAD
— CDA, therefore, the whole angle BAD=CBA
-j-CDA ; but thefe two laft angles are together equal
to DAF, (23. I.) therefore the angle BAD=DAF;
and hence each of them is a right angle.

And becaufe ABD + ADB is a right angle, therefore
AED, an angle in a fegment greater than a femicir-
cle, is lefs than a right angle.

And becaufe ABDE is a quadrilateral in a circle,
the oppofite angles B and E are equal to two right an-
gles (laft theor.), but B is lefs than a right angle ; there-
fore the angle E, which is in a fegment lefs than a fe-
micircle, is greater than a right angle.

Theorem XVIII.

The angle BAC contained by AC, a tangent, and Fig. 61.
AB, a chord drawn from the point of contacSl,
is equal to any angle ADB in the alternate feg-
ment of the circle.

Draw the diameter AE, and join DE. The an-
gles EAC, EDA, being right angles, (laft theor.) are
equal to one another ; and of thefe, EAB, a part of
the one, is equal to EDB, a part of the other, (15.)
therefore the remainder BAC, of the former is equal to
the remainder BDA, of the latter.

SECT. III. OF PROPORTION.

Definitions,

I. When one magnitude contains another a certain
Jiunibcr of times exactly, the former is faid to be a mit/-
tiple of the latter, and the latter z part of the fomier

II. When feveral magnitudes are multiples of as ma-
ny others, and each contains its parts the fame number
of times, the former are faid to be equimultiples of the
latter, and the latter like parts of the former.

_ III. Betwixt any two finite magnitudes of the fame
kind there fubfifts a certain relation in refpeft to quan-
tity, which is called their ratio. The two magnitudes
compared are called the terms of the ratio, the firft the
antecedent, and the fccond the confequent.

IV. If there be four magnitudes, or quantities, A, B,
C, D, and if A contain (ome part of B juft as often
as C contains a like part of D, then, the ratio of A to
B is faid to be the fame with (or equal \o\ the ratio of
CtoD. \ -^ I

It follows immediately fiom thisdefmition, that if A
contain B juft as often as C contains D, then the ratio
of A to B is equal to the ratio of C to D ; for in that
cafe it is evident that A will contain any part of B juft
£ often as C contains a like part of D.
2

V. When two ratios are equal, their terms are called
proportionals.

To denote that the ratio of A to B is equal to
the ratio of C to D, they are ufually written thus,
A : B :: C : D, or thus, A : B = C : D, which is
read thus; A is to B as C to D j fuch an expreflion is
called an analogy or a proportion.

\l. Of four proportional quantities, the laft term
is called a fourth proportional to the other three taken
in order.

VII. Three quantities A, B, C, are faid to be pro-
portionals, when the ratio of the tirfl A to the fe-
cond B is equal to the ratio of the fecond B to the
third C.

VIII. Of three proportional quantities, the middle
term is faid to be a mean proportional between the other
two, and the laft a third proportional to the firft and fe-
cond.

IX. (Quantities are faid to be continual proportionals,
when the firft is to the fecond, as the fecond to the third,
and as the third to the fourth, and fo on.

X. When there is any number of magnitudes
A, B, C, D, of the fame kind, the ratio of the firft A
to the laft D is faid to be compounded of the ratio of

Sea. Ill,

Of Propo-- A to E, and of th« ratio of B to C, and of the ratio of
'' '"• C to D.

' XI. If three magnitudes A, B, C be continual pro-

portionals; that is, if the ratio of A to B be equal to
the r:itio of B to C ; then the ratio of the firft A to
the third C is faid to be duplicate of the ratio of the lirft
A to the fecond B. Hence, fince by the lall defini-
tion the ratio of A to C is compounded of the ratio of
A to B and of B to C, a ratio which is compounded
of two equal ratios is auftlicate of either of them.

XII. If four magnitudes A, B, C, D be continual
proportionals, the ratio of the firll A to the fourth D is
faid to be triplicate the ratio of the firll A to the fecond
B. Hence a ratio compounded of three equal ratios
is triplicate of any one of them.

XIII. Ratio of Equahtij is that which equal magni-
tudes bear to each other.

The next four definitions explain the names given by
geometers to certain ways of changing either the order
or magnitude of proportionals, fo that tliey llill continue
to be proportional.

XIV. Inverfe Ratio is when the antecedent is made
the confequent, and the confequent the antecedent.
See Theor. 3.

XV. Alternate proportion is ^vhen antecedent is com-
pared with antecedent, and confequent with confequent.
See Theor. 2.

XVI. Compounded ratio is when the fum of the an-
tecedent and confequent is compared either with the
antecedent, or uitli the confequent. See Theor. 4.

XVII. Di'jidcd ratio is when the difference of the
antecedent and conlequent is compared either with the
antecedent or with the confequent. See Theor. 4.

1. Equal quantities have each the fame ratio to the
fame quantity ; and the fame quantity has the fame ratio
to each of any number of equal quantities.

2. Quantities having the fame ratio to one and the
lame quantity, or to equal quantities, are equaUamong
themfelvcs ; and thofe quantities, to which one and the
fame quantity has the fame ratio, are equal.

3. Ratios equal to one and the fame ratio are alfo
equal, one to the other.

4. If two quantities be divided into, or compofed of
parts that are equal among themfelves, or all of the
fame magnitude, then will the whole of the one have
the fame ratio to the whole of the other, as the num-
ber of parts in the one has to the number of equal parts
In the other.

Theorem I.

Equimultiples of any two quantities have to each
other the fame ratio as the quantities them-
felves.

Let a and B be any two quantities, and, m being
put to r'enote any number, let m A, //; B be equimul-
tiples of thofe quantities, m A fliall have to m B the
lame ratio that A has to B.

. Let the ratio of A to B be equal to the ratio
of one number /> to another number y, that is, let
A contain p fuch equal parts as B contains n.
Vol. IX. Part II.

GEOMETRY. 641

(Ax. 4 "l then, if .v be put for one of thofe equal parts^Of Propor.

and I
bcr /

A=/> X, Bi=^ v,
iftquently, multiplying both by the fame num-

m A=p X w V, w B=y X "i v.
Hence it appears that m A contains the quantity m v
as a part /> times ; and that >n B contains the fame
quantity ^ times ; therefore the ratio of tn A to m B
is the fame as the ratio of the number;) to the number
y (Ax. 4.) ; but the ratio of A to B is alio equal to
the ratio of/) to y, (by hypothefis), therefore the ratio
of m A to m B is equal to the ratio of A to B
(Ax. 3.).

C OK. Hence like parts of quantities have to each

A B

other the fame ratio as the wholes : that is, — : — : :

A and B are equimultiples of — and

Theorem II.

If four quantities of the fame kind be proportion-
als, they fliall alfo be proportionals by alterna-

quantities, of the fame
D: then ihall A : C :;

Let a, E, C, D be
kind, and let A : B ::
B :D.

Let the equal ratios of A to B, and of C to D, he
the fame as the ratio of the number p to the number
(/ ; then A will contain p fuch equal parts as B con-
tains y, (Ax. 4.) and C will, in like manner, contain
p fuch equal parts as D contains y ; let each of the
equal parts thus contained in A and B be x, and let
each of thofe contained in C and D be n, then

A—px, Brzy V, C=:pij, Drryy.

Now as A:zr/) .v, and Qz^p y ; it is manitell that A
and C are equimultiples of .v and y, theretorc the ratio
of A to C is equal to the ratio of x to ij, ( i ) and as
Bzry.r, and D=9y, B and D are in like manfler
equimultiples of .v and y ; therefore the ratio of B to
D is equal to the ratio of x to y ; therefore the ratio of
A to C is equal to the ratio of B to D.

CoR. If the firll of four proportionals be greater
than the third, the fecond is greater than the fourth ;
and if the firft be lefs than the third, the fecond is Icfs
than the fourth.

Theorem III

If four quantities be proportionals^ they are alfo
proportionals by inverfion.

Let a : B :. C : D ; then (liall B : A :; D : C.

J"or let the equal ratios of A to B, and of C to D,

be the fame as the ratio of the number p to the number

(J, then as B will contain (/ fuch equal parts as A con-

4 M tains

642

G E O M

Oi Piopor-^Ins/J (Ax. 4.), B will be to A as q is to/., and as

. /'°°- Td ^ ill coiitHin q fuch equal parts as C contains />, D

' ' • will be to C alfo as q to />, therefore the ratio of B to

A is equal to the ratio of D to C (Ax. 3.)

Theorem IV.

If four quajititles be proportionals, they are alfo
proportionals by compofition, and by divifion.

Let a : B :: C : D, then wiU

A + B:A::C+D:C, andA+B:B:: C + D:D;
alfo A— B : A :: C— D ; D, and A— B : B :: C— D : D.

Let us fuppofe, as in the two preceding theorems,
that the ratios of A to B, and of C to D are each
equal to the ratio of the number/) to the number q, fo
that A contains /> fuch equal parts as B contains q,
and C contains p fuch equal parts as D contains q ;
and let x as before denote each of the equal parts con-
tained in A and B, .uid y each of the equal parts con-
tained tB C and D j then, fince

A=/>.v, Br=9.r, Cz=py, D=qi/,
therefore A+B=/> x-\-q x=(^f>-\.q)x ;
C-{-D=/>y + qy={/> + q)y.

Now as A-f-B contains .%• />-\-q times, and A contains
the fame quantity/* times, and B contains it q times,
(by the 4th axiom),

A-fB : A ;: />-f^ : />, and A-f B : B :: />-f y : q,
and as C+D contains y /i-fy times, and C contains
it^ times, and D contains it q times,

C-f D : C .-.fi+q ■■ />, and C-f D : D :: />+q : q.
Thus it appears, that the ratio? of A-j-B to A, and of

-C-j-D to C, are equal to the fame ratio, namely, that
o( p + q to />; therefore (Ax. 3.) A-fB : A :: C-f-
D : C. It alfo appears that the ratios of A-J-B to B,
and C -|- D to D are each equal to the ratio of

fi+q to q; therefore (Ax. 3.) A -f B : B ;: C
-f D : D.

In the fame manner the fecond part of the theorem
may be proved, namely, that

A— B : A :: C— D : C and A— B : B :. C— D : D.

Theorem V.

If four quantities be proportionals, and there be
taken any equimultiples of the antecedents,
and alfo any equimultiples of the coniequents ;
the refulting quantities will ftill be propor-
tionals.

Let a : B :: C : D, and m A, mC be any equi-
multiples of the antecedents, and n B, « D any equi-
multiples of the confequents j then as ra A : « B ; :
rnC-.nH.

The quantities^, 9, x and y being, liippofed to ex-
thhigs as in the foregoing theorems ; be-

E T Pi Y.

Sed. III.

prefs the fa
caufe

A=px, B=qx, C=/>!/, 'D=qy,.

therefore, multiplying the antecedents by the number
JB, and the confequents by ;;,

m A-=.mp X, n B=r/? q v,
m C ^=.mp y, n D=r:« q y,

and hence the ratio of »i A to ;j B is equal to the ra-
tio of the number mp to the number n p, (Ax. 4.)
and the ratio of ra C to « D, is equal to the fame ra-
tio of mp to n q, therefore (Ax. 3.) rn A : « B ::
/« C : n D.

Theorem VI.

If there be any number of quantities, and as many
others, which, taken two and two, have the
fame ratio ; the firfl Ihall have to the lad of the
firft feries the fame ratio whicli the firlt of the
other feries has to the laft.

First, letthere be three quantities A, B,C, lA, B, C,j
and other three H, K, L, and let A : B :: |h, K, L.|
H : K, and B : C :: K : L, then mil A : C .ThTlT

For let the equal ratios of A to B, and of H to K,
be the fame with the ratio of a number /> to another
number q, fo that x and ;/ being like parts of A and
H, and alfo like parts of B and K, as in the former
theorems,

Azzpx, '&=.q X, ii=py, K—q y.

Alfo let C contain q equal parts, each equal to v, and
let L contain q equal parts, each equal to «, fo that

C=:y V, \.zz.q % ;

then, becaufe B : C ;; K : L, that is, q x : q v :: q y :
q tz, and q x and q V are equimultiples of .r and v,
alfo q 1/ and q -z are equimultiples of ?/ and z, therefore
(l. & Ax. 3.).v : V :: y : 'Z, hence (by lafl theorem)/).v :
q -u :: p y : q %, that is, (becaufe A=px, C=q v, H
=py, L=qz) A : C :: H : L.

Next, let thefe four quantities. A, B,
C, D, and other four H, K, L, M, I A B C D 1
fuch, that A : B :: H : K, and B ; C ;: h' k' l' m'

K : L, and C : D :: L : M, then will '-^— ^^— ^ '

A : D :; H : M.

For, becaufe A : B :: H : K, and B : C :: K : L ;
therefore, by the firft cafe, A : C :: H : L; and be-
caufe C : D :: L : M, therefore, by the fame cafe,
A : D :: H : M. The demonltration applies in the
fame manner to any number of quantities.

Cor. Hence it appears, that ratios compounded of
the fame number of like or equal ratios are equal to
one another.

Note. — When four quantities are proportionals in the
manner explained in this theorem, they are faid to be
fo from equality of dijlance ; and it is ufual for mathe-
matical writers to fay that they are fo, ex cequali qx ex
cequo.

Theorem VII.

If there be any number of quantities, and as many
others, which taken two and two in a crofs or-
der have the fame ratio ; the firft Ihall have to
tlie lail of the firft feries the fame ratio which
the firft has to the laft of the other feries.

Fjrst, .

Sea. III. G E 0_J^

Proportions FiRST, let there te tliree quantities A, B, LaTB. CI
of FigiitesJc, and other three H, K, L, fuch that A: h'k'l
' ' B :; K : L, and B : C :: H : K ; then will

A : C :; H : L.

For let the equal ratios of A to B, and of K to L

be equal to the ratio of the number /> to the number tj,

fo that as before

A=px, Bziry.v, K=/>!/, Lrr-j-y.

Alfo, let C be fuppofed to contain q equal parts,
leach equal to k, and let H contain j> equal parts, each
equal to V, to that

C— 9 z, H—fi V i

Then, becaufe B : C :: H : K, that is, qx : q'Z ::
pv :/> 1/; therefore ( i.&i Ax. 3.) a: : z :: v : 1/, and confe-
quentlv (;.)f>x : q % :: p v : qy, that is (becaufe px
=A, q a=C, /. i.^H, 9 j/:=L) A : C :: H : L.

Next, let there be four quantities .-r — ^ — p; — =-,
A, B,C, D, and other four H, K, L, M, h^' ^' J-' bi]
fuch, that A : B :: L : M, and B : C :: l"' ^' ^' ^'^
K : L, and C : D :: H : K, then will A . D :: H :
M ; for becaufe A : B :: L : M, and B ; C ;: K : L ;
by the foregoing cafe A : C :: K : M ; and again
becaufe C : D ;: H : K j therefore, by fame cafe, A :
D :: H : M. The demonftration applies in the fame
manner to any number of quantities.

Kote. — In this theorem, as in the laft, the four
quantities A, D, H, M, are faid to be proportionals
from equality of dijiance ; but becauie in this cafe the
proportions are taken in a crofs order, it is common to
fay, that they are fo, ex cequa/i, in proportione perturbo'
la, or ex tequo inverjely.

Theorem VI 1 1.

if to the two confequents of four proportionals
there be added any two quantities that have the
fame ratio to the refpeftive antecedents, thefe
fums and the antecedents will ftill be propor-
tionals.

Let A : B
and A : B'

(where B' and D' denote txvo quantities diflinft from
thofe denoted by B and D) ; then will
A : B + B' :: C : D + D'.

For fince A : B :: C : D, by inverfion, (^.) B ; A :;
D : C, but A : B' :: C : D', therefore (6.) B : B' ::
D : D', and by compofition, ^4.) and inverfion B ;
B + B' :: D ; D+D', and fince A : B :: C : D ;
Therefore (6.) A : B + B' :: C : D + D'.

Cor. I. If inftead of two quantities B', D', there be
any number B', B", &.c. and D', D", &.c. which ta-

E T R Y. 643

ken t\vo and two have the fame ratio to the antecedents Proportions
A, C, that is, if ofFigiu-.

A: B

;;C

:D,

A, B' :

:C:

: D',

A : B" :

:: C

: D'

then will A : B + B' + B" :: C ; C+D'+D".

For fince A : B + B' :: C : D + D' (by the theor.)
and A : B" :: C : D",

therefore, by the propofition,

A : B + B' + B" :: C : D+D' + D".

Cor. 2. If any number of quantities of the fam«
kind be proportionals, as one of the antecedents is to
its confequent, fo is the fum of all the antecedents to
the fum of all the confequents.

Let A : B :: C : D :: E : F,

lid by

becaufe A

: A :

: B : B,

and A

: C :

:B:D,

and A:

:E:

:B:F;

therefore, A : A + C + E
alternatioQ,

B + D+Fj
A : B :: A+C+E : B+D+F.

In treating of proportion we have fuppofed that the
antecedent contains lome part of the confequent a cer-
tain number of times exacily, which part is therefore a
common meafure of the antecedent and confequent.
But there are quantities which cannot have a common
meafure, and which are therefore faid to be incommen-
furable ; fuch, for example, are the fides of two fquares
one of which has its furtace double that of the other.

Although the catio of two incommenfurable quanti-
ties cannot be exprefled in numbers, yet we can always
aiTign a ratio in numbers which rtiall be as near to that
ratio as we pleafe. For let A and B be any two quan-
tities whatever, and fuppole that .v is fuch a part of A
that A^=p x J then if q denote the number of times tlfat
X can be taken from B, and </ the remainder, we
have B=:qx-\-(/, and q x = S — </,• and becaufe
p : q :: p X : q X, therefore p : q :■■ A : B — J. Now as
d is lefs than v, by taking x fufficiently fraall c/ may be
lefs than r.ny propofed' quantity, fo that B — c/ may dif-
fer from B by lefs than any given quantity ; therefore
two numbers /> and q may always be ailigned, fuch,
that the ratio of/> to q ihall be the fame as the ratio of
A to a quantity that differs lefs from B than by any
given quantity, however fmall that quantity may be.

Hence we may conclude, that whatever has been de-
livered in this feflion relating to commcnfurable quan-
tities, may be confidered as applying equally to fuch as
are incommenfurable.

SECT. IV. THE PROPORTIONS OF FIGURES.

I. Equivalei

liiCtS.

Definitio.vs.

Figures are fuch a

Two figures may be equivalent, although very df(-
fimilar \ thus a circW may be equivalent to a fquare, a
have equal fur- triangle to a rcdlangle, and fo of other figures.

We ftvall giv; (lie denomination of equal figures to
4 M 2 thofe

644

G E O INI

Fig.

Plate
CCXLI
Fig. 64.

r>g. cs

Prpportior.s (hofe which, being applied the one upon the other, co-
ot i iguies. jpcide entirely ; thus, tvvo circles having the fame radi-
us ire equal ; and two triangles havuig three 'iides of
the one equal to three fides of the other, each to each,
are alfo equal.

II. T^vo figures zre fimilar, when the angles of the
one are equrJ to the angles of the other, each to each ; and
the homohgous fides proportionals. The homologous
ildes are thole which have the fame pofition in the two
figures ; or which are adjacent to the equal angles. The
angles themfelves are called homologous angles.

Two equal figures are ahvays fimilar, but fimilar
figures may be very imequal.

HI. In two different circles, Jtmilar feclors, Jimi/ar
arches, fimilar fegments, are fuch as correfpond to equal
angles at the centre. Thus the angle A being equal
to the angle O, the arch BC is fimilar to the arch DE,
and the feftor ABC to the feftor ODE, &c.

IV. The Altitude of a fiarolielogram is the perpen-
dicular which meafures the dillance between the oppo-
fite fides or bafes AB, CD.

V. The Altitude of a triangle is the perpendicular
AD drawn from the vertical angle A upon the bafe
BC.

\T. The Altitude of a trapeiLoid 1% the perpendicular
EF drawn between its two parallel bafes AB, CD.

VII. The Area and the furface of a figure are terms
of nearly the fame fignjfication. The term area, howe-
ever, is more particularly ufed to denote the fuperficial
quantity of the figure in refpeft of its being meafured,
or compared with other furiaces.

Theorem I.

ijig. 6.6. Parallelograms which have equal bafes and equal
altitudes are equivalent.

Let AB be the common bafe of the parallelograms
ABCD, EBAF, which being fuppofed to have the
fame altitude, the fides DC, FE oppofite to the bafes
will lie in DE a line parallel to AB. Now, from the
nature of a parallelogram, ADzzBC, and AF=BE;
for the fame reafon DC^rAB, and FE=AB ; there-
fore, DCrrFE, and taking away DC and FE from the
fame line DE, the remainders CE and DF are equal ;
hence the triangles D AF, CBE have three fides of the
one equal to three fides of the other, each to each ; and
confequently are equal (lO. I.). Now if from the qua-
drilateral ABED, the triangle ADF be taken away,
there will remain the parallelogram ABEF ; and if
from the fame quadrilateral ABED, the triangle CBE,
equal to the fonner, be taken away, there will remain
the parallelogram ABCD ; therefore the two parallelo-
grams ABCD, ABEF, which have the fame bafe, and
the fame altitude, are equivalent.

CoR. Every parallelogram is equivalent to a reel-
angle of the fame bafe and altitude.

Theorem II.
jij. sj. Every triangle ABC is tlie half of a parallelogram
ABCU, having the fame bafe and altitude.

For the triangles ABC, ACD are equal (28. 1.).
Cor. I. Therefore o tiitngle ABC is the half of a
le^angle BCEF of the fame bafe and altitude.

E T R Y. Sea. IV

Cor. 2. All triangles having equal bafes, and e^ual Froportior
altitudes, are equivalent. ot Fig\irt

Theorem III.

Two re£langles of the fame altitude are to each Fig. 6S.
other as their bafes.

Let ABCD, AEFD be t-vo rectangles, which have
a common altitude AD ; the rectangle ABCD ihall
have to the rectangle AEFD the fame ratio that the
bafe AB has to the bafe AE.

Let the bafe AB have to the bafe AE the ratio of
the number/) (which we Ihall fuppofe 7) to the num-
ber q (which may be 4) that is, let AB contain/) (7.)
fuch equal parts as AE contains q (4-), then, if perpen-
diculars be drawn to AB and AE at the points of di-
vifion,the reftangles ABCD and AEFD will be divid-
ed, the former into />, and the latter into q reftangles,
which will be all equal (l.) for they have equal bafes,
and the fame altitude ; thus the rectangle ABCD will
alfo contain /> fuch equal parts as the rectangle AEFD
contains q ; therefore, the rectangle ABCD is to
AEFD as the number /> to the number q (A.x. 4.3.)
that is, as the bafe AB to AE.

Theorem IV.

Any two re<£langles are to each otlier as the pro- pjg. .jt.
ducts of any numbers proportional to their fides.

Let the numbers m, n, p, q, have among themfelves
the fame ratios that the fides of the t-edlangles ABCD,
AEFG have to each other ; that is, let AB contain m
fuch equal parts, whereof AD contains n ; and AE
contains />, and A F contains q; then Ihall ABCD :
AEFG :: mn -.pq.

Let the rectangles be fo placed that the fides AB,
AE may be in a llraight line, then AD and AG will
alfo lie in a ftraight line (3. 1.)- Now (3.)

ABCD: AEHD :: AB : AE:: m-.p,

but t7i -.p-.-.nm: np, (i. 3.)

therefore ABCD : AEHD :: nm : n p.

Again, AEHD : AEFG :: AD . AG :: n : q^

but 11 : q :: p n : p q ;

therefore, AEHD : AEFG v.pn-.pq;

and it was ihewn that

ABCD : AEHD :: nm : nfi or p n,
therefore, (6. 3.) ABCD : AEFG :: mn : pq.

Scholium.
Hence it appears, that the produifl of the bafe by the
altitude of a rectangle may be taken for its meafure^
obferving that by fuch produd is meant that of the
number of linear units in the bafe by the number of
linear lujiis in the altitude. This meafure is however
not abfolute, but relative, for it mull be fuppofed, that
in comparing one rectangle with another, the fides of
both are mealured by the fame linear unit. For ex-
ample, if the bafe of a reftangle, A, be three units,
and its altitude 10, the retlangle is reprefented by
3 X 10 or 303 this number confidered by itfelf has no;
roeaaing,

\

Sea. IV. G E O M

Pirportiors meaning, but it wc have a fecond redangle B, the bafe
of Figures, of which is twelve units, and altitude fcveii, this fecond
'~'~^ refla.igle ihall be reprefented by the number 12x7 or
8a, and hence it may be concluded that the two rect-
angles are to each other as 30 to 84 ; therefore, if in
ertimating any fuperficies the rectangle A be taken for
the meafuring unit, the reclangle B ihall have for its
abiblute meafure 4^> '''at 'S it Iball be 4^ fuperficial
units.

It is more common, as well as more fimple, to take
for a fuperficial unit a fquare, the fide of which is an
unit in length ; and then the meafure which we have
regarded only as relative becomes ablolute ; for ex-
ample the number 3:, ivhich is the meafure of the
reCiangle A, reprefents 30 fuperficial units or 30
fquares, each having its fide equal to an unit. To il-
luflrate this fee fig. 7 2.

Theorem V.

Fig. 67. The area of any parallelogram is equal to the pro-
ducil: of its bafe by its altitude.

For the parallelogram ABCD is equivalent to the
reclangle FBCE, which has the fame bafe EC, and
the fame altitude AO (Cor. I.) but the meafure of
the rectangle is BCxAO, (4) therefore the area of
the parallelogram is BC X AO.

Cor. Parallelograms having the fame bafe, or equal
bafes, are to each other as their altitudes ; and parallelo-
grams having the fame altitude are to each other as
their bafes ; for in the former cafe put B for the com-
mon bafe and A and A' for the altitudes, then the
areas of the figures are B X A. and B X -'^' ; and it is
manifeft that B X A : B X A' :: A : A' j and in the
latter cafe, putting A for the common altitude, and B
and B' for the bales, it is evident that B x A : B' x A
:: B : B'.

Theorem VI.

fi- ij.^ The area of a triangle is equal to the product of
its bafe by the half of its altitude.

For the triangle ABC is half of the parallelogram
ABCD, which has the fame bafe BC, and the fame al-
titude AO (2.), but the area of the parallelogram is
BC X AO (5.), theiefoie that of the triangle is 4 BC
XAO,or BCxiAO.

Cor. Two triangles of the fame altitude are to each
other as their bafes ; and two triangles having the_farae
bafe are to each other as their altitudes.

Theorem VII.

^''g- 73- The area of a trapezoid ABCD is equal to the
product of its altitude EF by half the fum of its
parallel fides AB, CD.

Through the point I, the middle of BC, draw KL
parallel to the oppoGte fide AD, and produce DC to
meet KL. In the triangles IBL, ICK, IB is equal to
IC iv/ conftruction, and the angle ClKzrBIL, and the
aiig!c; ICK=IBL (21. l.) therefore the!e triangles are
equ?I ; and hence the trapezoid ABCD is equivalent
to the parallelogram ALKD, and lias for .its meafure

E T R Y. 645

ALxEF. But .'M.rrDK, and becaufe the triangle Proportions
IBL is equal to the triangle KCI, the fide BL=CK, "'/'g"^*^^-
therefore AH+CD=: AL-f DK=2AL ; hence AL *
is half the fum of the parallel fides AB, CD; and as
the area of the trapezoid is equal to FE X AL, it is alfo

, ^^ /AB-fCD\
equal to FEx ( )•

Theorem VIII.

If four ftraight lines AB, AC, AD, AE, bo pro-^ig-«9-
portionals ; the rectangle ABFE, contained by
the two extremes, is equivalent to the rectangle
ACGD contained by the means. And con-
verfely, if the rectangle contained by AB, AE,
the extremes, be equivalent to the reclangle
contained by AC, AD the means, the four lines
are proportionals.

Let the reftangles be fo placed as to have the com-
mon angle A, and let BF, DG interfeft each other in
H. Becaufe the reftangles ABHD, ACGD have ths
fame altitude AD,

ABHD : ACGD : : AB : AC; (3),

and becaufe the reclangles ABHD, ABFE have ths
fame altitude AB, for the fame reafon

ABHD ; ABFE : : AD : AE >

but by hvpotheCs AB : AC : : AD : AE, theiefore
(Ax. 3. 3.) ABHD : ACGD : : ABHD ; ABFE,
therefore {Ax. 2. 3.) the redangle ACGD=ABFE.

Next fuppofe that the rectangle ACGDzzABFE ;
then ABHD: ACGD : : ABHD ; ABFE. {As. 1.3.)
but ABHD : ACGD : : AB : AC, {^^ and ABHD:
ABFE : : AD : AE, therefore AB ; AC : : AD ; AE.

Cor. If three llraight lines be proportionals, the
rectangle contained by the extremes is equal to the
fquare of the mean ■, and if the reftangle contained by tlie
extremes be equal to the fquare of the mean, the three
ftraight lines are proportionals.

Theorem IX.

If four ftraight lines be proportionals, and alfo tig. 7c
other four, the reftangles contained by tJic cor-
refponding terms iliall be proportionals; that is,
if AB : DC : : CD : DE, and BF : BG : : DH :
DI, then Iliall yeBangle AF : m7. BM : : »y.7.
CH : rea. DQ.

For in BG and D I, produced if neceflary, take
BF=BF, and DH=DH, and let FP be parallel to
BC, and HN to DE ; then (3.)

rea. AY-.reSf. BP : : AB : BC,
and red. CH : m7. DN : : CD : DE ;

but AB : BC : : CD : DE, (by hypothefis) therefore,.

m7. AF : red. BP : : reff. CH : mV. DN ;

now (3 ) refi. BP : red. BM : : BF : BG, and red.
DN : red. DQ^ : : DH : DI ; but BF : BG : : DH :
Dl, (by bypoth.) therefore,

red. BP : red. BM : : red. DN : red. DQ^ ;

646

Proportions but it 1
ot Viiures.

G E O IM

been fliewn that

reci. AF : reB. BP : : rcci. CH ; reel. DN,

therefore (6. 3.)

r^a. AF : m9. EM : : reB. CH : reB. DQ^.

Cor. Hence the fquaies of four proportional ftralght
lines are themfelves proportionals.

Theorem X.

F!g. 74. If a ftralght Une AC be divided into any two parts
at B, the fquare made upon the whole line AC
{liall be equal to the fquares made upon the two
parts AB, BC, together with twice the reft-
angle contained by thefe two parts : which may
be exprefled thus, AC'=AB--+BC'+2AB xBC.

Suppose the fquare ACDE to be conftruaed ;
take AF=r AB, draw FG parallel to AC, and BH
parallel to CD.

The fquare ACDE is made up of- four parts ; the
firil ABIF is the fquare upon AB, becaufe AF= AB ;
the fecond IGDH ii the fquare upon BC, for AC= AE,
and AB=AF, therefore AC— ABzrAE— AF, that
isBC=EF; but EC=IG, and EF=DG, (26. i.)
therefore IGDH is the fquare upon BC, and the re-
maining f.vo parts are the two reftangles BCGI,
FEHI, which have each for their meafure ABxBC,
therefore the fquare upon AC is equal to the fquares
upon AB and BC, and twice the rectangle AB X BC.

Theorem XI.

Rj. 7j. If a ftraight line AC be the difference of two
ftraight lines AB, BC ; the fquare made upon
AC fhall be equal to the excefs of the two
fquares upon AB and BC above twice the re£l-
angle contained by AB and BC ; that is,
AC== AB= +BC'_2 AB x BC.

CoN^STRUCT the fquare ABIF, take AE=AC, and
draw CG parallel to BI, and HK parallel to AB ; and
complete the fquare EFLK. The two rectangles
CBIG, GLKD have each AB xBC for their meafure j
and if thefe be taken from the whole figure ABILKEA,
that is from AR'-f-LC, there will remain the fquare
ACDE, that is, the fquare upon AC.

Theorem XII.

Fig. 16. The rectangle contained by the fum and the dif-
ference of two ftraight lines is equal to the dif-
ference of the fquares upon thofe lines ; that is,
( AB +BC) X ( AB— BC)= AB'— BC.

• CoKSTRUCT upon AB and AC the fnuarcs ABIF,
ACDE; produce AB, fo that BK=BC. and complete
the rertangle AKLE. The bafe AK of the reclangle
is the fum of the two lines AB, BC ; and its altitude
AE is the difference of the fame lines ; therefore, tlie
reaan-le AKLE=(AB4-BC)(AB— BC) ; but the
famerc(Flang1ciscompofedof twoparts ABHE-t-BHLK,
of which, BHLKis equal to the reclangle EDGF,
3

E T K Y. Se<a. IV

for BH=DE, and BK=FE ; therefore, AKLE= Proporucr
AEHE-fEDGF; but thefe two parts conllitute the oiYignu-,
excefs of the fquare ABIF above the fquare DHIG, '

the former of ivhich is the fquare upon AB, and the
Litter the fquare upon BC, therefore (AB-)-BC)x
(AB— BC)=AB'— BC=.

Theorem XIII.

The fquare upon the hypothenufe of a right-angled

triangle is equal to the fum of the fquares upon '^" '*'
the two other fides.

Let ABC be a right-angled triangle ; having form-
ed the fquares upon its three fides, draw a perpendicu-
lar AD from the right angle upon the hypothenufe,
and produce it to E, and draw the diagonals AF, CH.
The angle ABF is e\'idently the fum of ABC and a
right angle, and the angle HBC is alfo the fum of
ABC and a right angle ; therefore the angle ABF=
HBC ; now AB=:AH, for they are lides of the fame
fquare, and BCrzBF for the fame reafon, therefore the
triangles ABF, HBC have two IJJes, and the included
angle of the one equal to two fides and the included
angle of the other, each to each, therefore the triangles
are equal, ( v i-) but the triangle ABF is the half of
the reSangie BDEF (which for brevity's fake we (hall
call BE) becaufe It has the fame bafe BF, and the
fame altitude BD, (2.) and the triangle HBC is in like
manner half of the fquare AH, for the angles BAC,
BAL being both right angles, CA and AL conllitute
a ftraight line parallel to BH, (^. i.) and thus the
triangle HBC, and the fquare AH have the fame bafe
HB, and the fame altitude AB -, from which it follows
that the triangle is half of the fquare (2.). It has now
been proved that the triangle ABF is equal to the tri-
angle HBC ; and that the rectangle BE is double of
the former, and the fquare AH double of the latter ;
therefore the rectangle BE is equal to the fquare AH.
It may be demcnltrated in like manner that the rect-
angle CDEG, or CE, is equal to the fquare A I ; but
the reft.angles BE, CE make up the fquare BCGF,
therefore, the fquare BCGF upon the hypothenufe is
equal to the fquares ALHB, AKIC upon the other
two fides.

Theorem XIV.

In a triangle ABC, if the angle C is acute, the^'g-7-'
fquare of the oppofite fide AB is k-fs th?n the
fquares of the fides which contain the angle C ;
and if AD a perpendicular be drawn to BC
from the oppofite angle, the difference fliall be
equal to twice the rectangle BC x CD ; that is
AE'=AC' + CB'— sBCxCD.

First. Suppofe AD to fall within the triangle, then
BDrrBC- CD, and confequently (ll.l BD'=BC'-f-
CD=— 2BCxCD j to each of thefe equals add AD'5
then, obferving that BD'-f DA==BA% and CD'-f-
D.V=:CA',

AB==BC'-t-CA*— 2BCXCD.

Next, fuppofe AD to fall without the triangle, fo
that L'D=CD— BC, and therefore BD'=:CD'-{.
BC— 2 BCxCD, (II.) to each of thefe add AD' as

before.

Sea. IV.

GEOMETRY.

647

Prcpoit' ..'before, and we get

llifill^' AB'=BC'+CA>— zBCxCD.

Theorem XV.

Tig- 79- In a triangle ABC, if the angle C is obtufe, the
fquare of the oppoTite fide AB is greater than
the fum of the fquares of the fides which con-
tain the angle C ; and if AD a perpendicular
be drawn to BC from the oppofite angle, the
difference flvall be equal to twice the redtangle
BCxCD, that is

AB'=AC' + BC' + 2BCxCD.

For BD=BC + CD, and therefore (10.) BD'=
BC' + CD' + 2BCxCDi to each of thefe equals add
AD% then, obfeiving that AD"+DB'=AB', and
AD'+DC~AC%

AB==BC=+CA' + 2 BC X CD.
Scholium.

It is only when a triangle has one of its angles a
right angle, that the fum of the fquares of two of its
fides can be equal to the fquare of the third fide ; for if
the angle contained by thofe lides be acute, the fum of
their fquares is greater than the fquare of the oppofite
fide, and if the angle be obtule, that fum is lefs than
the fquare of the oppofite fide.

Theorem XVI.

T^g. S3. If a ftraight line AE be drawn from the vertex of
any triangle ABC to the middle of its bafe BC ;
the fum of the fquares of the fides is equal to
twice the fquare of half the bafe, and twice
the fquare of the line drawn from the vertex
to the middle of the bafe ; that is, AB'-f-AC'=
2BE' + 2AE=;

Draw AD perpendicular to EC, then

AB==BE= + EA'— 2BExED, (14.)

and AC':z:CE'+EA'+2CExED, (15.)

therefore, by adding equals to equals, and obferving

that BE=CE, and therefore BE'=:CE% and 2BEx

ED=2CExED,

AB' + AC==2.BE' + 2AE\
Theorem XVII.

^•- j,_ A ftraight line DE drawn parallel to one of the
fides of a triangle ABC divides the other two
fides AB, AC proportionally, fo that AD : DB
: : AE : EC.

Join BE and CD. The triangles EDE, CDE,
having the fame bafe DE, and the fame ahitude, are
equivalent, (2.) and the triangles ADE, BDE, having
the fame altitude, are to one another as their baics, (6.)
that is, ADE: BDE: : AD : DB j the triangles ADE,
CDE, having alfo the fame altitude, are to one mio-
ther as their bafes ; that is ADE : CDE : : AE . EC,
bi^t the triangle BDE has been proved equal to CDEj

therefore, becaufe of the common ratio in the two pro- Proportions
portions, we have (Ax. 3. 3.) ,1!!!^

AD : DB : : AE : EC.
CoR. Hence by compofition AB : AD : : AC : AE ;
and AB ; ED : : AC : CE.

Theorem XVIII.

Converfely, if two of the fides AB, AC of a tri-
angle are divided proportionally by the ftraight '*=
line DE, fo that AD : DB : : AE : EC, then
ihall the line DE be parallel to the remaining
fide BC.

For if DE is not parallel to BC, fuppofe forae
other line DO to be parallel to EC } then, AB : ED : :
AC : CO (17.) and fince by hypothefis AD : DB ; :
AE : EC, and confequently, by compofition, AB ;
ED : : AC : CE, therefore, AC : CO : : AC : CE}
therefore, CO=zCE (2 Ax. 3.) which is impoflible ;
therefore DO is not parallel to EC.

Cor. If it be fuppofed that BA : AD : : CA .
AE, (1111 DE will be parallel to EC ; for by divifion
ED : AD : : CE : AE, this proportion being the
fame as in the Theorem, the conclulion mull be the
fame.

Theorem XIX.

A ftraight line AD, which bifedls the angle BACfig. 6s.
of a triangle, divides the bafe BC into two feg-
ments proportional to the adjacent fides BA,
AC ; that is, BD : DC : : BA : AC.

Through the point C draw CE parallel to AD, fo
as to meet EA produced. In the triangle ECE, the
line AD is parallel to one of its fides CE, therefore
ED : DC : : BA : AE ; now the triangle CAE is
ifofceles, for, becaufe of the parallels AD, CE, the
angle ACE=DAC, and the angle AEC=BAD,-
(21. I.) but by hypothefis DAC=EAD ; therefore
ACIfczrAEC •, and confequently AE=AC, (12. i.)
therefore, fubllituting AC inflead of AE in the above
proportion, it becomes BD : DC : : EA : AC.

Theorem XX.

If two triangles be equiangular, their homologous Fig. 84.
fides are proportional, and the triangles are
fimilar.

Let ABC, CDE be two equiangular triangles,
which have the angle EACrrCDE, AECizrDCE,
and ACBnDEC ; the homologous fides, or the fides
adjacent to the equal angles, lliall be proportional ; lhat~
is, BC : CE : : 'B : CD : : AC : DE.

Place the homologous fides EC, CE in the fame
direftion, and produce the fides E \, ED, till they
meet in F. Becaufe ECE is a ftraight line, and the
angle EC A is equal to CED, the lines CA, EF are
parallel, (22. 1.) and In like manner, becaufe the angle
AECrrDeE, the lines BF, CD are parallel; there-
fore the figure /^ CDF is a parallelogram, and hence
AF=CD, and C '='."■¥ (26. i.). In the triangle
EFE the Une AC is parall'.l to the lidc FE, therefore

BC: .

648 G E O M

troportloni BC : CE : : BA ; AF; or fu.ce AF=rCD,BC : CE::
c: tiguKs. -g ,^ . QY)^ Again, in the fame triangle, becaufe CD

' " is parallel to the fide BF, BC : CE : : FD : DE, or,

iince FD=AC, BC : CE : : AC : DE j having now
flievvn that BC : CE : : BA : CD, and that EC :
CE : : AC : DE, it follows that BA : CD : : AC :
DE ; therefore the equiangular triangles BAC, CDE
have their homologous fides proportional, and hence
(def. 2.) the triangles are fimilar.

Scholium.

It is manifeft, that the homologous fides are oppofite
to the equal angles.

Theorem XXI.

fig- S3. If two triangles have their homologous fides pro-
portional, they are equiangular and fimilar.

Suppose that BC : EF : : AB : DE : : AC : DF;
then (hall A=D, E=E, C=F. At the point E
make the angle FEG^B, and at the point F make
EFGzrC ; then the third angle G Ihall be equal to
the third angle A, and the two triangles ABC, GEF
Ihall be equiangular ; therefore, bv the laft theorem
BC : EF : : AB :GE ; but by hypothefis BC : EF : :
AB : DE, therefore GE=DE (Ax. 2. 3.). In like
manner, becaufe bv the fame theorem BC : EF : :
CA : FG ; and by hypothefis EC : EF : : CA : FD;
therefore FG=:FD ; but it was (he-A-n that EG=ED,
therefore, the triangles GEF, DFF, ha\'ing the fides
of the one equal to thofe of the other, each to each,
are equal, but, by confiruclion, the triangle GEF is
equiangular to ABC, therefore alfo the triangles DEF,
ABC are equiangular and fmiilar.

Theorem XXII.

i .g. 85. Two triangles which have an angle of the one
equal to an angle of the other, and tlie fides
about thefe angles proportional, are fimilar.

Let the angle A=D, and let AB : DE : : AC :
DF, the triangle ABC is fimilar to DEF. Take
AGzrDE, and draw GH parallel to BC, then the
angle AGH=ABC, (21. 1.) therefore the triangle
AGH is equiangular to ABC, and confequently (20.)
AB : AG : : AC : AH ; but by hypothefis AB :
DE : : AC : DF, and bv conftruaion AG = DE,
therefore AH=DF ; the two triangles AGH, DEF
are therefore equal, (5. 1.) but the triangle AGH is
limilar to ABC, therefore DEF is fimilar to ABC.

Theorem XXIII.

Vig. B6. In a right-angled triangle, if a perpendicular
AD be drawn from the right angle upon the
hypothenufe, then,

1. The triangles ABD, CAD on each fide of the
perpendicular are fimilar to the whole triangle
BAC, and to one another.

2. Each fide AB or AC is a mean proportional
between the hypothenufe BC, and the adjacent
fegment BD or DC.

E T R Y. Sed. IV

3. The perpendicular AD is a mean proportional Propm .
between the two fegments BD, DC. cfFipn

1. The triangles BAD, BAC have the common
angle B; btfides, the right angle BAC is equal to the
right angle IJDA, therefore the third angle BAD of
the one, is equal to the third angle BC A of the other ;
therefore, thefe triangles are equiangular and fimilar ;
and in the fame manner it may be Ihewn, that the tri-
angle DAC is equiangular and fimilar to BAC ; there-
fore the three triangles are equiangular and fimilar to
each other.

2. Becaufe the triangle BAD is fimilar to the tri-
angle BAC, their homologous fides are proportional.
Now the fide BD of the lefler triangle is homologous
to the fide BA of the greater, becaufe they are oppo-
fite to the equal angles BAD, BCA ; in like manner
BA, confidered as a fide of the leffer triangle, is homo-
logous to the fide BC of the greater, each being oppo-
fite to a right an;.'le ; therefore, BD : B A : : BA : BC.
In the fame manner it may be fliewn that CD : CA : :
CA : CB, therefore each fide is a mean proportional
between the hypothenufe and the fegment adjacent to
that fide.

3. By comparing the homologous fides of the two
fimilar triangles ABD, ACD, it appears that BD :
DA : : DA : DC ; therefore the perpendicular is a
mean proportional between the fegments of the hypo-
thenufe.

Theorem XXIV.

Two tiiangles, which have an angle of the one Fig. S;.
equal to an angle of the other, are to each other
as the reftangles of the fides which contain the
equal angles ; that is, the triangle ABC is to
the triangle ADE, as the re£langle AB x AC
to the reftangle AD x AE.

Join BE ; becaufe the triangles ABE, ADE have
a common vertex E, they have the fame altitude,
therefore ABE : ADE : : AB : AD, (Cor. to 6.)
but AB : AB : : ABx AE : ADxAE, (3.) there-
fore,

ABE : ADE : : AB x AE : ADxAE.
In the fame manner it may be demonllrated that

ABC : ABE : : ABxAC : ABxAE;

Therefore(6.3.) ABC: ADE::ABx AC: ADxAE.

Cor. Therefore the two triangles are equivalent, If
the redangle ABx AC= ADxAE, or (8.) if AB :
AD : : AE : AC, in which cafe, the fides about the
equal angles are faid to be reciprocally proportional.

Scholium.

What has been proved of triangles is alfo true of
parallelograms, they being the doubles of fuch tri-
angles.

Theorem XXV.

Two fimilar triangles are to each other as the Fig s^.
fcuares of their homologous fides.

Let

IV. GEO M

Jfs Let the angle A=::D, the angle B=E, and ihere-
''• fore the angle C=:F,

then(;o.) AB : DE : : AC : DF ;

noiv- AB : DE : : AB : DE,

for llie two ratios are identical, therefore, (9)

AB' : DE» : : AB X AC : DE X DFj

but ABC : DEF : : AB x AC : DE xE>F, (24.)

therefore ABC : DEF : : AB' : DE% (Ax. 3. 3.)

therefore the two fimilar triangles ABC, DEF, ai-e
to each other as the Ujuares of the homologous fides
AB, DE, or as the fquares of any of the other homo-
logous fides.

Theorem XXVI.

Similar polygons are compofed of the fame num-
ber of triangles which are fimilar and fimihvly
Ctuated.

In the polygon ABCDE, draw from one of the
angles A the diagonals AC, AD to all ttie other
angles. In the polygon FGHIK, ^draw in like man-
ner from the angle F, homologous to A, the diagonals
FH, FI to the otlier angles.

Becaufe the polygons are fimilar, the angle ABC is
cjual to its homologous angle EGH (Def. 2.) alio the
fides AB, BC are proportional to FG, GH, fo that
AB : FG : : BC : GH, therefore the triangles ABC,
FGHare fimilar ( 22.) ;thereforetheangleBCA=GHF,
and thefe being taken from the equal angles BCD,GHI,
the remainders ACD, FHI are equal; but the triangles
ABC, FGH being fimilar, AC : FH : : BC : GH,
befides, becaufe of the fimilarity of the polygons, BC :
GH : : CD : HI ; therefore AC : FH : : CD : HI ; new
it has been already Ihewn that the angle ACD:nFHI,
therefore the triangles ACD, FHI are fimilar (22.)
It may be demonfirated in the fame manner that the
remaining triangles are fimilar, whatever be the num-
ber of fides of the polygon ; therefore two fimilar poly-
gons are compofed of the fame number of triangles,
fimilar to each other, and fimilarly fituatcd.

Theorem XXVII.

Tlie perimeters of fimilar polygons are as the ho-
mologous fides, and the polygons themfelves
are as the fquares of the homologous fides.

For, fince bv the nature of fimilar figures AB :
FG : : BC : GH : : CD : HI, &c. therefore,
(2. cor. 8. 3.) AB + BC-f-CD, &c. the perimeter of
tlie firft figure, is to FG-|-GH-|-HI, &c. the perime-
ter of the fecond, as the fide AB to its homologous
fide FG.

Again, becaufe the triangles ABC, FGH are fimi-
lar, ABC : FGH : : AC : FH' (25.), in like man-
ner 2\CD : FHI ; : AC : FH', therefore,

ABC : FGH : : ACD ; FHI.

By the fame manner of reafoning,

ACD : FHI : : ADE : FIK,
V'iL. IX. Part II.

E T R Y

and fo on if there be more triangles ; hence, from this Propr.rtu,
fcries of equal ratios, it follows (2. cor. 8. 3.) that °^S"'«
ABC+ACD-l-ADE, or the polygon ABCDE, is' **""
to FGH-i-FHI-fFJK, or the polyj^on FGHIK, as
one ot the antecedents ABC is to its confequent FGH,
or as AB' to FG' ; therefore, fimilar polygons are

649

to each other as the fqu
fides.

of their homol(

ogous

CoR. I. If three fimilar ■ figures have their homolo-
gous fides equal to the three fides of a right-angled
triangle, the figure having the greatelt fide (liall be
equal to the two others ; for thefe three figures are
proportional to the fquares of their homologous fides,
and the fquare of the hypothenufc Is equal to tlie
fquares of the other two fides.

CoR. 2. Similar polygons have to each other the
duplicate ratio of their homologous fides. For let L
be a third proportional to the homologous fides AB,
FG, then (Dtf. 11.3.) AB has to L the duplicate ra-
tio of AB to FG ; but AB : L : : AB' : ABxL
(3), or, fince AB X L=FG=, (Cor. to 8.) AB : L : :
AB'- : FG' : : ABCDE : FGHIK, therefore the figure
ABCDE has to the figure FGHIK, the dupircate
ratio of AB to FG.

Theorem XXVIII.

The fegments of two chords AD, CD, which cut Fig. SS.
each other within a circle, are reciprocally pro-
portional, that is AO : DO :: CO : OB.

Join AC and BD ; and becaufe the triangles AGO,
BOD have the angles at O equal (4. i.), and the
angle A=D and the angle C=B (ij. 2.) the tri-
angles are fimilar ; therefore the homologous fides are
proportional, (20.) that is, AO : DO :: CO : BO.

CoR. Hence AOxBO^COxDO, (8.) that is,
the rectangle contained by the fegments of the one
chord is equal to the rectangle contained by the feg-
ments of the other.

Theorem XXIX.

If from a point O without a circle, two ftraightFig. 90.
lines be drawn, terminating in the concave arch
BC ; the whole lines fliall be reciprocally pro-
portional to the parts of them witliout the cir-
cle, that, is OB ; OC :: OD : OA.

Join AC, BD ; then the triangles OAC, OBD
have the common angle O, alfo tlie angle B=:C
(15. 2.), therefore the triangles are fimilar, and the
homologous fides are proportional, that is, OB : OC
:: OD : OA.

Cor. Therefore (8.) OA xOB=:OCxOD, that
is, the reftangles contained by the whole lines, and the
parts of them without the circle, are equal to one ano-
ther.

Theorem XXX.

If from a point O without a circle a ftraight line Fig. gt

OA be drawn touching the circle, and alfo a

ftraight line OC cutting it, the tangent fhall be

a mean proportional between the whole line

4 N which

650 GEO M

Problems. which cuts the circle, and the part of it without
" ^ tlie circle, that is, OC : OA :: OA : OD.

For if AC, AD be joined, the triangles OAD,
OCA, have the angle at O common to both,- alfo the
:mgle ACD or ACO is equal to DAO (18. 2.), there-
fore the triangles are firailar (20.) and conlequently
CO : OA :: OA : OD.

Cor. Therefore (cor. to 8.) COxOD=:OAS that
is, the fquare of the tangent is equal to the rectangle
contained by the whole line which cuts the circle, and
the part of it without the circle.

Theorem XXXI.

^'S- 9^- In the fame circle, or in equal circles, any angles
ACB, DEF are to each other as the arches AB,
DF of the circles intercepted between the lines
which contain the angles.

E T R y. Sea.V

SurprsE the arch AE to have to the arch DF the Pioblemi.

ratio of the number p to the number q ; then the arch v

AB being fuppofed divided into equal parts Ag, gh,
hB, the number of which is/>, the arch DF fhall con-
tain f/ equal parts Dk, kl, Im, mn, nF, each of which
i< equal to any one of the equal parts into which AB
is divided. Draw ftraight lines from the centres of the
circles to the points of divifion, thefe lines will divide
ACB into /) angles and DEF into 9 angles, which are
all equal (13. 2.) therefore, the angle ACB has to
the angle DEF the ratio of the number fi to the num-
ber r/, which ratio is the fame as that of the arch AB
to the arch DF.

Cor. Hence it appears that angles may be mcafured
and compared with each other by means of arches of
circles defcribed on the vertices of the angles as centres,
obferving, houever, that the radii of the circles mult
be equal.

SECT. V. PROBLEIMS.

Problem I.

Phte To bifea a given ftraight line AB; that is, to di-
C'JXLIII. Yide it into two equal parts.

From the points A and B as centres, with any radius
greater than the half of A B, defcribe arches, cutting
each other in D and D on each fide of the line AB.
Draw a ftraight line through the points D, D, cutting
AB in C ; the line AB is bifected in C.

For the points D, D, being equally diilant from the
extremities of the line AB, are each in a ftraight line
perpendicular to the middle of A B, (16. I.), therefore
the line" DCD is that perpendicular, and confequently
C is the middle of AB.

Problem II.

Tig. 94. To draw a perpendicular to a given ftraight line
BC, from a given point A in that line.

Take the points B and C at equal diftances from A ;
and on B and C as centres, with any radius greater
than BA, defcribe arches, cutting each other in D ;
draw a ilraight line from A through D, which will be
the perpendicular required. For the point D, being at
equal diftances from the extremities of the line BC,
muft be in a perpendicular to the middle of BC (16.1.),
tlierefore AD is the perpendicular required.

Problp:m III.

rig- 9S- To draw a perpendicular to a given line, BD,
from a given point A without that line.

On A as a centre, with a radius fufticiently great,
defcribe an arch, cutting the given line in two points B,
D ; and on B and D as centres, with a radius greater
Aan the half of BD, defcribe two arches, cutting each

other in E ; draw a ftraight line through the points A and
E, meeting BD in C ; the line AC is the perpendicular
required.

For the two points A and E are each at equal di-
ftances from B and D ; therefore, a line palhng
throueh A and E is perpendicular to the middle of
BD, (16.1.).

Problem IV.

At a given point A, in a given line AB, to make Fig. $6.
an angle equal to a given angle K.

On K as a centre, with any radius, defcribe an arch
to meet the lines containing tiie angle K, in L and I ;
and on A as a centre, with the fame radius, defcribe an
indefinite arch BO ; on B as a centre, with a radius
equal to the chord LI, defcribe an arch, cutting the
arch BO in D ; draw AD, and the angle DAB fliall
be equal to K.

For the arches BD, LI having equal radii and equal
chords, the arches ihemfelves are equal (4. 2.), there-
fore the angles A and K are alfo equal (13. 2.).

Problem V.
To bifeft a given arch AB, or a given angle C. Fig. 97.

First. To bifeft the arch AB, on A and B as
centres, with one and the fame radius, defcribe arches
to interfecl in D ; join CD, cutting the arch in E, and
the arch AE Ihalfbe equal to EB,

For, fince the points C and D are at equal diftances
from A, and alfo from B, the line which joins them
is perpendicular to the middle of the chord AB
(16. I.), therefore, the arch AB is bifefled at E,
(6.2.).

Secondly. To biftiEt the angle C; on C as a centre,
with any diiiance, defcribe an arch, meeting the lines
containing the angle in A and E ; then find the point

D

Sea. V. G E O M E

Problems. D as before, and the line CD will manifellly b!fe£l the
"— "V-"— angle C, as required.

T R ^^

Scholium.

By the fame conftru<3ion we may bifeft each of the
arches AE, EB •, and again we may bifecl each of the
halves of thefe arches, and fo on ; thus by fuccedive
fubdivifions, an arch may be divided into four, eight,
Cxteen parts, &c.

Problem VI.

Tig. jS. Through a given point A, to draw a ftraight line
parallel to a given ftraight line BC.

Ox A as a centre, with a radius fufficiently large,
defcri'oe the indefinite arch EO ; on E for a centre,
with the fame radius, defcribe the arch AF; in EO
take ED equal to AF, dra-vv a line from A through
D, and AD will be parallel to BC.

For if AE be ) ^ined, the angle EAD is equal to
AEB (13. 2.), and they are alternate angles, there-
fore, AD is parallel to BC, {22. i.).

Problem VII.

F g- 99- To conftruft a triangle, the fides of which may be
equal to three given lines A, B, C.

Take a ftraight line, DE, equal to one of the given
lines A ; on D as a centre, with a radius equal to
another of the lines B, defcribe an arch •, on E as a
centre, with a radius equal to the remaining line C, de-
fcribe another arch, cutting the former in ¥; join DF
and EF, and DEF will be the triangle required, as is
fuihciently evident.

Scholium.
It is neceffary that the fum of any two of the lines be

greater than the third line (7. I.).

Problem VIII,

Fig. ICO. To conftrufl: a parallelogram, the adjacent fides
of which may be equal to two given lines A, B,
and the angle they contain equal to a given
angle C.

Draw the ftraight line DEzrA; make the angle
GDE=C, and take DG^B -, defcribe two arch^^s,
one on G as a centre, with a radius GFrzDE, and the
other on E, with a radius EF:=:DG ; then DEFG
iliall be the parallelogram required.

For by conftrucflion the oppofite fides are equal,
therefore, the figure is a parallelogram, (27. I.) and
it is fo coiflruded, that the adjacent fides and the
an^le they contain have the magnitudes given in the
problem.

CoR. If the given angle be a right angle, the figure
will be a reflangle ; and if the adjacent fides be alio
ccjual, the figure will be a fquare.

To find the centre of a given circle, or of a cir-Fig. loi.
cle of which an arch is given.

Take any three points A, B, D, in the circumfer-
ence of the circle, or in the given arch, and having
drawn the ftraight lines AB, BD, bifecl them by the
pej[fendiculars EG, FH; the point C where the per-
pendiculars intefeil each other is the centre of the cir-
cle, as is evident from Theorem VI. fed. 2.

Scholium.

By the very fame conftruflion a circle may be found
that ftiall pafs through three given points A, B, C ; or
that ftiall be defcribed about a given tiianglc ABC.

Problem X.

To draw a tangent to a given circle through a Fig. loi,
given point A. "^3-

If the given point, A, be in the circumference
(fig. 102.), draw the radius AC; and through A,
draw AD perpendicular to AC, and AD will be a
tangent to the circle. (9.2.). But if the given point A
be without the circle, (tig. 103.) draw AC to the cen-
tre, and bifect AC in O, and on O as a centre, with
OA or OC as a radius, delcribe a circle which will cut
the given circle in two points D and D' ; join AD
and AD', and each of the lines AD, AD', will be a
tangent to the circle.

For, draw the radii CD, CD', then each of the
angles ADC, AD'C is a right angle, (17.2.) ; there-
fore AD and AD' are both tangents to the circle,
(9.2.).

CoR. The two tangents AD, AD' are equal to one
another. (17. 1.).

Problem XI.
To infcrlbe a circle in a given triangle ABC. Fig. 134.

Bisect A and B any two angles of the triangle by
the ftraight lines AO, BO, which meet each other in
O ; from O (irasv OD, OE, OF, perpendiculars to its
fides ; thefe lines Ihall be equal to one another.

For in the triangles ODB, OEB, the angle ODB
=:0E8, andthe angle OKD = ObE j therefore, the
remaining angles BOD, BOE, are equal ; and as the
fide OB is common to both triangles, they are equal to
one another, (6. i.), therefore the fide OD=OE ; in
the fame maniici it may be demonftrated, that OD
=:OF J therefore the lines OD, OE, OF, are equal to
one another, and confequently a circle defcribed on O
as a centre, with OD as a radius, will pafs through E
and F ; and as tlie fides of the triangle are tangents to
the circle, (9. 2.) it will be infcribcd in the triangle.

Probi.i.m XII.

Upon a given ftraight line AB, to defcribe a feg-pig. ,j,,.
4 N 2 meiit

65-2 G E O M

rroolero;. mciit of a circle that may contain an angle equal
*—~-v—^ tQ 2 given angle C.

Produce AB towards D, and at the point B make
the angle DEE equal to the given angle C ; draw BO
perpendicular to BE, and GO perpendicular to the
middle of AB, meeting BO in O ; on O as a centre,
with OB as a radius, defcribe a circle, which will pafs
through A, and AMB Ihall be the iegment required.

For fince FE is perpendicular to BO, FE is ajan-
gent to the circle, therefore the angle EBD (whicn is
equal to C by conftruclion) is equal to any i.ngle
AMB in the alternate fegmeut (i8. 2.).

Problem XIII.
Fig. icS. i"o divide a (Iraight line, AB, into any propofed
'S- "^7- number of equal parts ; or into parts having to
each other the fame ratios that given lines have.

First, Let it be propofed to divide the line AB,
(fig. io6.) into five equal parts. Through the extre-
mity A draw an indefinite line AG, take AC of any
magnitude, and take CD, DE, EF, and FG, each
equal to AC, that is, take AG equal to five times
AC ; join GB, and draw CI parallel to GB_, the line
AI Ihall be one-fifth part of AB, and AI being taken
five times in AB, the line AB fhall be divided into
five equal parts.

For fince CI is parallel to GB, the fides AG and
AB are cut proportionally in C and I ; but AC is the
fifth part of AG; therefore AI is the fifth part of AB.

Next, let it be propofed to divide AB (fig. 107.) in-
to parts, having to each other the ratios that the lines
P, CI, R, have. Through A draw AG, and in AG
take AC=P, CD-Q DE=Rj join EB, and draw
CI and DK parallel to EB; the line AB fiiall be
divided as required.

For, becaufe of the parallels CJ, DK, EB, the parts
AI, IK, KB, have to each other the fame ratios that
the parts AC, CD, DE, have, (17. 4.) which parts are
by conftruclion equal to the given lines P, Q^, R.

Problem XIV.

Fif. 108. To find a fourth proportional to three given lines,
A, B, C.

Draw two flraight lines DE, DF, containing any
angle; on DE take DA=A, and DH=rB, and oil
DF take DC=C ; join AC, and draw BX parallel to
AC j then, BX fhall be the fourth proportional re-
quired.

For, becaufe BX is parallel to AC, DA : DB ::
DC : DX (17. 4.) that is, A : B :: C : DX, there-
tore DX is a fourth proportional to A, B, and C,

Cor. The fame conftruftion ferves to find a third
proportional to two lines A and B ; for it is the fame
as a fourth proportional to the lines A, B, and B.

Problem XV.

Fig. 1C9. To find a mean proportional between two flraight
lines. A, B.

Upon any flraight line DF take DE=A, and EF

E T R Y. Sea. V.

rrB ; and on DF as a diameter defcribe a femicircle Pioblems.
DGF ; draw EG perpendicular to DF, meeting the '— — v— -"
circle in G ; the line EG iliallbe the mean proportion,
al required.

For, if D<5, FG, be joined, the angle DGF is a
right angle, (17. 2.) therefore, in the right-angled tri-
angle DGF, GE is a mean proportional between DE
and EF, (23.4.).

Problem XVI.

To divide a given flraight line AB into two parts, Fig. no,
fo that the greater may be a mean proportional
between the whole line and the other part.

At B, one of the extremities of the line, draw BC
perpendicular to AB, and equal to the half of AB ;
on C as a centre, with CB as a radius, defcribe a cir-
cle ; join AC, meeting the circle in D ; make AF=:
AD, and AB fliall be divided at F in the manner re-
quired.

For fince AB is perpendicular to the radius, it is a
tangent to the circle (9. 2.), and if AC be produced to
meetthecircleinE, AB: AF:: AE : A B, (30. 4.) and
by divifion, AE— AF : AF :: AE— AB : AB ; but
AB— AF=BF, and fince DE=2BC=AB, therefore
AE— AB=:AD=AF, therefore BF : AF :: AF :
AB.

Scholium.

When a line is divided in this manner it is faid to be
divided in extreme and mean ratio.

Problem XVII.

To make a fq-nre equivalent to a given parallelo-FIs;. 112.
gram or to a given triangle. ^'S- "3-

First, let ABCD be a given parallelogram,
(fig. 1 1 2.) the bafe of which is AB, and althude DE;
find XY a mean proportional between AB and DE,
(by problem 15.) and XY fhall be the fide of the
fquare required.

For fince by conflruaion AB : XY :: XY : DE,
therefore, XY'zr ABxDE (8.4.) = parallelogram
ABCD (5. 4.).

Next, let ABC be a given triangle (fig. 113.) BC
its bafe, and AD its altitude ; find XY a mean pro-
portional between half the bafe and the altitude, and
XY fhall be the fide of the fquare required.

For fince -iB : XY ;: XY : AD ; therefore (8. 4.)
XY'=-;,BCxAD=triang]e ABC (6. 4.);

Problem XVIII.

Upon a given line EF, to conflruft a recSlangleFig. 114.
EFGX equivalent to a given rcdanglc ABCD.

Find a fourth proportional to the three lines EF,
AB and AD; (by problem 14.) draw EX perpendi-
cular to EF, and equal to that fourth proportional,
and complete the reftangle EFGX, which will have
the magnitude required.

For lince EF : AB :: AD : EX, therefore (8. 4.)
EFxEXrrABxAD, that is, the reaangle EFGX
is equal to the rectangle ABCD.

Problem

Sea. V

Problems.,

GEOMETRY.

653

Problem XIX.
Fig. III. To make a trianjjie equivalent to a "-ivea polvson

First, draw the diagonal CE, fo as to cut ofF the
triangle CDE ; draw DG parallel to CE, to meet AE
produced in G ; join CG, and the given polygon
ABCDE (liall be equivalent to another polygon ABCG
which has one fide fewer. -

For fince DG is parallel to CE, the triangle CGE
is equivalent to the triangle CDE, (2. cor. 2. 4.) to
each add the polygon ABCE, and the polygon
ABCDE (hall be equivalent to the polygon ABCG.

In like manner, if the diagonal CA be drawn, alfo
BF parallel to CA, meeting EA produced, and CF
be joined, the triangle CFA is equivalent to the tri-
angle CBA, and thus the polygon ABCDE js trans-
formed to the triangle CFG.

In this way a triangle may be found equivalent to
any other polygon, for by transforming the figure into
another equivalent figure that has one fide fewer, and
repeating the operation, a figure inll at lafl be found
which has only three fides.

Scholium.

As a fquare may be found equivalent to a triangle,
by combining this problem with Prob. XV^II. a fquare
may be found equivalent to any rectilineal figure what-
ever.

Problem XX.

Plate Upon a given line FC to conftru£t a polygon fimi-
CCXLII. i^r to a given polygon ABCDE.

Fig. Sy.

Draw the diagonals AC, AD ; af the point F,
make the angle GFH:z:BAC, and at the point G
make the angle FGH= ABC ; thus a triangle FGH
will be conftruaed fimilar to ABC. Again, on FH
conftruct in like manner a triangle FIH, fimilar to
ADC and fimilarly fituated ; and on FI conllruft a
triangle FKI fimilar to AED and fimilarly fituated;
and thefe triangles FGH, FHI, FIK (hall form a po-
lygon FGHIK fimilar to ABCDE (26. 4.).

Problem XXI.

Plate To infcribe a fquare in a given circle.

CCXLUI. "

f'g- iij. Draw two diameters AC, BD, fo as to interfeft
each other at right angles ; join tiie extremities of the
diameters A, B, C, D, and the figure ABCD Ihall be
a fquare infcribed in the circle.

For the angles AOB, BOC, &c. being all equal, the
chords AB, BC, CD, DA are equal; and as each of
the angles of the figure ABCD is in a femicircle, it is
a right angle, {17. 2.) therefore the figure is a fquare.

Problem XXII.

Fig. ir«. To infcribe a regular hexagon and alfo an equila-
lateral triangle in a given circle.

From any point A in the circumference, apply AB

and BCcach equal to AOthe radius; draw the three dia- Problems,
meters AD, BE, CF, and jci;-. their adjacent extremi- '— ""w"*^
ties by the lines AB, BC, &c. and the figure ABCDEF
thus formed is the hexagon required.

For the triangles AOB, BOC being by conftruc-
tion equilateral, each of the angles AOB, BOC i,s
one-third of two right angles, (4. cor. 24. 1.) and
fince AOB + BOC + COD= two right angles, there-
fore, CODz= one-third of t^vo right angles, therefore
the tj||e angles AOB, BOC, COD, are equal, and
as th~are equal to the angles AOF, FOE, EOD ;
the fix angles at the centre are all equal ; therefore,
the chords AB, BC, CD, DE, EF, FA are all equal ;
thus the figure is equilateral. It is alfo equiangular,
for the an'^les FAB, ABC, &c. are in equal feg-
ments, eacft having for its bafe the chord of two-fixths
of the circumference, therefore, the angles A, B, &c.
are equal ( 15. 2.)

If ft raight lines be drawn joining A, C, E, the ver-
tices of the ahernate angles of the hexagon, there will
be formed an equilateral triangle infcribed in a circle ;
as is fufficiently evident.

Scholium.
As the form of reafonin^ by which it has been ttienn
that an equilateral hexagon infcribed in a circle is alfo
equiangular, will apply alike to any equilateral poly-
gon ; it inay be inferred, that every equilateral poly-
gon infcribed in a circle is alfo equiangular.

Problem XXIII.
To infcribe a regular pentagon in a given circle. Fi^. 117.

Draw any radius AO, and divide it into two parts
AF, FO, fuch, that AO : OF :: OF : AF ; (16.)
from A place AG in the circumference equal to OF ;
join OG, and draw the chord AHB perpendicular to
OG, the chord AB Ihall be a fide of the pentagon re-
quired.

Join GF, and becaufe AO : OF :: OF : AF, and
that AG=OF, therefore, AO : AG :: AG : AF ;
now the angle A is common to the two triangles O AG,
GAF, and it has been (hewn that the fides about that
angle in the two ttiangles are proportionals ; therefore
(22.4.) the triangles are fimilar, and the triangle
AOG being ifofceles, the triangle AGF is alfo ifo-
fceles ; fothat AG=rGF; but AG=FO, (by conllruc-
tion) therefore, GFrrFO, and the angle FOGrrFGO,
and FOG -I- FGO =2 FOG ; but AFG = FOG +
FGO, (23. I.) and AFGzrFAG, therefore, FAG=:
2 FOG ; hence in the ifofceles triangle AOG, each of
the angles at the bafe is double the vertical angle
AOG, therefore the fum of all the angles is equal to
five times the vertical angle AOG ; but the fum of all
the angles is equal to two right angles, (24. i.) there-
fore the angle AOG is one-fifth of two right angles,
and confequently AOB= 2 AOG=two-fifths of two
right angles equal one-fifth of four right angles, there-
fore the arch AB is one-fifth of the whole circumfer-
ence. If we now fuppolc II raight lines BC, CD, DE,
to be applied in the circle each equal to AB, ih.-
chord of one-fifth of the circumference, and AE to be
joined, the figure thus formed "will be an equilateral
pentagon, and it is alfo equiangular (Schdl. 22.)

PitOBir.M

654

Of the
Quadratur

G E O M E

= Problem XXIV,

Having given ABCD, &c. a regular polygon in-
fcribed in a circle, to defcribe a regular polygon
of the fame number of fides abijut the circle.

Draw GH a tangent to the circle at T the middle
of the arch AB ; do the fame at the middle of each of
the other arches BC, CD, &c. thefe tangen^fhall
form a regular polygon GKIK, &c. defcribed about
the circle.

Join OG, OH, &c. alfo OT and ON. In the tri-
angles OTH, ONH, the fide OT=ON, and OH is
common to both, and OTH, ONH, are r-t;ht angles,
therefore the triangles are equal (17. I.) and the

T R Y. Sea. Vl

anqles TOHzrNOH ; now B is the middle of the of th?
ar 'a TN, therefore OH palTes through B ; and in the Qi"''''^' ■
fame manner it appears that I is in the line OC produ- "? "j''
ccd, &c. Now becauie OT bifeils the arch AB it is i_J!^.
perpenciioular to the chord AB (6. z.), therefore GH
is parallel to AB [9. 2. and 18. I.), and HI to BC,
therefore the angle GHO=ABO, and IHO=CBO,
and hence GHI— ABC ; and in hke manner it ap-
pears, that HIKr=BCD, &c. therefore the angles of
the circumfcribed polygon are equal to thofe of the
infcribed polygon. And becaufe of the parallels, GH :
AB :: OH : OB, and HI : BC :: OH : OB, there-
fore, GH : AB :: HI : BC j but AB-BC j there-
fore GH=:HI. For the fame reafon HI=IK, &c.
therefore, the polygon is regular, and firailar to the in-
fcribed polygon.

SECT. VI. OF THE qUADRATURE OF THE CIRCLE.

Axio:\r.
yig. 120. IF ABC be an arch of a'circle, and AD, CD be

two tangents at its extremities, interfefting each other
in D ; the fum of the tangents AD, DC is greater
than the arch ABC.
Fi^. 118. CoR. Hence the perimeter of any polygon defcribed

about a circle, is greater than the circumference of the
circle.

Proposition I. Theorem.
Fig. itp. Equilateral polygons, ABCDEF, GHIKLM, of
the fame number of fides infcribed in circles are
fimilar, and are to one another as the fquares of
the radii of tlie circles.

As each of the polygons is by hypothefis equilateral,
it will alfo be equiangular (Schol. 22. 5;). Let us
fuppofe, for example, that the polygons are hexagons ;
then, as the fum of the angles is the fame in both, viz.-
eight right angles (2,-. i.), the angle A will be one-
fixth part of eight right angles, and the angle G will
be the fame ; therefore A=G ; in hke manner BrrH,
C=K, &c. and as the figures are equilateral, AB :
GH :: BC : HI :: CD : IK, &c. therefore (2. def. 4.)
the figures are fimilar. Draw AO, BO, GP, HP to
the centres of the circles ; then, becaufe the angle
AOB is the fame part of four right angles that the arch
AB is of the whole circumference; and the angle
GPH the fame p'art of four right angles that GH is of
the whole circumference (13- 2-) the angles AOB,
GPH are each the fame part of four right angles;
therefore they are equal ; the ifofceles triangles AOB,
GPH are therefore fimilar, (22. 4.) and confequently
AB : GH :: AO : GP, therefore (9. and 27. 4.) po-
lygon ABCDEF : polygon GHIKLM :: AO' : GP'.
Prop. II. Theorem.
fig. 121. A circle being given, two fimilar polygons may be
found, the one infcribed in the circle, and the
other defcribed about it, which fhall differ from
each other by a fpace lefs than any given fpace.

Let AG be the fide of a (quare equal to the given
fpace ; and let ABG be fuch an arch of the given cir-

cle, that AG is its chord. Bifecl the fourth part of
the circumference, (5. 5.) then bifecf one of its halves,
and proceed in this manner, till, by repeated bifec-
tions, there will at length be found an arch AB lefs
than AG. As the arch thus found will be contained
in the circumference a certain number of times exaclly,
its chord AB is the fide of a regular figure infcribed in
the circle ; apply lines in the circle, each equal to AB,
thus forming the regular figure ABC, &c. and defcribe
a regular figure DEF, &c. of the fume number of fides
about the circle. Then, the excefs of the circumfcri-
bed figure above the infcribed figiu-e iliall be lefs than
the fquare upon AG. For draw lines from D and E
to O the centre ; thefe lines will pafs through A and
B (24.5.); alfo, a line drawn from O, to H the
point of contaft of the line DE, will bifect AE, and
be perpendicular to it ; and AB will be parallel to
DE. Draw the diameter AL, and join BL, which
will be parallel to HO (18. 4.). Put P for the cir-
cumfcribed polygon, and /> for the infcribed polygon ;
then, becaufe the triangles ODH, OAK are evidently
like parts of P and /., P : /. :: OBH : OAK ( i. 3.) ;
but the triangles ODH, OAK being fimilar, ODH :
OAK :: OH' : OK' (25. 4.), and on account of
the firailar triangles OAK, LAB, OA' or OH' :
OK' :: LA' LB' (20. and 9. 4.) ; therefore, ?:/>::
LA' : LB', 'and by divifion and inverfion, P : P — •/> ::
LA' : LA'— LB', or AB' •, but LA', that is, the
fquare defcribed about the circle, is greater than the
equilateral polygon of eight fides defcribed about the
circle, becaufe it contains that polygon, and for the
fame reafon the polygon of eight fides is greater than
the polygon of fixteen fides, and fo on •, therefore LA'
•^^P, and as it has been proved that P : P — /> :: LA' :
AB', of which proportion, the firft temi P is lefs than
the third LA' ; therefore (2. 3.) the fecond P — /> is
lefs than the fourth AB', but AB'^ilAG*, therefore
F—p^AC.

CoR. 1. Becaufe the polygons Pand;>difler from
one another more than either of them differs from tlic
circle, the difference between each of them, and the
circle, is lefs than the given fpace, viz. the fquare of
AG. And therefore, however fmall any fpace may

be,

Sect. VI.

G E O M

CSrcle.

I Of the be, 3 polygon rcay be infcribcd in the circle, and ano-
I Qua,lraturcji,„ defcribed about it, each of which fliall differ from

the circle by lefs than the given fpace.

Cor. 2. A fpace which is greater than any polygon

that can be infcribed'in a circle, but which is lefs than

any polygon that can be defcribed about it, is equal to

the circle itfelf.

Prop. III. Theorem.

II. The area of any circle is equal to a reftangle con-
tained by the radius, and a flraight line equal
to half the circumference.

Let ABC, &c. be any eijuilateral polygon infcrib-
ed in the circle, and DEF, &c. a finaikr polygon de-
fcribed about it •, draw lines from the extremities of
AB and DE a fide of each polygon to Othe centre;
and let OKH be perpendicular to thefe fides. Put P
for the perimeter of the polygon DEF, &.c. and/) for
the perimeter of the polygon ABC, &c. and n for the
number of the fides of each. Then, becaufe n x \ DE
=:iP, «x4DExOH=r4PxOH, but«x4DEx
OH=:«X triangle DOE= polygon DEE, &c. there-
fore, 4 PxOH= polygon DEF, &c.; and in like
jnanner it appears, thati/>xOK ::r polygon ABC,
&c. Now let Q^ denote the circumference of the
circle, then, became 4 ^^;z:^ \ p ^TivA OHt^^OK, there-
fore 4(ixOH^'4/.XOK, that is i^) X OH is great-
er than the infcribed polygon. Again, becaufe 40
^:iliP (axiom), therefore 4(|^X0H,^iPx OH, tlm
is» 4Q X OH is lefs than the circumfcribed polygon:
Thus it appears that 4Q^xOH is greater than any po-
lygon infcribed in the circle, but lei's than any polygon
defcribed about it ; therefore, 4<ixOH is equal to the
circle (2.)

Prop. IV. Theorem.

tip. The areas of circles are to one another as the
fquares of their radii.

Let ABCDEF and GHIKLM be equilateral po-
lygons of the fame number of fides infcribed in the cir-
cles, and OA, PG their ladii j and let Q^ be fuch a
fpace, that AO^ : CP' :: circle ABD : O ; then, be-
caufe AO- : GP' :: polygon ABCDEF : polygon
GHIKLIVI, and AO* : GP' :: circle ABE : (;), there-
fore polygon AECDEF : p.jlygon GHIKLM :: cir-
cle ABE : (i; but circle ABE^^polygon ABCDEF,
therefore Q^^:^ polygon GHIKLM; that is, Q is
greater than any polygon infcribed in the circle GHL.
In the fame manner it is demonftrated that (^ is lefs
than any polygon defcribed about the circle GHL;
therefore (^ is equal to the circle C'HL (2). And
t>ecaufe AO' : GP' :: circle ABD : (^ therefore
AO' : GP' :: circle ABE : circle GHL.

CoR. I. The circumferences of circles are to one ano-
ther as their radii. Put M for half the circumference
of the circle ABE and N for half the circumference
of GKL; then, circle ABE : circle GHL :: AO* :
GP' ; but 4-Mx AO=r circle ABE, alfo 4Nx GP=
circle GHL, (3.) therefore 4M X AO : 4NxGP ::
AO' : GP', and by ahemation 4Mx ^O : AO' ::
4NxGP : GP', therefore (3. 4.) 4 M : AO :: 4N :
GP, and ?.",ain by alternation 4 M : 4 N :: AO : GP,
therefore M : N :: AO : GP.

E T R Y. ,6ss

Cor. 2. A circle defcribed, with the hypothenufe of a Of the
right-angled triangle as a radius, is equal to two circles 'ii'*^'°'""=
defcribed with the other two fides as radii. Let the fides ^^^^^
of the triangle be a, b and the hypothenufe /;, and let the ■

circles defcribed with thcfc lines as radii be A,B and H.

becaufe A : H :: n' : ^'
and E : H :: i= : IC;
therefore A -i-B : H :: n'^-i' : /i' (8.3.)

but fl'4-^z=/i' (13.4.), therefore A-J-B=H.

Prop. V. Problem.

Having given the area of a regukr polygon inlcrib-Fi?. iii
ed in a circle, and alfo the area of a fimilar po-
lygon defcribed about it ; to find tlie areas of
regular infcribed and circumfcribed polygons,
each of double the number of fides.

Let AB be the fide of the given infcribed polygon,
and EF parallel to AB tlut of the fimilar circumfcrib-
ed polygon, and C the centre of the circle ; if the chord
AM, and the tangents AP, BQ^ be drawn, the chord
AM fhall be the fide of the infcribed polygon of double
the number of fides ; and PO or 2-PM that of the fimi-
lar circumfcribed polygon. Put A for the area of the
polygon, of which AB is a fide, and B for the area of
the circumfcribed polygon ; alfo a for the area of the
polygon of which AM is a fide, and h for the area of the
fimilar circumfcribed polygon ; then A and B are by
hypothefis known, and it is required to find a and b.

I. The triangles ACD, ACM, which have acom-
mon vertex A, are to one another as their bafes CD,
CM; befides.thefe triangles are to one aKother as the po-
lygons, of which they form like parts, therefore A : <J : :
CD : CM. The triangles CAM, CME, which have
a common vertex M, are to each other as their bafesC A,
CE ; they are alfo to one another as the polygons a and
B, of w'iich they are like parts ; therefore, a : B : : CA :
CE ; but becaufe of the paraUels DA, ME, CD : CM,
: : CA : CE ; therefore, A : a : : a : B; therefore, the
polygon a, which is one of the two required, is a mean
proportional between the two known polygons A and
B, fo thatazrV'AxB.

II. The triangles CPM, CPE, having the fame alti-
tude CM, are to one another as PM to PE. But as
CP bifeas the angle MCE, PM : PE : : CM : CE
(19. 4.) : : CD : CA : : A : /7 ; therefore, CPM :
CPE :: K: a; and confequenlly CPM-}-CPli, or
CME : CPM : : A-f a : A, a-d CME : 2 CPM : :
A-f-<j : 2 A; but CME and 2 CPM, or CMPA, are
to one another as the polygons B and b, of ivhich they
are like parts ; therefore, A-J-a : 2 A : : B : i. Now
the polygon a has been already found, therefore by this
laft proportion the polygon b is determined ; that is,
^_^XB

A -{-a

Prop. VI. Problem.

To find nearly tlie ratio of the circumference of a
circle to its diameter.

Let the radius of the circle ^i, then, the fides of
the infcribed fquare being the hypothenule of a right-
angled triangle of which the radii arc the fides, (ffe

tls, ■

656 G E O M

l"g. 115.) tl.e area of die infcribed fquare will be 2;
( 13. 4.) and the circumfciibed fquare, being the fquare
of tlie diameter, ivill be 4. Now, retaining the notation
of laft problem, if we make A=r2and ^^ = 4, the formulae

a= v'A X B, ir= — give us 0=22.8284271, &c.

the area of the infcnLed oflagon, at.d /^•=3.3 137-.85,
&c. the area of the circumfcribed oflagon. l.y (ublti-
tuung thefe numbeis in the formula, inllead of A and
B, we Ihall obtain the aicas of the infcribed and ^cum-
fcribing polygons of 1 6 lides ; and tht nee we may find
thofe of 3 2 fides, and fo on as in the following table :

E T R Y.

Sea. V

N° offtdes. Ins. Polygons.

4 2.0000000

8 2.8/84271

1 5 3.0614674

32 3-J2'445i

64 3-1.^65485

128 3.1403311

256 3.(412772

512 3.1415138

1024 3-'4'5729

4096 3.1 1 :9 4

8192 3.141593

16384 3.1415925

32768 3.145926

Hence it appears that areas of a regular polygon of

] 2768 fides infcribed in the circle, and of a finii-

Circ. Polygons.
4.0OCOOOO
3.^137=85
3.1825979
3-i5'7249
3.1441184
3-i4322,-6
3.1417504
3.1416^21
3.1416025
3-»'5933
3 MiiQ-^S
3-'4'5927
3 1415926

lar polygon dcfcribed about it, differ fo little from
each other that the numbers which exprcfs them
are the fame as far as the eighth decimal place.
And as the circle is greater than the one polygon, and
lefs than the other, its area will be nearly 3.1415926.
But the area is the produft of the radius and the half of
the circumference ; therefore, the radius being unity
or half the circumference is 3.1 4159 26 nearly ; and the
radius is to half the circumference, or the diameter is
to the circumference, nearly as i to 3.1415926.

Scholium.

In this way the ratio of the diameter to the circum-
ference may be found to any degree of accuracy ; but
neither by this, nor any other method yet known, can
the ratio be exaflly determined.

Archimedes by means of infcribed and circum-
fcribed polygons of 96 fides, found that the diameter is
to the circumference as 7 to 2 2, nearly, which ratio is
nearer to the truth than can be expreffed by any fmaller
numbers ; and Metius found it to be more nearly as
113 to 2SS- Both of thefe expreffions are convenient
on account of the fmallnefs of the numbers, but later
mathematicians have carried the approximation to a
much greater degree of accuracy. Thus, it has been
found that the diameter being i, the circumference is
greater than 3. 141 592653589793 2, but lefs than the
fame number having its lalt figure increafed by unity ;
and fome have even had the patience to carry the
approximation as far as the i joth place of decimals.

SECT. VII.

I. Aftraight line is perpendicular, or at right angles, to
a plane, when it is perpendicular to every ftraight line
meeting it in that plane. Ihe plane is alfo perpendi-
cidar to the line.

II. A line is parallel to a plane, when they cannot
meet each other, although both be produced. The plane
is alfo parallel to the hne.

III. Parallel planes are fucb as cannot meet each
other, though produced.

IV. It will be demonflrated (Theor. 3.) that the com-
mon fedion of two planes is a ftraight line •, this be-
ing premifed, the inclination of two planes is the angle
contained by tv\o ftraight lines drawn perpendicular
to the line, which is their common feCiion, from any
point in it, the one perpendicular being drawn in the
one plane, and the other in the other plane.

This angle may be either acute or obtufc.

V. If it be a right angle the two planes are perpen-
dicular to each other.

VI. A/olid angle is that which is made by the meet-
ing of more than two plane angles, which are not in
the fame plane, in one point. Thus the folid angle
S ib formed by the plane angles ASB, BSC, CSD,
DSA.

Theorem I.
One part of a ftraight line cannot be in a plane
and anotlier part above it.

For from the definition of a plane (7. def. i.) it is
manifeft that if a ftraight line coincide with a plane in
two pouits it murt be wholly in the plane.

Theorem II.

Two ftraight lines which cut each other in a plane Plate
determine its pofition j that is, the plane can co-„^^'''^''
incide with thefe lines only in one pofition.

Let the ftraight lines AB, AC cut each other in
A ; conceive a plane to pafs through Ah, and to be
turned about that line, till it pafs through the point C ;
and this it can manifeiUy do only in one pofition ; then,
as the points A and C are in the plane, the whole
line AC murt be in the plane j th>'refore theie is on-
ly one pofition in which the plane can coincide with
the fame two lines AB, AC.

CoR. Therefore, a triangle ABC, or three points
A, B, C not in a ftraight line, determine the pofition
of a plane.

Theorem III.

If two planes AB, CD interfeft each other, theirFig. u;
interfedlion is a ftraight line.

Let E and F be two points in the line of common
fed ion, and let a llraight line EF be drawn between
them j then the Jijic EF muft be in the plane AB,

(7.

Sea. VIT. G E O M

(7. def. 1 .) and die lame line muft alfo be in the fame
plane CD, therefore it mull be the common fedion of
them both.

Theorem IV.

^'E '*5- If a ftraight line AP is perpendicular to two
ftraight lines PB, PC at P the point of their
intcrfeftioii ; it will alfo lie perpendicular to the
plane MN, in which thefe lines are.

Draw any other line PO in the plane MN, and
from l^ any point jn that line draw <^D parallel to
PB ; make'DCizrDP ; join CQ^, meeting PB in B ;
and join AB, A(^, AC. Becaufe DQ^ is parallel to
PB, and PD=DC ; therefore BC^^C^C, and BC is
bifeded in Q : Hence in the triangle BAC,

AB'+AC'=2AQ= + 2BQ^', (16. 4.)

urA in the like mannet, in the triangle PBC,

PB'+PC'=:2P(i' + 2CQ^' ;

therefore, taking equal quantities from equal quantities,
that is, fubtrafting the two lall quantities, which are put
equal to each other, from the two firfl, and obferving,
that as APB, APC are by hypothefis right-angled tri-

Ab'— BP'=AP'

AC— CF'=:AP'.

AP' + AP"=2AQ^'— 2P^^

and therefore AP'r^AC^'— PQ^',or AP' + Pq"=AQ' ;

therefore the triangle AP^ is right-angled at P,
(fchol. 15. 4.) and confequently AP is perpendicular
to the plane MN (De''. i.).

CoR. I. The perpendicular AP is fhorter than any
oblique line AQ, therefore it meafures the diftance of
the point A from the plane.

Cor. 2. From the fame point P in a plane no more
than one perpendicular can be drawn. For if it be pol-
iible that there can be two perpendiculars, conceive a
plane to pafs through them, and to interfett the plane
MN in the ftraight line P<.) ; then thefe perpendiculars
will be in the fame plane, and both perpendicular to the
fame line PQ^, at the fame point P in that line, which is
iBipoffible.

It is alfo impoflible that from a point without a plane
two perpendiculars can be drawn to the plane ; for if
the ftraight lines AP, AQ^ could be two fuch perpendi-
culars, then the triangle APQ^ Would have two right
angles, which is impoflible.

Theorem V.

Fig i:5. If a ftraight line AP be perpendicular to a plane
MN, every ftraight line DE parallel to AP is per-
pendicular to the fame plane.

Let a plane pafs through the parallel lines AP, DE,
and interfecl the plane iMN in the line PD ; through
D draw BC at right angles to PD ; take DCrrDB,
■and join PB, PC, AB, AC, AD. BecauL- DB=DC,
therefore PBrrPC; (cor. ;. 1.) and becaufe AP is per-
pendicular to the plane MN, fo that APB, APC are
right angles, AB=AC, (cor. 5. 1.) therefore ABC is
an ifofceles triangle ; and lince its bale BC is bifecled at
D, EC is perpendicular to AD ; (fchol. 1 1 . I .) but by
conftruftioii BC is perpendicular to PD; therefore (4.)

Vol. IX. Part II.

E T R Y. ' 657

JiC or BD is perpendicular to the plane pafting through
the lines AD and PD, or AP and DE ; hence BD is
perpendicular to DE, but PD is alfo perpendicular
to DE, ( 19 . I .) therefore DE is perpendicular to the
two hnes DP, DB ; and therefore it is perpendicular
to the pliuie MN palFing through them.

CoK. I. Converfely, if the ftraight lines AP, DE
are perpendicular to the fame plane MN, they are pa-
rallel ; for if not, through D draw a parallel to AP ;
this parallel will be perpendicular to the plane MN,
(by the theorem) therefore, from the fame point D
two perpendiculars may be drawn to a plane, ■v%hich is
impoifible (4.).

Cor. 2. Two ftraight lines A and B which are paral-
lel to a third line C, though not in the fame plane, are
parallel to each other. For fuppofe a plane to be per-
pendicular to the line C, the lines A and B parallel to
this perpendicular are perpendicular to the fame plane ;
therefore, by the preceding corollary they are parallel
between themfelves.

Theorem VI.

Two planes MN, PQ, perpendicular to the fame Fig. i:-^,
ftraight line AB, are parallel to each other.

For, if they can meet each other, let O be a point
common to both, and join OA, OB ; then the line
AB, which is perpendicular to the plane MN, rauft be
perpendicular to AO, a line drawn in the plane MN
from the point in which AB meets that plane. For
the fame reafon AB is perpendicular to BO ; there-
fore, OA, OB are two perpendiculars drawn from the
fame point O, to the fame ftraight line AB, which is
impoifible.

Theorem VII.

The interfe£lions EF, GH of two parallel planes Fig. 1:8/
MN, PO with a third plane FG, are parallel:

For if the lines EF, GH, fituated in the fame plane,
are not parallel, they muft meet if produced ; there-
fore, the planes MN, PQ, in which they, are, muft
alfo meet, whieh is contrary to the hypothefis of their
being parallel.

Theorem VIII.

Any ftraight line AB, perpendicular to MN oile of fig- i^T-
two parallel planes ^IN, PQ, is alfo perpendi-
cular to PQ the other plane.

From B draw any ftraight line BC in the plane
PQ^, and let a plane pafs through the lines AB, BC,
and meet the plane MN in the line AD, then AD
will be parallel to BC, (7.) and iince AB is per-
pendicular to the plane MN, it muft be perpendicular
to the line AD, therefore, it is alfo perpendicular to
BC ; (19. 1 .) hence (Def. 1.) the line AB is perpen-
dicular to the plane PQ.

Theorem IX.

Parallel ftraight lines EG, FH, comprehended be- Fig. ij«.
tween two parallel planes MN, PQ, are equal.

Lev a plane pafs through the lines EG, FH, and
4 O meet

Cj8 c; E O M

in;et u:e psrallel plsncs in EF and GH; then EF
and GH are parallel (7-.) as well as EG and FH ;
therefore, EGHF is a farallelogram, and EFGrrH.

Cor. Hence two parallel planes are everywhere at
the fame dlflance from each other. For, if EF and
GH are perpendicular to the two planes, they are pa-
rallel, (i. cor. 5.) therefore they are equal.

Theorem X.

Fig. 1:3. If two ftraight lines CA, EA, meeting one another,
be parallel to two other lines DB, FB, that meet
one another, though not in the fame plane with
the firft two ; the firft two and the other two
Ihall contain equal angles, and the plane paiTing
through the firrt two Ihall be parallel to the
plane pafling through the other two.

Take AC^BD, AEzrrBF, and join CE, DF, AB,
CD, EF. Eecaufe AC is equal and parallel to BD,
the figure ABUC is a parallelogram ; therefore, CD
is equal and parallel to AB. For a fimilar reafon EF
is equal and parallel to AB ; therefore alfo CE is equal
and parallel to DF (2cor. 5. and 28. I.); therefore
the triangles CAE, DBF are equal, (10. I.) hence the
angle CAE=DBF.

In the fecond place, the plane ACE is parallel to
the plane BDF : For fuppofe that the plane parallel to
BDF, pafling through the point A, meets the lines CD,
EF in anv other points than C and E (for example in
G and H,) then (5.) the three lines AB, GD, FH
are equal ; but the three lines AB, CD, EF have been
lliewn to be equal ; therefore, CD:=GD, and FH=:EF,
which is abfurd, therctorc the plane ACE is parallel to
BDF.

Theorem XI.
If a ftraight line AP be perpendicular to a plane
fig. i3=. MN, any plane APB, paffing through AP, {hall
be perpendicular to the plane MN.

Let EC be the intcrfeaion of the planes AB, MN ;
if in the plane MN the line DE be drawn perpendicular
to BP, the line AP, being perpendicular to the plane
MN, Ihall be perpendicular to each of the ftraight lines
EC, DE ; therefore the angle APD is a right angle ;
now PA and PD are drawn' in the planes AB, MN
perpendicular to their common feftion, therefore
( 5. Def.) the planes AB, MN are perpendicular to each
o..her.

Scholium.
When three flraight lines, fuch as AP, BP, DP, are
perpendicular to each other, each is perpendicular to the
plane of tbctwo other lines.

Theorf_m XII.
Tig. ISO. If the plane AB is perpendicular to the plane MN;
and in the plane AB a ftraight line PA be
drawn perpendicular to BP, the common inter-
fe£lion of the planes, tlicn fhall PA be perpen-
dicular to the plane MN.

For, if in the plane MN, a line PD be drawn per-
pendicular to PB, the angle APD fhall be a right an-
cle, becaufc the planes are perpendicular to each other,
tnerefore, the line AP is perpendicular to tbc two

E T Pt Y. Sea. Vi

lines PB, PD, therefore it is perpendicular to their
plane MN.

Cor. If the plane AB be perpendicular to the plane
WN, and from any point P, in their common inter-
fcttion, a perpendicular be drawn to the plane MN ; this
perpendicular Ihall be in the plane AB ; for if it is net,
a perpendicular AP may be drawn in the plane AB
to the common interfeftion BP, which will be at the
fame time perpendicular to the plane MN ; therefore,
at the lame point P, there may be two perpendiculars
to a plane NM, which is impollible (4.).

Theorem XIII.
If two planes AB, AD are perpendicular to a third, Fig. i^r
their common interfection AP is' perpendicular
to the third plane.

For, if through the point, P, a perpendicular le
drawn to the plane MN, this perpendicular ihall be in
the plane AB, and alfo in the plane AD, (ccr. 12.)
therefore -i: is at their common interfeflion AP.

Theorem XIV.

If two ftraight lines be cut by parallel planes, they pjg. 1,1.
Ihall be cut in the fame ratio.

Let the line AB meet the planes MN, PQ^, RS in
A, E, B ; and let CD meet them in C, F, D, then
Ihall AE : EB :: CF : FD. For draw AD meeting
the,plane PQ^ in G, and join AC, EG, GF, BD ; the
lines EG, BD, being the common feclion? of the plane
of the triangle ABD and the parallel planes P{^, R S,
are parallel (7.) and in like manner it appears, that
AC, GFare parallel ; therefore AE : EB (:: AG : GD)
:: CF : FD.

Theorem XV.
If a folld angle be contained by three plane an- Fig. i-^
gles, the fum of any two of thefe is greater
(he third.

It is evidently only neceffary to deraonftrate the
theorem, when the plain angle which is compared with
the fum of the other two is greater than cither of
them ; for, if it v.^cre equal to or lefs than one of them,
the theorem would be manifeft ; therefore let S be a
folid angle formed by three plane angles ASB, ASC,
BSC, of which ASB is the greateft. In the plane
ASB make the angle BSD=:BSC ; draw any nraii;ht
hue ADB, and having taken SC=rSD, join AC, BC ;
the triangles BSC, BSD haNing two fidts, and the in-
cluded angle of the one equal to two fides, and the in-
cluded angle of the other, each to each, are equal (5. I.),
therefore BD=: EC; now AE.=::CAC-f-EC, therefore,
taking BD from the firil of thefe unequal quantities,
and EC from the fecond, we get AD-^ilAC ; and r,«
the triangks ASD, ASC have SD=SC, and SA com-
mon to both, and AD-^nAC, therefore (9. I.^ the an-
gle ASD-:-! ASC ; and, adding DSB to the one, and
CSB to the oihn-, ASB-^^^ASC-f-BSC.

Theorem XVI.

If each of two folid angles be contained by three Fig. 133.

plane

G E O M

plane angles equal to one another, each to each,
the planes in wliich the equal angles are, have
the fame inclination to one auotlier.

Let the angle ASB=DTE, the angle ASC
=DTF, and tlie angle BSCriETF; the two plants
ASB, ASC, Ihall have to each other the fame inclii-^-
tion 35 the two planes DTE, DTF.

Take A any point ift SA, and in the tivo planes
ASB, ASC, draw AB and AC perpendiculars to AS,
then (def. 4.) the angle EAC is the inclination of
thefe planes ; again, take TD=SA, and in the planes
TDE, TDFdraw DE and DF perpendiculars to TD,
and the angle EDF (hall be the inclination of thefe
other planes ; join BC, EF. The triangles ASB,
DTE have the fide AS=DT, the angle SAB=TDE
and ASB^DTE, therefore the triangles are equal,
and thus AI3=:DE, and SB=TE : In like manner it
appears that the triangles ASC, DTF are equal, -uid
therefore, that AC=DF, and SC=TF. Now the
n-iangles BSC, ETF, Jiaving BS=:TE, SC=rTF, and

E T R Y. 659

the angle BSC=:ETF, are alfo equal, and tl.crefore Of Solids
BC=EF ; but it has been (hevtn that ABzzDE, and bounded h/
that AC=DF ; therefore the triangles BAC, EDF .f ""''': .
are equal, and confequently the angle EAC=EDF;
tliat is, the inclination of the planes ASB and ASC is
equal to the inclination of the planes DTE and DTF.
In the fame manner it may be proved that the other
planes have the fame inclination to one another.

Scholium.

If the three plane angles which contain the folid
angles, are equal each to each, and if beCdes the angles
are alfo difpufed in the fame order in the two folid
angles, then thefe angles when applied to one another
will coincinde, and be equal. But if the plane angles
be difpufed in a contrary order, the folid angles will
not coincide, although the theorem is equally true in
both cafes. In this laft cafe the folid angles are called
Si/mmctrical angles .

SECT. VIII. OF SOLIDS BOUNDED BY PLANES.

Definitions.

I. A Solid is that whjch has length, breadth, and
thicknefs.

II. A Prifm is a folid contained by plane figures,
of which two that are oppofite are equal, fimilar, and
parallel ; and the others are parallelo^ram.s.

To conftruft this folid, let ABCDE be any poly-
gon ; if in a plane parallel to ABC there be drawn
ftraight lines FG, GH, HI, &c. cquul and parallel to
the lides AB, BC, CD, tic. fo as to form a polygon
FGHIK equal to AECDE, and ftraight lines AF,
BG, CH, &c. be drawn, joining the vertices of the ho-
mologous angles in the two planes ; the planes or faces
ABGF, BCHG, &c. thus formed will be parallelo-
grams ; and the folid ABCDEFGHIK contained by
thefe parallelograms and the two polygons, is the prifm
itfelf.

III. The equal and parallel polygons ABCDE,
FGHIK are called the Bafes of the prifm, and the
diltance between the bafes is its Altitude,

IV. When the bafe of a prifm is a parallelogram,
and confequently the figure has a'.l its faces parallelo-
grams, it is called a parallelupiped. A parallelopiped
is reSangular when all its faces are rectangles.

V. A Cube is a reflangular parallelopiped contained
by fix equal fquares.

VI. A Pyramid is a folid contained by feveral
planes, which meet in the fame point A, and terminate
in a polvgonal plane BCD.

VII.'The polygon ABCDE is called the Bfl/- of
of the pyramid ; the point S is its Vertex i and a per-
pendicular let fall from the vertex upon the bafe is call-
ed its Altitude.

VIII. 'J'wo folids ?.xt Jtmilar, when they are con-
tained by the fame number of fimilar planes, fimilarly
(ituated, and having like inclinations to one another.

Theorem I. p;ate

Two prifms are equal when the tliree planes which Fig. 13+
contain a folid angle of the one are equal to
the three planes which contain a folid angle
of the other, each to each, and are fimilarly fi-
tuated.

Let the bafe ABCDE be equal to the bafe a h cue,
the parallelogram ABGF equal to the parallelogram
a b gf, and the parallelogram BCHG equal to the
parallelogram bchgi the prifm ABCI Ihall be equil
to the prifm abci.

For let the bafe ABCDE be applied to its equal the
bafe abcde, fo that they may coincide with each
other ; then, as the three plane angles which form the
folid angle B are equal to the three plane angles which
form the angle b, each to each, viz, AhCzzabc
ABGrr:2 hg, and GBCir^ b c, and as thefe angles are
fimilarly fitaated, the folid angles B and b are equal
(LJ. 7.) therefore the fuie BG fhall fall upon the fide
bg ; and becaufe the parallelograms ABGF, ab^fure.
equal, the fide FG (hall fall upon its equal y^ ; in like
manner it may be (hewn, that GH fills upon g //,
therefore the upper bafe FGHIK coincides entirely
with its equal/jf ///^, and the two folids coincide with
each other, or occupy the fame fpace, therefore the
prilhis are equal.

Scholium.

A prifm is entirely determined, when its bafe
A BCDE is known, and its edge BG is given in mag-
nitude and pofition ; for if through the point G, GFbc
drawn equal and parallel to AB, and GH equal and
parallel to BC, and the polygon FGHIK be defcrib-
cd equal to ABCDE (20.5.), it is evident that the
^ Q z point-;

66^

GEOMETRY,

Sea. VIII.

Of Solids points FKI nill have determinate pofitions ; therefore
Dounded !)>■ g^y [,yp prifms conftrufted with the fame e/a!a cannot
. P"*;"- . be unequal.

Theorem II.

f'''S- ^3S- In any parallelepiped the oppofite planes ai'e equal
and parallel.

From the nature of the folid (4. clef.) the bafes
A BCD, EFGH are equal parallelograms, and their
tides are parallel, therefore the planes AC, EG are
parallel ; and becaufe AD is equxil and parallel to BC,
and AE is equal and parallel to BF, the angle DAE
r=CBF, and the plane DAE is parallel to the plane
CBF, (10. 7.) therefore alfo the parallelogram DAEH
is equal to the parallelogram CKFG. It may in like
manner be demonftrated, that the oppoiite parallelo-
grams ABFE, DCGH are equal and parallel.

CoR. Hence, in a parallelepiped, any one of the fix
planes v.hich contr.in it may be taken for its bafe.

Theorem III.

rig. i3«. The plane BDHF, which pafles through two pa-
rallel oppofite edges BF, DH, of a parnllelo-
piped AG, divides it into two triarvgular prifms
ABDHEF, GHFBCD, equal to one another.

For the triangles ABD, EFH, having their fides
equal and parallel, are equal, and the lateral faces
ABFE, ADHE, BDHF are parallelograms; there-
fore the folid ABDHEF is a prifm -, for like reafons
the folid GHFBCD is a piifm. Again, becaufe the
plane angles which contain the folid angle at G are
equal to thofe which contain the folid angle at A, viz.
the angle FGH=D'VB, FGCrrDAE, and HGC
rrBAE, the planes in which thefe angles are have the
fime inclination to one another, (i 6.7.) as, however,
ihefe angles are not difpofed in the fame order, but in
a contrary order, the folid angles cannot be made to
coincide with one another, and confequently the
prifms cannot be proved equal by fuperpofition, as in
'J'heorem I. Their equality may hovxever be ellablilh-
cd by reafoning thus :

The inclination of each of any two adjacent faces of
a prifm to the bafe, and the length of an edge being
given, the prifm is evidently reftricled to one determi-
nate magnitude ; and it will evidently have the fame
magnitude whichfoever of the two fides of the bafe it
may (land upon ; that is, whether it be conilrucled
above or below the bafe. Now if the upper bate FGH
'jf the one prifm be applied to the lower bafe DAB of
the other, fo that the fides FG, GH, FH may be upon
the fides DA, AB, DB equal to them, then the prifm
GHFBCD will have the pofitlon ABDHEF' ; and
the two faces ABFE', ADH'E' of the prifm below
the bafe will have each the fame inclination to it, as
the equivalent faces ABFE, ADHE of the prifm above
the bafe ; and the edge AE' is equal to the edge AE ;
therefore the conditions which determine the magni-
tude of both prifms are identical, and confequently the
prifias are equal.

Theorem IV. bounded 1

HIanes.

If two parallelepipeds AG, AL have a common ^"""^^
bafe ABCD, and have their upper bafes in thej-iXijg.
fame plane, and between the fame parallel
ftraight lines EK, HL, the two parallelepipeds
are equivalent to each other.

Because AE is parallel to BF, and HE to GF,
the angle AEI^BFK, HEI:=GFK, and_ HEA
=:GFB ; of thefe ;fix angles the three firll fonn the
folid angle £, and the three others form the folid
angle F ; therefore, fince the plane angles are equal
each to each, and fimilarly fituated, the folid angles E
and F are equal. Now if the prifm AEIDHM be
applied to the prifm BFKCGL, fo that their bafes
AEI, BFK, which are equal, may coincide with each
other, then, becaufe the folid angle E is equal to the
folid angle F, the fide EH ihall fall upon FG, and
this is all that is neceflary to prove that the two prifms
coincide entirely, for the bafe A El and the edge EH
determine the prifm AEI\I, and tlie bafe BFK and the
edge FG determine the prifm BFL ; therefore the prifms
are equal. But if from the folid AEL, the prifm AEM
be taken away, here will remain the parallelopipeJ
AIL; and if from the fame folid AEL, the priiiu
BFL be taken away, there will remain the parallelo-
piped AEG ; therefore the parallelopipeds AIL, AEG
are equivalent to each other.

Theorem V.

Parallelopipeds upon the fame bafe, and having the Fig. 135
fame altitude, are equivalent to one anotlier.

Let ABCD be the common bafe of the two paral-
lelopipeds AG, AL, which, becaufe they have the
fame altitude, will have their upper bafes in the fame
plane ; then, bccauie EFand AB are equal and parallel,
as alfo IK and AB; EF is parallel to IK, (cor. 2. 5. 7,)
for a fimilar reafon GF is parallel to LK. Let the
fides EF, HG, as alfo the fides LK, IM, be pro-
duced, fo as to form by their interfeclions the parallelo-
gram NOPQ^ ; it is manifell that this parallelogram is
equal to cacir of the bafes EFGH, IKLM. Now, if
we fuppofe a third parallelepiped, which, with the fame
lower bafe ABCD, has for its upper bafe NOP^) , this
third parallelopiped "ill be equivalent to the parallelo-
piped AG, (4.) for the fame reafon the third parallelo-
piped will be equivalent to the parallelopiped AL ;
therefore the two parallelopipeds AG, AL, which have
the fame bafe and the fame altitude, are equivalent to
one another.

Theor};m VI.

Any parallelepiped AG is equivalent to a redl-Fig. 139.
angular parallelepiped, having the fame altitude, M'^-
and an equivalent bale.

At the pohits A, B, C, D, let AI, BK, CL, DM,
be drawn perpendicular to the plane ABCD, and tcr-
mmating in the plane of the upper bafe ; tlien, IK,

a. VITT.

GEOMETRY.

66i

Planes.

Of So:;ds KL, LI\r, MI, being joined, a parallelopiped AL will
iiled b.V(t^y5 Ijg fjjj^gj^ ^vhich will manifertlv have its lateral
faces AK, BL, C!\r, DI rcclangles ; and if the bale
" AC is alfo a reftangie, the folid AL will be a reft-
anjular parallelopiped equivalent to the parallelopiped
AG. But if ABCD is not a rectangle, (!ig. 140.)
draw AO and BN perpendicular to CD, and OQ^
,ind NP perpendicular to DC, meeting ML in O
and P; the folid ABNOIKP.'^ will manifellly be a
reflangular parallelopiped, which will be equal to the
parallelopiped AL. for they have the fame bafe ABKI,
and the fame altitude, viz. AO ; therefore the re£l-
angular parallelopiped AP is equivalent to the paral-
lelopiped AG, (fig. 139.) and they h?.7e the fame al-
titude, and the bafe ABNO of the former is equiva-
lent to the bafe ABCD of the latter.

Theorem VIL

Fig- «34- Any fedion NOPQR of a prifm, made by a
plane parallel to its bafe ABCDE, is equal to
the bale.

For the jt^rallels AN, BO, CP contair.ed between
the parallel planes ABC, NOP are equal (9. 7.) ; and
thus all the figures ABON, ECPO, &c. are parallelo-
grams; hence the fide ON=AB, OP=BC, P^^rzCD,
&c. alfo, the equal fides are parallel, therefore, the
angle ABC = NOP, the angle BCD =: OPQ^, Sec.
therefore the two polygons ABCDE, NOP(.)R, have
their fides and angles equal, each to each ; therefore,
they are equal.

Theorem VIIL

Plate
CCXLV.

Fig. 141. Two rectangular parallelepipeds AG, AL, wliich
have the fame bafe ABCD, are to each other as
tlieir altitudes AE, AL

SuprosE that the altitudes AE, AI are to e?.ch
other as the numbers /> and 17, fo that AE will contain
. / fuch equal parts as AI contains y. Let AE and AI
be divided into fi and y equal parts refpedively, and
let planes pafs through the points of divifion parallel to
the bafe ABCD ; thus the parallelopiped AG will be
divided into /> folids, which wiU alfo be parallelopipeds
having equal bafes (7.) and equal altitudes, there-
fore, they will be equal among themfelves ; and in like
manner the parallelopiped AL will be divided into 9
equal foiids ; and as each of the folids in AG is equal
to each of the folids in AL, the parallelopiped AG
will contain /> fuch equal parts as the parallelopiped AL
contains y ; therefore the parallelopiped AG will be
to the parallelopiped AL as the number f> to the num-
ber 9, that is, as AE the altitude of the former to AI
the altitude of the latter.

Theorem IX.

Fig. i.jj. Two rectangular parallelopipeds AC, AK, which
have the fame altitude AE, arc to each other as
their bafes ABCD, AMNO.

ill PQj thus forming a third parallelopiped AiQ^ which 01" Solids
may be compared with each of the parallelopipeds AG,1'''>'"''<^J ^Y
AK. The two folids AG, A(^ having the fame bafe '''•'""• ^
ADHE, are to each other as their altitudes AB, AO, ^
(8.) and, in like manner, the two folids AQ, AK,
having the fame bafe AOLE, are to each other as
their altitudes AD, AM ; that is.

folui KG :>/. Aq:: AB
fol. AQ^ -.fol. AK :: AD

AO
AM;

but AB : AO :: hafe AC : hafe AP (3. 4. :
and AD : AM:: bafe AP : bafe AN,

therefore,

■ fol. AG -.fol. AQ^ :: hafe AC : hafr AP,
'fol. AQ^ -.fol. AK :: hafe AP : bafe AN,

therefore (7. 3.)

fol. AG -.fl. AK :: haf AC : baf AN.

Theorem X.

Rectangular parallelopipeds are to each other as Fig.
the products of the numbers proportional to
their bafes and altitudes, or as the produfts of
the numbers proportional to their three dimen-
fions.

Let AG be a parallelopiped, the three dlmenfions
of which are exprelTed by the lines AB, AD, AE, and
AZ another parallelopiped the dimenfions of which are
expreifed by the Hues AO, AM, AX. Let the two
folids AG, AZ be fo placed, that their furfaces may
have a common angle BAE ; produce fuch of the
planes as are necelfary fo as to form a third parallelopi-
ped AK, having the fame altitude as the parallelopi-
ped AG. By the laft propofitioii

fol. AG -fol. AK :: bafe AC : bafe AN,

and by the laft theorem but one,

fol. AK -.fol. AZ ;: AE : AX,

but, confidering the bafes AC, AN as meafured by
numbers, as alfo the altitudes AE, AX,

bafe AC : hafe AN :: AEy.bafe AC : AExia/^ AN
and AE : AX :: AE X bafe AN : AX X bafe AN
therefore,

fol. AG -.fol. AK :: AY.-Kbafv AC : AEx W<- AN,
fol. AK -.fol. AZ :: AY.xbafe AN : AX X bafiA^,
therefore, (7. 3.)
fil. AG -.fol. AZ :: XlLxbafe AC : AKxbafe AN ;

which proportion, by fubftituting for the bafes AC,
AN their numerical values AB x AD and AO X AIM
becomes

fol. AG: fol. AZ :: AB X AD X AE : -VO X AM X AX.>

Scholium.

Let the two folids be placed, the one by the fide of Hence it appears that the produtl of tlie bafe of a

the other, as reprefcntcd in the figure, and let the plane reftangular parallelopiped by its altitude or the product
ONKL be produced, fo as to meet the plane DCGH oHts three dimenfions, may be taken for its numerical

nicafure ;

66i

GEO M E

R Y.

Sea. VII]

meafare ;. and It is upon t'lli principle that all other fo-
' lids arc eftimated. When two parallelepipeds are com-
pared together by means of their bafes and altitudes,
their bafes mufl; be confidcrcd as meafured by the fame
fuperficial unit, and their altitudes by the fame linear
unit ; thus if fpaces P and Q^ denote two parallelepi-
peds, and the bale of P contain three fuch equal fpaces
as that of Q^ contains four j and the altitude of P con-
tains two fuch equal lines, as that of (^ contains five,
then, P : Q^ :: 3 X 2 : 4 X 5 :•• 6 : 20. '

If all the diraenilons of each foliJ are ufed in compar-
ing them together, then the fame linear unit muft be
employed in eiliniating all the dimenfions of both fo-
lids ; thus, if the length, breadth, and height of the
fjlid P be four, three, and fix linear units, refpeftive-
ly ; and thofe of C)^, feven, two, and five, of the fame
unit; then P:Q^::4X3X6:7X2X5-;7?:7='-

As lines are compared together by conlidering how
often each contains fome other line taken as a meafur-
ing unit, and furfaces by confidering how often each
contains a fquare whofe fide is that unit ; fo folids may
be compared, by confidering how often each contains
a cube, the fide or edge of which is the fame linear
unit. Accordingly, the dimenfions of the parallelopi-
peds P and Q^ being as we have juft now fuppofed, the
proportion P : ^ :: 72 : 70 may be confideied as indi-
cating that P contains 72 fuch equal cubes as Q^ con-
tains 70.

The magnitude of a folid, its bulk, or its extenfion
conrtitutes vtifolidity, or its content ; thus we fay, that
the folidity or the content of a reclangular parallelopi-
ped is equal to the produfl of its bafe by its altitude ;
or to the product of its three dimenfions.

Theorem XI.

The folidity of any parallelopiped, or in general
of any prifm, is equal to the product of its bafe
by its altitude.

1. Any parallelepiped is equivalent to a reclangular
parallelopiped of the fame altitude, and an equivalent
bafe (6.) ; and it has been flievvn, that the folidity of
fuch a parallelopiped is equal to the product of its bafe
x^-ad altitude.

2. Every triangular prifm is the half of a' parallelo-
piped of the fame altitude, but having its bafe double
that of the prifm (3.) ; therefore, the folidity of the
prifm is half that of the parallelopiped, or it is half
the produiEl of the bafe of the parallelopiped by its al-
titude, that is, it is equal to the produft of the bafe of
the prifm by its altitude.

3. Any other prifm may be divided into as many
triangular prifms as the polygon ivhich forms its bale
can be divided into triangles, but the folidity of each
of thefe is equal to the produft of its bafe by their com-
mon altitude •, therefore, the folidity of the whole prifiir
is equal to the produft of the fum of all their bafes by
the common altitude, or it is equal to the produft of
the bafe of the prifm, which is the fum of them all, by
its altitude.

Cor. Two prifms having the fame altitude are to
each other as their bafes ; and two prifms having the
fame bafe are to each other as their altitudes.

T.-JEC?-!;?.! XII.

Similar prifms are to one another as the cubes of ^
their homologous fides.

Let AG, IP be two fimilar prifms, of which AB,
IK are two homologous fides, the priim AG is to the
prifm IP as the cube of AB to the cube of IK. Let
E and N be two homologous angles of the prifms, and
ES, NV perpendiculars to the planes of their bafes ;
join IV j take IR=;AE, and in the plane INV draw
RT perpendicular to IV ; then RT ihall be perpendi-
cular to the plane IL (ll. and I 2. of 7.), aifo RT
fhall be equal to ES ; tor if the folid angles A and I
were applied the one to the other, the planes which con-
tain them would coincide (Ichol. 16. 7.), and the point
E w'ould fall upon the point R, and-thereiore the per-
pendicular ES would coincide with the perpendicular
RT (2. cor. 4. 7.) Now the content of a prifm Being
the produft of its bafe by its altitude (11.), it follows
that prifri AG : pr!jm IP :: ESx ba/e AC :: NVx
bafe IL ; but bafe AC : baf IL :: AB' : IK' (27. 4.)
and therefore, confidering the lines exprelTed by num-
bers, ESx b^f AC or RT X bafe AC : NV X bafe
IL :: RTxAB' : NVxlK' (j-sOi therefore, prifm
AG -.prfm IP :: RT X AB' : NVxIK= ; but RT :
NV :: RI or AE : NI (20. 4.) :: AB : IK (def. of
fim. figs.), and confequently RT X AE' : NVxIK' ::
AB3 : IK3 (5. 3.) ; therefore, /.;•//»/ AG -.prifm IP ::
AB5 : IK3.

CoR. Similar prifms are to one another in the tripli-
cate ratio of the homologous fides. For let Y and Z
be two fuch lines that AB : IK :: IK : Y :: Y ; Z,
then the ratio of AB to Z is triplicate the ratio of AB
to IK (I 2. def. 3.). Now, fince AB : IK :; IK : Y,
therefore AB' : IK' ;: IK' : Y', (9. 4.) and, mulli-
plyino the antecedents by AB, and confequents by
IK, AB3 : IK5 :; ABxIK' : IKxY' :: ABxIK ;
Y', but Y'rrlKxZ (8. 4.) ; therefore AB' :: IK' ::
AB X IK : IK X Z :: AB : Z, but prfn AG : prfm
IP :: AB5 : IK' therefore prfm AG : prfm IP :: AB ;
Z, \vhich lall ratio is triplicate the ratio of AB to IK.

Theorem XIII.

If a triangular pyramid ABCD be cut by a plane Fig. i.i4.
bed parallel to its bafe, the le£lion b c d h fi-
milar to the bafe BCD.

For becaufe the planes b cti, BCD are parallel, their
interfedions be, BC with a third plane BAG are pa-
rallel (7. 7.) ; and, for a like reafon, cd is parallel to
CD, and db to DB ; therefore the an^^le b c d=zhCIi,
cdb=CDB, ■dnddbc=DBC (10.7.) ; hence the tri-
angles bed, BCD are equiangular, and confequently
fimilar.

Cor. I. If two triangular pyramids ABCD, EFGH,
which have equal bafes, a'nd equal altitudes, be cut by
planes be d,fgh that are parallel to the bafes, and at
equa' didances from them, the feclions are equal. For
conceive the bafes of the pyramids to be in the fame
plane, then their vertices will be in a plane parallel to
their bafes, and the feclions bed, fg h will alfo be in
a plane parallel to their bafes, therefore, AB : \b ::

EF:

VlIT

i-!s EF

G E O M E T R Y.

^62

J {'.1^. 7.), but Lecaufc tbe triangles ABC,
■' A^c are fimllar, AB : h.b :: BC : be, and, in like
manner EF : E/ :: FG : fg, therefore, BC : Z-f ::
FG : /f, and RC : be" :: FG= : fg" (9. 4.) j but
BC= : be'- :: trian^rle BCD : trian. bed, and FC= :
fg^ :: /r/^«. FGH ; triati. fgh (25. 4.) ; tlierefore,
Irian. BCD : Irian, bed :: /r/an. FGH : trian. fgfi,
but /."w//. BCD =r /n/7;z. FGFI (by hyp.) therefore
//■/a;?, be d-=i trian. fg h.

SCIIOLU'M.
It is cafy to fee that what is here denionftratcd of tri-
angular pyramids, is equally true of polygonal pyra-
mids having equal bafes and altiiudss.

Theorem XIV.

A feries of prlfms of the fame altitude may be cir-
cumfcvibed about any pyramid ABCD, fuch that
the fum of the prifnis Ihall exceed the pyramid
by a lolid lefs than any given folid Z.

Let Z be equal to a prifra Handing on the fame bafe
ivith the pyramii, viz. the triangle BCD, and having
for its altitude the perpendicular drawn from a certain
point Eln the line AC upon the plane BCD. It is
evident that CE multiplied by a certain number m
will be greater than AC ; divide CA into as many
equal parts as there arc units in to, and let thefe be
CF, FG, GH, HA, eacli of which will be lefs than
CE. Through each of the points F, G, H, let planes
be made to pafs parallel to :he plane BCD, making
with the fides of the pyramid the feclions FP(^, GRS,
HTU, whicl: will be all fimilar to one another, and
to the bafe BCD (13.) From the point B draw in the
plane of the triangle ABC the ftraight line BK paral-
lel to CF, meeting FP produced in K. In like man-
-ner, from D draw DL parallel to QY, meeting F^) in
L ; join KL, and it is plain that the folid KBCDLF
is a prifm. Bv thi fame conllruclion let the prifms
PJI, RO, TV be defcribed. Aifo let the ftraight
line IP, which is in the plane of the triangle ABC be
produced till it meet BC in //; and let the line M(^
Le produced till it meet DC in i^. Join 1i g, then h Q, g
OFP is a prifra ; and is equal to the prifm PM
(cor, II.) In the fame manner is defcribed the prifm
m S equal to the p:ifm RO, and the prifm q U equal
to the prifm TV. The fum, therefore, of all the in-
fcribed prifms h (J, vi S and q U is equal to the fum
of the prifms PM, RO ;\]Td TV, that is, to the fum of
all the circumfcribed prifms except the prifm BL ;
v.'herefove, EL is the excefs of the prifms circumfcribed
about the pyramid above the prifms infcribed within it.
But the prifra EL is lefs than the prifra which has the
triangle BCD for its bafe, and for its altitude the per-
fc'.idicular from E upon the plane BCD, which prifm
is, by hypothcfis, equal to the given folid Z ; therefore
the exceiV of the circumfcribed above the infcribed
prifms is lefs than the folid Z. But the excefs of the
circumfcribed prifms above the infcribed is greater-
than their excefs above the pyramid ABCD, becaufe
AECD is greater than the fum of the infcribed prifms;
much more therefore is the excefs of the circumfcribed
prifms above the pyramid lefs than the folid Z. A fe-
ries of prifms of the fame altitude has therefore been

circumfcribed about the pyramid ABCD exceeding it Of Solid';
by a folid lefs than the given folid Z. bcundcJ by

Theorem XV.

Pyramids that have equal bafc^ and altitudes axe Fig. 145.
equal to one another.

Let ABCD, EFGH be two pyramids that have
equal bafes BCD, FGH, and alfo equal altitudes ; the
pyramid ABCD is equal to the pyramid EFGH.

If they are unequal, let the pyramid EFGH exceed
the pyramid ABCD by the folid Z. Let a feries of
prifms of the lame altitude be circumfcribed about the
pyramid ABCD that {hall exceed it by a folid lefs than
Z, (14.) and let another feries equal in number to the
former, and having all the fame altitude, be defcribed
about t'l'e pyramid EFGH ; then, becaufe the pyramids
have equal altitudes, the altitude of each of the prifms
defcribed about the one pyramid is equal to the altitude
of each of the prilms defcribed about the other py-
ramid j therefore the feflions of the pyramids which
are the bafes of the correfponding prilms w-ill be at
equal dillances from the bafes of the pyramids, and
hence thefe feflions will be equal", (l. cor. 13.) and
becaufe the prifms have all the fame altitude, the cor-
refponding prifms will be equal, and the fum of the
prifms defcribed about the pyramid ABCD will be
equal to the fum of the prilms defcribed about the
pyramid EFGH. Let the pyramid EFGH be denot-
ed by P, and the pyramid ABCD by /), and put Q_
for the fum of the prifms defcribed about P, and q for
the prifms defcribed about /> : Then by hypothefis
Z=P — />, and by ( onllru^'-iion Zt:^^ — />, therefore
P — p''^q — />, and confequently P^?='y, but it has
been ihewn that f=Q, therefore P::^Q^, that is, the
pyramid EFGH is greater than the fum of the prifm
defcribed about it, which is impoflible, therefore the
pyramids ABCD, EFGH are not unequal, that is,
they are equal.

Theorem XVI.

Every prifm having a triangular bafe maybe di-Fij. 147,
vided into three pyramids that have triangular
bafesj and that are equal to one another.

Let ABC, DEF be the oppofite bafes of a trian-
gular prifm. Join AE, EC, CD ; and becaufe ABED
is a parallelogram, of which AE is the diameter, the
triangle ADE is equal to the triangle ABE ; there-
fore the pyramid of which the bale is the triangle
ADE and vertex the point C, is equ.il to the pyramid
of which the bafe is the triangle ADE, and verte.v
the point C. But the pyramid of which the Iwfe is
the triangle ABE and vertex the point C, that is the
pyramid ABCE, is equal to the pyramid DEFC,
(ij.) for they have equal bafes, viz. the triangles
ABC, DFE, and the fame altitude, viz. tlie altitude
of the prifm ABCDEF. Tiiereforc, the three pyra-
n.ids ADEC, ABEC, DFEC arc equal to one another ;
but thefe pyramids make up the whole prifm ABCDEF;
therefore, the prifra ABCDEF is divided ir.to three
equal pyramids.

Cor.. I. From this it is m-.iifcft ^hat every pyra

•j64

Ofty'Jr

deri, Cont

and the

Sphere.

G E O M

rnid is iKe lliird part of a prifm which has the fame
' bafe and the fame altitude with it ; for if the bale
of the prifra be any other figure than a triangle, it
may be Gi\'ided into prifins having triangular bafes.

f: T R Y

Sea. IX.

Cor. 2. Pyramids having equal altitudes are to one OfCjIm.
anotiicr as their bafes ; becaufe the prifms upon the "', ,^"/''
fame bafes, and of the fame altitude, are to one another
as their bafes. i

Sphere.

SECT. IX. OF CYLINDERS, CONES, AND THE SPHERE.

Defikitions.

I. A Cylinder is a folid figure defcrlhed by the revo-
lution of a right-angled parallelogram about one of its
fides, which remains fixed.

The Jlxis of the cylinder is the fixed ftraight line
about which the parallelogram revolves.

The Bafes of the cylinder are the circles defcribed
by the two revolving oppoCte fides of the parallelo-
gram.

II. A Cone is a folid finure defcribed by the revo-
lution of a right-angled triangle about one of the fides
containing the right angle, which fide remains fixed.

The /Jits of the cone is tlie fixed line about which
the triangle revolves.

The Bafe of the cone is the circle defcribed by that
iide containing the right angle which revolves.

III. A Sphere is a folid figure defcribed by the re-
volution of a femicircle about a diameter.

The Axis of a fphere is the fixed line about which
the femicircle revolves.

The Centre of a fphere is the fame with that of the
■femicircle.

The Diameter of a fphere is any flraight line which
paffes through the centre, and is terminated both ways
by the fuperficies of the fphere.

IV. Similar cones and cylinders are thofe which
have their axes and diameters of their bafes propor-
tional.

Theorem I.

Tig. 148. If from any point E in the circumference of the
bafe of a cylinder ABCD, a perpendicular EF
be drawn to the plane of the bafe AEB, the
flraight line EF is wholly in the cylindric fupeir-
ficies.

Let HG be the axis, and AGHD the reflangle,
•which by its revolution defcribes the cylinder. Becadfe
HG is perpendicular to AG in every pofition of the
revolving reftangle, it is perpendicular to the plane of
the circle defcribed by AG ; and becaufe AD, the line
which defcribes the cylindric fuperficies, is parallel to
GH, it is alfo perpendicular to the plane of that cir-
cle. (5. 7.) Now when by the revolution of the reftangle
AGHD the point A coincides with the point E, the
line EF will coincide with AD, and thus will be whol-
ly in the cylindric fuperficies ; for otherwife \.wo per-
pendiculars might be drawn to the fame plane, from
the fame point, which is impoflible (2 cor. 4. 7.),

Theorem II.
♦•ig. 149. A cylinder and a parallelepiped having equivalent
bafes and the fame ahitude are equal to one ano-
ther.

Let ABCD be a cylinder, and EF a parallelopiped
having equivalent bafes, viz the circle AGB and the
parallelogram EH, and having alfo equal altitudes ; the
cylinder ABCD is equal to the parallelopiped EF. If
not, let them be unequal ; and firft let the cyhnder be
lefs than the paiallelopiped EF; and from the paral-
lelopiped EF let there be cut off a part E(^ by a plane
P(^ parallel to NF, equal to the cylinder ABCD.
In the circle AGB iiifcribe the polygon AGKLLM
that fliall difier from the circle by a fpace lels than
the parallelogram PH, (l cor. 2.6.) and cut ofl from
the parallelogram EH a part OR equal to the polygon
AGKBLM, then it is manifefl that the parallelogram
OR is greater than the parallelogram OP, therefore the
point R will fall between P and N. On the poly-
gon AGKBLM let an upright prilm be conttituted
of the fame altitude with the cyhnder, which will there-
fore be lefs than the cylinder, becaule it is within it ;
(i.) and if through the point R a plane RS parallel to
NF be made to pafs, it will cut off the parallelopiped
ES equal to t!ie prifrn AGBC, becaule its bafe is
equal to that of the prilm, and its altitude is the fame.
But the prifm AGBC is lefs than the cylinder ABCD,
and the cyhnder ABCD is equal to the parallelopi-
ped E(;^, by hypothefis ; therefore, ES is lefs than E^,
and it is al'o greater, wliich is impoflible. The cy-
linder ABCD therefore is not lefs than the parallelo-
piped EF ; and in the fame manner it may be fhewn
not to be greater than EF, therefore they are equal.

Theorem III.

If a cone and cylinder have the fame bafe and the Fig. 150.
fame altitude, the cone is the third part of the
cylinder.

Let the cone ABCD, and the cylinder BFKG
have the fame bafe, viz. the circle BCD, and the fame
altitude, viz. the perpendicular from the point A upon
the plane BCD \ the cone ABCD is the third part
of the cylinder BFKG. If not, let the cone ABCD
be the third part of another cylinder LMNO having
the fame altitude with the cylinder BFKG ; but let the
bafes BCD, LIM be unequal, and firlf let BCD be
greater than LIM. Then, becaule the circle BCD is
greater than the circle LIM, a polygon may be in-
fcribcd in BCD that ihall differ from it lefs than LIM
does, (i. cor. 2. 6.) and which therefore will be great-
er than LIM. Let this be the polygon BECFD,
and upon BECFD let there be condituteJ the pyramid
ABECFD, and the prifm BCFKHG. Becaufe the
polygon BECFD is greater than the circle LIM, the
prifm BCFKHG is greater than the cylinder LMNO,
for they have the fame ahitude, but the prilm has the
greater bafe. But the pyramid ABECFD is the third
part of the prifm BCFHG (16. 8.) 5 therefore it is

greater

y.lK. G E O M

vlin- greater tlian tlie third part of the cylinder LMNO.

-■^"•Nou- the cone ABECFD is by hypoihefis the third

eie! P^''' °^ *^^ cylinder LiVINO, therefore, the pyramid

L^_-1L ABECFD is greater than the cone ABCD, and it is

alio lefs, becaufe it is infcribed in th.e cone, which is

impofTible, Therefore the cone ABCD is not lefs

than the tliird part of the cylinder liFKG. And in

the fame manner, by circumfcribing a polygon about

the circle BCD, it may be (heun, th?.t the cone ABCD

is not greater than the third part of the cylinder BFKG ;

therefore, it is equal to the third part of the cylin«

der.

Tnr.oREM IV.

• 'J*' If a hemiiphere and cone have equal bafes and
altitudes, a leries of cylinders may be infcribed
in the hemifpheve, and another leries may be cir-
cumfcribed about the cone, having all the fame
altitudes with one another, and fuch that their
fum fhall differ from the fum of the hemi-
fphere and the cone by a folid, lefs than any
given folid.

Let ADB be a femicirclc, of vrhich the centre is C,
and let CD be at light angles to AB ; let DB and DA
be fquares defcribed on DC, draw CE, and let the fi-
gure thus conftructed revolve about DC : then the qua-
drant BCD will defcribe a hemifphere having C for its
centre, and the triangle CDE will defcribe a cone
having its vertex at C, and having for its bafe the cir-
cle defcribed by DE, equal to that defcribed by BC,
which is the bale of the hemiiphere. Let W be a
given folid, a feries of cylinders may be defcribed in
the hemifphere ADB, and another defcribed about the
cone EC I, fo that their fum {hall differ from the fum
of the hemifphere and cone, by a folid lefs than the
folid W.

Upon the bafe of the hemifphere let a cylinder be
conltituted equal to W, and let its altitude be CX.
Diwde CD into fuch a number of equal parts, that
each of them fliall be lefs than CX ; let thefe be CH,
HG, GF and FD. Draw FN, GO, HP parallel to
CB, meeting the circle in K, L, and M, and the
flraight line CE in (^, R, and S. Draw K/, Lf, M/i,
perpendicular to GO, HP, and CB ; and draw C^y,
R r, Ss perpendicular to the fame lines. It is evident
that the figure being thus conflruded, if the whole re-
volve about CD, the rectangles F/, G f , H // "ill de-
fcribe cylinders that will be circumfcribed by the hemi-
fphere BD A ; and that the redangles DN, F9, Gr,
H J will alfo defcribe cylinders that will circumfcribe
the cone ICE. Now it may be deraonflrated, as was
done of the prifms infcribed in a pyramid (14. 8.), that
the hemiiphere exceeds the fum of all the cylinders de-
fcribed within it, by a folid lefs than the cylinder ge-
nerated by the rectangle HB, that is, by a folid lefs
than W In the fame manner it mny be demonllrated,
that the fum of the cylinders circumfcribing the cone
ICE is grtater than the cone by a folid lefs than the
cylinder generated by the reflangle DN, that is, by a
folid lefs than W. Therefore, fmce the fum of the
cylinders infcribed in the hemifphere together with a
folid lels than VV, is equal to the hemifphere ; and

Vol. IX. Part IL

E T R Y.

66^

fince the fum of the cylinders defcribed about ttie cone Of Cyih
is eqilal to the cone together with a folid lefs than W;"^^"' '""
addin T equals to equals, the fum of all the cylinders sJUcre
together with a folid lefs than W is equal to the liemi- ■ '' '"f'
fphere and cone together with a folid lefs than W j
therefore, the ditference between the whole of the cy-
linders, Jtnd the fum of the heinif(5here and the cone,
js equal to the difference of two folids, each of which
is lefs than W : but this difi'ercnce mufl alfo be lefs'
than \V; therefore the diiference between the two ferieS
of cylinders, and the fum of the hemifphere and cone
is lefs than the given folid W.

Theorem V.

The fame things being fuppofed as in laft theorem, p.; ,_.
the fum of all the cylinders infcribed in u\e he- ' "
miiphere, and defcribed about the cone, is equal
to a cylinder having the fame bale and altitude
with the hemifphere.

FoH, the fame conftrutlion being fuppofed as iij laft
theorem, let L be the point in which GO meets the
circle ADB, then becaufe CGL is a right angle, if
CL be johied, the circles defcribed with the radii CG
and GL are equal to the circle defcribed with the ra-
dius CL or GO (2. cor. 4. 6.). Now ( G=:GR, be-
caufe CD=DE, therefore, the circles defcribed by the
revolution of the radii GR and GL about the point
G are together equal to the circle defcribed by the re- ■
volution of the radius GO about the fame point Gj
therefore alfo the cylinders that ftand upon the two firft
of thefe circles having the common altitude GH are e-
qual to the cylinder which (lands upon the remaining
circle, and which has the fame altitude GH. The cy-
linders defcribed by the revolution of the recl.angles
G^ and Gr are therefore equal to the cylinder de-
fcribed by the rectangle GP. And as the fame may be
(hewn of all the reft, the cyhnders defcribed by the
reiftangies H /;, Gg, F/, and by the rectangles H s,
Gr, F^, DN, are together equal to the cylinder de-
fcribed by DB, that is, to the cylinder havhig the hme
bafe and altitude with the hemifphere.

Theorem VI.

Every fphere is two thirds of the circumfcribing ^'o- 'J'-
cylinder.

Let the figure be conftrucled as in the two laft the-
orems, and if the hemifphere defcribed bv the quadrant
BDC be not equal to two thirds of the cylinder defcribed
by the reclangle BD, let it be greater by the (olid W.
Then as the cone defcribed by CDE js one-third of the
cylinder defcribed by BD, the cone and the hemifphere
together will exceed the cylinder by W. But that cylin-
der is equal to the fum of all the cylinders defcribed by
the rea.ingle H /i, Gj, ¥/, Hx, Gr, Fy, DN; there-
fore, the hemifphere and the cone added together ex-
ceed the fum of all thefe cylinders by the folid Wj
which is abfurd; for it has been (liewn (4.) that the he-
mifphere and the cone together differ from the fum of
thefe cylinders by a folid lefs than W. The hemifphere
is therefore equal to two thirds of the cylinder dc-
4 P ' ffrib<!^

666

G E 0 M

OfCylin- fcribed by the reftangle BD ; and therefore the whole
o*'-. "^""^^ fphere is two thirds of the cylinder defcribed by twice
^S here *^'^ reftangle BD, that is to two thirds of the circum-
•mr ^ fcribing cylinder.

E T R Y. Sea. IX

We here conclude the jE/fOTt'n/j' o/" Gco/«(?//-^, Their Oi Cylii -
application, conftituting what is fometimes called Prac- <•<;", Coiu
tical Geometrij, will be given under the article Men- ^"'1! '^^

A Table fhewing the Theorem of the foregoing Treatlfe, tliat correfponds to each of the moft ma-
terial Propofitions in the firft fix, and in the eleventh and twelfth, books of Euclid's Elements.

Euclid.

Geometry.

Euclid.

Geometry.

1 Euclid.

o„„,„,.

Euclid.

Geometry

Euclid.

Geometry.

Book I.

Tliecr. Sea.

Book I.

I'heor. Sea.

Book. III.

Theor. Sta.

Book VI.

Theur. St-a.

Book XI.

T'i.-or. St-a.

Prop. 4.

5-
6.

8.

«3-
14.
IS-
16.

h

20.

h

26.

3:}

29.

33-

Sj
n

5. I.

11. 1.

12. 1.
10. I.

3- I-
4. I.

23. I.

24. I.

13. I.

7. I.

8. I.

9. I.

6. I.
22. I.

21. I.

20. I.

II-

28. I.
26. i.

1. 4.

2 cor. to

2. 4.

Pr.41.

2. 4.

fcholium
15. 4.

Pr.28.'
29-.'
31-
32-

36. {

4. 2.

17. 2.

18. 2.

28. 4.

29. 4.

30. 4.

3-

4-

i

8.
14.'

17-.
19.

20. ■

3I--
33-

17. 4.

18. 4.

19. 4.

20. 4.

21. 4.

22. 4.

23- 4.-
cor.

24. 4.

8. 4-

25. 4-

26. 4.

27. 4
I cor.

27. 4.
31- 4

10.

^3 ]

L

14-
15-
16.

'7-
18.
19.
20.
24.

h

32-
33-

2 cor.

5- 7-
10. 7.

2 cor.

4. 7.

6. 7.
10. 7.

7- 7-
14. 7.

13- 7-

20. 7.

2. 8.

8. 8.

3. 8-

4. 8.

5. 8.

9. 8.
12. 8.

Book 11.

Theor. Sea,

Pr. 4.
5-
7-
12.

13-

IQ. 4.
12. 4.
II. 4.

15- 4-
14. 4.

Rook V.

Theor. Sea.

Pr. 4.
12.

11:

19-3

22.

23-
24.

5- 3-
8. 3.

1- 3-

2- 3-

4- 3-
6. 3-
I I

>.ook III.

iheor. Sea.

p,.,
"1

6. 2.
cor.

7. 2.

.4. 1 8. !.
.5.{ i '■

ook XI.

Theor. 5f.-.

t4..kvi. r- or.sa.

Pr. I.

I. 7.

3- 7-
4. 7.
1 cor.
5- 7-
S- I-

Jjuk XII.

Pr. I.
2.

7-
10.

Theor. Sea.

I. 6.
4. 6.
16. 8.
3- 9-

.6.'

20.
21.
22.

9. 2.
13. 2.

f cor.

I 6. 4-

GEO

GEORGE I. II. and 111. kings of Great Britain.
' —George I. the Ton of Emeft Augullus, duke of
Brunf'.vick Lunenburgh, and eleilor of Hanover ; fuc-
Ceeded to the throne of Great Britain in 17 1 4, in vir-
tue of an acl of parliament, paffed in the latter part
of the reign of King William III. limiting the fuccef-
fion of the crown, after the demife of that monarch,
and Q^ueen Anne (without iflue), to the princefs Sophia
ofHanover, and the lieirs of her body, being Prote-
ftants. — George II. the only fon of the former, fuc-
ceodtd him in 1739, and enjoyed a long reign of glory j
dyinj; amidll the moft rapid and e.xtenfive conquells in
tlje 77 h year of his age. He was fucceeded by his
jtandlbn Gcorj^c III. our profent fovereign. For par-
ticgiiw?, fee Bkjxain, N° 374 — 701.

CVi¥?,

GEO

George, or Knights of St Geokgb, has been the de-
nomination of feveral military orders, whereof that of
the garter is one of the moft illuftrious. See Garter,
and St Geohgm, below.

Ki/ig GAOKG£'i IJlands, are two iflands in the South
fea, lying in W. Long. 144. 56. S. Lat. 14. 28. They
were firft dllcovered by Commodore Byron in 1765,
and have fince been vilited by Captain Cook in 1774.
Commodore Byron's people had an encounter with the
inhabitant?, which proved fatal to fome of the natives ;
but Captain Cook was more fortunate. A lieutenant
and two boats well-armed were fent on Ihore by Cap-
tain Cook J and landed without oppolition. As foon
as tlie gentlemen landed, the illanders embraced them
b^ towelling nofcs, a mode of civility ufcd in New Zea-
land,

George.

I

<^//7ry/&i-,„.//.y.'./.

cV/y . <2.:;

11 . y

i i .

1 1

PT ' \

) r

,.

15 >; r ix

/

\ /

/

\ /

^/

\

/

/ \

. ■ ■

r^y^y,.^

r 1

E D

fir. (1 Mi-vn; V

Plaif CrWAV

'Ui^// .'4^v„ . //.,/■■ /.-..//.f-,-/^:

\v i^^

r : ■

K^

i'\.

'^•■..

k

K J ^

■— ij-...

C;^-^^- ^>;y..

M !■. 1 H V .

GEO

* Vol. i
p. t.
+ Hift.
vol. ii.
p. 404.

laiiil, wliich is 900 leagues diftant, and tlie only pla
' belidcs this where the cuftom has been obfcrved to pre-
vail. Notivithilanding this ceremony, however, very
little real friendlhip feemed to take place on tlie part
of the iilanders. Tliey crowded about the boats as the
people were llepping into them, and feemed in doubt
whether they fliould detain them or let them go ; at laft,
however, not thinking themfclves fulTiciently llrong,
they feemed contented ^vith their departure, and allilled
them in pulhing off their boats ; but fome of the moll
turbulent threw llones into the water, wliich fell very
near them, and all feemed to glory that they had
as it were driven them oft". The Britilh brought off
five dogs of a white colour with fine long hair, with
which the iiland feemed to be plentifully fupplied.
Thefe they purchafed with fmall nails, and fome ripe
bananas which had been brought from the Marquelas.
On this iiland Mr Forller found a kind of fcurvy-
grafs, which the natives informed him they ivere wont
10 bruife and mix with (hell fifti -, after ivhich, they
threiv it into the fea whenever they perceived a Ihoal of
fifli. This preparation intoxicates them for fome time ;
and thus they are caught on the furface of the water
without any other trouble thai\ that of taking them
out. The name of this plant among the natives is
enow. The largeft iiland, which they call Ttaokta, is
fomethhig of an oval Ihape, and about 10 leagues in
circuit ; the other iiland, which lies t^vo leagues to the
welbvard of Tiookea, is four leagues long from north-
call to fouth-weft, and from three to five miles broad.
Tlie foil of both is extremely fcanty ; the foundation
confifts of coral, very little elevated above the furface
of the water.

George, St, or George of Cnpf>a<!ocin ; a name
whereby feveral orders, both military and religious, are
denominated. It took its rife from a faint or hero
famous throughout all the Eaft, called by the Greeks
M.tysth(iftx(',u^, q. d. ^reat tnartyr.

On fome medals of the emperors John and Manuel
Comneni, we have the figure of St George armed, hold-
ing a Tword or javelin in one hand, and m the other a
buckler, with this infcription ; an O, and therein a little

P
A, and FE— noc, making O AFIOS FEOPnOS, Ohohj

o

George. He is generally reprefented on horfeback, as
being fuppofed to have frequently engaged in combats
in that manner. He is highly venerated ihrouuhout
Armenia, Mufcovy, and all the countries which ad-
here to tlie Greek rite : from the Greek, his worfhip
has long ago been received into the Latin church ; and
England and Portugal have both choiisn liim for their
patron faint.

Great difficulties have been raifcd about this faint
or hero. His very exiftence has been called in quef-
tion. Dr Heylin, who wrote firft and moll about
him, concluded with giving him entirely up, and fup-
pofing him only a fymbolical device ; and Dr Pet-
tingal has turned him into a m-re Bafilidian fymbol of
viciory. Mr Pegg, in a paper in the Archxologia *,
has attempted to reftore him. And, finally, Mr Gib-
bon -f has funk him into an Arian bKhop in the reigns
of Conllantius and Julian. — The biiliop alluded to,

GtoRGt tlie Caftpadijcian, was fo furnamed, according
to our author, from his parents or education \ and was

[ 667 ]

GEO

born at Epipliania in Cilicia, in a fuller's fhop. " From Gcor*'
this oblcure and fervile origin he raifed himfelf by the ~^
talents of a parafite ; and the patrons, whom he af-
fiduoufiy llattcrtd, procured for their worthlels depen-
dent a lucrative commiflion, or contraft, to fupply
the army with bacon. His employment was mean :
he rendered it infamous. He accumulated wealth by
tlie bafeil arts of fraud and corruption ; but his mal-
veifations were fo notorious, that George was com-
pelled to efcape from the purfuits of jullice. After
this difgrace, in which he appears to have faved his
fortune at the expence of his honour, he embraced, with
real or affefted zeal, the profelTion of Arianil'm. From
the love, or the ollcntation, of learning, he coUefted
a valuable library of hillory, rhetoric, philofophy, and
theology; and the choice of the prevailing faftion pro-
moted George of Cappadocia to the throne ot Athana-
fius." His conduct in this llation is reprefented by
our hillorian as polluted by cruelty and avarice, and -
his death confidered as a juft punifhment for the enor-
mities of his life, among which Mr Gibbon feems to
rank his " enmity to the gods."

The immediate occafion of his death, however, a';
narrated by eccleCaftical writers, will not probably ap-
pear calculated to add any ftaln to his memory.
" There was in the city of Alexandria a place in whicli
the heathen priefts had been ufed to offer human facri-
fices. This place, as being of no ufe, Conllantius gave
to the church of Alexandria, and George the bilhop
gave orders for it to be cleared, in order to build a
Chriftian church on the fpot. In doing this they dif-
covered an immenfe fubterraneous cavern, in which
the heathen myfteiies had been performed, and in it
were many human Hiulls. Thefe, and other things
which they found in the place, the Chrillians brought
out and expofed to public ridicule. The heathens,
provoked at this exhibition, fuddenly took arms and
ruQiing upon the Chiillians, killed many of them witii
fwords, clubs, and Hones : fome alfo they llrangled,
and feveral they cruciSed. On this the Chrillians pro-
ceeded no farther in clearing the temple ; but the hea*
thens, purfuing their advantage, feized the bilhop as
he was in the church, and put him in prifon. The
next day they defpalched him -, and then fallening the
body to a camel, he was dragged about the ftreets all
day, and in the evening they burnt him and the
camel together. This fate, Sozomcn fays, the bifliop
owed in part to his haughtinefs while he was in favour
with Conftantius^ and fome fay the friends of Atha-
nalius were concerned in this malTacre ; but he afcribes
it chiefly to the inveteracy of the heathens, whofe luper-
Hitions he had been very aftive in abolilhing.

This George, the Arian bilhop of Alexandria,
was a man of letters, and had a very valuable library,
which Julian ordered to be feized for his own ufe ;
and in his orders concerning it, he fays that many of
the books were on philofophical and rhetorical fub-
jefls, though many of them related to the do6lrine
of the impious Galileans (as in his fneering contemp-
tuous way he always affefted to call the Chrillians).
' Thefe books (fays he) I could with to have utterly,
deltroyed ; but left books of value (liould be deftroy-
ed along with them, let thefe alfo be carefully fought
for.'

But Mr Gibbon gives a different turn to the affair
4 P 2 o'

GEO

[ 668 ]

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Oofge- of George's murder, as v.ell as relates it with dif-
■f~~ ferent circumrtances. " The Pagans (lays he) excited
his devout avarice ; and the rich temples of Alexandria
were either pillaged or infulted by the haughty pre-
late, who excbimed, in a loud and threatening tone,
* How long will thefe fepulchres be permitted to
Hand ?' Under the reign of Conftantius, he was ex-
pelled by the fury, or rather by the juaice, of the
people : and it was not without a violent ftruggle,
that the civil and military powers of the rtate could
rellore his authority, and gratify his revenge. The
melVenger who proclaimed at Alexandria the acceflion
of Julian, announced the downfal of the archbilliop.
George, with two of his obiequious miniifers. Count
Diodorus and Darcontius mailer of the mint, was
jgnominioufly dragged in chains to the public prifon.
At the end of 24 days, the prifon was forced open by
the rage ot a fuperftitious multitude, impatient of the
tedious forms of judicial proceedings. The enemies of
god; and men expired under their cruel infults ; the
Jifelefs bodies of the archbiihop and his aflbciates were
carried in triumph through the ftreets on the back of a
camel ; and the inactivity of the Athanafian party was
efteemed a ifiining example of evangelical patience.
The remains of thefe guilty wretches were thrown
into the fea ; and the popular leaders of the tumult
declared their refolution to dilappoint the devotion of
the Chriftians, and to intercept the future honours of
thefe martyrs, who had been puniibed, like their pre-
deceiTors, by the enemies of their religion. The fears
of the Pagans were juft, and their precautions ineffec-
tual. The meritorious death of the archbiihop obli-
terated the memory of his life. The rival of Athana-
fms was dear and facred to the Arian>, and the feem-
iiig converiion of thofe feftaries introduced his wor-
fhip into the bofom of the Catholic church. The
odious ftranger, difguifing every circumlf ance of time
and place, affumed the malk of a martyr, a faint, and
a Chriftian hero ; and the infamous George of Cappa-
docia has been transformed into the renoivned St
George of England, the patron of arms, of chivalry,
and of the garter."

Knights of St Geokgk. See Garter There have
been various other orders under this denomination, moft
of which are now extinct ; particularly one founded by
the emperor Frederic III. in the year 1470, to guard
the frontiers of Bohemia and Hungary againft the
Turks ; another, called St George of jllfama, founded
by the kings of Arragon j another in Auftria and Ca-
rinthia ; and another in the republic of Genoa, flill
fubfilting, &:c.

Religious of St Grokge. Of thefe there are di-
vers orders and congregations ; particularly canons re-
gular of St George in Alga, at Venice, eftabliflied by
authority of Pope Boniface IX. in the year 1404. The
foundation of this order v.as laid by Bartholomew Co-
lonna, who preached, in 1396, at Padua, and fome
other villages in the ftate of Venice. Pope Pius V.
in 1570, gave thefe canons precedence of all other re-
ligious. Another congregation of the fame inllitute
in Sicily, &c.

St CsokGE del Mina, the capital of the Dutch
fettlements on the Gold coaft of Guinea, iituated fe-
Vi,n or eight piiles weft of Capc-coaft caftle the capi-

tal of the Brililh fettlements there. W. Long. 5'. and
N. Lat. 5.°

St George, a fort and town of Afia, in the penin-
fula on this fide the Ganges, and on the coaft of Coro-
mandel, belonging to the Britifti ; it is otherwife call-
ed Madras, and by the natives Chilipatam. It fronts
the fea, and has a fait water river on its back fide, which
hinders the frefli water fprings from coming near tl)e
town, fo that they have no good water within a mile
of them. In the rainy feafons it is incommoded by in-
undations ; and from April to September, it is i\i fcorch-
ing hot, that if the fea breezes did not cool the air,
there would be no living there. There are two towns,
one of which is called the Wliite Toiva, which is walled
round, and h?.s feveral bulwarks and baftions to defend
it ; it is 400 paces long and Ijo broad, and is divided
into regular ftreets. Here are two churches, one for
the Proteftants, and the other for the Papifls ; as alfo
a good hofpital, a town hall, and a prifon for debtors.
They are a corporation, and have a mayor and alder-
men, with other proper officers. The B/aci Town is
inhabited by Gentoos^ Mahometans, and Portuguefe
and Armenian Chriftians, and each religion has its
temples and churches. This, as well as the White
Town, is ruled by the Englilli governor and his coun-
cil. The diamond mines are but a week's journey
from this place, which renders them pretty plentiful,
but there are no large ones lince that great diamond
was procured by Governor Pitt. This colony produces
very little of its own growth or manufacture for fo-
reign markets, and the trade is in the hands of the Ar-
menians and Gentoos. The chief things the Britifh
deal in, befides diamonds, are calicoes, chintz, muf-
lins, and the like. This colony may confift of 8o,050
inhabitants in the towns and villages, and there are
generally 400 or 5C0 Europeans. Their rice is brought
by fea from Gangam and Orixa, their wheat from Su-
rat .ind Bengal, and their fire wood from the illands
of Diu •, fo that an enemy, with a fitperior force
at fea, may eafily diftrefs them. The houfcs of the
White Town are built with brick, and have lofty
rooms and flat roof?^ but the Black Town confiits
chiefly of thatched cottages. The military power is
lodged in the governor and council, who are alfo the
laft refort in ci\-il craifes. The Company have two chap-
lains, who oificiate by turns, and have each icol. a-
year, befides the advantages of trade. They never at-
tempt to make profelytes, but leave that to the Popifh
miflionaries. The falaries of the Company's writers
are very fmall : but, if they have any fortune of their
own, they may make it up by trade ; which rnuft ge-
nerally be the cafe, for they commonly grow rich. It
was taken by the French in 1746, %vho reftored it at
the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.

St G£orge''s, the largcll of the Bermuda or Simimer
iflands. W. Long. 6j. 10. N. Lat. 32. 30.

Crofs of St George, a red one in a field argent,
which makes part of the Britifti ftandard.

Gkorge, a lake in Eaft Florida, alfo denomina-
ted Great lake, about 15 miles broad, and 20 feet
deep. There are fome beautiful iflands in it, the
largeft of which is about two miles broad, commanding
a delightful and very extenfive profpcfl. There aie
manifeft traces of a large town of the Aborigines, and

the

G E O

[ 669 ]

GEO

the ifland itfelf appears to have been the fa'.ourite re-
fidenee of sn Indian prince. It lies to the fouth of Lake
Champlain, and its waters lie nbout 1 00 feet higher.
It abounds ^\ith filhes of q fuperior quality, fuch as the
Ofwego baf«, and fpeckied trouts of confiderable mag-
nitude. The French at one period called it Lake Sa-
crament, as they were at the trouble to bring from it
their water for facr.imental purpofes, to the churches
thev had planted in Canada.

GEORGETOWN, the name of feveral towns in
America, fuch, for inltance, as Georgetowti in Mary-
land, about 6^ miles S. W. of Philadelphia ; George-
town in the county of Lincoln, and diftrift of Maine,
lying on both fides of Kennebeck river, 148 miles
S. VV. of Philadelphia, where the Roman Catholics
have a very tiourilliing college : it is the name of a
village in Fayette county, Pennfylvania, where a num-
ber of boats are annually built 5 and of a poll town in
the diftrift of the fame name, where tlie Epifcopalians,
Baptifts, and Methodilts, have each a place of worlhip,
although the number of houfes in it does not much
exceed 300, which are conftrucled chiefly of wood. It
lies 127 miles S. W. of Wilmington, and 681 from
Philadelphia.

GEORGIA, a country of Afia, bounded on the
north by Circaffia, on the eaft by Dagheftan and
Shirvan, on the fouth by Armenia, and on the weft
by the Euxine or Black fea •, comprehending the
greateft part of the ancient Colchis, Iberia, and Alba-
nia. About the etymon of the name "of this country,
authors are not agreed. The moft probable opinion
is, that it is a corruption by foftening of Kiirgia,
from the river Kur ; whence alfo it is fuppofed that
the inhabitants are called by the Perfians indifferently
Gtirgi and Kurgi; and the country Kurg'iflan and Gur-
gifan ■ It is divided by a ridge of moimtains into eaft-
eni and weftern ; the former of which is again fubdi-
vided into the kingdoms of Caket, Carduel or Car-
thuel, and Goguetia ; and the latter into the provin-
ces of Abcaifia, Mireta or Iraeretia, and Giiriel. Ano-
ther diviCon is into Georgia Proper, AbcalFia, and
IMingrelia. A third divifion will be afterwards men-
tioned.

" Georgia (fays Sir George Chardin) is as fertile a
country as can be feen ; the bread is as good here as
in any part of tlie world ; the fruit of an exquifite fla-
vour, and of different forts : no place in Europe yields
better pears and apples, and. no place in Alia better
pomegranates. The country abounds with cattle, ve-
nifon, and wild fowl, of all forts ; the river Kur is well
flocked %vith fi(h ; and the wine is fo rich, that the king
of Perfia has always fome of it for his own table. The
inhabitants are robuft, valiant and of a jovial temper ;
preat lovers of \\ine, and edeemed very tr'jfty and
faithful J endov.ed with good natural parts, but, for
want of education, very vicious. The women are ge-
nerally fo fair and comely, that the wives and concu-
bines of the king of Perfia and his court are for the
moft part Georgian women. Nature has adorned them
xWth graces nowhere clfe to be met with : it is im-
pofllble to fee them without loving them ; they are of
a good fize, clean limbed, and well Ihaped. Another
traveller, however, of no mean charafter, thus expreffes
himfelf with refpeft to the i-.omen : " As to the Geor-
gian women, they did i-.ot at all furprife us ) for we

expected to find them perfeft beauties. They are, in- Otorgij
deed no \vay difagreeable \ and may be counted beau- ■~~^'~"
ties, it compared with the Curdes. They have an air
of health that is pleafing enough ; but, after all, they
are neither fo handfome nor fo well iliaped as is re-
ported- Thofe who live in the towns have nothing
extraordinary more than the others ; fo that I may, I
think, venture to contradift the accounts that have
been given of them by moft travellers."

This country formerly abounded with great cities, as
appears not only from its hillory, but from the ruins of
many of them iHll vifible, which fliow that they muft
have been very large, opulent, and magnificently built.
Thefe were all dellroyed by the inundations of northern
barbarians from Mount Caucafus as the Alans, Huns,
Suevi, and fome others, fo much noted in hiftory for
their ftrength, courage, and conquefts.

The lateft divifion of this country is into nine pro-
vinces ; five of which are fubjecl to the famous prince
Heraclius, forming what is commonly called the king-
dom of Georgia ; and four are under the dominion of
David, compofing the kingdom or principality of Ime-
retia. See Imeretia.

This whole country is fo extremely beautiful, that
fome fanciful travellers have imagined they had here
found the fituation of the original garden of Eden.
The hills are covered with forefts of oak, afii, beech,
chefnuts, walnuts, and elms, encircled with vines,
growing perfeftly wild, but producing vaft quantities
of grapes. From thefe is annually made as much wine
as is neceffary for the yearly confumption ; the re-
mainder is left to rot on the vines. Cotton grows
fpontaneoufly, as well as the fineft European fruit
trees. Rice, wheat, millet, hemp, and flax, are raifed
on the plains, almoft without culture. The valleys
afford the fineft pafturage in the world ; the rivers are
fullof filh; the mountains abound in minerals, and the
climate is delicious^ fo that nature appears to have la-
viihed on this favourite country every production that
can contribute to the happinels of its inhabitants.

On the other hand, the rivers of Georgia, being ted by
mountain torrents, are at all feafons cither too rapid or
too ihallo:v for the purpofes of navigation : the Black
lea, by ivhich commerce and civilization might be in-
troduced from Europe, has been till very lately in the
cxclufive poffelHon of the Turks : the trade of Geor-
gia by land is greatly obflrufled by the high moun-
tains of Caucafus; and this obftacle is llill incrcafed'
by the fvvarms of predatory nations, by which thofe
mountains are inhabited.

It is faid, that in the I jth century, a king of Geor-
gia divided among his five fons the provinces of Car-
duel and Caket, Imeretia, Mingrelia, Guriel, and
Abcaflla. Thefe petty princes were too jealous to
unite for their common defence, and too weak fingly
to refift a foreign enemy, or even to check the en-
croachments of their great vaffals, who foon became
independent. By forming a party among thefe nobles,
the Turks gradually gained poiTelTion of all the welt-
em provinces, while the Perfians occupied the g( vern- '
mcnts of Carduel and Caket. Since that pci' t *he
many unfuccefsful attempts of the Georgians i ■ \ico-
ver their liberty have repeatedly produced tlie rlcvaf-
tation of their country, .ibhas the Great is faid to
have carried oft' in one expedition from the provinces

GEO

[ 670 ]

GEO

C-forgia. of Cavduel and Caket no lefs than 80, 000 families ; a
*"■"»■""' number which, probably, exceeds the whole ailual po-
pulation of thofe provinces. The mod horrible cruel-
ties were again exercifed on the unhappy people, at
the beginning of the prcfent century, by the mercilefs
Nadir ; but thefe were trifling evils, compared with
thofe arifing from the internal diiTenhons of the great
barons. This numerous body of men, idle, arrogant,
and ferocious, pofleiVed of an unlimited power over the
lives and properties of their vaiTals, having no employ-
ment but that of arms, and no hopes of aggrandizing
themfelves but by the plunder of their rivals, were
conllantly in a ilate of warfare ; and as their fucccfs
was various, and the peafants of the vanquillied were
conftantly carried off and fold to the Turks or Per-
iians, every expedition increafed the depopulation of
the country. At length they invited the neighbour-
ing mountaineers, by the hopes of plunder, to take
part in their quarrels ; and thefe dangerous allies, be-
coming acquainted with the country, and being fpec-
tators of the weaknefs of its inhabitants, foon com-
pleted its defolation. A few fqualid wretches, half
naked, half Oarved, and driven to defpair by the mer-
cilefs exadions of their landlords, are thinly difperfed
over the moll beautiful provinces of Georgia. The
revolutions of Perlia, and the weaknefs of the Turks,
have indeed enabled the princes of the country to re-
cover their independence ; but the fmallnefs of their
revenue has hitherto difabled them from repreffing ef-
fectually the tyranny of the nobles, and relieving the
burdens of the peafants.

The capital of Georgia is Teflis, where Prince He-
raclius refides (See TeFLIS.) Of this prince, fo
celebrated for his exploits and fuccefs in Ihaking off
the Ottoman yoke, we have the following account by
■the late Profeffor Guldenftaedt Vv^hen he travelled into
thefe parts in 1770. " Heraclius, or, as he is called,
the Tzar Iracli, is above 60 years old, of a middle
fize, with a long countenance, a dark complexion,
large eyes, and a fmall beard. He paffed his youth at
the court and in the army of the celebrated Nadir
Shah, where he contrafled a fondnefs for Perfian cu-
ftoms and manners, which he has introduced into his
kingdom. He has feven fons and fix daughters. He
is much revered and dreaded by the Perfian khans
his neighbours ; and is ufually chofen to mediate be-
tween them in their difputes with each other. When
they are at war, he fupports one of the parties with a
few troops, who diffufe a fpirit and courage among the
reft, becaufe the Georgian foldiers are efteemed the
braveft of thofe parts -, and Prince Heraclius himfelf is
renowned for his courage and military fliill. When
on horfeback he has alway; a pair of loaded piftols at
his girdle, and, if the enemy is near, a muiket llung
over his fhoulder. In all engagements he is the fore-
moft to give examples of perfonal bravery ; and fre-
quently charges the enemy at the head of his troops
with the fabre in his hand. He loves pomp and ex-
pence ; he has adopted the drefs of Pcrfia ; and regu-
lates his court after the manner of that country. From
the example of the RutTian troops, who were quartered
in Georgia during the laft Turkilh war, he has learnt
the ufe of plates, knives, and forks, dilhes and houfe-
Aold furniture, &c."
— The fubjefts of Herwlius are eftimated at about

3

6o,ooo families ; but this, notwithftanding the prefent Georg :
delolated Hate of the country, is probably an under ^~""V~
valuation. The peafants belonging to the queen, and
thole of the patriarch, pay no tax to the prince, and
therefore do not appear on the books of the revenue
officers. Many limilar exemptions have likewife been
granted by the prince to his fons in-law, and his fa-
vourites. Befides, as the impolt on the peafants is not
a pall-tax, but a tax on hearths, the inhabitants of a
village, on the approach of the colleftors, frequently
carry the furniture of feveral huts into one, and deftroy
the remainder, %vhicli are afterwards very eafily repla-
ced. It is probable, therefore, that the population of
Georgia does not fall ihort of 350,000 fouls. The
revenues may be eftimated at about 150,000 rubles,
or 26,2501. 'J'hey confift of, i. The cuftoms, farmed
at 1750L — 2. Rent paid by the farmers of the mint,
at Tetlis, 1750I. — 3. The tribute paid by the khan5
of Erivan and Ganlha, 700ol.-^and, 4. The hearth
money levied on the peafants, amounting to 15,750!.
The common coins here are the abaffes, of about I5d.
value, and a fmall copper coin, ftamped at the mint at
Teflis. Belides thefe, a large quantity of gold and iil-
ver money is brought into the country from Perfia
and Turkey, in exchange for honey, butter, cattle,
and blue linens.

The government of Georgia is defpotic ; but, were it
not for the affiftance of the Ruffian troops, the prince
would be frequently unable to carry his decrees into
execution. The punilliments in criminal cafes are
fliockingly cruel ; fortunately they are not frequent,
becaufe it is feldom difficult to efcape into fome of the
neighbouring countries, and becaufe the prince is more '
enriched by conSfcating the property of the criminal,
than by putting him to torture. Judicial combats are
confidered as the privilege of nobility, and take place
Avhen the caufe is extremely intricate, or \vhen the
power and intereft of two claimants are fo equal, that
neither can force a decifion of the court in his favour.
This mode of trial is called an appeal to the judgment
of God.

The drefs of the Georgians nearly refembles that of
the Coffacks •, but men of rank frequently wear the ha-
bit of Perfia. They ufually dye their hair, beard, and
nails with red. The Georgian women employ the
fame colour to ftain the palms of their hands. On
their heads they wear a cap or fillet, under which their
black hair falls on their forehead : behind, it is braid-
ed into feveral treffes. Their eyebrows are painted
with black, in fuch a manner as to form one entire line,
and their faces are perfeflly coated with white and
red. Their robe is open to the girdle, fo that they
are reduced to conceal their breafts with their hands.
Their air and manner are extremely voluptuous. Be-
ing generally educated in convents, they can all read
and write ; a qualification which is very unufual among
the men, even of the higheft rank. Girls are be-
trothed as foon as poffible, often at three or four years
of age. In the ftrects the women of rank are always
veiled, .ind then it is indecent in any man to accolt
tliem. It is likew-ife uncivil in converfation to inquire
after the wives of any of the company. 1 hefe, how-
ever, are not ancient ';ulfoms, but are a confequence of
the violences committed by the Periians, under Shah
Nadir.

Travellers

GEO

[ 67

Travellers accufe the Georgians of drur.kennefs, fu-
perilition, cruelly, lloth, avarice, and cowardice ; vices
which are everywhere common to ilaves and tyrants,
and are by no means peculiar to the natives of this
country. The delcendants of the colcnifl?, carried oiF
by Shah Abbas, and fettled at Peria, near Ifpahan,
and in Mafaiideran, have changed their character with
their government ; and the Georgian troops, employed
in Perfia againft the Affghans, were advantageoully di-
ftinguilhed by their docility, their difcipline, and their
courage.

The other inhabitants of Georgia are Tartars, OlTi,
and Armenians, called in the Georgian language So-
makhi. Thele lafl are found all over Georgia, fome-
times mixed with the natives, and fometimes in vil-
lages of their own. They fpeak among themfelves
their own language, but all underlland and can talk
the Georgian. Their religion is partly the Armenian,
and partly the Roman Catholic. They are the molt
opprefled of the inhabitants, but are Hill dlllinguillied
by that inftinclive indultry which everywhere charac-
terizes the nation.

Befides thefe, there are in Georgia confiderable num-
bers of Jews, called, in the language of the country,
Uria. Some have villages of their own ; and others
are mixed with the Georgian, Armenian, and Tartar
inhabitants, but never with the OlTi. They pay a fraall
tribute above that of the natives.

Georgia, one of the United States of America,
lying between South Carolina and Florida. It ex-
tends 120 miles upon the fea-coaft, and 300 miles
from thence to the Apalachian mountains, and its
boundaries to the north and fouth are the rivers Sa-
vannah and Alatamaha. The whole coaft is bordered
with iflands ; the principal of which are Skidaway,
Waflaw, OlTabaw, St Catherine's, Sapelo, Frederica,
Jekyl, Cumberland, and Amelia.

The fettlement of a colony between the rivers Sa-
vannah and Alatamaha was meditated in England in
1732, for the accommodation of poor people in Great
Britain and Ireland, and for the further fecurity of
Carolina. Private compaflion and pubhc fpirit con-
fpired to promote the benevolent delign. Humane
and o;-ulent men fuggefied a plan of tranfporting a
number of indigent families to this part of America
free of expence. For this purpole they applied to
the king, George 11. and obtained from him letters par
tent, bearing dute June 9. 1732, for legally carrying
into execution what they had generuully projefted.
They called the new province Georgia, in honour of
the king, who encouraged the plan. A corporation,
coniilling of 21 perfons, was conftituted by the name
tif, The Truftees for fettling and eitablithing the colo-
ny of Georgia.

In November 1732, 116 fettlers embarked for Geor-
gia to be conveyed thither free of expence, furnilhed
with every thing refjaifile for building and for culti-
"Vating the foil. Mr James Oglethorpe, one of the
truftees, and an aflive promoter of the fettlement, em-
barked as the head and director of thefe fettlers.
They arrived at Charleftown early in the next year.
Mr Oglethorpe, accompanied by William Bull, fliortly
after his arrival, vifited Georgia ; and after furveying
the country, marked the fpot on which Savannah now
funds, as the fitteft to begin their fcttlenient. Here

I ] GEO

they accordingly began and built a fmall fort, and a Georgli
number of fniiU liuts for their defence and accommoda- — Y~
tion. Such of the fettlers as were able to bear arms were
embodied, and well appointed with olHcers, arms,
and ammunition. A treaty of friendlhip was con-
cluded between the fettlers and their neighbours the
Creek Indians, and every thing wore the afpect of
peace and future profperity. But the fundamental
regulations eftablidied by the trullees ot Georgia were
ill adapted to the circumilances and fituation of the
poor lettlers, and of pernicious confequences to the
profperity of the province. Yet although the truftees
were greatly miilaken with refpeft to their plan of
fettlement, it mult be acknowledged their views were
generous. Like other diilant legillators, who framed
their regulations upon principles of fpeculation, they
were liable to many errors and miltakes ; and however
good their delign, their rules were found improper and
impracticable. Thefe injudicious regulations and re-
Itrictions, the wars in which they were involved with
the Spaniards and Indians, and the frequent inlurrec-
tions among themfelves, threw the colons into a Itat'.-
of confulion and wretchednefs too great for human
nature long to endure. Their oppreffed fituation was
reprefented to the truftees by repeated complaints ; till
at length finding that the province langulfhed under
their care, and weary with the complaints of the
people, they in the year 1752 furrendered their charter
to the king, and it was made a royal government.
— In the year 1740, the Rev. George Whitefield
founded an orphan houfe academy in Georgia about
I 2 miles from Savannah. Mr Whitefield died at New-
bury port, in Ne\v England, in October 1770, in the
56th year of his age, and was buried under the Pref-
byterian church in that place. From the time Geor-
gia became a royal government in 1752 till the peace
of Paris in 1763, (he ftruggled under many difficulties,
arifing from the want of credit and friends, and the
frequent moleftations of enemies. The good effects of
the peace were fenlibly felt in the province of Georgia.
From this time it began to fiourifh under the fatherly-
care of Governor Wright. To form a judgment of the
rapid growth of the colony, we need only attend to
its exports. In the year 176;^, they confided of 75CO
barrels of rice, 9633 pounds of indigo, I 250 bulhels of
Indian com, which, together with deer and beavet
fliins, naval ftores, provifions, timber, &c. amounted to
no more than 27,0211. fterling. Ten years after-
wards, in 1773, they amounted to 121,677!. fterling.
The chief articles of export from this ftate are, rice,
tobacco, indigo, fago, lumber of various kinds, naval
ftores, leather, deer ikins, fnake-root, myrtle, bees wax,
corn, live llock, &c.

During the American war, Georgia was overrun by
the Britilh troops, and the inhabitants were obliged to
tlee to the neighbouring ftatcs for fafety. Since the
peace the progrefs of the population of this ftate is faid
to have been aftoniihingly rapid ; though it lias been a
good deal checked within thefe few years by the hoftile
irruptions of the Creek Indians, who continually harafs
the frontiers of the ftate. Treaties have been held, and
a ceflation of holtilities agreed to, between the parties,
but all have hitherto proved inefiFeftual to the accom-
pliftiraent of a peace.

Thefe Indiana bhzbit the niddle parts of the ftate.

GEO

[ "^r- ]

GEO

and are the mofb. numerous tribe of Indians of any
' TOthin the limits of the United States. Their whole
number is 17,280, of which 5862 arc fighting men.
Their principal towns lie in latitude 3 2° and longitude
11° 20' from Philadelphia. They are fettled in a hilly
but not mountainous country. The foil is fruitfi.1l in
a high degree, and well watered, abounding in creeks
and rivulets, whence they are called the Creek In-
ilians. The Seminolas, a di\'ifion of the Creek na-
tion inhabit a level flat country on the Apalachicola
■ and Flint rivers, fertile and well watered. The Chac-
taws or Flatheads inhabit a very fine and extenfive traft
of hiUy country, with large and fertile plains inter-
\'emng, between the Alabama and MilTilTippi rivers, in
the weftern part of this ftate. This nation have
43 towns and villages, in three divifions, containing
12,12;? fouls, of which 4041 are fighting men. The
Chicafaws are fettled on the head branches of the Tom-
beckbe. Mobile, and Yazoo rivers, in the north-weft
comer of the ftate. Their country is an extenfive
plain, tolerably well watered from fprings, and of a
pretty good foil. They have 7 towns, the central
one of which is in latitude 34° 23', and longitude 14°
30' weft. The number of fouls in this nation, have
been reckoned at 1725, of which 575 are fighting
men.

That part of Georgia which has been laid out in
counties is divided into the following, viz. Chatham,
Effingham, Burke, Richmond, Wilkes, Liberty, Glynn,
Cf.mden, Walhington, Greene, Franklin •, and the chief
towns are, Siivannah, Ebenezer, Waynefborough and
Louifville, Augufta, Wafhington, Sunbury, Bninfwick,
St Patrick's, Golphinton, Greenfburg. — Savannah was
formerly the capital, and is ftill the largeft town (fee
Savannah). But the prefent feat of government in
this ftate is Augujla, fituated on the fouth-weft bank of
Savannah river, about 134 miles from the fea, and 117
north-well of Savannah. The town, which contains
not far from 200 houfes, is on a fine large plain ; and
as it enjoys the beft foil, and the advantage of a cen-
tral fituation between the upper and lower countries,
is rifing faft into importance. Louifville, however, is
defigned as the future feat of government in this .ate.
It has lately been laid out on the bank of Ogeechee
river, about 70 miles from its mouth, but is not yet
built.

Savannah river forms a part of the divifional line
wTiich (eparates this ftate from South Carolina. It
is formed principally of two branches, by the names of
Ttigulo and Kfoii'ee, which fpring from the mountains.
Ogeechee river, about 18 miles fouth of the Savannah,
is a finaller river, and nearly parallel with it in its
courfe. Alatamaha, about 60 miles fouth of Savannah
river, is formed by the junilion of the Okonee and
Okemulgee branches. It is a noble river, but of dif-
ficult entrance. Like the Nile, it difcharges itfelf by
feveral mouths into the fea. Befidcs thefe, there is
Turtle river. Little Sitilla, Great Sitilla, Crooked ri-
ver, and St Mary's, which form a part of the fouthcrn
boundary of the United States. The rivers in the
middle and weftem parts of tliis Itete arc the Apalachi-
cola, which is formed by the Chatahouchee and Flint
rivers. Mobile, Pafcagoula, and Pearl rivers. All
thefe running fouthwardly, empty into the gulf of
^le.nico.

3

la the grand convention at Philadelphia in 1 78 7, Geor;
the inhabitants of this ftate were reckoned at 90,000, — v
including three-fifths of 20,oco negroes. But from
the number of the militia, which has been afcertained
^vith a coufiderable degree of accuracy, there cannot
be at moft more than half that number. No general
charafter will apply to the inhabitants at large. Col-
lefted from different parts of the world, as intereft, ne-
ceinty, or inclination led them, their charader and
manners niuft of courfe partake of all the varieties
which dillinguifti the leveral ftates and kingdoms from
whence they came. There is fo little uniformity, that
it is ditlicult to trace any governing principles amcng
them. An aver;;on to labour is too predominant, ow-
ing in part to the relaxing heat of the climate, and
partly to the %vant of neceflity to excite indullry. An
open and friendly hofpitality, particularly to fti-sngers,
is an ornamental charafteriftic of a great part of this
people.

In regard to religion, politics, and literature, this
ftate is yet in its infancy. In Savannah is an Epiico-
pal church, a Prefbyterian church, a iynagogue, and a
German Lutheran church, fupplied occafionally Ly a
German minifter from Ebenezer, where there is a large
convenient hone church, and a fettlemtnt of fober in-
duftrious Germans of the Lutheran religion In Au-
guft;. they have an Epifcopal church. In Midway is
a fociety of Chriltians eftablilfied on the congrega-
tional plan. Their anceftors emigrated in a colony
from Dorcheftcr, near Bolton, about the year 1700,
and fettled at a place named Dorchefter, about 2C miles
fouth-weft of CharleftoHTi, South Carolina. In 1752,
for the fake of a better climate and more land, almoft
the whole fociety removed and fettled at Midway. —
They, as a peojile, retain in a great meafure that iun-
plicity of manner', that ur.afii-ftcJ vitty and brotherly
love, which charatlerized their anceftors, the iirt' let-
tiers of New England, The upper countries are fup-
plied pretty generalh by Baptiit and iMcthcdill mitri-
fters; but the greater part of the ftate is without mini-
fters of any dcnominadon.

The numerous defe61s in the late conftitution of
this ftate, induced the citizens pretty univerfally
petition for a revifion of it. It was accordingly re-
vifed, or rather a new one was formed, in the courfe
of the year 1789, nearly upon the plan of the confti-
tution of the United States, which has lately been
adopted by the ftate.

1 he charter containing the prefent fyftem of edu-
cation in this ftate was paffed in the year 1785. A
college, with ample and liberaJ endowments, is infti-
tuted in Louifville, a high and healthy part of the
country, near the centre of the ftate. There is alfo
provifion made for the inftitution of an academy in
each county in the ftate, to be fupported from the
fame funds, and confidercd as parts and members of
the fame inftitution, under the general luperintendance
and diredion of a prefidcnt and board of trufttes, ap-
pointed for their literary accompliihments from the
diflFerent parts of the flate, and inverted with the cu-
ftomary powers of corporations. The inftitution thus
corapofed is denominated //f univerfity of Ciorgia.-^
The funds for the fupport of this inftitution are prin-
cipally in lands, amounting in the whole to about
. -'0,000 acres, a great part of which is of the bcft qua-
lity

G E R

[ 673 ]

G E R

Ceotgii lity, and at prefent very valuable. There are alfo
II I nearly 6000I. fterliug in bonds, houfts, and town lots
^ , in the town of Augulta. Otlier public property to

the amount of loool. in each county has been fet a-
part for the purpoles of building, and fumilhing their
relpeclive academies. The funds origi;ially deligned
for the lupp«rt of the orphan houfe are chierly in rice
plantations and negroes.

Georgia, atownfhipin the county of Franklin, con-
taining about 400 inhabitants. It is (ituated on Lake
Champlain, oppolite to the north end of South Hero
illand.

Georgia, a clufter of barren iflands in the Soutjj
fea, to the eaftward of the coaft of Terra del Fuego,
in ht. 54° 35' S. and long. 36° 30' W. One of thefe
itlands is from 150 to 1 80 miles in length.

GEORGIC, a poetical corapofition upon the fub-
jeft of huibandry, containing rules therein, put into a
pleafing drei's, and fet off with all the beauties and em-
bellilhments of poetry. The word is borrowed from
the Latin georgicus, and that of the Greek yta^ixo;,
of yr,, terra, " earth," and tgyx^t/txi, opero, " I work,
or labour," of i^ytt, opus, " work." Heiiod and Virgil
are the two greatert mafters in this kind of poetry. —
The moderns have produced nothing in this kind, ex-
cept Rapin"s book of Gardening •, and the celebrated
poem entitled Cyder, by Mr Philips, who, if he had
enjoyed the advantage of Virgil's language, would have
been fecond to Virgil in a much nearer degree.

Ceorgium SiJu!. See Astronomy Index.

GEPlDiE, Gepides, or Gefidi, in Ancient Geo-
grabliy, according to Procopius, were a Gothic people,
or a canton or branch of them ; tome of whom, in the
oiigration of the Goths, fettled in an illand at the mouth
of the Viilula, which they called Gepidos after their
o'.vn name, wliich denotes lazy or llothful ; others m
Dacia, calling their fettlement there Gepidia.

GERANIUM, crane's bill, in Botany, a genus
of plants belonging to the monadelphia clals ; and in
the natural method ranking under the 14th order,
Gruinales. See BoTANY Index.

GERAR, or Gerara, in Ancient Geography, the
louth boundarj- of Canaan near Berfeba ; fituated be-
tween Cades and Sur ; txvo deferts well known, the
former facing Egypt, the latter Arabia Petra-a.

GERARDE, John, a furgeon in London, and
the greateft botanift of his time, was many years chief

gardener to Lord Burleigh ; wlio ^

>lf

great

lover of plants, and had the bcft colleftion of any
nobleman in the kingdom, among which were a great
number of e.tolics introduced by Gerarde. In IJ97
he publifhed his Herbal, which was printed at the ex-
ijcnce of J. Norton, who procured from Francfort the
1 ime blocks in v/ood as were ufed in the herbal of Ta-
bernsTiontanus. In 1663, Thomas .Tohnfon, an apo-
thecary, publiibed an improved edition of Gerarde*!
book ; which met with fuch approbation by the univer-
iity of Oxford, that they conferred on him the degree
ofdoftor of phyfic. The defcriptions in the herbal are
plain and familiar ; and both thefe authors have labour-
ed more to make their readers underftand the charac-
ters of the plants, than to inform them that they
themfelves underftood Greek and Latin. The herbal
»f Gerarde is no>y to be confidered only as a literary
curiofity. The figures in general exprefs very ac-
Vol. IX. Part II.

curately the cliara£lers of the plants they are intended C<raK!i*
to reprcfent. ||

GERARDIA, a genus of plants belonging to the *^"'°"'^''J\
didynamia clafs, and in the natural method ranking *
under the 40th order, Perfonata. See Botany Index,

GERFALCON. See Falco, Ornithology /«.

GERGESA, in Ancient Geography, a Transjordan
town, no otherivife known than by the Gergtfeni of St
i\Iatthew, and Gerge/ari of Moles-, fuppofed to have
flood in the neighbourhood of Gadara and near the fea
of Tiberias. The Gcrgejiei, one of the feven ancient
people of Canaan, lefs frequently mentioned than the
reft, appear to have been lefs confiderable and more
obfcure ; their name is from Girgaji, one of Canaan'*
fons. See Girgashites.

GERIZIM. See Garizim.
GERiNI, in vegetation. See Germen.
GERMAN, in matters of genealogy, fignifies whole,
entire, or own. Germani, qiia'l eademjlirpe geniti ;
(Feft.) Hence,

Brother Gkrman, denotes a brother both by the
father's and mother's fide, in contradiflinflion to ute-
rine brothers, &c. ^vho are only fo by the mother's
nde.

Coufms GermjIH, are thofe in the firft or neareft de-
gree, being the cliildren of brothers or fillers.

Among the Romans we have no inftance of mar.
riage between coufins german before the time of the
emperor Claudius, ^vhen they were very frequent.

Theodofius prohibited them under very fevere penal-
ties, even fine and profcription. See Consanguinity.
German, or Germanic, alfo denotes any thing be-
longing to Germany ; as the German empire, German
flute, &c.

GERMANDER. See Teucriom, Botany Index.
GERMANICUS C.-esar, the fon of Drufus, and
paternal nephew to the emperor Tiberius, who adopted
him J a renowned general, but Hill more illuilrious for
his virtues. He took the title of Germanicns from his
conquefts in that country ; and though he had the mo-
deration to refufe the empire offered to him by his
army, Tiberius, jealous of his fuccefs, and of the uni-
verfal efteem he acquired, caufed him to be poifoned,
A. D. 29, aged 34. He was a proteclor of learning j
and compofed forae Greek comedies and Latin poems,
fome of which are ftill extant.

GERMANTOVVN, in the county of Philadelphia,
Pennfylvania, in North America, about feven miles from
the city of Philadelphia. It was once e teemed the fe-
cond town in the country, till many inland towns in
a ihort time rofe fuperior to it, both for the extent
of their ellabliihments and number of inhabitants.
The knitting of cotton, thread, and worfted llockings,
is carried on in it to a confiderable extent. The prin-
cipal congregation of the people called Mennonills is
in Gcrmantown, who derive their name from one Men-
no Simon, a learned man of Witmars in Germany.
Although inimical to the doftrine of general falvatioii,
they will not fwear, fight, bear any civil office, go to
law, or take intereft for money. Germantown is alio
memorable for a bloody battle which was fought in it
on the 4th of Oiflober, 1777.

GERMANY, a very extenfive empire of Europe,

but which, in different ages of the world, has had

4 QL very

G E R

Germany.

[ 674 ]

G £ R

Nations m-
}-.abiting
Lower Gtr

Jnany.

very diitcrent limits. Its name, according to the mod
probable conjecture, is derived from the Celtic words
Ghcr man, fignifying a warbke man, to which their
other name, Oilman, or Pieman, likewife alludes.

The ancient hiftory of the Germans is altogether
wrapped up in obfcurity ; nor do we, for many ages,
know any thing more of them than ^vhat may be learn-
ed from the hiliory of their wars ivith the Romans.
The firft time we find them mentioned by the Roman
hiftorians, is about the year 21 1 B. C. at which time
Marcellus fubdued Infubria and Liguria, and defeated
the Gsefata?, a German nation fituated on the banks
of the Rhine. From this time hiflory is filent with
regard to any of thefe northern nations, till the irrup-
tion of the Cimbri and Teutortes, who inhabited the
molt northerly parts of Germany. The event of their
enterprife is related under the articles Ambroxks,
Cimbri, anci Teutoxes. We muft not, however,
imagine, becaufe thefe people happened to invade
Italy at the fame time, that therefore their countries
were contiguous to one another. The Cimbri and
Teutones only dwelt beyond the Rhine ; while the
Ambrones inhabited the country between Switzerland
and Provence. It is indeed very difficult to fix the li-
mits of the country called Germany by the Romans.
The fouthern Germans were intermixed nith the Gauls,
and the northevn ones ivith the Scytliians ; and thus
the ancient hiftory of the Germans includes that of the
Dacian', Hun.=, Goths, &c. till the deftniaion of
t!ie weftern Roman empire by them. Ancient Ger-
many, therefore, we may reckon to ha\-e included the
northern part of France, the Netherlands, Holland,
Germany fo called at prefent, Denmark, PruflTia, Po-
land, Hungary, part of Turkey in Europe, and Muf-
co\y.

The Romans divided Germany into two regions ;
Eelgic or Lower Germany, which lay to the fouth-
ward of the Rhine ; and Germany Proper, or High
Germany. The firft lay between the rivers Seine and
the Rhine ; and in this we find a number of different
nations, the moll remarkable of which were the fol-
lowing.

I. The Ubii, whofe territory lay between the Rhine
arid the Mofa or Maefe, and whofe capital was the ci-
ty of Cologne. 2. Next to them were the Tungri,
fuppoftd to be the fame whom Cafar calls Eburones and
Comlruji ; and whofe metropolis, then called yiltuatica,
has fince been named Tongres. 3. Higher up from
ihem, and on the other fide of the Mofelle, were the
Treviri, whofe capital was Augulla Trevirorum, now
Trkrs. 4. Next to them v.ere the Tribocci, Ncmetes,
and Vangiones. The former dwelt in Alface, and had
Argentoratum, now SlraJLurg, for their capital; the
others inhabited the cities of Worms, Spire, and
Mentz. 5. The Mediomattici were fituated along the
Mofelle, about the city of Metz in Lorrain : and above
them were fituated another German nation, named
Kaurici, Riiuraci, or Raiiriaci, and who inhabited tliat
part of Helvetia, or Switzerland, about Bafil. To the
weftward and fouthward of thefe were the Nervii, Suef-
fioncs,"Silvane6les, Leuci, Rhemi, Lingones, &c. who
inhabited Eelgic Gaul.

Between the heads of the Rhine and Danube was
feated the ancient kin';dom of Vindelicia, whofe capi-
tai was called jiugujla Vindelicorum, now Augshtirg. Be-

low it on the banks of the Danube were the kingdoms Germaiv.

of Noricum and Pannonia. The firft of thefe was di- ' '<—'

vided into Noricum Rifieiife and Mediurraneum. It
contained a great part of the provinces of Auftria,
Styria, Carinthia, Tyrol, Bavaria, and fome others
of lefs note. The latter contained the kingdom of
Hungary, diWded into Upper and Lower j and ex-
tending from Illyricum to the Danube, and the moun-
tains Catii in the neighbourhood of Vindebona, now
Vicn>:a. 3

Upper or High Germany lav beyond the Rhine and Nations in.
the Danube. Between the Rhine and the Elbe were nf 1,"^^^-
the following nations. I. The Chauci, Upper and mam-.
Lower ; who were divided from each other by the river
Vifurges, now the Wefer. Their country contained
wliat is now called Bremen, Lunenburg, Frie%land, and
Groningken. The Upper Chauci had the Cherufci, and
the lower the Charaavi on the fouth-eaft, and the Ger-
man ocean on the north-weft. 2. The Frifii, Upper
and Lower, were divided from the Lo'.^er Chauci by the
river Ainifia, no'.v the Eras ; and from one another by
an arm of the Rhine. Their country ftill retains the
name of Friejland, and is divided into eaft and weft •,
but the latter is now difmembered from Germany, and
become one of the Seven United Provinces. 3. Be-
yond the Ifela, now the Ife/, which bounded the coun-
try of the Frifii, were fituated the Brufteri, who inha-
bited that traft now called Broscmorland ; and the
Marfi, about the river Luppe. On the other fide of that
river were the Vfipii or Ufipeles ; but thefe were famed
ior often changing their territories, and tlierefore found
in other places. 4. Next to thefe were the Juones, or
inhabitants of Juliers, between the Maefe and the
Rhine. 5. The Catti, another ancient and warlike
nation, inhabited Hefle and Thuringia, from the Hait-
zian mountains to the Rhine and Wefer : among whom
were comprehended the Mattiaci, whofe capital is by
fome thought to be Marpurg, by others Baden. 6. Next
to thele were the Sedufii bordering upon Suabia ; the
Norifci, or the ancient inhabitants of Northgow, ^vhofe
capital was Nuremberg ; and the IMarcomanni, whole
country anciently reached from the Pvhine to the head
of the Danube, and to the Neckar. The Marcoman-
ni afterwards went and fettled in Bohemia and Mora-
via, under their general or king Maroboduus : and fome
of them in Gaul, whence they drove the Boii, who
had feated themfelves there. 7. On the other fide of
the Danube, and between the Rhine and it, were the
Hermunduri, who poflefled the country now called
Miftiia in Upper Saxony ; though fome make their
territories to have extended much farther, and to have
reached quite to, or even beyond, the kingdom of Bo-
hemia, once the feat of the Boii, whence its name.
8. Beyond them, on the north of the Danube, was
another feat of the Marcomanni along the river Albis,
or Elbe. 9. Next to Bohemia were fituated the Qua-
di, whofe territories extended from the Daniijje to Mo-
ravia, and the northern part of Auftria. Thefe arc
comprehended under the ancient name oi Siievi ; part
of whom at length forced their way into Spain, and
fettled a kingdom there. lo. Eaft ward of the Ouadi
were fituated the Baftarnje, and parted from them by
the Granna, now Gran ; a river that falls into the D.i-
nube, and by the Carpathian mountains, from them
called A/pes Bajlarnkie, The country of the Baftarnoe

indeed

G E R [67

Cermar.y. iiideeJ made part of the European SarmatLi, and fo
'~~~y~—' was witliout the Uinits of Germany properly fo called ;
but we find thefe people fo often in league with the
German nations, and joining them for the deftruclion
of the Romans, that we cannot but account them as
one people. ^

Between thofe nations already taken notice of, feat-
ed alfo on the other fide of the Danube and the Hercy-
r.ian forell, were feveral otliers whofe exad iituation is
uncertain, viz. the Martingi, Burii, Borades, Lygii or
Logiores, and fome others, who are placed by our
geographers along the forefl above mentioned, between
the Danube and the Viftula.

On this fide the Hercynian foreft, vvere the famed
Rhsetii, now Grifons, feated among the Alps. Their
country, which was alfo called We/lern lllyrlcum, was
divided into Rhaetia Pn'/na or Propria and Seciinda ;
and ^vas then of much larger extent, fpreading itfelf
towards Sunbia, Bavaria, and Aulfria.

On the other fide of the Hercynian foreft were,
I. The Suevi, who fpread therafelves from the Villula
to the river Elbe. 2. The Longobardi, fo called accord-
ing to fome on account of their wearing long beards,
but, according to others, on account of their confiil-
ing of two nations, viz. the Bardi and Lingones.
Thefe dwelt along the river Elbe, and bordered fouth-
ward on the Chauci above mentioned. 3. The Bur-
gundi, of whofe original feat we are uncertain. 4. The
Semnones ; who, about the time of Tiberius, were feat-
ed on the river Elbe. 5. The Angles, Saxons, and
Goths, vvere probably the defcendants of the Cimbri ;
and inhabited the countries of Denmark, along the
Baltic fea, and the peninfula of Scandinavia, containing
Nonvay, Sweden, Lapland, and Finroark. 6. The
Vandals were a Gothic nation, who, proceeding from
Scandinavia, fettled in the countries now called Meck-
Ifnlurgh and Erandcnhurgh. 7. Of the fame race w-.re
the Dacians, who fettled themfelves in the neighbour-
hood of the Palus M^eotis, and extended their territo-
ries along the banks of the Danube.

Thefe were the names of the Germ.an nations who
performed the moft remarkable exploits in their wars
Wars of the with the Romans. Befides thefe, however, we find
Scordifci mention made of the Scordifci, a Thracian nation,
with the t^ho afterwards fettled on the banks of the Danube.
About the year 113 B. C. they ravaged Macedon, and
cut off a whole Roman army fent againft them ; the
general, M. Porcius Cato, grandfon to Cato the cen-
for, being the only perfon who had the good fortune to
make his efcape. After this, they ravaged all Thef-
faly •, and advanced to the coafts of the Adriatic, into
which, becaufe it flopped their farther progrefs, they
difcharged a ftiower of darts. By another Roman ge-
neral, ho^vever, they were driven back into their oivn
country with great llaughter ; and foon after, Metel-
lus fo weakened them by repeated defeats, that they
were incapable, for fome time, of making any more
attempts on the Roman provinces. At laft, in the
confulfliip of M. Livius Drufus and L. Calpurnius Pi-
fo, the former prevailed on them to pafs the Danube,
which thenceforth became the boundary between the
Romans and them. Notwithftanding this, in the time
of the Jugurthine war, the Scordifci repalTed the Da-
nube on the ice every winter, and being joined by the
Triballi a people of Lower Msefia, and the Daci of

Romans.

5 ] G E R

Upper IVLeiKi, penetrated as far as Macedon, commit- Gerni.i:i>.
ting everywhere dreadful ravages. So early did thefe '— v—
northern nations begin to be formidable to the Ro-
man?, even when they were molt reno\vntd for warlike
exploits. 5

Till the time of Julius Cafar, however, we hearExpcdni'^n
nothing more concerning the Germans. About 58° •'/■"'j
years B. C. he undertook his expedition into Gaul ; (Germany,
during which, his affiftance was implored by the ^-
dui, againft Aiioviftus, a German prince v.ho op-
preffed them. Cafar, plei^led with this opportunity of
increafing his power, invited Ariovil*us to an inter-
view ; but this being declined, he next fent deputies,
defiring him to reftore the hollages he had taken from
the jtdui, and to bring no more troops over liic
Rhine into Gaul. To this a haughty anfwcr was re-
turned ; and a battle foon after enfued, in which Ario-
viftus was entirely defeated, and with great difficulty
made his efcape.

In 55 B. C. Ca;far having fubdued the Sueffiones,
Bellovaci, Ambiani, Nervii, and other nations of Bel-
gic Gaul, haftened to oppofe the Ufipetcs and Tencli-
theii. Thefe nations having been driven out of their
own country by the Suevi, had croffed the Rhine witli
a defign to fettle in Gaul. As foon as he appeared,
the Germans fent liim a deputation, offering to join
him, proN-ided he would aflign them lands. Ciefar re-
plied, that there was no room in Gaul for them ; but
he would delire the Ubii to give them leave to fettle
among them. Upon this, they defu-cd him to retreat
with the Ubii •, but in the mean time fell upon fome
Roman fquadrons : which fo provoked Csefar, that he
immediately marched againft them, and coming unex-
pectedly upon them, defeated them with great flaiigh-
ter. They fled in the utmoft confuiion ; but the Ro-
mans purfued them to the conilux of t!:e Rhine and
the Maefe, where the llaughter was renewed with fuch
fury, that almoft 400,000 of the Germans perithed.
After this, Caefar being refolved to fpread the terror of
the Roman name through Germany, built a bridge
over the Rhine, and entered that country. In this
expedition, however, which was his laft in Germany,
he performed no remarkable exploit. A little before
his death, indeed, he had projected the conqueft of
that, as well as of a great many other countries ; but
his affainnation prevented the execution of his de-
figns. Nor is there any thing recorded of the Ger-
mans till about 17 B. C. v/hen the Tenchtheri made an
irruption into Gaul, and defeated I\l. LoEius, procon-
ful of that province. At lall, however, they were re-
pulfed, and forced to rerire with great lofs beyond tlie
Rhine. .... 6

Soon after this the Rhx-tii invaded Italy, where they Rha;tii In-
committed the greateft devaftations, putting all the ^'»''<= I^'''j •
males they met to the fword, without diilinclion of
age : nay, ^ve are told, that when they happened
to take women with child, they confulted their au-
gurs to know whether the child was a male or female ;
and if they pronounced it a male, the mother was im-
mediately malTacred. Againft thefe barbarians was
fent Drufus, the fecond fon of Livia, a youth of e\.
traordinary valour and great accomplilhments. He
found means to bring them to a battle •, in which the
Romans proved victorious, and cut in piccej great
numbers of their enemies, with very little lofs on their
4 O 2 own

G E R [ 676 ] G E R

Thofe who efcaped the general flaughter, lafted the whole day, the Germans w

They are
fubdued,
together
with the
Vindelici
a;id Norici

own fide

being joined by the Vindelici, took their route towards
Gaul, with a defign to invade that province. But
Auguftus, upon the firft notice of their march, de-
fpatched againft them Tiberius with feveral chofen le-
gions. He was no lefs ruccelsful than Drufus had
been ; for having tranfported his troops over the lake
Brigantium, now Coniiance, he fell unexpeftedly on
the enemy, gave them a total overthrow, took moft of
their ftroiig holds, and obliged the whole nation to
fubmit to fuch terras as he chofe to impofe upon them.
Thus were the Vindelici, the Rhsetii, and Norici, three
of the moft barbarous nations in Germanv fubdued.

defeated with Ge
fuch flaughter, that the ground was ftrewed for feveral —
miles with dead bodies. Drufus found in their camp a
great quantity of iron chains which they had brought
for the Romans ; and fo great was their confidence,
that they had agreed beforehand about the diviiion of
the booty. The 'J'enchtheri were to have the horfes, the
Cherufci and Sicambri the baggage, and the Ufipetes
and Catti the captives. After this victory, Drufus
built two forts to keep the conquered countries in awe ;
the one at the confluence of the Lyppe and the Alme,
the other in the country of the Catti on the Rhine.
On this occalion alfo he made a famous canal, long af-

Tiberius, to keep the conquered countries in awe, ter called in honour of him FoJ/a Drufmna, to convey

8
and the
Pannoni-

9

Esploit! cf
Drufus in
Germany.

planted two colonies in Vindelicia, and opened from
, thence a road into Rhatia and Noricum. One of the
cities which he built for the defence of his colonies, he
called, from his father Drufus, Drufomagiis ; the other
by the name of Auguftus, An^ujfn Vindeticorum ; which
cities are now known by the names of Mimminghen and
-■Augsburg. He pext encountered the Pannonians, who
had been fubdued by Agrippa, but revolted on hear-
ing the news of that great commander's death, which
happened 1 1 years B. C. Tiberius, however, with
the affiftance of their neighbours the Scordifci, foon
forced them to fubmit. They delivered up their
arms, gave hoftages, and put the Romans in poffeffion
of all theL- towns and ftrong holds, Tiberius fpared
their lives ; but laid wafte their fields, plundered their
cities, and fent the beft part of their youth into other
countries.

In the mean time, Drufus having prevented the
Gauls from revolting, which they were ready to do,
prepared to oppofe the Germans who dwelt beyond the
Rhine. They had coUecled the moft numerous and
formidable army that had ever been feen in thofe parts ;
with which they were advancing towards the Rhine, in
order to invade Gaul. Drufus defeated them as they
attempted to crofs that river j and, purfuing the ad-
vantage he had gained, entered the country of the Ufi-
petes, now Rehnchvfen, and from thence advanced
againft the Sicambri in the neighbourhood of the
Lyppe and Yffel. Them he overthrew in a great
battle, laid wafte their country, burnt moft of their
cities, and following the courfe of the Rhine, ap-
proached the German ocean,' reducing the Frifii and
the Chauci between the Ems and the Elbe. In thefe
marches the troops fuffered extremely for want of pro-
vifions ; and Drufus himfelf was often in great danger
of being drowned, as the Romans who attended him
were at that time quite unacquainted with the flux and
reflux of the ocean.

The Roman forces went into Eaft Friefland for their
winter quarters; and next year (10 B. C.) Drufus
.Tiarched againft the Tenchtheri, whom he cafily fub-
dued. Afterwards, paffing the Lupias, now the Lyppe,
he reduced the Catti and Cherufci, extending his con-
qiiefts to the banks of the Vifurgis or Wefer ; which
he would have pafTed, had he iiot been in want of pro-
vifions, the enemy having laid wafte the country to a
confiderable diftance. As he was retiring, the Ger-
mans unexpeftedly fell upon him in a narrow paffage ;
and having furrounded the Roman army, cut a great
many of them in pieces. But Drufus having animated
bis men by his example, after a bloody conflifi, whick

the waters of the Rhine into the Sala or Sale. It ex-
tended eight miles ; and was very convenient for con-
veying the Roman troops by water to the countries of
the Frifii and Chauci, which was the defign of the un-
dertaking.

The following year (9 R. C.) Auguftus, bent on
fubduing the whole of Germany, advanced to the banks
of the Rhine, attended by his two fons-in-law Tibe-
rius and Drufus. The former he fent againft the
Daci, who lived up to the fouth of the Danube ; and
the latter to complete the conqueft he had fo fuccef?-
fiiUy begun in the weftern parts of Germany. The
former eafily overcame the Daci, and tranfplanted
40,000 of them into Gaul. The latter, having pafled
the Rhine, fubdued all the nations from that river to
the Elbe ; but ha\'ing attempted in vain to crofs this
lall, he fet out for Rome : an end, however, was put
to his conquefts and his life by a violent fever, with
which he was feizcd on his return.

After the death of Drufus, Tiberius again overran
all thofe countries in which Drufus had fpent the pre-
ceding fummer •■, and ftruck fome of the northern na-
tic.is with fuch terror, that they fent deputies to fue
for peace. This, however, they could not obtain up-
on any terms •, the emperor declaring that he v.ould
not conclude a peace with one, unlefs they all defired
it. But the Catti, or according to fome the Sicambri,
could not by any means be prevailed upon to fubmit ;
fo that the war was ftill carried on, though in a lan-
giud manner, for about I 8 years. During this period,
fome of the German nations had quitted their forefts,
and begun to live in a ci\-ilized manner under the pro-
teflion of the Romans ; but one C^uinftilius Varus be-
ing fent to command the Roman forces in that coun-
try, fo provoked the inhabitants by his extortions, tliat
not only thofe who ftill held out refufcd to fubmit, but
even the nations that had fubmitted were feized with
an eager defire of throwing ofi" the yoke. Among
them ^vas a young nobleman of extraordinary parts ,0
and valour, named Armmius. He was the fon of Si-Arminius
gjmer, one of the moft pov, erful lords among the '"'"'* '•"=
Catti, had ferved with great reputation in the Ro- *^*r"'' '/.
man armies, and been honoured by Auguftus with theRo"^'^^„,','"
privileges of a Roman citizen and the title of knight.
But the love of his country prevailing over his grati-
tude, he refolved to improve the general difcontent
which reigned among his countrymen, to deliver them
from the bondage of a foreign dominion. With this
view- he engaged, underhand, the leading men of all
the nations between the Rhine and the Elbe, in a con-
fpitacy againft the Romans. In order to put Varus

G E R [677

CcrmanT. oij hh guard, he at the fame time advifeJ liim to Ihow fu
*-~~v— • hiroielf to the inhabitants of the more diftant provinces,
adminilier juluce among them, and accullom them,
by his example, to live after the Roman manner, which
he laid would more etFeftually fubdue them than the
Roman fword. As Varus ivas a man of a peaceable
temper, and averfe from military toils, he readily cori-
fented to this iniidious piopofal, and, leaving the neigh-
bourhood of the Rhine, marched into the country of
the Cherufci. Having there fpent feme time in hear-
ing caufes and deciding civil controverfies, Arrainius
perfuaded him to v.eaken his army, by fending out
detachments to clear the country of robbers. When
tliis was done, iome dirtant nations of Germany rofe
up in arms by Arminius's direclions ; while thofe
through which Varus was to pafs in marching againft
them, pretended to be in a ftate of profound tran-
quillity, and ready to join the Romans agaiuit their
enemies.
Oxts off O"^ ^^^ fi^ft "S"'5 °^ ^^-^ revolt. Varus marched a-

Vanis with gainft the enemy with three legions and iix cohorts ; but
his army, being attacked by the Germans as he palled through
a wood, his army was almoll totally cut off, while he
himfelf and moft of his officers fell by their own hands.
Such a terrible overthrow, though It raifed a general
confternation in Rome, did not, however, dilliearten
Auguftus, or caufe him to abandon his enterprife. A-
bout two years after (A. D. 12.), Tiberius and Gcr-
manicus were appointed to command in Germany.
The death of Augultus, however, which happened
foon after, prevented Tiberius from going on his ex-
pedition ; and Germanicus was for fome time hindered
from proceeding in his, by a revolt of the legions, firrt
in Pannonia, and then in Germany. About the year
1 5, Germanicus having brought over the foldiers to
their duty, laid a bridge acrofs the Rhine, over which
he marched i 2,000 legionaries, 26 cohorts of the al-
lies, and eight aloe (fquadrons of 3CO each) of horfe.
With thefe he firit traverfed the Cafian foreft (part
of the Hercynian, and thought to lie partly in the duchy
of Cleves, and partly in Wellphalia), and fome other
woods. On his march he was informed that the Marfi
12 were celebrating a feftival with great mirth and jol-
Exploits cf lity. Upon this he advanced with fuch expedition,
Germani- that he furprifed them in the midil of their debauch ;
''^' and giving his army full liberty to make what lia-

vock they pleafed, a terrible malTacre enfued, and
the coimtry was deftroyed %vith fire and fword for 50
miles round, without the lofs of a lingle man on the
part of the Romans — This general maffacre roufed
the Brufteri, the Tubantes, and the Ulipetes ; who,
befetting the pafles through which the Roman army
was to return, fell upon their rear, and put them in-
to fome diiorder ; but the Romans loon recovered
ihemfelves, and defeated the Germans with confider-
able lofs.

The following year (A. D. 16.), Germanicus tak-
ing advantage of fome inteftine broils which happened
among the Catti, entered their country, where he put
great numbers to the fword. Moft of their youth,
however, efcaped by fwimming over the Adrana, now
the Oder, and attempted to prevent the Romans from
laying a bridge over that river: but being difappointed
in this, fome of them fubmitted to Germanicus, while
- the greater part, abandoning their villages, took re-

] G E R

in the woods ; fo that the Romans, without oppo- Germanv.

fition, ftt fire to all their villages, to-rnis, &c. and "- '

having laid their capital in alhes, begar. their march
back to the Rhine.

Germanicus had fcarce reached his camp, when he
received a mefTage from Segcftes, a German prince,
in the intereft o! the Romans, acquainting him that
he was beiieged in his camp "by -Arminius. On this
advice, he infiantly marched againfl the befiegers ; en-
tirely defeated them ; and took a great number of
prifoners, among whom was Thufneldis, the wife
of Armlnius, and daughter of Segcftes, whom the
fonner had carried off, and mairied againft her father's
will. Arminius then, more enraged than ever, for
the lofs of his wife, whom he tenderly loved, ftirred
up all the neighbouring nations againlt the Romans.
Germanicus, however, without being difmayed by
fuch a formidable confederacy, prepared himfelf to op-
pofe the enemy vs-ith vigour : but, that he might not
be obliged to engage fuch numerous forces at once,
detached his lieutenant Csecina, at the head of 40 co-
horts, into the territories of the Brufleri ; while his
cavalry, under the command of Pedo, entered the
country of the Frifii. As for Germanicus himfelf, he
embarked the remainder of his army, confiiling cf
four legions, on a neighbouring lake ; and tranfported
them by rivers and canals to the place appointed on
the river Ems, where the three bodies met. In their
march they found the fad remains of the legions con-
duiled by Varus, which they buried with all the cere-
mony their circum fiances could admit. After this
they advanced againft Arminius, who retired and port-
ed himfelf advantageoully clofe to a wood. The Ro-
man general followed him ; and coming up with him,
ordered his cavalry to advance and attack the enemy.
Arminius, at their firft approach, pretended to fly j
but fuddenly wheeled about, and giving the fignal to a.
body of troops, whom hf, had concealed in the wood,
to ru(h out, obliged the cavalry to give ground. The
cohorts then advanced to their relief; but chey too were
put into difordcr, and would have been pulhed into a
morafs, had not Germanicus himfelf advanced with
the reft of the cavalry to their relief. Arminius did
not think it prudent to engage thefe frefti troops, but
retired in good order ; upon which Germanicus alfo
retired towards the Ems. Here he embarked with
four legions, ordered Caccina to reconduiEl the other
four by land, and fent the cavalry to the fea fide, with
orders to march along the fnore to the Rhine. Though
Caicina was to return by road' well known, yet Ger-
manicus advifed him to pafs, with all poffible fpeed, a
caufcway, called the /ong bridges, which led acrofs vaft
mardies, furrounded on all fides with woods and hills
that gently rofe from the plain.

Arminius, however, having got notice of C«cina'$
march, arrived at the long bridges before Csecina, and
filled the woods with his men, who, on the approach
of the Romans, rullied out, and attacked them with
great fury. The legions, not able to manage their
arms in the deep waters and (lippery ground, were ob-
liged to yield ; and would in all probability have been
entirely defeated, had not night jiut an end to the
combat. The Germans, encouraged by their fuc-
cefs, inftead of refrcfhing themfclves with fleep, fpcnc
the whole night in diverting the courfes of the fprings

whkh

G E R

[ 678 ]

G E R

• i\liich roie in the neighbouring mountains ; fo that,
before day, the camp wb.ich the Romans had begun
was laid under water, and their works were overturned.
Csecina was for fome time at a lofs what to do ; but
at laft refolved to attack the enemy by daybreak, and,
having driven them to their woods, to keep tliem there
in a manner befiegcd, till the baggage and wounded
raen Ihould pafs the caufeivay, and get out of the
enemy's reach. But %vhen his army was dra^vn up, the
legions ported on the wing!:, feized with a fudden pa-
nic, deferted their ftations, and occupied a field beyond
the marilies. Csecina thought it advifable to follow
them ; but the baggage ftuck in the mire, as he at-
tempted to crofs the marfhes, which greatly embarraf-
fed the foldiers. Anninius perceiving this, laid hold
of the opportunity to begin the attack ; and crying
cut, " This is a fecond Varus, the fame fate attends
him and his legions," fell on the Romans with inex-
preffible fury. As he had ordered his men to aim
chiefly at the horfes, great nurrbers of them were
killed ; and the ground becoming flippery with their
blood and the flime of the marfh, the red either fell
or threw their riders, and, galloping through the ranks,
put them in diforder. Cascina diftinguilhed himfelf
in a very eminent manner; but his horfe being killed,
he would have been taken prifoner, had not the firft
legion refcued him. The greedinefs of the enemy,
hov.ever, faved the Romans from utter deftruftion ;
for juft as the legions were quite fpent, and on the
point of yielding, the barbarians on a fudden abandon-
ed them in order to feize their baggage. During this
refpite, the Romans flruggled out of the marfli, and
having gained the dry fields, formed a camp with all
poBible {peed, and fortified it in the beft manner they
could.

The Germans having loft the opportunity of de-
flroying the Romans, contrary to the advice of Ar-
rainius, attacked their camp next morning, but were
repulfed with great flaughter ; after which they gave
Caecina no more molefiation till he reached the banks
of the Rhine. Germanicus, in the mean time, having
conveyed the legions he had with him down the river
Ems into the ocean, in order to return by fea to the
river Rhine, and finding that his veCels were overload-
ed, deKvered the fecond and 14th legions to Publius
Vitellius, defiring him to conduct them by land. But
this march proved fatal to great numbers of them ; who
were either buried in the quickfands, or fwallowed up
by the overflowing of the tide, to which they were
as yet utter ftrangers. Thofe who efcaped, loft their
arms, utenfils, and provifions ; and paffed a melan-
choly night upon an eminence, which they had gained
by wading up to the chin. The next morning the
land returned with the tide of ebb ; when Vitellius,
by a hafty march, reached the river Ufingis, by fome
thought to be the Hoerenfter, on which the city of
Groningen ftands. There Germanicus, who had reach-
ed that river with his fleet, took the legions again on
board, and conveyed them to the mouth of the Rhine,
whence they all returned to Cologne, at a time when
it was reported they ^vere totally loft.

This expedition, however, cofl the Romrns veiy
dear, and procured very few advantages. Great num-
bers of men had periflied ; and by far the greateft part
of thofe who had efcaped fo many dangers returned

without arms, uter.fils, horfes, &c. half naked, lamed, G;nr.sn
and unfit for fervice. The next year, however, Ger- '~~"^' —
manicus, bent on the entire reduftion of Germany,,,.^ -'^
made vaft preparations tor another expedition. Hav-g5p„j,jj^
ing confidered the various accidents that had 'befallen
him during the v.ar, he found that the Germans were
cliiefly indebted for their fafety to their woods and
marfties, their ftiort fummers and long winters ; and
that his troops fuflFered more from their long and te-
dious marches thaji from the enemy. For this reafon
he refolved to enter the country by fea, hophig by
that means to begin the campaign earlier, and furprile
the enemy. Having therefore built with great de-
fpatch, during the winter, looo veffels of different fort'--,
he ordered them early in the fpring (A. D. j6.) to
fall down the Rhine, and appointed tlie illand of the
Batavians for the general rendezvous of his forces.
\Vlien the fleet was falling, he detached Silius one of
his lieutenants, with orders to make a fudden irrup-
tion into the country of the Catti ; and, in the mean
time, he himfelf, upon receiving intelligence that a
Roman fort on the Luppias was bcfieged, haftened
with fix legions to its relief. Silius was prevented, by
fudden rains, from doing more than taking feme fmall
booty, with the wife and daughter of Arpen king
of the Catti ; neither did thofe who befieged the fort
wait the arrival of Germanicus. In the mean time,
the fleet arri\'ing at the ifland of the Batavians, the
provifions and warlike engines were put on board and
fent forward ; ihips were affigned to the legions and
allies ; arvd the ivhole army being embarked, the fleet
entered the canal formerly cut by Drufus, and from
his name called Fo//h Dmliana. Hence he failed pro-
fperoufly to the month of the Ems ; where, having
landed his troops, he marched directly to the WelVr,
where he found Arminius encamped on the oppofite
bank, and determined to difpute his paflage. The
next day Arminius drew out his troops in order of
battle ; but Germanicus, not thinking it advifable to
attack them, ordered the horfe to ford over under the
command of his lieutenants Stertinius and Eraillus ;
who, to divide the enemy's forces, croffed the river in
two different places. At the fame time Cariovalda,
the leader of the Batavian auxiliaries, croffed the river
where it is moft rapid : but being drawn into an
ambufcade, he Avas killed, together with moft of the
Batavian nobility ; and the reft would have been totally
cut off. Had not Stertinius and Emilius haftened to
their affiftance. Germanicus in the mean time paffed
the river without moleftation. A battle foon after
enfued; in which the Germans were defeated with fo
great a flaughter that the ground ^vas covered with
arms and dead bodies for more than i o miles round :
and among the fpoils taken on this occafion, were found,
as formerly, the chains with which the Germans had
hoped to bind their captives.

In memory of this fignal viiElory Germanicus raifed
a mount, upon which he placed as tro;)hies the arms of
the enemy, and infcribed underneath tl)e names of the
conquered nations. This fo provoked the Germans,
though already vanquiftied and determined to abandon
their countr}-, that they attacked the Roman army
unexpectedly on its march, and put them into fome
diforder. Being repulfed, they encamped between a
river and a large foreft furrounded by a marlh c.tccpt

G E R

[ 679 ]

G E 11

on or.e ficle, where it was encloied by a broad rampart
formerly raifed by the Angrivarii as a barrier between
them and the Cherufci. Hare another battle enfued ;
i;i ivhich the Germans behaved with great bravery, but
ill the end were defeated with great Haughter.

After this'ccond defeat, the Angrivarii fubmitted,
and were taken under the proteition of the Romans,
and Germanicus put an end to the campaign. Some
of the legions he fent to their winter quarters by land,
while he himfelf embarked with the reft on the river
Ems, in order to return by fea. The ocean proved at
' firll very calm, and the wind favourable : but all of a
fudden a Itonn arifing, the fleet, confrlling of lOOO
vefTels, was difperfed : lome of them were Avallcved
up by the waves ; .others were dalhed in pieces againft
the rocks, or driven upon remote and inhofpitable
illands, where the men either perilhed by famine, or
lived upon the tleih of the dead horfcs with which the
fliores foon appeared flrewed ; for, in order to lighten
their veflels, and difengage them from the ftioals, they
had been obliged to thro'.v overboard their horfes and
beafts of burden, nay, even their arms and baggage.
Moft of the men, however, were faved, and even great
part of the fleet recovered. Some of them were driven
upon the coaft of Britain ; but the petty kings who
rdgned there generoufly fcnt them back.

On the news of this misfortune, the Catti, taking
new courage, ran to arms ; but Caius Sillus being de-
tached againft them with 30,000 foot and 3000 liorfe,
kept them in awe. Germanicus himfelf, at the head
of a numerous body, made a fudden irruption into the
territories of the Marfi, where he recovered one of
Varus's eagle.-, and having laid wafte the country, he
returned to the frontiers of Germany, and put his
troops into winter quarters ; whence he ^vas foon recal-
led by Tiberius, and never fuffered to return into Ger-
many again.

After the departure of Germanicus, the more north-
ern nations of Germany were no more molefted by
the Romans. Arminius carried on a long and fuc-
cefbful war with Maroboduus king of the Marcomanni,
whom he at laft expelled, and forced to apply to the
Romans for aiTiftance ; but, excepting Germanicus, it
feems they had at this time no other general capable
oi oppcfing Arminius, fo that Maroboduus was never
reftored. After the final departure of the Romans,
however, Arminius having attempted to enllave his
country, fell by the treachery of his own kindred.
The Germans held his memory in great veneration ;
and Tacitus informs us, that in his time they ftill cele-
brated him in their fon;JS.

Nothirig remarkable occurs in the hiftory of Germa-
ny from this time till the reign of the emperor Clau-
dius. A war indeed is faid to have been carried on
by Lucius Domiiius, father to the emperor Nero.
Eut of his exploits we know nothing more than that
he penetrated beyond the river Elbe, and led his army
farther uilo the country than any of the Romans had
ever done. In the reign of Claudius, however, the
Geiraan territories were invaded by Cn. Domitius
Corbulo, one of the greateft generals of his age. But
v.hen he ^vas on the point of forcing them to fubinit to
the Roman yoke, he was recalled by Claudius, who
uas jealous of the reputation he had acquired.

In the reign of YefpaCan, a tenible revolt happened

among the Batavians and thofe German nations who Germ.iry.
had fubmitted to the Romans ; a particular account of ^
which is given under the article Rome. The revolters-j-ij.'jj^^j^
were with dithculty fubdued ; but, in the reign ofansjnvade
Domitian, the Dacians invaded the empire, and proved tlip Roman
a more terrible enemy than any of the other Germanempir':;
nations hr.d been. After feveral defeats, the emperor
was at laft obliged to confent, to pay an annual tri-
bute to Decebalus king of the Dacians ; which con-
tinued to the time of Trajan. But that warlike prince
refufed to pay tribute ; alleging, when it was de-
manded of him, that " he had never been conquered
by Deceb.ilus." Upon this the Dacians paffed the
Danube, and began to commit hoftilities in the Ro-
man territories. Trajan, glad of this opportunity to
humble an enemy whom he began to fear, drew to-
gether a mighty army, and marched with the utmoft
expedition to the banks of the Danube. i\s Dece-
balus was not apprifed of his arrival, the emperor
pafled the river without oppofition, and entering Dacia,
laid wafte the country with fire and fword. At lail
he Avas met by Decebalus with a numerous army. A
bloody engagement enfued, in ^vhich the Dacians were
defeated ; though the viftory coft the Romans dear :
the wounded were fo numerous, that they wanted
linen to bind up their \vounds ; and to fupply the
defeft, the emperor gencBoufly devoted his own ward-
robe. After the victory, he purfued Decebalus from
place to place, and at laft obliged him to confent to a
peace on the following terms : i. That he (hould
furrender the territories which he had unjuftly taken
from the neighbouring nations. 2. That he (hould
deliver up his arms, his warlike engines, %x-ith the ar-
tificers who made them, and all the Roman deferters.
3. That for the future he Ihoidd entertain no deferters,
nor take into his fervice the natives of any country
fubjefl to Rome. 4. That he fliould difmantle all his
fortreifes, caiUes, and ftrong holds. And, lallly, That
he ihould have the fame friends and foes with the people
of Rome.

With thefe hard terms Decebalus was obliged to
comply, though fore againft his will ; and being intro-
duced to Trajan, threw himfelf on the ground before
him, acknowledging himfelf his valTal ; after which the
latter, having commanded him to fend vdeputies to the
fenate for the ratification of the peace, returned to
Rome.

This peace was of no long duration. Four years
after (A. D. 105.), Decebalus, unable to live in fer-
vitude as he called it, began, contrary to the late
treaty, to raife men, provide arms, entertain deferters,
fortify his caftles, and invite the neighbourhig nations
to join him againft the Romans as a common enemy.
The Scythians hearkened to his folicitations ; but the
Jazyges, a neighbouring nation, refufing to bear arms
agalnll Rome, Decebalus invaded their country. Here-
upon Trajan marched againft him ; but the Dacian,
finding liimfelf unable to withlland him by open force,
had recourfe to treachery, and attempted to get the
emperor murdered. His dcfign, however, proved
abortive, and Trajan purfued his march into Dacia.
That his troops might the more readily pafs and re-
pafs the Danube, he built a bridge over that river ;• See y<i--
which by the ancients is ftyled the raoft magnificent and.4'/'<9«rf,
wonderful of all his works*. To guard the bildge,N' Ji?-

he

G E R

t 680 ]

G E R

Trajan.

iS
Marco.

Germany, he orderd trto caftles to be built ; one ofl this fide
'—~y~~- tije Danube, and the other on the opoofitc iide ; and
all this was accomplithed in the fpace of one fummer.
Trajan, however, as the feafon was now far advanced,
did not think it advifable to enter Dacia this year,
' but contented himfelf with making the neceiTary pre-

ij parations.
They are In the year 106, early in the fpring, Trajan fet out

lubdued by for Dacia ; and having palled the Danube on the bridge
he had built, reduced the whole country, and would
have taken Decebalus himftlf, had he not put an end
to his own life, in order to avoid falhng into the hands
of his enemies. After his death the kingdom of Da-
cia was reduced to a Roman province ; and feveral
callles were built in it, and garrifons placed in them,
to keep the country in awe.

After the death of Trajan, the Roman empire be-
gan to decline, and the northern nations to be daily
more and more formidable. The province of Dacia
indeed was held by the Romans till the reign of Gal-
lienusj but Adrian, who fucceeded Trajan, caufed the
arches of the bii4ge over the Danube to be broken
down, left the barbarians fliould make themfelves ma-
fters of it, and invade the Rt.man territories. In the
Ouadifor^ time of Marcus Aurelius the Msrcomanni and Qua-
midable to '^^ invaded the empire, and gave the emperor a terrible
the empire, overthrow. He continued the war, however, with
better fuccefs afterwards, and invaded their country in
his turn. It was during the courfe of this war that the
Roman army is faid to have been faved from deftrudion
by that mirr.culous event related under the article
Christians, p. 70. col. 2.

In the end, the Marcomanni and Q^uadi were, by
repeated defeats, brought to the verge of deflruftion ;
infomuch that their country would probably have been
reduced to a Roman province, had not Marcus Aure-
lius been diverted from purluing his conquefls by the
revolt of one of his generals. After the death of
Marcus Aurelius, the Germanic nations became every
day more and more formidable to the Romans. Far
from being able to invade and attempt the conqueft of
thefe northern countries, the Rom.ans had the greateft
difHculty to reprefs the incurfions of their inhabitants.
But for a particular account of their various invafions
of the Roman empire, and its total deftruftion by them
,p at laft, fee the article Rome.
Reman em- The immediate deflroyers of the Roman empire
pire de- v\-ere the Heruli ; who, under their leader Odoacer, de-
the°Herufi ^^'^°^^^ Auguftulus the laft Roman emperor, and pro-
claimed Odoacer king of Italy. The Heruli were
foon expelled by the Ollrogoths ; and thefe in their
turn were fubducd by .Tuftinian, who reannexed Italy to
the eaftem empire. But the popes found means to
obtain the temporal as well as fpiritual jurifdiftion over
a confiderable part of the country, while the Lom-
bards fubdued the reft. Thefe laft proved very trouble-
fome to the popes, and at length bcfieged Adrian I.
in his capital. In this diftrefs he applied to Charles
the Great, king of France ; who conquered both Italy
and Germany, and was crowned emperor of the weft
in 800.

The pofierity of Charlemagne inherited the empire
of Germany until the year 880 ; at which time the dif-
ferent princes affumed their original independence, re-
jefted the Carlovjngian line, and placed Arnulph king
2

Hiftory of
Germany
Cute the
time of
Charle-
magne.

of Bohemia on the llirone. Since this time Germany Germftnjf.
h.is ever been coniidered as an eleclive monarchy. v~— '
Princes of diiferent families, according to the preva-
lence of their intereft and arms, have mounted the
throne. Of the^e the moft Confiderable, until the Au-
ftrian line acquired the imperial power, were the hou-
fes of Sixoiiy, Franconia, and Saabia. The reigns
of thefe emperors contain nothing more remarkable
than the contefts between them and the popes ; for an
account of which fee the article Italy. From hence,
in the beginning of the 13th century, arofe the fac-
tions of the Guelphs and Gibellines, of which the for-
mer was attached to the popes, and the latter to the
emperor ; aud both, by their virulence and inveteracy,
tended to difquiet the empire for feveral ages. The em-
perors too were often at war with the infidels ; and
fometim.es, as happens in all eleflive kingdoms, with
one another, about the fiicceffion.

But what more deferves our attention is the progrefs
of government in Germany, which was in fome mea-
fure oppofite to that of the other kingdoms of Europe.
When the empire raifcd by Charlemagne fell alunder,
all the different independent princes alTumed the right
of eleftion ; and thofe now diftinguiflied by the name
of e/eiiors had no peculiar or legal influence in ap-
pointing a fuccelTor to the imperial throne ; they werS
only the officers of the king's houfehold, his fecretary,
his fteward, chaplain, marftial, or mafter of his
horfe, &c. By degrees, however, as they lived near
the king's perfon, and had, like all other princes, in-
dependent territories belonging to them, they increafed
theit influence and authority ; and in the reign of Otho
III. 984, acquired the fole right of clefling the em-
peror. Thus, while in the other kingdoms of Europe,
the dignity of the great lords, who were all originally
allodial or independent barons, was diminidied by the
power of the king, as in France, and by the influ-
ence of the people, as in Great Britain ; in Germany,
on the other hand, the power of the eledors was
raifed upon the ruins of the emperor's fupremacy,
and of the people's jurifdiftlon. In 1440, Frederic
III. duke of Auftria was elefted emperor, and the
imperial dignity continued in the male line of that fa-
mily for 300 years. His fucceflbr Maximilian mar-
ried the hcirefs of Charles duke of Burgundy ; where-
by Burgundy and the 17 provinces of the Netherlands
were annexed to the houfe of Auftria. Ciiarles V.
grandfon of Maximilian, and heir to the kingdom of
Spain, was ekfted emperor in the year 1 5 19. Under
him Mexico and Peru were conquered by the Spa-
niards ; and in his reign happened the Reformatio^
in feveral parts of Germany ; which, however, was not
confirmed by public authority till the year 1648, by
the treaty of Weftphalia, and in the reign of Ferdi-
nand 111. The reign of Charles V. ivas continually
difturbed by his wars with the German princes and the
French king Francis I. Though fuccefsful in the begin-
ning of his reign, his good fortune towards the con-
clufion of it began to forfake him ; which, with other
reafons, occafioned his abdication of the crown. See
Chaki.es V.

His brother Ferdinand I. who in 1558 fucceeded
to the throne, proved a moderate prince with regard
to religion. He had the addrefs to get his Ion Maxi-
nulian tlechred king of the Romans in his own life-

time»

G E R

[ 68i ]

G E R

©ermanv. time, and ditil iu 1 564. By his lail v.ill he ordered,

' V' that if either his own male ilTue, or that of his brother

Charles, fliould fail, his Auftrian eftates fiiould revert
to liis fecond daughter Anna, ivife to the eleflor of
Bavaria, and her ilTue. We mention this deftination,
Es it gave rife to the late cppofuion made by the houfe
of Bavaria to the pragmatic fanclion, in favour of the
cmprefs queen of Hungary, on the death of her father
Cliarles VI. The reign of Maximilian Il.^vas diilurb-
ed with internal commotions, and an invafion from the
Turivs : but he died iu peace in 1576. He was fuc-
cecded by his fon Rodolph j who was involved in wars
with the Hungarian?, and in dilTerences with his bro-
ther Matthias, to whom he ceded Hungary and Auf-
tria in his lifetime. He was fucceeded in the empire
by Matthias ; under whom the reformers, who went
under the names of Lu'.hcra'ts and Calvint/ls, were fo
much divided among thcmfelves, as to threaten the
empire with a civil war. The ambition of Matthias
at lall tended to reconcile them ; but the Bohemians
revolted, and threw the imperial commiflaries out of
a window at Prague, This gave rife to 'a ruinous
war, which lafted 30 years. Matthias thought to have
exterminated both parties ; but they formed a confe-
deracy, called the Evangelic League, which was coun-
terbalanced by a Catholic league.

Matthins dyinsr in 1618, was fucceeded by his cou-
fm Ferdinand H. ; but the Bohemians offered their
crown to Frederic the elcdor Palatine, the moft power-
i'ul Prcteiiant prince in Germany, and fon-in-law to
I'is Britannic raajefly .lames I. That prince was Incau-
t'dus enough to ac'cept of the crown : but he loft it,
by being entirely defeated by the duke of Bavaria and
the imperial genera's at the battle of Prague j and he
was even deprived of his eleclofate, the bcft part of
which was given to the duke of Bavaria. The Pro-
tertant princes of Germany, however, had among them
at this time many able commanders, who were at the
head of armies, and continued the war v.ith wonderful
obftinacy : among them were the margrave of Baden
Durlach, Chriftian duke of Brunfwick, and count
Mansfeid ; the laft was one of ^lie beft generals of the
age. Chriftiern IV. king of Denmark declared for
them ; and Richelieu, the Frencii mlniiter, wr.s not
fond of feeing the houfe of AuUria aggrandized. The
emperor, on the other hand, had excellent generals ;
and Chriftiern, having put hirafelf at the head of the
evangelic league, was defeated by Tilly, an Imperi-
alift of great reputation in war. Ferdinand made fo
moderate a ufe of his advantages obtained over the
Proteftants, that they formed a frelh confpiracy at
Leipfic, of which the celebrated Guftavus Adolphus
king of Sweden was the head. An account of his
glorious viclories is given under the article Swkden.
At \?A he was killed at the battle of Lutzen in 1632.
But the Proteftant caufe did not die with him. He
iiad brought up a fct of heroes, fuch as the duke of
iiaxe Weimer, Torftenfon, Banier, and others, who flrook
the Auftria;i power ; till under the mediation of Sweden,
a general peace was concluded among all the belligerent
powers, at Munlter, in the year 1648 : which forms the
bafis of the prefent political fyftem of Europe.

Ferdinand II. was fucceeded by his ion Ferdinand
HI. This prince died in 1657; and was fucceeded
by the emperor Leopold, a fevere, unamiable, and not

Vol. IX. Part II.

very fortunate priilcc. He had two great powers fo Ge.:iiatiy.

contend with, France on tlie one fide, and the Turks *~~^

on the other ; and was a lofer in his war with both.
Louis XIV. at that time king of France, was happy
in having the two celebrated generals Condc and lu-
renne in his fervice. The latter had already diftin-
ju'ihcd hirafelf by great exploits againft the Spaniards ;
and, on the acceflion of Leopold, the court of France
had taken the opportunity of coulirraing the treaty of
Munfter, and attaching to her interelt feveral of the
independent princes of Germany. The tranquillity
which now took place, however, was not ellabliftied
upon a!iy permanent bafis. War with Spain was re-
fumed in the year 1668; and the great fucceffes of ,
Turenne in the Netherlands ftimulated the ambition
of the prince of Conde to attempt the conqueft of
Franche Compte, at that time under the protection of the
houfe of Auftria. This was accomplilhed in three
weeks : but the rapid fuccefs of Louis had awakened
the jealoufy of his neighbours to fuch a degree, that a
league was formed againfl him by England, Holland,
and Sn'eden ; and the French monarch, dreading to
enter the lifts with fuch formidable enemies, confented
to the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, by which, among
other articles, Franche Compte was reftored. The
flames of war, hou'ever, were renewed by the infatiable
ambition of the French monarch ; who, having enter-
ed into an alliance with Charles II. of England, aim-
ed at nothing "lefs than the total overthrow of the
Dutch republic. The events of that war are related
under the article UNITED Provinces -, here it is
fuilicient to obferve, that the misfortunes of the
Dutch excited the compaffion of the emperor and
court of Spain, who now openly declared them.'elves
their allies. Turenne was oppofed by the prince of
Orange in conjundlion with the celebrated Imperial
general Montecuculi, whofe artful conduft eluded
even the penetration of Turenne, and he fat down
fuddenly before the city of Bonne. Here he was
joined by the prince of Orange, who had likewife
found means to elude the vigilance of the French ge-
nerals. Bonne furrendered in a lliort. time, and
feveral other places in Cologne fell iitto the hands of
the allies; who likewife cut oft' the communication
betwixt France and the United Provinces ; fo that
Louis was foon obliged to recal his armies, and aban-
don all his conquefts with greater rapidity than they
had been made. In 1674 he was abandoned by his
ally Charles II. of E'ngland, and the bUhop ef Mumler
and eleflor of Cologne were compelled to renounce
their allegiance to him ; but notvvitliftanding thefe
misfortunes, he coJitinued everywhere to make head
againft his enemies, and even meditated new conquefts.
\Vith a powerful army he again invaded Franche
Compte in perfon, and in fix weeks reduced the whole
province to his obedience. In Alface, Turenne de-
feated the Imperial general at Sintzheim, and ravaged
the palatinate. Seventy thoufand Germans were iur-
prifcd ; a conGderable detachment was cut in pieces at
Mulhaufen ; the elei^Ior of Brandenburg, who had
been intrufted with the chief command, was routed
by Turenne near Colmar ; a third body met with a
fimilar fate at Turkheim ; and the whole German
forces were obliged at laft to evacuate the province and
repafs the Rhine.

4R I«

G E R

c

In coiifequeiice of tliefe difafiers the Imperial general
■* Monteruculi was recalled to ait agairai Turenne. The
military Ikill of tne two commanders feemed to be nearly
equal ; but before the fuperiority could be adjudged to
either, Turenne uas killed by a cannon ball as he was
reconnoitring a fituation for erefting a battery. By
his death the Impcri.ilifts obtained a decided fuperiority.
Montecuculi penetrated into Alface ; and the French,
inider De Lorges nephew to the deceafed geireral, were
happy in being able to efcape a defeat.

Part of the German army now fat down before
Tre^'es, where they were oppofed by Marefchal Crequi ;
but the negligence of that general cxpofed him to fuch
a dreadful defeat, that he was obliged to fly into the
city with only four attendants. Here he endeavoured
in vain to animate the people to a vigorous defence.
The garrifon mutinied againft his authority ; and,
when he refufed to fign the capitulation they made,
delivered him up prifoner to the enemy. Louis in the
mean time had taken the field in perfon againft the
prince of Orange ; but the difaftrous Hate of affairs in
Germany induced him to recal the prince of Conde
to make head againft Montecuculi. In this campaign
tlie prince ieemed to have the advantage. He com-
pelled the Germans to raife the fieges of Hagenau and
Saverne ; and at lait to repafs the Rliine without ha-
ving been able to force him to a battle.

This was the lalt campaign made by thefe celebrated
commanders ; both of them now, contented with the
fame they had acquired, retiring from the field to
fpend the remanider of their days in peace. The ex-
cellent difcipline, however, which the two great French
generals had introduced into their armies, ftill conti-
nued to make them very fonnidable, though it did
Eot always enfure them of viiitory. In Germany, the
duke of Lorrain, who had recovered Philipfburgh, was
repeatedly defeated by Marefchal Crequi, who had
been ranfomcd from his captivity, and become more
prudent by his defeat. In Flanders, the prince of
Orange was overmatched by the duke of Orleans and
Marihal Luxemburg. A peace was at length con-
cluded at Nimeguen in 1679, '^X ^'^'ch the king of
France fecured himfelf Franclie Compte with a great
many cities in the Netherlands ; while the king of
Sweden was reinftated in thofe places of which he had
been ftripped by the Danes and Germans. This tran-
quillity, however, was of no long duration. Louis
employed every moment in preparations for new con-
quefts ; poflciTed himfelf of the imperial city of Straf-
burg by treachery ; and difpoflTefled the eleftor Pala-
tine and the eleftor of Treves of the lordlhips of Fal-
kemburg, Gcrmannieim, and Valdentz. On the moR
frivolous pretences he had demanded Aloft from the
Spaniards ; and on their refufal, feized upon Luxem-
liurg. His condufl, in lliort, was fo intolerable, that
t-he prince of Orange, his inveterate enemy, found
means to unite the whole empire in a league againft
him. Spain and Holland became parties in the fame
caufe ; and Sweden and Denmark feemed alfo inclined
to accede to the general confederacy. Notwithltand-
ing this formidable combination, however, Louis feem-
ed ftill to have the advantage. He made himfelf ma-
iler of the cities of Philipfburgh, Manheim, Franken-
dal, S;>iref, Worms, and Oppenheim : the fruitful

82 ] G E R

country of the palatinate was ravaged in a dreadful man- German
ncr ) the towns were reduced to allies ; and the people, •

driven from their habitations, were everywhere left to
p;riih through the inclemency of the weather and
want of provifions. By this ci uelty his enemies were
rather exafperated than vanquilhed : the Imperialilts,
under the conduit of the duke of Lorrain, refumed
their courage, and put a Itop to the French conquelts.
At length all par-tics, w-eary of a deitruftive war, con-
fcnted to the treaty of Ryfwick in 1697. By this
treaty Louis gave up to the empire, Fribourg, Brl-
fac, Kheil, and Philipfburg ; he confented alfo to de-
ftroy the fortifications of Strafburg. Fort Louis and
Traerbach, the works of which had exhaulted the
Ikill of the great Vauban, with Lorrain, Treves, and
th.; Palatinate, were refigned to their refpedtive
princes ; infomuch that the terms to which the French
monarch now confented, after fo many victories, were
fuch as could fcarce have been expedted under the
preflure of the greatelt misfortunes. The vieivs of
Louis, however, in confenting to this apparently hu-
mihating treaty, were beyond the views of ordinary
politicians. The health of the king of Spain was in
fuch a declining way, that his death appeared to be at
hand ; and Louis now refolved to renew his preten-
iions to that kingdom, which he had formerly by
treaty folemnly renounced. His deligns in this re-
fpeft could not be concealed from the vigilance of
William III. of Britain ; of which Louis being fen-
fible, and knowing that the emperor had claims of the
fame nature on Spain, he thought proper to enter into
a very extraordinary treaty ^vith William. This was
no lefs tlian the partition of the whole Spanifh domi-
nions, which were now to be dillributed in tlie follow-
ing manner. To the young prince of Bavaria were to
be afiigned Spain and the Ealt Indies ; the dauphin,
fon to Louis, was to have Naples, Sicily, and the pro-
vince of Guipufcoa ; while the archduke Charles, fon
to the emperor Leopold, was to have only the duchy
of Milan. By this fcandalous treaty the indignation
of Charles was roufed, fo that he bequeathed the whole
of his dom.inions to ti'ie prince of Bavaria. This
fcheme, however, was difconcerted by the fudden death
of the prince ; upon which a new treaty of parti-
tion was concluded between Louis and William. By
•«iis the kingdom of Spain, together ^vith the Eall
India territories, were to be beftowed on the arch-
duke Charles, and the duchy of Milan upon the duke of
Lorrain. The lalt moments of the Spanifh monarcli
were diilurbed by the intrigues of the rival houfes of
Auftria and Bourbon ; but the haughtincfs of the Au-
ftriart minifters fo difgufted thofe of Spain, that they
prevailed upon their dying monarch to make a new
will. By this the whole of his dominions were be-
queathed to Philip duke of Anjou, grandfgn to the
king of France ; and Louis, prompted by his natural
ambition, accepted the kingdom bequeathed to his
grandfon, cxcufing himfelf to his allies in the bell man-
ner he could for departing from his engagements with
them. For this, however, he was made to pay dear.
His infatiable ambition and his former fuccefles had
alarmed all Europe. The emperor, the Dutch, and the
king of England, entered into a new confederacy
againlt him 5 and a bloody war cnfued, which threatened

G E R

[ ^83 ]

G E R

j CeT.-nany. to overtTirow the French monarchy entirely. While
» this war (of which an account is given under the article
I Britain) was carried on with fuch fuccefs, the empe-

ror Leopold died in the year 170J.

He was fucceeded by his fon Jofeph, who put the
electors of Cologne and Bavaria to the ban of the em-
pire ; bat being ill ferved by Prince Louis of Baden
general of the empire, the French partly recovered
their affairs, notwithftanding their repeated defeats.
The duke of Marlborough had not all the fuccefs he
expefted or deferved. Jofeph himfelf was fufpected of
a dellgn to fubvert the Germanic liberties ; and it was
plain by his conduft, that he expected England (hould
tr>ke the labouring oar in the war, which %vas to be en-
tirely carried on for his benefit. The Englifh u'erc
difgufted at his flownefs and felfifhnefs : but he died in
1 711, before he had reduced the Hungarians; and
leaving no male iffue, he was fucceeded in the empire
by his brother Charles VL whom the allies were
endeavouring to place on the throne of Spain, in oppofi-
tion to Philip duke of Anjou, grandfon to Louis XIV.
When the peace of Utrecht took place in 1 713,
Charles at firft made a ihow as if he would continue the
war ; but found himfelf unable, now that he was for-
faken by the Engliih. He therefore was obliged to
conclude a peace with France at Baden in 1714, that
he might attend the progrefs of the Turks in Hun-
gary •, where they received a total defeat from Prince
Eugene at the battle of Petervvaradin. They receiv-
ed another of equal importance from the fame gene-
ral in 1717, before Belgrade, which fell into the hands
of the Imperialifts ; and next year the peace of Paffaro-
witz, between them and the Turks was concluded.
Charles emplojed every minute of his leifure in mak-
ing arrangements for increafing and preferving his he-
reditary dominions in Italy and the Mediterranean.
Happily for him, the crown of Britain devolved to the
hoa'e of Hanover ; an event which gave him a very
decifive weight in Europe, by the connexions between
George I. and II. and the empire. Charles was fen-
fible of this ; and carried matters with fo high a hand,
that, about the years 1724 and 1725, a breach enfued
between him and George I. and fo unfteady was the
fyftem of affairs all over Europe at that time, that the
capital powers often changed their old alliances, and
concluded new ones contradiftory to their intereft.
Without entering into particulars, it is futhcient to ob-
ferve, that the fafety of Hanover, and its aggrandize-
ment, was the main objeft of the Britilh court ; as that
of the emperor was the eiiablilhraent of the pragmatic
fanflion in favour of his daughter the (late emprefs
queen), he having no male iiTue. Mutual concelTions
upon thofe great points reflored a good underllanding
between George II. and the emperor Charles : and the
eleftor of Saxony, riattcred with the view of gaining
the throne of Poland, relinquidicd the great claims he
had upon the Auftrian fucceflion.

The emperor, after this, had very bad fuccefs in a
war he entered into with the Turks, which he had un-
dertaken chietly to indemnify himfelf for the great fa-
crifices he had made in Italy to the princes of the houfe
of Bourbon. Prince Eugene was then dead, and he
had no general to fupply his place. The fyftem of
France, however, under Cardinal Fleury, happened at
that time to be paci&c : and (he obtained for him, from

the Turks, a better peace than he had reafon to ev- Gt
pect. Charles, to keep the German and other powers —
eafy, had, before his death, given his eldeil daughter,
the late emprefs queen, in marriage to the duke cf
Lorrain, a prince who could bring no accelfion of
power to the Auftrian family.

Charles died in 1 740 ; and was no fooner in th;
grave, than all he had fo long laboured for mult have
been overthrown, had it not been for the firmnefs of
George II. The young king of Prulfia entered and
conquered Silefia, wiiich he laid had been wrongfiiUy
difmerwered from his family. The king of Spain ani
the elector of Bavaria fet up claims directly incompa-
tible v\ith the pragmatic faniflion, and in this they were
joined by France ; though all thofe powers had folema-
ly guaranteed it. The imperial throne, after a conii-
derable vacancy, was filled up by the eleftor of Bava-
ria, who took the title of Cliarles VIL in Januarj-

1742. The French poured their armies into Bohemia,
where they took Prague ; and the queen of Hungary,
to take off the weight of Pruffia, was forced to cede to
that prince the molt valuable part of the duchy of Si-
lefia by a formal treaty.

Her youth, her beauty, and fufferings, and the
noble fortitude with which flie bore them, touched
the hearts of the Hungarians, into whofe arms (he
threw herfelf and her little fon j and though they had
been always remarkable for their difaffeclion to the
houfe of Auftria, they declared unanimjufly in her
favour. Her gc'^rals drove the French out of Bo-
hemia ; and George II. at the head of an Engliih and
Hanoverian army, gained the battle of Dettingen, in

1743. Charles VII. was at this time miferable on
the imperial throne, and would have given the queen
of Hungary almolt her own terms; but ihe haughtily
and impolitically rejefted all accommodation^ though
advifed to it by his Britannic majelty, her belt and
indeed only friend. This obltinacy gave a colour for
the king of PrulTia to invade Bohemia, under pretence
of fupporting the imperial dignity ; but though he
took Prague, and fuhdued the grcatell part of the
kingdom, he was not fupported by the French ; upon
which he abandoned all his conquells, and retired into
Silefia. This event confirmed the obltinacy of the
queen of Hungary : who came to an accommodation
with the emperor, that (lie might recover Silefia.
Soon after, his Imperial raajeily, in the beginning of
the year 1745, died; and the duke of Lorrain, then
grand duke of Tufcany, confort to the queen of Hun-
gary, after furmounting fome ditiiculties, was chofen
emperor.

The bad fuccefs of the allies againft the French and
Bavarians' in the Low Countries, and the lofs of the
battle of Fontenoy. retarded the operations of flie
emprefs queen againft his Pruflian majefly. The lat-
ter beat the emperor's brother. Prince Charles of Lor-
rain, who had before driven the Pruftians out of Bo-
hemia ; and tlie condufl of the emprefs queen was
fuch, that his Britannic m ijefty thought proper to
guarantee to him the ))oir(;ffion of Silefia, as ceded by
treaty. Soon after, his Pruffian majelly pretended (
tliat he had difcovercd a fccret convention wliich had
been entered into between the emprefs queen, the em-
prefs of Ruftia-, and the king of Poland as eleftor of
Saxony, to ftrip him of his dominions, awi to divide
4 R 2 them

G E R

[ 684 ]

G E R

them among tliemfelves. Upon this his Priiflian
majefly, very fuddenly, drove the king of Poland out
of Saxony, defeated his troops, and took poffelTion
of Drefden ; which he held till a treaty ivas made un-
der the mediation of his Britannic majefty, by %vhich
the king of Pruflia acknowledged the duke of Lor-
rain, great dul^e of Tufcany, for emperor. The
war, however, continued in the Low Countries, not
only to the di fad vantage, but to the difcredit of the
Auflrians and Dutch, till it was fiiiillicd by the treaty
of Aix-la-Chapelle, in April 1748. By that treaty
Siiefia vfas once more guaranteed to the kingo! I^'-uffia.
It was not long before ,that monarch's jcalouiies were
renewed and verified -, and the eraprefs of Ruflia's
views falling in witli thofe of the empreis queen and
the king of Poland, who were unnaturally fupported
by France in their new fchemes, a frefh war was
kindled in the empire. The king of Pruflia declared
againft the admiliion of the Ruffians into Germany,-
and his Biitannic majeily agahiil that of the French.
Upon thofe two principles all former differences be-
tween rfiefe raonarcbs were forgotten, and the Britilh
parliament agreed to pay an annual fubfidy of 670,0001.
to his PruQian majefty during the continuance of the
war.

The flames of war now broke out in Germany with
greater fury and more deftruftive violence than ever.
The armies of his Pruflian majeily, like an irrefiflible
torrent, burft in Saxony ; totally defeated the imperial
general Brown at the battle of L< * (fitz ; forced the
Saxons to lay down their arms, though almoft impreg-
nabiy fortified at Pirna •, and the eleclor of Saxony fled
to his regal dominions in Poland. After this, his Pruf-
iian majefty was put to the ban of the empire > and the
French poured, by one quarter, their armies, as the

Ruflians did by anot

the

dufl of his PrufTian majefty on this occafion is the mofl;
amazing that is to be met with in hiftory ; for a parti-
cular account of which, fee the article Prussia.

At laft, however, the taking of Colberg by the Ruf-
fians, and of Schvvcidnitz by the Auftrians, w as on the
point of completing his ruin, when his moft formidable
enemy, the emprefs of Ruftia, died, January 5. 1762;
George II. his only ally, had died on the 2jth of Oc-
tober 1760.

The deaths of thofe illuftrious perfonages were fol-
lowed by great confequences. The Britilh miniftry
of George III. fought to finilh the war ^vith honour,
and the new^ emperor of Ruflia recalled his armies.
His PruiTian majefty was, notwithftanding, fo very
much reduced by his lolTes, that the emprefs queen.

probably, would have

fileted his deflru6lion, had

it not been for the wife backwardnefs of other Ger-
man princes, not to annihilate the houfe of Branden-
burg. At firft the emprefs queen rejefted all terms
propofed to her, and ordered 50,000 men to be added
to her armies. The vifibie backvvardnefs of her gene-
rals to execute her orders, and new fucceffes obtained
by his Prutfian majefty, at la^i prevailed on her to agree
to an arraiftice, which w.is foon followed by the tfeaty
of Hubcrtftjurgh, which fecured to his PrulTian majefty
the poffcftion of Silefia. Upon the death of the empe-
ror her hufband, in 1765, her fon Jofeph, who had
been crowned king of the Romans in '-"64, faccecded
him in the empire.

This prince Ihowed an active and reftlefs dlfpo- Gei;
iition, much inclined to extend his territories by con-
queft, and to make reformations in the internal policy
ot his dominions, yet without taking any proper me-
thods for accomplilhing his purpofes. Hence he was
almoft always dilappointed •, infomuch that he wrote
for himfelf the follov\ing epitaph : " Here lies Jofeph,
unfortunate in all his undertakings." In tlie year 1788,
a war commenced betwixt him and the king of Pruffia ;
in which, notwithftanding the impetuous valour of that
monarch, Jofeph ai5led with fuch caution that his ad-
verfary could gain no advantage over him ; and an ac-
commodation took place without any remarkable ex-
ploit on either fide. In 1781 he took the opportunity
of the quarrel betwixt Britain and the United Provin-
ces, to deprive the latter of the barrier towns which
had been fecured to them by the treaty of Utrecht.
Thefe indeed had frequently been of great ufe to the
houfe ot Auftria in its ftate of weaknefs ; but Joiepb,
conicious of hij own Ihcngth, looked upon it as dero-
gatory to his honour to allovv fo many of his cities to
remahi in the hands of foreigners, and to be garrifoned
at his expence. As at that time the Dutch were unable
to relift, the imperial orders for evacuating the barrier
towns were inftantly complied with ; nor did the court
of France, though then in friendlhip with Holland,
make any offer to interpofe. Encouraged by this fuc-
cefs, Jofepli next demanded the free navigation of the
Scheldt ; but as this ivould evidently have been very
detrimental to the commercial intcrefts of Holland, a
flat refufal was given to his requifitions. In this the
emperrr was much difappointed ; having flattered him-
felf that the Hollanders," intimidated by his power,
would yield the navigation of the river as eafily as they
had done the barrier. Great preparations were made
by the emperor, which the Dutch, on their part, feem-
ed determined to refift. But while the emperor appear-
ed fo much fet upon this acquifition, he fuddenly aban-
doned the projeft entirely, and entered into a new
fcheme of exchanging the Netherlands for the duchy of
Bavaria. This was oppofed by the king of Prulua ;
and by the interference of the court of France, the em-
peror found himfelf at laft obliged alfo to abandon his
other fcheme of obtaining the navigation of the Scheldt.
A treaty of peace was concluded, under the guarantee
of his moft Chriftian majefty. The principal articles
were, that the ftates acknowledged the emperor's fove-
reignty over the Scheldt from Antwerp to the limits of
Seftingen ; they agreed to demolifti certain forts, and
to pay a confiderable fum of money in lieu of fomc
claim? which the emperor had on Maeftricht,- and by
way of indemuiiication for laying part of his territories
under water.

The treaty with the Dutch was no fooner concluded
than a quarrel with the Turks took place, which ter-
minated in an open war. It does not appear that the
emperor had at this time any real provocation, but
feems to have acted merely in confcquence of his en-
gagements ivith Ruflia to reduce tlie dominions of the
Grand Signior. All thcfc foreign engagements, how-
ever, did not in the leail retard the progrefs of reforma-
tion which the emperor carried on throughout his do-
minions with a rapidity fcarcely to be matched, and
which at laft produced the revolt of the Auftrian Ne-
therlands. In the courfe of his labours in this way, a
complete

G E R

[ 685 ]

G E R

Ckrmany. complete code of LnvsMvas compiled. Thefe wete at
'^'v^— firfl greatly commended for their humanity, as exclud-
ing almoft eiuireiy every fpecies of capital pimiiliment ;
yet, when narrouly conlidered, the commutations were
found to be fo exceedingly fevere, that the moit cruel
death would, comparatively fpeaking, have bet'i an afl
tif raercy. Even for fmalier crimes the pimifliments
were fevere beyond meai'ure ; but the greatell fault of
all was, that the model" of tiial v/ete very defe£iivc,
snd the puniflunents fo arbitraiy, that the moll perfect
and innocent characler lay at tlie raercy of a tyrannical
judge. The iunovations in ecckfiaftica! matters were,
however, mod oifcnfive to his iubjecls in the Nether-
•bnds. Among the many changes introduced into this
department, the icllowing were fome of the mofl re-
markable. ! . An abridgment of divine fervice. 2. A
total fuppreffion of vocal performers in choirs. 3. The
introduftion of the vernacular language iuftead of the
Latin in adminillering the facraments. 4. The prohi-
bition of chanting hyinns in private houfes. 5. The
fuppreffion of a great nur' ber of religious houfes, and
the reduction of the number of the clergy. 6. The to-
tal abolition of the papal fupremacy throughout the im-
perial dominions. The fame fpirit of innovation dif-
played itielf even in the molt minute matters. Many
favours were bellowed upon the Jews ; and in 1786 the
emperor wrote with his ov\ti hand to the dltlerent han-
dicraft and trading corporations in Vienna, requelting
that their youths miglit be received as apprentices in
that city. Severe laws againlt gaming were enacled
and put in execution with equal rigour. Heavy reHric-
tions were al fo laid on all the focieties of free mafons in
Genuany, while thofe In the Netherlands were totally
fupprelled.

The great number of Iimovations in religious mat-
ters were highly rcfented by the inhabitants of the Ne-
therlands, who have always been remarkable for their
attachment to the Roraiih religion in its nioSt fuperfti-
tious form. Indeed the alterations in the civil confli-
tution were fo great, that even thofe who were leafl bi-
gotted in this relpecl began to fear that their liberties
were in danger, and an univerfal diiTatisfaflion was
excited. The emperor behaved at firil in a very
haughty manner, and refufed to yield the fmalletl point
to the folicltations of his' fubjects. Finding, liow-
ever, that a general revolt was about to take place,
and being unable at that time, on account of the Turk-
ilh war, to fpare fuch a force as woiild be neceflary to
reduce the provincfs to obedience, he thought proper, in
the autumn of 1787, to proraife a rcltoration of their
ancient conltitution and privileges. His promifes, how-
ever, were found to be fo delufive, and his conduit was
fo arbitrary and capricious, that in the end of the year
1789 the ftaies of all the provinces in the Auftrlan Ne-
therlands came to a refolution of entirely throwing oiF
the yoke. Articles of a federal unioii were drawn up,
and a new republic was formed under the title of the
Be/gic Provinces. 'I'he fituation of the emperor's aifiirs
at that time did not allow him to take the meafures ne-
ceflary for preventing this revolt ; to which perhaps his
his ill Hate of health alfo contributed. About the be-
ginning of February 1 790 his diftcmpcr incrcafcd to
fuch a degree as to be thought dangerous ; and continu-
ing daily to grow worfe, he funk under it oii the 20th

ofG-
' many.

of the fame month, in the 40th year of his age, and 26th r.Trinniir
of bis reign. ^— v '

The leaders of the Auftrlan revolution, however,
foon became fo liifagreeable to their countrymen, that
they were obliged to fly ; and the congrefs, which had
been ellablillied as the fuprcme legillative body, beha-
ved with fuch tyranny, that tiity became generally dc-
tcded. Meantime, the late emperor was fuccccdcd
by his brother Eeter Leopold .lofcph, grand duke of
Tufcany ; under whofe adminillration matters l;ave
taken a more favourable turn. By his wifdom, mode-
ration, and humanity, he has already in a great nieafure
retrieved the bad confequences of his predecefibr's con-
du<Et, having made peace with the Oltomaili:, and re-
gained the allegiance of the Netherlands; and upon the
whole feeras to be actuated not more by a fenfe of his
own rigl'.ts, than by a regard to the rights and happinejs
of his fubjecls.

At prefent, Germany is bounded on the north by
the Baltic fea, Denmark, and the German ocean ;
on the call, by Pruflia, Hungary, and Poland ; and on
the well, by the Low Countries, Lorrain, and Franche
Compte : (o that it now comprehends the P<datinate of
Cologne, Triers, and Liege, which formerly belonged
to the Gauls ; and is difmembered of Friefland, Gronin-
gen, and OverylTel, which are now incorporated with
the Low Countries. jj

Since the time of Charles the Great, this country has Situation,
been divided into High and Low Germany. The firlt^xtont.Scc.
comprehends the Palatinate of the Rhine, Franco
Suabia, Bavaria, Bohemia, Moravia, Aultria, Carm-
thia, Carniola, Stiiia, the Swifs, and the Grifons. The
provinces of Low Germany are, the Low Country of
the Rhine, Trici's, Cologne, Mentz, Weltphalia, HelTc,
Brunfwick, Mifnia, Luiatia, High Saxony upon the
Elbe, Low Saxony upon the Elbe, Mecklenburg, Lu-
nenburg, Brandenburg, and Pomerania. 52

Monarchy was firit eftablilhed in Germany by Clo-Con"^''"-
dovick : after him Charlemagne extended his power ''"'•''''
and his dominions ; and fo great had the empire be-
come, that during his reign, and that of his fon, go-
vernment was adminiftered in the provinces by perfons
vefled with power for that purpofe under the title of
Dukes. In the diltritls of thefc provinces, jullice was
diltributed by a comes or count, which oificer \vas in
Germany called Graf. Eat from their courts lay an
appeal to that of the emperor, before a prefident llyl^i
Comes Palatitius, that i^, " Count Palatine, or of tiie
palace," in German denominated Pfahgraf. The
frontiers or marches ^vere gevcrned by a marquis,
ftyled by the Germans Markgraf, firailar to our lord
warden. Generally the centre of the empire was ruled
by an officer who polTclTed a fimilar poivcr, but a greater
extent of dominion, than the Grave, under the title of
Landgrave. Towns and caftles, which were occafion-
ally honoured with the refidencc of the emperor, were
governed by a Eurggraf. It m.iy be remarked, that
the fignification of the above-mentioned titles, and the
extent of power wliich they conferred upon tlie perfons
honoured with fhem, differ aqccrding to the fuccclRve
ages and the gradual devclopemcnt of the German con-
ltitution.

By rcafon of family broils in the iraperipl houfc, auj.
civil wars in their dominions, the dignity of the fovc-

G £ Tx

I 6^5 ] G E II

burg as grand chamberlain. T-he number originally
was leven, but the emperor Leopold created the duke
of Lunenburg, ancellor to our prefent Britifli fove-
reign, an elector ; to whom the poft of arch-treafurer
\f2S afterwards given •, and thus Hanover forms the
eitjhth electorate. But this number cannot be increa-
fcd by the emperor without a previous election by the
electors themfelves ; who, thus capable of elefting and
of being elected, may ftyle themfelves Cow//>erantes; and
they e.xcrcife part of the imperial authority, if a vacan-
cy of the throne happen. But when or before this E

• reign was deprefled, and a new forui in the govern-
^ ment raifed up. The dukes exalted themfelves above

the power of the emperor, and fecured for their fons a

lucceirion to their greatnefs ; while the intereft of

the fovereign, in order to ftrengihen the bond of par-

fonal attachment, ratified to others and their defcend-

ants that fway which had been formerly delegated

and dependant on his will. Hence arofe the modern

conftitution of diftinft principalities, acknowledging

one head in the perfon of an emperor. But (hortly

after the eleftion of Conrade duke of Franconia to the

throne, this new-gained authority of the princes be- occurs, the eleflion of the emperor is proceeded to af- '''^ '^"U"-'

Of the
tors.

came doubtful. However, after mod violent dilhirb-
aiices and confufions, the regulations yielded to by
Albert n. and his fuccelTors, particularly by Frede-
rick HL laid the foundation of the German conftitu-
tion ; but the power and form of uhich were after-
wards improved by Ma-xiinilian. Before Charles V.
mounted the throne, on the death of Maximilian, the
electors formed a bulwark againft the Imperial power,
by an inftmment called the capitulation i to which ar-
ticles of government he and all emperors elefted fince
have fwom, previous to their invefliture with the Impe-
rial dignity.

When the German monarchy received an eleftive
form, the right of eleftion was not limited to the great
officers of ftate, for other princes participated of this
privilege. But the empire being governed by four
dukes, the princes under their authority, in order to

ter the foUou'ing manner : The eleflor o/ Mentz, be-
fore the lapfe of a month after the death of the empe-
ror, fummons, as great chancellor of the empire, the
reft of the electors to attend on fome fixed day v,-ithin
the fpace of three months from the date of the fummons.
The cleftors generally fend their ambaffadors to the
place of eleftion, which is held at Frankfort on the
Mayne ; but faving the right of the city of Frankfort,
it may be held elfewhere.

When the diet of eledors is affembled, they proceed
to compofe the capitulation, to which the emperor
when elected is to fwear. The capitulation being ad-
julted, the eleilor of Mcntz appoints a day for the
election. When this day arrives, the gates of the city
are ihut, and the keys delivered to the elector of Mentz.
The eleftors or their ambaffadors, Proteftauts except-
ed, repair in great pomp to mafs ; and after its cele-

court their favour, gave to them the difpofal of their bration they take a folemn oath to choofe, unbi iiTed

votes, and of thofe of their vaffals. The three arch
billiops alfo, who were neceffarily prefent at the coro-
nation, obtained the eleftoral dignity. However, be-
side this origin of the modern elettors, the high fta-
tions about court procured their pofleffors an influence
over other members, and their general refidence there
gave them a fohd advantage in their conftant and early
prefence at the diet of eleftion. For in times of turbu-
lence feveral emperors were elefted, when the princes had
not an opportunity to attend. And hence fprung up
a faniSion to that right, which the high officers of the
houfehold had affumed, of electing without any con-
fultation of the other members of the empire. Pope
Gregory X. too, either conceivjjig that they did pof-
fefs, or willing that they ibould acjuire, this right, ex-
horted them in a bull to terminate the troubles of Ger-
many by electing an emperor. And fince that period
they have been held as the fole eleflors. But the pof-
feflion of this high power Tvas ftrengthened by a league
amongft themfelves, called the cleBoral union, ^vhich
received additional confirmation from the emperor Louis
of Bavaria, and was formally and fully ratified by that
famous conftitution of Charles IV. termed the goliLn
hull ; according to which, the territories and the high
ofticers by which the electoral dignity is conveyed,
muft defcend according to the right of primogeniture,
and are indivifible.

The golden bull declares the following number and
titles of the ele6tors : The archbilhop of Mentz as
great chancellor of the German empire •, the eleftor of
Cologne as great chancellor of the empire in Italy ;
the eleftor of Triers as great chancellor of the empire
jn Gaul and Aries ; the king of Bohemia as cup-
bearer ; the count Palatine as high fteward ; the duke
«f Saxony as grand marlhal ; the margrave of Brandcn-

and uninlluenced, the perfon that appears moft proper
for the imperial dignity. After this they repair to
the facrifty, where the eledtor of Mentz firft alks, if
there be any impediment known againlt their proceed-
ing at prefent, to an eleftion ; and next he obtains a
promife, that the perfon elefted by the majority fliall
be received as emperor. The declarations of the elec-
toral ambaffadors, in refpeft to thofe two points, are
recorded by two notaries of the empire. Then all
witneffes withdraw ; and the elector of Mentz colleft-
ing the fuffrages, which are -oiva voce, and giving his
own laft, the witneffes are recalled, and he declares the
perfon whom the eleftors have chofen. But the elec-
tion is not complete, nor is the new emperor pro-
claimed, until the capitulation be fwom to either by
himfelf or by his ambafladors if he be abfent. From
this time he is ftyled king of the Romans until the co-
ronation takes place ; which ceremony confers the
title of emperor. According to the golden bull, it
fhould be celebrated at Aix-la-Chapelle, out of re-
fpeft to Charlemagne, who relided there ; but fa\'ing
the right to Aix-la Chaplle, it may take place elfe-
where. The coronation is performed by the archbiltiop
of Mentz or eleftor of Cologne. And, when he is
feated on his throne, the duke of Saxony delivers in-
to his hand the fword of Charles the Great, with
which he makes fome knights of the holy Roman em-
pire, and is alfo obliged to confer that honour upon
fuch others as are nominated by the rcfpeftive elec-
tors. When he proceeds to dinner in the great hall,
he is feated at a table elevated two fteps higher than
that of the eleftors, and is ferved by counts of the em-
pire. The eledtors, each of whom has alfo his table,
are attended by the gentlemen of their refpective
courts. Thefe eleftors, who affift perfoually at the ce-

G E R [ 687

reracny, fit zr.i er.t st their own tables ; but ihofc who ai
are reprclented by ainbalTadors have only their tables
covered out of form with plates, at which the ambafla-
dors do not ik.

For the bL-uefit of the empire during the reign of
an emperor, his prefumptive fuccellor may be defied
king of the Romans. But this eleirlion confers at firil
a mere title ; for by an exprefs article in his capitula-
tion, the king of the Romans fwears not to interfere with
the government during the life of the emperor ; but on
his deceafe, the coronation confirms him emperor with-
out a fecond eleflion.

Should there not be a king of the Romans, and the
throne become vacant, the government is adniiniftered
by vicirs of the empire, who are the eletlors Palatine
and of Ssxony, as count palatine and arch-marflial of
the empire. Each has his dillricl and tribunal of the
vicariate ■, and by the golden bull it is eftabliihed, that
all afts of the vicars are valid ; but they are all fully
confirmed by the emperor ; which confirmation, by an
article of his cacitulation, he is bound to give.

There are ailb vicars of the emperor. Thefe officers
are conllituted by a delegation of the imperial power
from the emperor to any prince of the empire, when
he is unable to execute has authority himfelf. But
thefe vicars (land accountable to the emperor ; their
a£ls may be annulled and their offices revoked, all de-
pendent on the will of the emperor, and determinable
at his pleafure.

When the race of Charlemagne ceafed to govern in
Germany, the princes and Jlates alTociated to continue
the empire ; and that its majefty mij^ht be vifible, and
its laws enforced, they aereed to choofe an emperor.
From this emperor all eleitors and princes except thofe
before 1582 receive invelliture of their dominions; counts
and free cities from the Aulic council. But this in-
veftiture is no more than a fign of fubmilTion to the ma-
jefty of the empire, which is depofited in the empeior.
For as the conftituted members of the empire are de-
pendent on that colleilive union from which they de-
rive protection, they therefore fiiow this dependence on
the emperor, becaufe he reprefents the majefty of that
union or of that empire; but in all other refpecls they
are independent and free.

Thefe princes or fovereigns may even wage war
with the prince wearing the imperial crown, as pof-
fefled of other titles and dominions, unconnefted with
his imperial ftatlon. Nor can the fovereignty of any
member be affefted fo long as he remains loyal to the
empire ; which loyalty conftitutes his duty, and fecures
him its protetiion. But fhould he be guilty of any
violation againft the emperor, as liead of the empire,
fuch a crime would commit him to the punilliment of
its laws, and he would be put under the ban. For
this crime would be againft that coUeflive body of fo-
vereigns whofe union conftitutcs the empire ; and there-
fore PTiy violation of that union is juftly punifhed with
deprivation of thefe territories which render fuch fo-
verei -ns members of the empire. Nor can this pu-
niikment of fhe ban derogate from the dignity of thofe
princes who ■ derive their fovereignty from this confti-
tution, and whofe fubieftion is an afl of their own
coiifent. Houever, no member of the empire can at
prefcnt be put under the ban v/ithout being fnft heard.

} G E 11

and without the concurrence of the eleflors, princes, Otrm^r.y,^
and ftates, being previoufly obtained, '

The emperor is endowed with many pri\'ileges, and p^^.(jj pf
his power partly appears in the exercile of his referved the cmpe-
rights, or the peculiar prerogatives annexed to the im- rut.
perial dignity. He grants to princes the inveftiture of
their dominions ; but to this he is bound as the laws
direft. He confers titles, but promii'es that they
(hall be bellowed only on fuch perfons as will maintain
their dignity, and can fupport their rank. Befide, he
can give merely the title ; for the power or privilege
of prince or count can be obtained only from their re-
fpeclive bodies. But in fome inftances, even titles are
of high importance. For the defcendants of a prince
are incapable of fucceflion, if their mother be of in-
ferior rank, to their father ; but the conferring of a title
ennobles her and removes the bar, if the collateral liive
contents.

The emperor can lilfo make cities, found univer-
fities, grant the privilege of fairs, &c. He can alfo
difpenfe v.ith the tedious terms of minority, and em-
power princes to aflume at an earlier age the govern-
ment of their own dominions. He decides all rank
and precedency, and has a power of />n.'n.T /ireces, that
is, of granting for once in every chapter of the em-
pire a vacant feat. But he is not above the law ; for
eleftors have not only chofeu but depofed emperors.
However, the influence of the capitulation is to pre-
vent fuch rigorous proceedings : but Ihould the capi-
tulation be violated, the college of eleftors might pro-
ceed to remonftrancc ; and if thefe remonftrances ihould
be without efFed, in conjunftion with the diet, they
might refort to more forcible remedies. ^g

The diet is that aflembly of the ftates in which theoict of the
legiflative power of the empire refi.BS ; and is compof- empirt.
ed of the electors, princes, prelates, counts, and free
cities of the empire. It has fat fmce 1663, and
is held ufually at Ratifbon. The emperor, when pre-
fent, prefidcs in perfon ; when abfent, by his commif-
fary, v.hofe communication of propofals from the
emperor to the afferably is called the conunijpjrial de-
cree. The elcftor of Mentz, as chancellor of the
empire, is direflor of the diet ; and to his chancerv
are all things addreffed that are to be fubmjtted to
the empire ; the reading of which by his fecretaiy to
the fecretaries of the other miniftcrs at the diet is de-
nominated per /Jiciatiiram, and confthutes the form of
tranfmitting papers or memorials to the di(?latiarc ot^
the empire. — The diet is compofcd of three diftinrt
colleges, each of which has its particular dircflor.
The firil college is that of eleflors ; of which the arch-
bidiop of Mentz is director as firft'eleftor. 'J'he fecond
college is that of princes. It confifts of princes, arch-
bilhops, and bi(l>ops ; and of prelates, abbots, and
counts, who are not confidercd as princes. Each prince
fpiritual and temporal has a vote, but prelates and
counts vote by benches. Tiie prelates arc divided in-
to two benches, the counts into four ; and each bench
has only one vote. The archduke of Auftria and the
archbilhop of Saltzburg are alternately directors of
the college of princes. The third college is that oP
the free cities of the empire ; the direflor of which
is the minlfter of the city in which the diet happens
to fiu

la

G E R

lolleges, the fentiments of die

t 688 ] G E R

najoriiy In the origin of the empire, juftice was adiuiniftered G,;r

Germ-ry, In all thefe

• are coiiclufive, except in refpeft of fundamental laws, in the diftrids of the prorinces by counts, and appeals

which aftect the whole empire, or fuch matters as relate lay from their courts to that of the emperor before the , , '•'

to relisjion. In thefe they muft be unanimous. count p:Jatine. But as civil broils ihook the power ftrajjor;!:

Where religion is interelled, the proceedings are of the emperor, they interrupted alfo the courfe ofjuftice, ;•

alfo different. The colleges are then confidered as juflice. The confequent inconveniences caufcd feveral

conf'lting of two bodies, the evangelic and the catho- felicitations to be preferred from the Hates to different

lie ; and if any religious point be propofed, it muft
meet not only the unanimous concurrence of the pro-
poling body, but muft have the majority of the other
to ellablifh it. This diftinclion arofe from a conjtmc-
tioii called the evangelic botfif ; W'hich was formed by at Worm.r
the Protedant flates and princes to guard the Pro-
teftant interefl in Germany, by \vatching over the
laivs for the fccurily of their religion, and, in cafe
of violation, by obtaining redrefs from the imperial
throne. For in any part of the empire, as in the pa-
latinate, where the coimt is a Papift and the fubjecls
are Proleftants, fliould oppreffions arife, application
ivould be made to the evangelic body through the di-
reftor. The elector of Saxony is direftor of the evan-
gelic body, though he is a Papift : but therefore his
reprefentations in favour of the Proteftants have more

emperors for the eftabJiihiment of a court of juftice,
which ftiould take cognizance of great as well as fraall
caufes. And at length fuch a court «vas erefted by
Maximilian I. under the title of the Imperial Chamber
in the year 1 495 j but was removed to
Spires in 15J3, and to Wetzlar in 1696, where it is
now held. The members cf this court are a judge of
the chamber and 25 aiTeffors, partly Proteftants partly
Papifts. The prefident is appointed by the emperor,
the affeflbrs by the ftates. The court receives appeals
from inferior jurifdiftions, and decides dubious titles ;
and all caufes before it between prince and prince, or
princes and private perfons, are adjudged according to
the laws of the refpeftive parties, or according to the
Imperial law. The tribunal is under the ini'peclion
of vifitors appointed by the ftates j and, during their
force ; and befide, fliould he abufe an office which in- vifitation, the fentences of the coiu-t are fubjeft to re-
vefts him with conSderable weight and influence, he viiicn. ' Appeals lie afterwards alfo from the judgment
could be infiantly deprived of it. of the vilitors to that of the diet.

The firft two colleges are Ityled fuperisr, and in ef- The emperors finding themfelves deprived of many . .-,■

feft conliitute the diet: for all points that come be- of their powers, wifhed to raife their prerogatives jii.
fore the diet, are generally firft deliberated in the col- by forming a tribunal, of which they ihould name the
lege of eleftors, and pafs from that to the college of judge, and before whom caufes in the laft refort ftiould
piinces ; in which, if any objedlion arife, a free con- come. But Maximilian forefaw, in refpeift to the
ference takes place between the direftors of each col- new tribunal, that though a confcioufnefs of its im-
lege. And Ihould they, in confequence of this free portance made the ftates ftruggle for its ereftion, the

expences of its eftablifhment would make them neglect
its lupport ; .and the event bore witnefs to his fagacity.
But when, through the omifllons and negligence of
the ftates, there happened to be a ceflation in the di-
ftribution of juftice by the Imperial chamber, he re-
vived his court of the count Palatine, or Auiic coun-
cil. And in order to gain the quiet acquiefcence of
the iuperior colleges the ftates, under the ma(k of a partition of power, and
' ' of generous moderation, he defired them to add eight
to the number of afleffors, and the fidaries of all fliould
be difcharged by him. The ftates fwallowed the bait,
but foon perceived that they had loft part of their li-
berty.

The emperor, by keeping the tribunal always open,
by filling its feats with men of firft-rate talents, and

conference, concur, they invite the third college to
accede to their joint opinion ; which invitation is ge-
nerally complied with : but fliould this college return a
refufal, the opinion of llie other two colleges is in fome
few cafes engroffed in the chancery, and delivered to
the emperor's comrailTary as the opinion of the empire.
The opinion of the third college is merely mentioned

at the clofe. Hoivever, thoug

do in effeft conftitute the diet ; yet the received maxim
h, that no two colleges conftitute a majority, that is,
the majority of voices at the diet ; nor can the empe-
ror confirm the opinion of two colleges as an opinion
of the diet. By the peace of Weftphalia, a decifive
vote was recognized as a right of the imperial cities,
V.hich the two fuperior colleges ftiould not infringe

upon ; their vote being, by the fundamental law, of by having its fentences duly and fpeedily executed.

equal weight with that of the electors and princes.

■ After a meafure is approved of by the colleges, it
is fubmitted to his Imperial majcfty to receive his ne-
gative or confirmation. Should he approve the point,
it is publiflied in his name as the refolution of the em-
pire, ^vhich ftates are exhorted to obey, and tribunals
defired to confider as fuch.

The diet not only makes and explains laws, but de-
cides ambiguous cafes. It muft alfo be confulted be-
foire vvar is made ; appoints the field raarftial who is to
command the army, and affigns him his council of
war. The diet alfo enters into and makes alliances,
but ufually empowers the emperor to negotiate them •,
and foreign ftates have their ambaffadors at the diet,
but the diet fends no minifters to foreign courts.

drew all caufes before it. The ftates remonftrated,
declaring, that the Imperial chamber ought to be not
only the fupreme, but fole tribunal of that kind. The
emperor anfwered, that he had ereiled the Imperial
chamber in confequence of their folicitations j but as
they had not fupplied the tribunal with judges, he pro-
vided for that deficiency by a conftant adminiftration
ofjuftice in the eftabliftiment of another.

The Aulic council now fubfifts with equal authority,
each receiving appeals from inferior jurifdiftions ; but
neither appealing to the other, as the dernier refort from
both muft be had to the diet. However, ^o the Aulic
council belong the referved rights of the emperor ; and
to the Imperial chamber alfo are annexed peculiar
povvcrs. The Imperial chamber fubfifts during a va-

G E H

r 689 I

G E R

cancy (jf tlie throne under the authority of the vicars
of the empire ; whereas the Aulic council does not
exill until appointed by the lucceeding emperor.

The Aulic council conlirts of a prelident, vice prefi-
der.t, and 17 alTtiTors, of whom fix are Proteftants.
The vice chancellor of the empire is alfo entitled to a
feat •, and all decrees iiVuing from the council pafs
throusjh his hands to thofe who are to execute tliem.
This tribunal obtains for the emperor, through the ap-
peals from the courts of other princes, a new authority
fce!ide that which he poflelTes from his refcrved rights ;
but elcflors and !ome princes, as thofe of Hanover,
Aullria, Brunfwick, Swedilh Pornerania, HelTe, are free
from tliis dependence on the emperor, to whofe Aulic
council their fublects cannot appeal ; nor can it take
cognizance of ecclefiallical or criminal caufes, both of
Avhich appertain to territorial julHce ; which we Ihall
prefently confider when we have furveyed the executive
inurument of Imperial juftice.

The divifion of tlie emjjire into circles is a regula-
tion coeval with the eftablilhment of the Imperial
chamber by Maximilian, in order to (Irengthen the
arm of juftice with vigour to enforce its decrees. The
original divifion was into fix circles, which are called
the ancient circles ; and are, Bavaria, Franxotiia, Suabia,
Lower Saxony, the Upper Rhine, and Weftphalia ;
but the powerful princes, who at firlt declined bring-
ing their dominions under the form of circles, were
led by a political finefle of the emperors to adopt the
re;i;ulation, and increafe the number to ten, by forming
the four new ciicles of Aurtria, Burgundy, the Eleflo-
Tate circle, and Upper Saxony.

Over thefe circles prefide directors, to whom the
tribunals of juftice commit the execution of their de-
crees. The fix old circles have two directors each,
the four new have one each. The ofiicc of direclor is
permanent and hereditary, as it belongs always to the
firlt prince in the circle, upon whom it confers high au-
thority ; for all the decrees of the Imperial chamber
and Aulic council are of no-avail unlefs the direftor tvill
execute them.

'I'he direc>ors of the circles are not only inftruments
of •• ar but of peace : for in cafe of an Imperial war,
they are to colle6> the troops of the circle ; and if any
llate or prince of their refpeftivt circles fuffeis violation
from others, they are to yield piotetTion and enforce
the peace ; or (hould there be any tun ultjou"- uprifings
of the people, 'he fupj reTTion of fuch belongs to them.

The emperor is the executive inftrument of the
whole empire ; the direftors are fuch of the conftitu-
tive parts called circles. The profpeiity and fecurity
of which being at Hake the directors, as i.refidents,
muft hold frequent diets in their refpe(5>ive circles, in
order to confult on and adopt falutary n.eafures for
their fafety and welfare ; lut as the intcrefts of thofe
near to us are generally fo in'i ately blended with our
own, that the good of either cannot be ■ urfued with-
out the mutual concurience of both, there arife ntyo-
tiations on particular points between the diets of dif-
ferent circles, which are therefore ftylc<l conftf'erate
circles; and thefe negotiations bein m .re fre'iutnt
imongft the circles of the Upper and L-,)Vvr;i Rhine,
or Weftphalia, they are denoniinat.cl the cotrefponding
circles.

EiVery prince is fbvereign m bis own country j aiid
Vol. IX. Part II.

may enter into alliances, and purfue by all political GermUny.''
meafures his own private ititerell, as otlier fovereigns """^'""'^
do; for if even an imperial war be declared, he may p,,^,^^^, ^j-
remain neuter if the fafety of the empire be not at ftake. the Ger-

Each ftate or fovereigu appoints in general three man lirni.
colleges for its government. The firft is the gekeimde- ^^^'
rath, or privy council ; the fecond is the regicnmg, or
regency ; the third the renllicamnicr, or chamber of
finances. Each of thefe has a prcfident ; and a mem-
ber of the firll college is abvays prefident of the fe-
cond.— The geheiniderath reprelents the prince, and
fupcrintends the other two. The regierung regulates
limits of territories, holds conferences with other prin-
ces, and is in moft countries a court of juftice : how-
ever, in fome flates there is alfo a court of juftice ciA-
cAjiijlitz department. And befidcs the right of confe-
rences afligned to the regiening by the fovereign, when
there are difputes between princes, there is alio an aii-
firagc, or arbitration appohited in order to decide them.
Attention muft be paid to this privilege of princes,
who muft be called on to appoint an auftrage befora
refort be had to the Imperial tribunal, but to which
there ftill lies an appeal from the judgment of the au-
ftrage. The renthcammer attends to the regulation of
domains and eftates, to the territorial revenues, and
management of the taxes.

Every fovereign or prince is arbitrary in laws of po-
licy, but not of revenue ; for no new tax or import:
can bq laid on his country without the confent of the
nobles and fubjeds. For this purpofe, on the lanS
lag, or day on which his fubjects are to be convened,
which is once in the period of four or five years, and
at no other time can he afiemble them, he calls toge-
ther the vobles and commiflaries or deputies of the
towns of his dominions. The nobles ufually attend
in perfon, but may fend reprefentativcs. To this af-
fembly the prince propofes the taxes, &c. and a majo-
rity of voices difpcfes of the meafures.

Villages, though confiderable, fend no deputies ta
this alTembly ; becaufe they are either already repre-
fented by their refpeclive lords, or becaufe they rank
too low, being in a ftate of vaffalage when compared
to towns : for their inhabitants muft mend highways,
and can be imprefled as foldicrs ; from both of which
inhabitants ot towns are exempt.

On the land tag, the refpeclive quotas alfo of each
place are fixed. In order to difcharge the prince's con-
tingent in cafe of an Imperial war.

'J'here is no fixed ('anding army of the empire ; but ^^
the various ftates furnilb their quotas purfuant to the Military
agrecFrent of 1681, when called upon by the diet in'

cafe of war, viz.

Upper Saxony
Lovier Saxony
V'pftp! alia
U pi r R'-ine
L'Hvei Rhin«
B-ryurdy
Frarlconia
A ;.>ria
Bi.. ria

SuaLiia

fozt

Hr.rfc

-

2707

1321

-

27C7

1321

- 2707

1321

-

285.^

491

-

2707

603

2707

I32I

I9C2

983

5.? '7

2521

-

'494

800

2707

I32I

Total

27,993

»>r997.

4S

The

G E R

f 69

■ The ■svholc number of forces in the fer-» ice of the feve-
rnl Geiman princes has been dated at half a million ;
odieis calculate, that the ecclefiaftical princes can fui-
niih 74,500 men, the temporal princes 379,000, and
the emperor 90,000, as head of the houie of Aulliia.
Total 543,500.

The revenue accruing to the emperor as fuch in
iime of peace, is very trifling, only about zo,ooo
crowns, being the contributions of a few imperial
towns ; but in cafe of ivar, extraordinary aids, called
Roman Mo/il/is, laid on by the diet, are contributed by
the different circles at the following rate for raifing i^
millions of florins, viz.

ri,rh,.

Xir.

Upper Saxor.y
Lower Saxony
Weftphalia

156,360
- 156,360

15
15

Upper Rhine
Lower Rhine
Burgundy
Franconia

- 101,411
105,654
156,360
J13.481

30

5
'5

Auftria
Bavaria

306,390
91,261

20
J

Suabia

156,360

31

BroHuc-
tions and
cpromerce

Total 1,499,997 40

The aftual revenue of all Germany lias been calculated
at nearly i8,000,oool. fterling, or 100 millions of dol-
lars.

From the great extent of the empire, every variety
of foil is to be met with ; but it is upon the whole
more fertile than otherwife. The middle parts are
mod productive in corn and cattle ; the fouthern abound
ivith excellent wines and fruits. The northern parts,
from their coldnefs, are rather unfavourable to vege-
tation ; however, agriculture throughout improves ex-
ceedingly. Their mines, though early explored, ftill
continue great fources of wealth. They produce, ex-
cepting tin; almoft every mineral. Of quicklilver, one
jiaine alone is computed to yield 50,000 pounds weight
a-year. They furnllh the finell lort of clay for porce-
lain, and have excellent and extenlive fait works.

From the central fituation of Germany, its com-
merce with the red of Europe is very extenfive. Its
minerals are decidedly the firlt native articles for trade;
after >»hich its medicinal waters, fait, hemp, flax, linen,
filk, wines, fruits, corn, cattle, iUiffs, cloths, timber,
poj-celain, wrought iron and Heel, drugs, oil, and co-
lours, are the principal. The artizans furnilhed by
the revocation of the edift of Nantz, enable Gei-many
\\o longer to (land in need of the wrought filks of other
countries. Great commercial fairs ftill exill in Ger-
many, and it is confidered upon the whole that the
balance of trade is in its favour.

With regard to the charafter of the ancient Ger-
mans, they, are defcribcd to us by the Greek and Ro-
man writers as refemhling the Gauls ; and differing
from otlier nations by the largcnefs of their ftature,
ruddy complexion, blue eyes, and yellow bufliy hair,
hanjjlity and threatening looks, ilrong conftitutions,
and being proof againft hunger, cold, and all kinds of
llBrdihip.

Their native difpofition difplayed itfelf cliiefly in
•>beir martial genius, agd in tbeir fingulai fidelity.

yO ] G E R

The former of thefe tiiey did indeed carry to fuch an Garmar

excefs as came little Ihort of downright ferocity ; v—

but, as to the latter, they not only valued themfelves
highly upon it, but -ivcre greatly elleemed by other
nations for it ; infomuch that Auguflus, and feveral
of his fucceffors, committed the guard of their per*
ions to theiia, and ahnoll all other nations either court-
ed their frjendfliip and alliance, or hired them as auxi-
liaries ; though it muft be owned, at the fame time,
that their extreme love of liberty, and their hatred of
tyranny and oppreffiou, have often hurried them t4
treachery and murder, efpcci;;lly when ihev have
thought themfelves ill ufed by thofe who hired them j
for in all fuch cafes they were eafily ftirred up, and
extremely vindittive. In other cafes, Tacitus tells us,
they were noble, magnanimous, and beneficent, with-
out ambition to aggrandize their dominions, or invad-
ing thole from whom they received no injury ; rather
choofing to employ their llrength and valour defenlive-
ly than offenfively ; to preferve their own, than to ra-
vage their neighbours.

Their friendlhip and intercourfe was rather a com-
pound of honeft bluntnefs and hofpitality, than of
vnt, humour, or gallantry. All llrangers were fure
to meet with a kind reception from them to the ut-
moft of their ability : even thofe ^vho \vere not in a
capacity to entertain them, made it a piece of duty
to introduce them to thofe who could ; and nothing
was looked upon as more fcandalous and deteftable,
than to refufe them either the one or the other. They
do not feem, indeed, to have had a talle for grand and
elegant entertainments ; they affefled in every thing,
in their houfes, furniture, diet, &.c. rather plainnefs
and iimplicity, than fumptuoufnels and luxury. If
they leanied of the Romans and Gauls the ufe of money,
it was rather becaul'e they found it more convenient
than their ancient way of bartering one commodity for
another ; and then they preferred thefe ancient coins
which had been (lamped during the times of the Ro-
man liberty, efpecially fuch as were either milled or cut
in the rims, becaufe they could not be fo eafily cheated
in them as in fome others, which were frequently no-
thing but copper or iron plated over with filver. This
laft metal they likewife preferred before gold, not
becaufe it made a greater ihow, but becaufe it was more
convenient for buying and felling : And as they be-
came in time more feared by, or more ufeful to, the
Romans ; fo they learned how to draw enough of it
from them to fupply their whole country, befides what
flowed to them from other nations.

As they defpifed fuperfluities in other cafes, fo
they did alfo in the connubial way : every man was
contented with one wife, except fome few of their
noble"., who allowed themfelves a plurality, more for
ihow than pleafure j and both were fo faithful to each
other, and chafte, true, and difmterefted, in their
conjugal affeftion, that Tacitus prefers their manners
in this refpeft to thofe of the Romans. The men
fought not dowries from their wives, but bcflowed
them upon them. Their youth, in tho(c cold climes,
did not begin fo foon to feel the war.rith of love as
they do in hotter opes : it was a common rule with
them not to marry young ; and thofe were moft
efteemed who continued longeft in celibacy, becaufe
they looked upon it as an efiedlual means to make

tbeia

G E R

Ccrmary tliem grow tall and ftrong ; and to marry, or be con-
^^^■'~~~ cerned »suh a woman, before tliey were full 20 years
old, was accounted lliamcful wantonr.efs. The wo-
men fliared with their hufbands not only the care
of the family, and the education of their children,
but even the hardlhips of war. They attended them
in the field, cooked the victuals for them, drefled
their wounds, llirred them up to fight manfully againll
their enemies, and fometimes have, bv their courage
and bravery, recovered a viclory ^vhen it was upon
the point of being fnatched from them. In a word,
they looked upon fuch conilant attendance on them,
not as a fervitude, like the Roman dames, but as a
duty and an lionour. But what apnears to have been
ftill a harder fate upon the ancient German dames
was, that their great Odin excluded all tliofe from
his valh.alla or paradife, who did not, by fome violent
death, follow their deceafed huthands thither. Yet
notwithftanding their having been anciently in fuch
high repute for their wifdom and fuppofed fpirit of
prophecy, and their continuing fuch faithful and ten-
der helpmates to their hufbands, they funk in time fo
low in their efteem, that, according to the old Saxon
law, he that hurt or killed a woman was to pay but
half the fine that he fliould have done, if he had hurt
55 or killed a man.
^^.r func- xhere is Scarcely any one thing in wluch the Ger-
mans, though fo nearly allied in moft of their other
cuftoms to the Gauls, were yet more oppollte to them
than in their funerals. Thofe of the latter were per-
formed \<-ith great pomp and profufion ; thofe of the
fcyraer were done with the fame plainnefs and fimplicity
which they obferved in all other things j the only gran-
deur they aflFefted in them was, to burn the bodies of
their great men with fome peculiar kinds of wood j but
then the lineral pile was neither adorned ^vith the clothes
and other fine furniture of the deceafed, nor perfumed
with fragrant herbs and gums : each man's armour,
that is, his fword, fliield, and fp^ar, were flung into
it, and fometimes his riding horfe. The Danes, in-
. deed, flung into the funeral pile of a prince, gold,
filver, and other precious things, which the chief
mourners, who walked in a gloomy guife round the
fire, exhorted the byftanders to fling liberally into it
in honour of the deceafed. They aft nvards depofited
their afliet in urns, like the Gauls, Romans, and other
nations ; as it plainly appears, from the vaft numbers
which have been dui; up all over the country, as well
as from the fundry dilTertations which have been writ-
ten upon them by feveral learned modern? of that na-
tion. One thing we m.-y obferve, in general, that
wliatever facrifices they offered for their dead, whatever
prefents they made to them at their fnnenls, and
whatever other fuperftitious rites they mi^ht perform
at them, all was done in confequence of thofe excel-
lent notions v.hich their ancient religion had taught
them, the immortality of the foul, and the blifs or mi-
34 fery of a future life.
Their belief It is impoflible, indeed, as they did not commit any
of a future thing to writing till very lately, and as none of the an-
cient writers have given us any account of it, to guefs
no%v foon the belief of their great Odin, and his para-
dife, was received among them. It may, for aupht
*fe know, have been older than the timf s of Tacitus,

[ ^91 ]

G E R

r.'id he l.svo known nothing of it, by rCalon of tricir Germ'.nV.
fcrupulous care in concealing their religion from ftran- — v~— '
ger-; : but as they conveyed their doclrines to r.ollerity
by fongs and poems, and moft of the northern poets
tell us that they have drawn their intelligence from
thofe very poems which were dill preferved among
them ; ;ve may rightly enough fuppofe, that ^vhatever
dotlrines are contained in them, were formerly profc-IT-
ed by the generality of the nation, efpecially fmce we
find their ancient practice fo exadly conformable to it.
Thus, fince the fureft road to this paradi-fe was, to
excel in martial deeds, and to die intrepidly in the
field of battle ; and fince none were excluded from it
but bafe cowards, and betrayers of their country ; it is
natural to think, that the iignal and excelTivc bravery
of the Germans flowed from this ancient belief of
theirs : and, if their females were fo brave and faithfvil
as not only to fliare with their hulbands all the dangers
and fatigues of war, but at length to follow them by a
voluntary death, into the other world ; it can hardly
be attributed to any thing elfe but a ftrong perfuafion
of their being admitted to live uith tliem in that place
of blifs. This belief, therefore, whether received ori-
ginally from the old Celtcs, or afterwards taught them
by the fince deified Odin, feems, from tlieir general
praftice, to have been univerfally received by all the
Germans, though they might differ one from another
in their notions of that future life.

The notion of a future happinefs obtained by mar-
tial exploits, efpecially by dying fword in hand, made
them bewail the fate of thofe who lived to an old age,
as dilhonourable here, and hopelefs hereafter : upon
which account, they had a barbarous way of fending
them into the other world, willing or not willing.
And this cuftom lafted feveral ages after their receiving
Chriliianity, efpecially am.ong the Pruffians and Veni-
di 5 the former of «hom, it feems, defpatched by x
quick death, not only their children, the fick, fervants,
&c. but even their parent-;, and fometimes themfclves :
and among the latter we have infiances of this horrid
parricide being praflifed even in the beginning of the
1 4th century. All that need be added is, that, if thofe
perfons, thus fuppofed to have lived long enough, either
defired to be put to deatli, or at leafl feemcd cheerful-
ly to fubmit to what they knew they could not avoid,
their exit was commonly preceded with a fad, and their
funeral with a feafl ; but if they endeavoured to flmn it,
as it fometimes happened, both ceremonies were per-
formed with the deepeft mourning. In the former, they
rejoiced at their deliverance, and being admitted iito
blifs ; in tiie latter, they bewailed their cowardly exr
eluding themfelves from it. Much the fame thing was
done towards thofe wives who betrayed a backward- '
ne''s to folloiv their dead hufbands. ,

We muft likewife obferve, that. In thefe funerals, asR.r[nirlt.
well a? in all their other fcafls, they were famed for abl- for

drinking to txccfs ; and one may fay of them, above '""^"'
all the other dcfcendants of the ancient Celtes, that'*'^' *
tb-ir hofpitality, banouets, &c. conlifted much more
in the quantity of (Ironv liquors, th.in m the elegance
of eating. Beer and llrong mead, wMch were their na-
tural drink, were looked upon as the chief promoters of
hpn.Iih. (lienp'h, fertility, and b'avery ; upon which
account^ they made no fTuole to indulge theniliclves to
4 S 2 the

S»

G E R [69

Germany, tne utmoft in them, not only in their ftafts, and efpe-

'^ cial'iy before an engagement, but even in their common

.5 meals.

C!i,nac1er The modern Germans in their perfons are tall and

of tl.e TOO- firong built. The ladies have generally fine complexions ;

" '^"' and i'ome of them, efpecially in Saxony, have all the

delicacy of features and ihape that are lb bewitching in

a certain illand of Europe.

Jjoth men and women affefl rich dreffes, ■which in
fiifl.ion are tlie fame as in France and England ; but
the better fort of men are excelfively fond of gold and
lilver lace, efpecially if they are in the army. The la-
dies at the principal courts differ not much in their
drefs from the French and Englifli, only they are not
fo exceflively fond of paint as the former. At fome
courts they appear in rich furs ; and all of them are
loaded with jewels, if they can obtain them. The fe-
male part of the burghers farriilies, in many German
towns, drefs in a very different manner, and fome of
them inconceivably fantaftic, as may be feen in many
prints publiihed in books of travels ; but in this re-
ipecl they are gradually reforming, and many of them
make quite a different appearance in their drefs from
ivhat they did 30 or 40 years ago. As to the peafan-
try and labourers, they drefs as in other parts of Eu-
rope, according to their employments, conveniency,
and opulence. In Weflphalia, and moft other parts of
Germany, they fieep between two feather beds, or ra-
ther the upper one of down, with flieets ftretched to
them, which by ufe becomes a very comfortable prac-
tice. The moft unhappy part of the Germans are the
tenants of little needy princes, who fqueeze them to
keep up their own grandeur ; but, in general, the cir-
cumllances of the common people are far preferable to
thofe of the French.

Tlie Germans are naturally a frank, honeft, hofpi-
table people, free from artifice and difguife. The
higher orders are ridiculoufly proud of titles, anceftry,
and (hoiv. The Germans, in general, are thought to
vant animation, as their perfons promife more vigour
and activity than they commonly exert even in the
field of battle. But when commanded by able gene-
rals, efpecially the Italians, fuch as Montecuculi and
Prince Eugene, thev have done great things, both
againll the Turks and the French. The Imperial arms
have feldom made any remarkable figure againft either
of thofe tivo nations, or againit the Swedes or Spaniards,
when commanded by German generals. This polTibly
might be owing to the arbitrary obftinacy of tlie court
of Vienna ; for in many wars the Auftrians have exhi-
bited prodigies of military valour and genius.

Induftry, anplication, and perfeverance, are the
great char^fteriftics of the German nation, efpecially
the mechanical part of it. iTieir ^vorks of art would
be incredible were they not vifible, efpecially in watch
"and clockmaking, jeuellery, turnery, fculpture, draw-
ing, painting, and certain kinds of architefture. The
Germans have been charged with intemperance in eat-
ing and drinking ; and perhaps not unjul\ly, owing
to the vaft plenty of their country in wine and pro-
vifions of every kind. But thofe practices feem now
to be wearing out. At the greateft tables, though
the guefts drink pretty freely during dinner, yet the
i^paft is commonly fini(hed by coffee after three or
fojir^ public toads have been drank. But no people

2 ] G E R

have more feafting at marriages, funerals, and birtlr- Germn ■
days. ' w —

The German nobility are generally men of fo much
honour, that a Iharper in other countries, efpecially in
England, meets ^\•ith more credit if he pretends to be
a German, than of any other nation.

The merchants and tradefmen are very civil and ob-
liging. All the ions of noolemen inherit their faliier's
titles, which greatly perplexes the heralds and ge-
nealogifts of that country. This perhaps is one of
the reafons why the German hulbands are net quite fo
complaifant as they ought otherwife to be to their la-
dies, wjio are not entitled to any pre-eminence at the
table •, nor indeed do they fcera to affeft it, being far
from either ambition or loquacity, though they are laid
to be fome^vhat too tond of gaming. From what has
been premifed, it may eafily be conceived, that many
of the German nobility, having no other hereditary
eftate than a high founding title, eafily enter into
their armies, and thofe of other lovereigns. Their
fondnefs for title is attended with many other inconve-
niences. Their princes think that the cultivation of
their lands, though it may treble their revenue, is be-
low their attention ; and that, as they are a fpecies of
beings luperior to labourers of every kind, they would
demean themfelves in being' concerned in the improve-
ment of their grounds.

The doraeftic diverfions of the Germans are the fame Amufe-
as in England ; billiards, cards, dice, fencing, dan- mcn'.s,
cing, and the like. In fumraer, people of fadiion re-
pair to places of public refort, and drink the waters.
As to their field diverfions, belides their favourite one
of hunting, they have bull and bear baiting, and the
like. The inhabitants of Vienna live luNurioufly, a
great part of their time being fpent in fealling and ca-
roufing ; and in winter, when the feveral branches of
the Danube are frozen over, and the ground covered
with fnow, the ladies take their recreation in lledges
of different Ihapes, fuch as griffins, tygers, fwans,
fcollop-fhell?, &c Here the lady fits, drelled in vel-
vet, lined ^vith rich furs, and adorned with laces and
jewels, having on her head a velvet cap ; and the
fledge is drawn by one horle. Hag, or other crea-
ture, fet off with plumes of feathers, ribands, and
bells. As this diverfion is taken chietly in the night-
time, fervants ride before the fledge with torches, and
a gentleman fitting on the fledge behind guides the
horfe. g

The Reformation firft fpread in Germany to moft Religion
advantage; and fince the religious peace of 1 555, Kml learn
there have been eftablifhed the Roman Cathohc, pre-'"2'
vaihng moftly in the fouth ; the Lutheran in the north ;
and the Calvinift, called alfo the Reformed, near tlie
Rhine. Civil wars confiderably deranged this fettle-
ment : it was, however, eftablilhed by the celebrated
peace of Weflphalia, that the religion of the Seven
States fhould remain as in 1624. The Romifti fupe-
rior clergy confift of 8 archbilhops, 40 bilhops, and
many abbots. 'J"he Proteftant clergy are governed by
conliilories under the fovereign of each ftate. The
Corpus Calho/iconim is under the diredion of the arch-
bii.':op, eltflor of Mentz ; and the Corpus Evongelico-
rum, or Proteftants, under the eleiSor-of Saxony •, who
have the care of the public concerns of their refpcclive
bodie;,

J^teratuti;

G E R

[ 693 ]

G E R

Literature is in a very advanced ftate throughout al-
molt ail Gerinany, but particularly in the Proteftant
ftates. It is but about half a century fines the German
language has been purified and cultivated ; fince which
various works of tafle and elegance, as well as iuperior
productions in the diff- nt walks of fcience, have ap-
peared in it. There are 3S univerfuics in Germany ;
19 Proteftait, 17 Cathobc, and two which partake of
both •, belides a number of literary focieties and acade-
mic inftitutions : and education in general is particular-
ly attended to even in the very loweil ranks.

We have faid nothing of the part which the Rates of
Germany, either individually or as a body, naturally
took in the late revolution in France. It would indeed
be only an unneceffary repetition of the hillory of tranf-
aftions already detailed under France and Britain. Of
the changes in the government of par'icular ftates, or
rather in the names of the rulers, we ihall fay nothing.
Thefe changes, made at the initigation of France, will
probably not fatisfy the inordinate ambition and grow-
ing power of her prefent ruler, and therefore will not
be permanent,

GERM EN, the feed bud j defined by Linnaeus to
be the bafe of the piftillum, which contains the rudi-
ments of the feed ; • and, in progrefs of vegetation,
fwells and becomes the feed velTel.

In afllmilating the vegetable and animal kingdoms,
Linnxus denominates the feed bud the ovarium or
■uteru! of plants ; and affirms its exiftence to be chief-
ly at the time of the difperfion of the male duft by the
anthera ; as, after its impregnation, it becomes a feed
veflel. See Botany.

Gi;r:\ien', by Pliny and the ancient botanifts, is ufed
to fignify a bud containing the rudiments of the leaves.
See Gemma.

GERMINATION, among botanifls, comprehends
the precife time which the feeds take to rife after they
have been committed to the foil. — The different Ipecies
of feeds are longer or fliorter in rifing according to the
degree of heat which is proper to each. Rlillet, wheat,
and feveral of the graffes, rife in one day ; blite,
fpinach, beans, mullard, kidney beans, turnips, and roc-
ket, in three days ; lettuce and dill, in four ; cucum-
ber, gourd, melon, and crefs, in five ; radilh and beet^
in fix ; barley, in feven ; orach, in eight ; purilain, in
nine ; cabbage, in ten ; hyflbp, in thirty ; parlley, in
forty or fifty days ; peach, almond, walnut, chefnut,
peony, horned poppy, hypecoum, and ranunculus fal-
calu>, in one year ; roie bulh, cornel tree, hawthorn,
medlar, and hazel nut, in two. The feeds of forne
fpecies of orchis, and of fome liliaceous plants, never
rile at all. Ot feeds, forae require to be fowed almoft
as foon as they are ripe, otherwile they will not fprout
or germinate. Of this kind are the leeds of cofiee and
fraxinella. Other', particularly thofe of the pea-bloom

flov ers, prelcrve their germinating faculty for a feries ter gender, partaking of the nature of a participle, de
of years. Mr Adanfon afferts, that the fenfitive plant
xetaini that virtue for 30 or 40 years.

Air and water are the agents of germination. The
humidity of the air alone makes feveral feeds to rife
th;!t are exroftd to it. Seeds too are obfcrved to rife
in water, without the intervention of earth ; but wa-
ter V ithcut air is infufF.cient. Mr Hombcrg's experi-
ments Qn this head arc decifivc. He put feveral feeds

under the exhaufted receiver of an air pump, with a
view to eftablilli fomething certain on the caufts of ger-
mination. Some of ihcm did not rife at all ; and the
greatell part of thofe which did, made very weak and
feeble productions. Thus it is for want of air that feeds
which are buried at a very great depth in the earthy
either thrive but indifferently, or do not rife at alL
They frequently prcferve, however, their germinating
virtue for many years ^vithin the bowels of the earth ;
and it is not unufual, upon a piece of ground being
newly dug to a confiderable depth, to obferve it foon
after covered with feveral plants, which had not been
feen there in the memory of man. Were this precau-
tion frequently repeated, it would doubtlefs be the
means of recovering certain fpecies of plants which are
regarded as loll ; or which perhaps, never coming to
the knowledge of botaniils, might hence appear the re-
fult of a new creation. Some feeds require a greater
quantity of air than others. Thus purflain which does
not rife till after lettuce in the free air, rifes before it
in vacuo ; and both profper but little, or perilh al-
together, while creffes vegetate as freely as in the open

GERONTES, in antiquity, a kind of judges, or
magiltrates, in ancient Sparta, anfwering to what the
Areopagites were at Athens. See Areopagi'S.

The word is formed of the Greek yi^ur, which figni-
fies " old man." Whence alfo the words gerontic,
fomething belonging to an old man ; and Geronicon, a
famous book among the modern Greeks, containing
the lives of the ancient monks. The fenate of gerontes-
was called ^('r//,^fl, that Is, affcmbly or council of old men.

The gerontes were originally inllituted by Lycur-
gus : their number, according to fome, was 28 ; and,
according to others, 3 2. They governed in conjunc-
tion \vith the king, whofe authority they ^vere intend-
ed to balance, and to watch over the intcrells of the
people. Polybius defines their office in few words
^vhen he fays, per ififos, et cum ipfis, omnia adminijlrari.
None were to be admitted into this office under 60
years of age, and they held it for life. They were fuc-
ceeded by the ephori.

GEROPOGON, a genus of plants belonging to the
fyngenefia clals, and in the natural method ranking
under the 49th order, Compojita-. See BoTANY Index,

GERRETZ. See Rembrandt.

G f.RVAISE, or Gkrvase, of Tilbury, a famous
Engliih writer of the 13th century 5 thus named from
his being bom at Tilbury on the Thames. He was ne-
phew to' Henry II. king of England ; and was in great
credit with Otho IV. emperor of Germany, to whom
he dedicated a Defcription of the World, and a Clno-
nicle. He alfo compofed a Hiltory of England, that
of the H'ly Land, and other works.

GERUND, in Grammar, a verbal noun of the neu-

clinabh- only in the fingular number, through all the
cafes except the vocative ; as norr, omandutn, gen. a-
mandi, dat. amando, accuf. amandum, abl. amando. The.
word is formed of the Latin gerundivus, and that from
the verb gtrere, " to he;;r."

The gerund exprelTci not only the time, but alfo the
manner, of an aftion ; as, " he fell in running pofl." —
It differs from the participle, in that it exprefles the rime,

whicii

G E S

f ^9

^vLicli ilie pniticiple does not ; and from tlietenfe pro
\iST\y fo cnlled, in that it exprefles the ma'iiier, which
the tenfe docs not. See Grammar.

GERUND A, in yJiickntGcographj, a town of the
Aufctnni, in the Hither Spain, on the fouth or rijj;lit
Ik'o of the river Sambroca. iienindcnfcs, the peop'c,
Nou' Gironnc in Catalonia, on the Ter. E. Long. 2.
35. N. Lat. 42.

GESNER, Conrad, a celebrated phyfician and
naturalift, was born at Zurich in 1516. Having fi-
nilhed his ftudies in France, he travelled into Italy,
and taught medicine and philofopliy in his qwxi coun-
try with extraordinary reputation. He was acquaint-
ed nith the languages ; and exxelled fo much in natu-
ral I iftory, that he ^vas furnamed the Tlimj of Germany.
He died in 1564, leaving many works behind him j
the principal of wdiich are, 1. A hiilory of animals,
plants, and folTds ; 2. Bihliotheca Ihiherfalh. A Greek
and Latin lexicon. This author is by Boerhaave em-
■ phatically flyled Monftrum Eriidilionis, " a prodigy of
learning." Thefe indeed (as Mr Coxe obferves in his
Letters on Switzerland) " who are converlant with the
tvorks of this great fcholar and naturalift, cannot reprcfs
their wonder and admiration at the amplitude of his
knowledge in every fpeciei of erudition, and the varie-
ty of his difcoveries in natural hiilory, which was his
peculiar delight. Their wonder and admiration is ftill
further augmented, when they confider the grofs igno-
rance of the age which he helped to enlighten, and
the fcanty fuccours he pofleifed to aid him in thus ex-
tending the bounds of kno\' ledge ; that he compofed
his works, and made thofe ifcoveries which would
have done honour to the moft enlightened period, un-
der the complicated evils of poverty, ficknefs, and do-
meftic uneafinefs."

Gesker, Solomon, the celebrated author of the
Death of Abel and maJiv other admired works in the
German language, was born at Zurich in the year
17^0. In his early years he fliowed very few figns of
fuperior abilities ; and his progrefs in the rudiments
of education was (o flow, that his mafter gave him up
as incapable of any greater attainments than writing
and the four firit rules of arithmetic. Upon this he
was placed under a clergyman in the neighbourhood,
a relation of his father's, and who Ihowed himfelf bet-
ter acquainted with the art of difcovering the natural
inclinations of his pupils. This gentleman often car-
ried young Gefner with him into the fields, where he
made him obferve the beauties o' nature ; and find-
ing; that he took greater plcafure in fuch leflbns, and
feemed to iiften to them with peculiar attention, he
occafionally repeated fome of the moft flriking paf-
fages of the ancient authors, who have written on
thefe fubje61s, in the moft agreeable and pleafmg man-
ner. By this ingenious artifice, the mind of young
Gefner began to open, and its powers X.6 expand ; and
it is, perhaps, owing to this circumftance, that he be-
came fo fond of the language of Virgil and Theocritus.
When he arrive 1 at a proper age to think of pur-
fuing fome line of bufinefs, Mr Gefner made choice of
that of a bookfeller, which was the profeifion of his
father, and in fome mcafure of his family. Of five
houfes at Zurich in the printing and bookfelling bufi-
nefs, two were occupied by Gefnc rs : one belonged
tti two brothers of that name ; and the otl-.er, that in
5

I ] G E S

which our poet had ?. Ihare, vvas^ known by the firm Gefner.
of Orel, Gifner, aiu ' Combamj. It was known alio by /""
the e.Ktent of its coireipondence, and by the choice
and elegance of the works which it gave to the public.

Thou :\\ !\Ir Gefner was a I:,ook!el!er, he did ;iot,
however, ' ::v 1 i. -■ :■'■. '■ l:;-;v:" :iy,; to tl:e drud-
pery of ■ ' f' ' ■ n. ' - V ' .' f^etly in pur-

iuin^'; \\:- \v.,^.:\'■.■ ,. ^ ,. ■>; '■" ;.,iiners never en-
vied him that time which he devoted to meditation
and to fludy. In 1752, he made a tour through Ger-
many, not fo much for the purpofe of extending his
commerce, as to lee and be acquainted with thofe au-
thors who have done honour to their courrtry. The
following circumftance, which occurred^ during this
tour, deferves to be mentioned, as it is ftrikingly cha-
racleriftic of that timidity which often accompanies
true genius. When Mr Gefeier was at Berlin, he was
admitted into a literary fociety, of which Gleim and
LfefTmg were members. Eacli of the authors ^vho
compofed it ufed to read in turn fome pieces of their
own compofition, and Mr Gefiier was very defirous of
fubmitting to thefe able critics a fmall work, which was-
his firft attempt 5 but was far from refembling thofe
poets, whom Horace and other fatirifts have ridiculed,
and who ftun every one they meet by reciting their
verfes before them. As each of the members had done
reading, Gefner was obferved to move his hand with a
kind of tremor towards his pocket, and to draw it back
again without the manufcript which he ought to have
produced. Having not as yet publithed anv things
none of the company could guefs the caufe of a motion
which his modefty prevented him from explaining.
The work which he had not the courage to Ihow, was
his fmall poem, entitled iV'if/;?, v,-hich he publiftied on
his return to Zurich in 17. '3. It was conlidered as an
original, of which no model is to be found among the
moderns ; but in the opinion of the author, it was
only a piece of imaginary painting, or, to ufe an ex-
preffion of his owTi, in one of his letters to Mr Huber
who has tranflated his works, " A caricature com-
pofed in the moments of folly or intoxication." In
this little poem he has introduced a fliort epifode on
the origin of the glow-worm, containmg a poetical'
explanation of this natural phofphorus, which has all
the beauty of Ovid's Metamorphofes without their pro-
lixity. The fuccefs of this effay emboldened the too
timid mufe of our young bookfeller, and he publilhed
a paftoral romance, called Dafi/inis, in tliree cantos.
The applaufe that was defervedly beftowcd upon this
performance induced the author to publilh, fome time
after, his Idylls and fome other rural poems in imi-
tation of thofe of Theocritus. Paftoral poetry, whicll
at this time was little known in Gcmany hut by
tranflations from foreign poets, began to find many
partizans, and to be preferred to every other kind.
Defirous, therefore, of tracing out a new path for him-
felf, our poet thought that he could not do a more
acceptable fervice to his countrymen, than to paint
the felicity of innocence and rural life, and the tender
emotions of love and gratitude. The only author
worthy of notic e who h::d jireceded Mr Gefner in this
career, was Mr Rofl of Leiplick, whofc paftoral poems
appeared for the firft time in 1 744. This writer po-
lifttcd the languatre rf the German flu'pherds ; he had
addreis enougb to unite fpirit and ilmplicity in a kind

G E S

[ <^95 ]

G E S

of wriiir.g which appears infipid nithout the former,
' and which becomes unnatural and dil'gurting if it is
too abundant. He fometimes throws a delicate veil over
thofe iir.ages which are deficient in decency, but it is
to be regretted that it is often too light. Such was
the antagoiiift agaiuil whom Gefner had to contend.
Oar poet, however, purfued a diflFerent courfe. In-
flead of placing, like Rofl, his fcenes in modern times,
he goes back with Theocritus to the golden age, that
happy age which we are fond of reviewing when our
paffions are calm, and wlien freed from thofe anxious
cares which hurry us beyond ourfelvcs, we contem-
plate amidlt tranquillity the beauties and fertility of
the countr)'. The charafters of Gefner's Idylls, there-
fore, are taken from thofe focieties %hich exJlf no
longer but in the remembrance, or rather the imagina-
tion. His ilicpherds are fathers, children, and huf-
bands, who blufti not at thefe titles fo dear to nature,
and to whom generofiiy, beneficence, and refpeft for
the Deity are fentiments no lefs familiar than love.
Thefe Idylls were the principal and favourite objeft of
his purfuit, and that part of his work which acquired
him the greateft reputation, efpecially among liis coun-
trymen. His death of Abel, which is well known, was
publillicd for the firft time in 1758. It is written,
like the reft of his pieces, in poetical profe ; and was
lb much fought after, that it went through no lefs
than three editions in the fpace of a year, without
fpeakiiig of the fpurious ones which appeared in Hol-
land, at Berlin, and in France. The French edition
■was followed by ieveral others. One came out in Ita-
lian ; another in the Dutch language ; a fourth in the
Danilh : and laftly, two in Enghfli, one of them in
profe and the other in verfe. Among the pieces which
Mr Gefner publiihed after the Death of Abel \vas his
Firft Navigator, a poem in three cantos, which many
people in Germany confidcr as his mallerpiece. He
made an attempt alfo in the paftoral drama, but not
with the fame fuccefs as in other kinds of rural poetry.
He produced likewlfe, in the fame ftyle, Evander and
Alcimne, in three acls ; and Erallus, a fmall piece of
one aft, v.hich was reprclented with lome applaufe in
Itveral focieties, both at Leipfick and Vienna.

But though poetry was Gefner's darling purfuit,
and though he enriched the literature of his country
with works which will render his name immortal, lie
did not confine himfelf to one manner of imitating na-
ture ; he in turns took up the pencil and the pen, and
his aflive genius eqmily directed them both. In his
infancy he had received a few leffons in drawing, a;id
he had afterwards purfued this ftudy, but without any
intention of becoming an artift. At the age of thirty
he felt that violent delire, which may be confidered as
the voice of genius ; and this was in fome meafure ex-
cited by the fight of a beautiful coUeftion formed by
Mr Hcidtgger, whofe daughter he had married. To
pleafe his father-in-law, he iludied this treafure, com-
pofed principally of the bed pieces of the Flemilh
ichool ; and to this new tafte he had almofl facrificed
«very other. Mr Gefner at firft veniured only to de-
lineate fome decorations for the froutilplcces of curious
books printed in his ofiicc -, but by little and little
he had the courage to make other attempts. In 1765,
be publifhed 19 landfcapes etched and engraved by him-

felf, and dedicated thera to his friend Mr W'atlet. Mr GnV.cr.
Gefner owed him this mark of rtfpeft for tlie care ,
which he took to ornament witli beautiful vignettes
Mr Huber's tranilation of his Idylls. Twelve other
pieces appeared in 1769; and after thefe attempts, Mr
Gefner executed ornaments for many works which
came from his preifes, among which were his own
works, a German tranflation of Swift, and feveral
others.

_ Were we to judge from Mr Gefner's entliufiafm for
his favourite purfuits, and from the time, and atten-
tion which he bellowed upon them, we fliould be apt
to conclude, that he found little Icifure for difcharging
his duty as a citizen. The contrary however, was
the cafe, for he palled almoft the half of his life in the
firft employments of the Hate. In 1765 he was called
to the grand council, in 1767 to the lelTer. In 176S
he was appointed baiUff of Elibach, that of the four
guards in 1776, and in 178 1 fuperintendant of waters,
which office in 1787 was continued to him for fix
years. In all thefe itations Mr Gefner difcharged his
duty with the moft fcrupulous fidelity j and died of a
paralytical diforder, lamented by his countrymen and
by thofe who had the pleafurc of his acquaintance, on
the 2d of March 1788, at the age of 56.

As a pailoral poet, Gefner undoubtedly is entitled
to a very diftinguithed rank : and we may juftly fay,
that if he has been equalled by any, he has been excel-
led by none. It is commonly believed, that paRoral
poetry is very Umited and confined ; but thofe who
read the works of Gefner will be convinced, that it is
fufceptible of much variety when treated of by the
hand of a mailer. His paftoral romance of Daphnis is
not inferior in natural fimplicity to the celebrated work
of Longus ; but it furpafl'es it far in variety of images
and incident. Eraftus and Evander are inilrudivc and
interefting poems, on account of the contraft between
the world and nature which reigns throughout them j .
and his FirR Navigator unites the mildeil philofo-
phy to all the fplendour and imagery of Fairy Land.
If we analyze his dramatic poems, we (Inll find i-^;
them interelling fidions, characlers well delineated,
and fituations replete with novelty. His language is
that of the Graces, and the chaftell ears might Msn
to the love which he has created. If he has fometimes
the humour of Sterne and Fontaine, it is without their
licentioulnefi. The feverelt tafle can find in his writ-
ings, no lacuna to fupply, no phrafe dcferving repre-
henfion, nor could a more ingenious choice of expre.''-
fions be (ubftiluted in the room of thofe which he has
adopted. — Gefner's chara£ler as a man, appears to be
no lefs amiable. In whatever point of vie.v we confi-
der him, whether as a hulband, a father, a friend, a
magiftrate, or a citizen, his virtues are equally con-
fpicuous. He was naturally of a melancholy turn, but
he was no enemy to rational and well-timed mirth ;
while the mildnefs and affability of his temper rendered
his company always engaging, and endeared him to
thofe who had the pleafure of his acquaintance. Pof-
feflfed of that noblenefs of fentiraent, united with great
modefly, which is the u!ual attendant of true genius,
he was limple in his external appearance, as well as in
his converfation. His language was lively and animat-
ed } but his rcfervc before ftrangers jrcfembled Umidity,

and

GET

[ 6g6 ]

G H E

G.-Cneiu

w

.Gelhin.

an J It \vas only in the prefence of tliofe with whom he
was acquainted, that his real character appeared in its
full luftre.

Mr Gefner's reputation and virtues were knowTi even
to the remoteft parts of Europe. The emprefs of Ruilia
Catharine II. prefented him with a gold medal as a mark
of her eftcem. Strangers of all nations gave him no lefs
fiatterins; teftimonles of their admiration ; and travellers
thought they had feen only the half of Switzerland, if
they had not been in the company of Gefner, or pro-
cured feme of his landfcapes or drawings. In this laft
way he had acquired fo much reputation, that he was
ranked among the bell; artiils of Germany ; and Mr Fuef-
lin, his countryman, who was himfelf a painter, in the
preface to the third volume of the new edition which
he publill'.ed of his ' Hiftorical effay on the painters,
engravers, architefls, and fculptors, who have done
honour to Switzerland,' gives a diilinguilhed place to
Mr Gefner, though then living.

GESNERIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
didynamia clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 4Dth order, Ferfonatce. See Botany Index.

GESSOR I ACUIM, in Ancient Geography, a port and
flation for Ihips of the Moriai in Belgica. In Ca-far's
time, according to Dio, there was no to%vn ; but Florus
fpeaks of it as one : and the GelToriacenfes Muri are
mentioned by Eumenius in his panegyric. The au-
thor of Tabula Theodofiana, commonly called Peulin-
gfr's mab, fays exprefsly, that GelToriacura was in his
time called Bononia. Now Boulogne in Picardy. E.
Long. I. 30. N. I.at. i;o. 40.

GESTATION, among phyficlans. See Preg-
nancy.

GESTRICIA, a province of Sweden, bounded by
Helfingia on the north, by the Bothnic gulf on the
eaft, bv Upland on the fouth, and by Dalecarlia on
the weft.

GESTURE, a motion of the body, intended to
fignify fome idea or paflion of the mind. It confifts
principallv in the aftion of the hands and face •, and may
be defined, a fuitable conformity of the motions of the
countenance, and of fcveral parts of the body, in fpeak-
ing, to the fubjeft matter of the difcourfe. See Decla-
mation and Oratory.

GET A, Skptimius, a fon of the emperor Severus,
brother to Caracalla. In the eighth year of his age,
he was m.oved with compaff.cn at the fate of fome of
the partizans of Niger and Albinus who were to be
executed, and his father ftruck with his humanity re-
trafted the fentence. After Severus's death he reign-
ed at Rome conjointly with his brother •, but Caracalla,
who envied his virtues and was jealous of his popula-
rity, ordered him to be poifoned ; and when tl is
could not be effefted, he murdered him in the arms of
his mother Julia, who in the attempt of defending the
fatal blows from his body received a wound in her arm,
from the hand of her fon, A. D. 21 2. Geta had not
yet reached the 23d year of his age, and the Romans
had reafon to lament the death of fo virtuou'i a prince,
^vhile they groaned under the cruelties and oppreffion
of Caracalla.

GETHIN, Lady Grace, an Englilh lady of un-
■common parts, was the daughter of Sir George Nor-
ton of Abbots-Leigh in Somerfetd.iie, End horn in
A'.t year 1676. She had all the advanuges of a libe-

ral education ; and became the wife of Sir Richard
Gcthin, of Gethini Grott in Ireland. She «as mi-
ftrefs of great accompiilhments, natural and acquired,
but did not live long enough to dilVilay them to the ,
world ; for flie died in the 21ft year of her age. She
was buried in Weftrainfier abbey, ^vhere a beautiful
monument with an infcription is ereded over her; and,
for perpetuating her memory, proviiion was made for
a fermon to be preached in Weitminfter abbey yearly,-
on Alh Wednefday for ever. She WTOte, and left be-
hind her, in loofe papers, a work which, foon after
her death, u-as methodized, and publiihed under the
title of " Rcliquice Getliinionce ; or. Some remains of
the moll ingenious and excellent lady, Grace, lady
Gethin, lately deceafed. Being a collection of choice
difcourfes, pleafant apophthegms, and witty fentences.
Written by her, for the moft part, by way of eflfay,
and at fpare hours." Lond. 1700, 4to ; with her pic-
ture before it.

GETHSEMANE, in Ancient Geography, a \-illage
in the mount of Olives, whither .Tel'us Chrilt fometimes
retreated in the night time. It was in a garden be-
longing to this village that he fuffered the agony in
which he fueated drops of blood ; and here he was ar-
refted by Judas and the reft ^vho were conduced by
this traitor. The place is by Maundrel defcribed as
an even plot of ground, not above 57 yards fquare, ly-
ing between the foot of Mount Olivet and the brook
Cedron.

GETHYLLIS,. a genus of plants belonging to the
dodecandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the ninth order Spa'/iaceis. See Botany Index.

GEUM, AvENS, or Herb Bennel, a genus of pla:its
belonging to the icoland.ia clafs, and in the natural
method ranking under the 35lh order, Senticofie. See
Botany Index.

GHENT, a city of the Auftrian Netherlands, ca-
pital of the province of Flanders, It is feated on four
navigable rivers, the Scheldt, the Lys, the Lieve, and
the Moere, which run through it, and divide it into
canals. Thefe form 26 little ifles, over which there
are 300 bridges : among which there is one remark-
able for a ftatue of brafs of a young man who was ob-
liged to cut off his father's head j but as he was going
to ftrike, the blade flew in:o the air, and the hilt re-
mained in his hand, upon which they were both par-
doned. There is a piclure of the whole tranfaClion in-
the townhoufe. Ghent is furrounded with walls and
other fortifications, and is tolera'ily ftrong for a place
of its circumference. But all the ground within the
walls is not built upon. The ftrtcts are large and well
paved, the market places fpaciou';, and the houfes built
with brick. But the Friday's market place is the lar-
geft, and is remarkable for the ftatue of Charles V.
which flands upon a pedeltal in the imperiil habit.
That of Cortere is remaikable for a fine walk under
feveral rows of trees. In 1757 a fine opera houfe
^^as built here, and a guard houfe for the garrlfon.
Near the to«Ti is a %'cry high tower, with a handfomc
clock and chimes. The great bell weighs ii,ooO
pounds.

This town is famous for the pacification figned here,
in 1526, for fettling the tranquillity of the Seventeen
Provinces, which was afterwards confirmed by ihe
king ol Spain. It was taken by Lcui» XIV. in 1678,

G-tli.V-

mane

II

G H O

C 69

who aftfnvards reilorcd it. The Ficnch took poflef-
iion of it again after the death of Charle; II. of Spain.
In 1706, it was taken by the duke of Marlborough j
and by the French in 1708 ; but it was retaken the
fame year. Lall of all, the French took it by far-
prife after the battle of Fontenoy ; but at the peace of
Aix-la-Chapelle, it was rendered back. It was alfo
taken by the French in 1 794. This is the birth-place
of John of Gaunt. It is very well featcd for trade, on
account of its rivers and canals. It carries on a great
comn-.crce. in corn ; and has linen, woollen, and filk
nianufaiSures. The number of inhabitants is about
70,000. E. Long. 4. o. N. Lat. 51. 24.

GHOST, an apparition, or fpirit of a perfon de-
ceai'ed.

The ancients fuppofed every man to be pofiTeffed of
three diiferent ghofts, ivhich after the diflblution of
the human body were differently difpofed of. Thefe
three gholls are diitinguilhed by the names of Manes,
Sfiiritur, Umbra. The manes, they fancied, went down
into the infernal region ; the fpirkus afcended to ihe
Ikies ; and the umbra hovered about the tomb, as being
unwilling to quit its old connexions. Thus Dido
(Virg. K.n. iv. 384.) threatens VEneas after death that
(lie will haunt him with her umbra, whilft her manes
rejoices in his torments below. This idea of a threefold
foul is very clearly expreffed in thefe lines, which have
been attributed to Ovid,

Bii duofunt homini: MaSF.S, Caro, Spiritus, UmBRA :
^uafuor ijla loci bis duofufcipiunt.

Terra teg!/ Carkem, tumiilum circumvolat UmBRA,
Orcus /label Manes, Spiritus ajlra petit.

The moft ftriking outlines of the popular fuperrti-
tions refpeding gholls among us, arc thus humoroufly
coUeeled by Captain Grofe in his Provincial Gloflary :
" A gholf is fuppofed to be the fpirit of a perfon de-
ceafed, who is either commilTioned to return for forae
fpecial errand, fuch as the difcovery of a murder, to
procure reftitutlon of lands or money unjuflly withheld
from an orphan or widow — or, h.aving committed lome
Injuftice whilll living, cannot reft till that is redreffed.
Sometimes the occafion of fpirits revifiting this world,
is to inform their heir in what fecret place, or private
drawer in an old trunk, they had hidden the title deeds
of the eftate j or where, in troublefome times, they
buried their money or plate. Some ghoiis of mur-
dered perfons, whofe bodies have been fecretly buried,
cannot be at eafc till their bones have been taken up,
and depofited in confecrated ground with all the rites of
Chriftian burial.

" Sometimes ghofts appear in confequence of an
agreement made, whilft living, with fome particular
friend, that he who firrt died Ihould appear to the fur-
vivor.

" Glanvil tells us of the ghoft of a perfon who had
lived but a diforderly kind of life, for which it was
condemned to wander up and down the earth, in the
company of evil fpirits, till the day of judgment.

" In moii of the relations of ghofts, they are fup-
pofed to be mere aerial beings, without fubftance, and
that they can pafs through walls and other folid bo-
dies at pleafure. A particular inftance of this is given,
in rek-ition the 27th, in Glanvil's colleftion, where one
David Hunter, neat-herd to the bifhop of Down and

Vol. IX. Part II.

7 ] G H O

Connor, was for a long time haunted by the appari-
tion of an old woman, whom lie was by a fecret ira- '
pulfe obliged to follow whenever ftie appeared, which
he fays he did for a confiderable time, even if in bed
with his wife : and becaufc his wife could not hold
him in his bed, (he would go too, and walk after him
till day, though (he fa^v nothing ; but liis little dog
was fo well acquainted with the apparition, that he
would follow it as well as his matter. If a tree ftood
in her v;alk, he obferved her always to go through it.
Notwithrtanding this feeming immateriality, this very
ghoft was not without fome fubftance ; for, having per-
formed her errand, fhe detired Hunter to lift her from
the ground ; in the doing of which, he fays, ftie felt
juft like a bag of feathers. We fometimes alio read of
ghofts ftriking ^aolent blows ; and that, if not made
Avay for, they overturn all impediments, like a furious
whirlwind. Glanvil mentions an inftance of this, in
relation 17th, of a Dutch lieutenant who had the fa
culty of feeing ghofts ; and who, being prevented mak-
ing way for one which he mentioned to fome friends
as coming towards them, was, with his companions,
violently thrown down, and forely bruifed. We further
learn, by relation l6th, that the hand of a ghoft is ' as
cold as a clod.'

" The ufual time at which ghofts make their appear-
ance is midnight, and feldom before it is dark : ihough
fome audacious fpirits have been faid to appear even by
day light : but of this there are few inftances, .ind
thofe moftly ghofts who have been laid, perhaps in the
Red fea (of which more hereafter), and whofe times of
con.lnement were expired : thefe, like felons confined
to the lighters, are faid to return more troublefome and
daring than before. No ghofts can appear on Chrift-
mas eve ; this Shakefpeare has put into the mouth of
one of his charaders in Hamlet.

" Ghofts commonly appear in the fame drefs they
ufually wore whilft living, though they are foraelimes
clothed all in white; but that is chiefly the church-
yard ghofts, who have no particular bufinefs, but feera
to appear pro bono publico, or to fcare drunken nifties
from tumbling over their graves.

" I cannot learn that ghofts carry tapers in their
hands, as they are fometimes depicled, though the
room in which they appear, if without fire or candle,
is frequently faid to be as light as day. Dragging
chains is not the faftiion of Englilh ghofts ; chains and
black vertments being chietly the accoutrements of fo-
reign fpedres fecn in .-u-bitrary governments : dead or
alive, Englifti fpirits are free. One inftance, however,
of an EngHlh ghoft dreffed in black is found in the ce-
lebrated ballad of William and Margaret, in the fol-
lowing lines :

And clay cold was her lily hand
That held her fable Jhroud.

This, however, may be confidered as a poetical licenle,
ufed, in all likelihood, for the fake of the oppofiiion of
hltj 10 fable.

" If, during the time of an apparition, there is a
lighted candle in the room, it will bum extremely blue :
this is fo univerfally acknowledged, that many eminent
philofophers have bufied themfelves in accounting for
it, without once doubting the truth of the faft. Dogs,
too, have the faculty of feeing fpirits, as is inftanced in
4 T David

G H O

r 698 ]

G H O

Ghoft. David Hunter's relation above quoted ; but in tLat cafe
"""""^ tliey ufually Ihow iigns of terror, by wliining and creep-
ing to their matter for proteftion ; and it is generally
fuppofed that tbey often fee things of this nature when
their owner cannot ; there being fome perfons, particu-
larly thofe born on a Chrillmas eve, who cannot fee
fpirits.

" The coming of a fpirit is announced fome time
before its appearance, by a variety of loud and dread-
ful noifes ; fometimes rattling in the old ball like a
coach and fix, and rumbling up and down the ftair-
cafe like the trundling of bowls or cannon balls. At
length the door flies open, and the fpeftre ftalks flowly
uo to the bed's foot, and opening the curtains, looks
ftedfaftly at the perfon in bed by whom it is feen ;
a ghoft being very rarely vifible to more than one per-
fon, although there are feveral in company. It is here
receflary to obferve, that U has been univerfally found
by experience, as well as afHrraed by diverfe appari-
tions themfelves, that a ghoft has not the power to
fpeak till it has been firft fpoken to ; fo that, notwith-
llanding the urgency of the bufincfs on which it may
come, every thing muft ftand ftill till the perfon ^afited
can find fufficient courage to fpeak to it : an event that
fometimes does not take place for many years. It has
not been found tliat female gho'.ls are more loquacious
than thofe of the male fex, both being equally reftrain-
cd by this law.

" The mode of addrefling a ghofl is by command-
ing it, in the name of the Three Perfons of the Trinity,
to tell you who it is, and what is its bufmefs ; this it
may be neceffary to repeat three times ; after which
it uill, in a low and hollow voice, declare its fatisfac-
tion at being fpoken to, and defire the party addref-
iing it not to be afraid, for it will do him no harm.
This being premlfed, it commonly entei's into its nar-
rative ; which being completed, and its requeft or
commands given, with injunftions that tliey be imme-
diately executed, it vanidies away, frequently in a flalh
of light ; i,i which cafe, fome ghofts have been fo con-
iiderate as to defire the party to whom tbey appeared
to fiiut their eyes : fometimes its departure is attended
with delightful mufic. During the narration of its
bufmefs, a ghoft mud by no means be interrupted by
rjuelf ions of any kind ;• fo doing is extremely danger-
ous : if any doubts arife, they muft be ftated after
the fpirit has done its tale. Qucftions refpeifling its
flate, or the ftate of any of their former acquaintance,
are offenfive, and not often anfvvered ; fpirits perhaps
being reftrained from divulging the fecrets of their
prifon houfe. Occafionally fpirits will even condefcend
to talk on common occurrences, as is inftanced by
Glanvil in the apparition of Major George Sydenham
to Captain Wiliiara Dyke, relation loth, wherein the
major reproved the captain for iufferinga fword he had
given him to grow rufty : faying, ' Captain, captain,
this fword did not ufe to be kept after this manner
ivhen it was mine.' This attention to the ftate of
arms, was a remnant of the major's profeflional duty
when living.

" It is fomewbat remarkable that ghofts do not
go about their bufincfs like the perfons of this world.
In cafes of murder, a ghoft, inllead of going to the
next juftice of the peace, and laying its information, or
to the neareft relation of the perfon murdered, appears

to fome poor labourer wbo knoivs none of t'le partle«,
draws the curtains of fome decrepit nurfe or alms '
woman, or hovers about the place where his body is
depofited. The fame circuitous mode is purfued with
refpedt to redrefling injured orphans or widows ; when
it icems as if the ihorteft and moft certain way would
be, to go to the perfon guilty of the injuftice, and
haunt him continually till he be terrified into a reftitu-
tion. Nor is the pointing out loft -writings generally
managed in a more fummary way ; the ghoft common-
ly applying to a third ])erfon ignorant of ^ the whole
affair, and a ftranger to all concerned. But it is pre-
furaptuous to fcrutinize too far into thefe matters :
ghoiis have undoubtedly forms and cuftoms peculiar to
themfelves.

" If, after the firft appearance, the perfons emplov-
ed neglect, or are prevented from, performing the mef-
fage or bufincfs committed to their management, the
ghoft appears continually to tliem, at firft with a dif-
contented, next an angry, and at length with a furious,
countenance, threatening to tear them in pieces if the
matter is not forth•^^'ith executed ; fometimes terrifying
them, as in Glanvil's relation 26ih, by appearing in
many formidable fiiapes, and fometimes even ftrikinj
them a violent blow. Of blows given by ghofts there
are many inftances, and fome W'herein they have been
followed with an incurable lamenefs.

" It fliould have been obfervrd, that ghofts, in deli-
vering their commilTions, in order to enfure belief,
communicate to the perfons employed fome fecret,
known only to the parties concerned and themfelves,
the relation of which always produces the eftedl in-
tended. The bufinefs being, completed, ghofts appear
ivilh a cheerful countenance, faying they ftiall now be
at reit, and will jrever n;ore difturb any one ; and,
thanking their agents, by way of reward communicate
to them fomething relative to themfelves, which they
will never reveal.

" Sometimes ghofts appear, and difturb a houfe,
without deigning to give any reafon for fo doing : with
thefe, the iborteft and only . way is to exorcife, and
ejeft them ; or, as the vulgar term is, lay them. For
this purpofe there muft be two or three clergymen, and
tiie ceremony muft be performed in Latin ; a language
that ftrikes the moft audacious ghoft Avitli terror.
A ghoft may be laid for any term lefs than Ico
years, and in any place or body, full or empty ; as, a
folid oak — the pommel of a fword — a barrel of beer,
if a yeoman or fimple gentleman — or a pipe of wine,
if an efquire or a juftice. But of all places the moft
common, and what a ghoft leaft likes, is the Red
fca , it being related, "in many inftances, that gliofts
have moft earneftly befought the exorcifts not to con-
fine them in that place. It is neverthelefs conSdcred as
an indifputable fact, that there are an infinite number
laid there, perhaps from its being a fafcr prifon than
any other nearer at hand ; though neither hiftory nor
tradition gives us any inftance of ghofts efcaping or re-
turning from this kind of tranfponation before their
time.

" Another fpecies of human apparition may be here
noticed, though it dots not come under the ftrift de-
fcription of a ghoft. Thefe are the exaft figures and
refemblanccs of perfons then living, often feen not only
by their friends at a diftance, but manv times by thcm-
' ftlves ;

G I A

C <599 ]

G I A

felve'! ; of which there are feveral inftances in Aubery's
Mifcellanies : one of Sir Richard Napier, a phyfician
of London, who being on the road from Bedfordihirc
to vifit a friend in Berkfnire, hw at an inn his own ap-
parition lying on liis bed as a dead corpfe ; he nevtr-
tHelefs went forward, and died in a fliort time : ano-
ther of Lady Diana Rich, dauj^hter of the earl of
Holland, who met her own apparition walking in a
garden at Kenfinoton, and died a month after of the
Itnallpox. Thefe apparitions are called fetches ; in
Cumberland, yufl/V^j- ; and in Scotland, ivrattli! : they
moll commonly appear to diftant friends and relation?,
at the very ini^ant preceding the death of the uerfon
whofe figure they put on. Sometimes, as in the inflan-
ces above mentioned, there is a greater interval between
the appearance and death." For -a philofophical in-
quiry into the fuLjeft of apparitions in general, fee the
article Spectre.

GIAGH, in Chronology^ a cycle of 12 years; in
ul- amons^ the TurivS and Cathayans.

Each year of the giagh bears a name of fome ani-
mal : the firft that of a moufe ; the fecond that of a
bullock ; the third of a lynx or leopard ; the fourth
of a hare ; the fifth of a crocodile ; the fixth of a fer-
pent ; the feventh of a horfe ; the eighth of a (heep ;
the ninth of a monkey ; the tenth of a hen ; the
eleventh of a dog ; and the twelfth of a hog.

They alfo divide the day into 12 parts, which they
call giaghs, and dlllinguilh them by the name of fome
animals. Each giagh contains two of our hours, and
is divided into eight kehs, as many as there are quar-
ters in our hours.

GIALLOLINO, in Nalural Hijlonj, a fine yellow
pigment, much ufed under the name of Naples Yel-
low.

GIANT, a perfon of extraordinary bulk and fta-
ture.

The romances of all ages have fiimiflied us with fo
many extravagant accounts of giants of incredible bulk
and ftrength, that the exiftence of fuch people is now
generally difbelieved. It is commonly thought, that
the ftature of men hath been the fame in all ages ; and
fome have even pretended to demonjlrate the inipofiibi-
lity of the exiftence of giants mathematically. Of
thefe our countryman M'Laurin hath been the moft
explicit. " In general (fays he) it will eafily appear,
that the efforts tending to deftroy the cohcfion of
beams arifing from their own gravity only, increafe in
the quadruplicate ratio of their lengths ; but that the
oppofite efforts tending to preferve their cohefion, in-
creafe only in the triplicate proportion of the fame
lengths. From which it follows, that the greater beams
muft be in greater danger of breaking than the lefler fi-
milar ones ; and that though a lelTer beam may be finn
and fecure, yet a greater fimilar one may be made fo
long, that it will necelTarily break by its own weight.
Hence Galileo juftly concludes, that what appears very
firm, and fucceeds very well in models, may be very
weak and Infirm, or even fall to pieces by its ov,n
weight, when it comes to be executed in large dimcn-
fions according to the model. From the fame princi-
ple he argues, that there are necelfary limits in the ope-
rations of nature and art, which they cannot furpafs in
magnitude. Were trees of a very enormous fize, their
branches vi'ould fall by their oivn weight. Large ani-

mals have not ftrength in proportion to their fizs ; and Gi.i-.r.
if there were any land animals much larger than thofe *— y~"*-*
we kno\v, they could hardly move, and would be per-
petually fubjert to the moll dangerous accidents. As
to the animals of the fea, indeed, the cafe is different j
for the gravity of the water in a great racafurc fuftains
thofe animals ; and in facl tliele are known fomctimes
to be vallly largci than the greatell land animals. Nor
does it avail againft this dotlrine to tell us, that bones
have fjmetimes been found which were luppoicd to have
belonged to giants of immenfe fize j fuch as the (kele-
tons mentioned by Strabo and Pliny, the former of
which was 60 cubits high, and the latter 46 : for lia-
turalifts have concluded on juft grounds, that in fome
cafes thefe bones had belonged to elephants j and that
the larger ones were bones of whales, which had been
brought to the places ivhere they were found by the
revolutions of nature that have happened in paft timci.
Though it muft be owned, that there appears no rea-
fon ivhy there may not have been men who have ex-
ceeded by fome feet in height the talleft we liavc
feen."

It will eafily be feen, that arguments of this kind
can never be conclufive ; becaufe, along with an in-
creafe of llature in any animal, we mull always fuppofe
a proportional increafe in the cohefion of the parts of
its body. Large works fomctimes fail when conftruft-
ed on the plan of models, becaufe the cohefion of the
materi|ils whereof the model is made, and of the large
work, are the fame ; but a difference in this refpert
will produce a very remarkable difference in the ulti-
mate refult. Thus, fuppofe a model is made of fir-
wood, the model may be ftrong and firm enough ; but
a large work msde alfo of fir, when executed according
to the plan of the model, may be fo weak that it will
fall to pieces by its own weight. If, however, we
make ufe of iron for the large work inllead of fir, the
whole will be fufhciently ftrong, even though made ex-
aftly according to the plan of the model. The like
may be faid with regard to large and fmall animals.
If we could find an animal whofe bones exceeded in
hardnefs and ftrength the bones of other animals as
much as iron exceeds fir, fuch an animal might be of a
monftrous fize, and yet be exceedingly ftrong. In
like manner, if we fuppofe the fleih and bones of a
giant to be greatly fuperior in hardnefs and ftrength
to the bones of other men, the great fize of his body
will be no objeftion at all to his ftrength. The whole
of the matter therefore concerning the exiftence of
giants muft reft on the credibility of the accounts we
have from thofe ^vho pretend to have feen them, and
not on any arguments drawn a priori.

In the Scripture we are told oi giants, who were
produced from the marriages of \\ie fotts of God with
the daughters of men\. This palTage indeed has been f S?e Ami-
differently interpreted, fo as to render it doubtful whe- </''"-j''"".
ther the word tranilated giants does there imply any
extraordinary ftature. In other parts of Scripture,
however, giants, with their dimenfions, arc mentioned
in fuch a manner that we cannot poftibly doubt j as in
the cafe of Og king of Balhan, and Goliath. In a
memoir read before the Academy of Sciences at Rouen,
M. Le Cat gives the following account of giants that
are faid to have exifted in different ages.

" Profane liiftorians have given fevcn feet of height
4 T 2 'O

G I A [ ,

to Hercules their firft herxi ; and in our days we have
feen men eight feet high. The giant who was ftiown
in Rouen in 1735, meafured eight feet fome inches.
The emperor Maximian was of that fize ; Shenkius and
Platerus, phyficians of the laft century, faw fcveral of
that ftatiire ; and Goropius faw a girl who was ten
feet high. — The body of Oreftes, according to the
Greeks, was eleven feet and a half ; the giant Galba-
ra, brought from Arabia to Rome under Claudius
Caifar, was near ten feet ; and the bones of Secondil-
la and Pufio, keepers of the gardens of Sallulf, were
but fix Indies fliorter. Funnam, a Scotfman, who liv-
ed in the time of Eugene II. king of Scotland, mea-
fured eleven feet and a half ■, and Jacob le Maire, in
his voyage to the Straits of Magellan, reports, that on
the I 7th of December 16 1 5, they found at Port De-
iire feveral graves co\-ercd with ft ones •, and ha\ing the
curiofity to remove the ftones, they difcovered human
skeletons of ten and eleven feet long. The chevalier
Scory, in his voyage to the peak of TenerifFe, fays,
that they found in one of the fepulchral caverns of that
mountain the head of a Guanche which liad 80 teeth,
and that the body was not lefs than 15 feet long. The
gi<.nt Ferragus, flain by Orlando nephew of Charle-
magne, was 1 8 feet high. Rioland, a celebrated ana-
tomift, who wrote in 1614, fays, that fome years be-
fore there was to be feen in the fuburbs of St Germain
the tomb of the giant Iforet, who was 20 feet high.
In Rouen, in 1509, in digging in the ditches near
the Dominicans, they found a itone tomb containing a
ikeletou whcfc Ikull held a bufhel of corn, and whofe
fnin bone reached up to the girdle of the tallefl man
there, being about four feet long, and confequently
the body mml have been 17 or J 8 feet high. Upon
the tomb was a plate of copper, whereon was engrav-
ed, " In this tomb lies the noble and puiffant lord,
the chevalier Ricon de Vailemont, and his bones."
Platerus, a famous phyfician, declares, that he faw at
Lucerne the true human bones of a fubjeft which mufl
have been at leaft 19 feet high. Valence in Dauphine
boafts of polTcfling the bones of the giant Bucart, ty-
rant of the Vivarais, who was (lain with an arrow by
the count de Cabillon • his vaflal. The Dominicans
had a part of the ftiin bone, with the articulation of
the knee, and his figure painted in frefco, with an in-
fcription, Ihowing that this giant was 2Z feet and a
half high, and that his bones were found in I 705, near
the banks of the Morderi, a little river at the foot of
the mountain of Cruflbl, upon wliich (tradition fays)
the giant dwelt.

"January 11. 1613, fome mafons digging near the
ruins of a caflle in Dauphine, in a field which (by tra-
dition) had long been called the g!ti;it''s field, at the
depth of 18 feet difcovered a brick tomb 30 feet long,
I 2 feet wide, and 8 feet high ; on which was a gray
llone, with the words Theutohochus Rex cut thereon.
When the tomb was opened, they found a human ike-
Icton entire, 21; feet and a half long, 10 feet wide a-
crofs the (houlders, and five feet deep from the breaft
"bone to the back-. His teeth were about the fize each
of an ox's foot, and his foin bone meafured four feet.
— Near Mazarino, in Sicily, in 1516, was found a giant
30 feet high ; his head was the fize of an hoglhead,
and each of his teeth weighed five ounces. Near Pa-
lermo, in the valley of Maz.-ira, in Sicily, a Ikeleton of

700 ] G I A

a giant 30 feet long was found, in the year 1^48 ;
and another of 33 feet high, in 1550 ; and many cu- ^
rious perfons have preferved feveral of thefe gigantic
bones.

" The Athenians found near their city two famous
fkeletons, one of 34 and the other of 36 feet high.

" At Totu, in Uoherain, in 758, was found a ikele-
ton, the head of which could fcarce be encompaffed by
the arms of two men together, and ^vhofe legs, which
they liill keep in the callle of that city, were 26 feet
long. The fkuU of the giant found in Macedonia, Sep-
tember 1691, held 210 pounds of com.

" The celebrated Sir Hans Sloane, tvho treated thi?
matter very learnedly, does not doubt thefe facts ; but
thinks the bones were thofe of elephants, whales, or
other enormous animals.

" Elephants bones may be fliown for thofe of giants^
but they can never impofe on connoiffeurs. Whales,
which, by their imraenfe bulk, are more proper to be
fubllituted for the largeil giants, have neither arms
nor legs ; and the head of that animal hath not the leaft
refemblance to that of a man. If it be true, there-
fore, that a great number of the gigantic bones ^vhich
we have mentioned ha\e been feen by anatomifts, and
by them have been reputed real human bones, the exift-
ence of giants is proved."

With regard to the credibility of all or any of
thefe accounts, it is difficult to determine any tiling.
If, in any callle of Bohemia, the bones of a man's
leg 26 feet in length are preferved, we have indeed a
decifive proof of the exiftence of a giant, in comparifon
of whom moft others would be but pigmies. Nor in-
deed could thefe bones be fuppofed to belong to an
elephant : for an elephant itfelf would be but a dwarf
in comparifon of fuch an enormous monfter. But if
thefe bones were really kept in any part of Bohemia,
it leems ftrange that they have not been frequently \'i-
fited, and particular defcriptions of them given by tlie
learned who have travelled into that country. It is
certain, hoivever, that there have been nations of men
confiderably exceeding the common ftature. Thus, all
the Roman hift&rians inform us, that the Gauls and
Germans exceeded the Italians in fize ; and it appears
that the Italians in thofe days were of much tlie fame
ftature with the people of the prefent age. Among
thefe nonhem nations, it is alfo probable, that there
would be as great differences in ftature as there are
among the prefent race of men. If that can be al-
lowed, we may eafily believe that fome of the bar-
barians might be called giants, without any great im-
propriety. Of this fuperiority of fize, indeed, the
hillorian Florus gives a notable inftance in TeutoLo-
chus, above mentioned, king of the Teutones : who
being defeated and taken prifoner by Marius, was car-
ried in triumph before him at Rome, when his head
reached above the trophies that were carried in the
iame procefTion.

But whether thefe accounts are credited or not, we
are very certain, that the ftature of the human body
is by no means abfolutely fixed. We ourfelves are
a kind of giants in comparifon of the Laplanders ; nor
are thefe the moft diminutive people to be found upon
the earth. The Abbe la Chappe, in his jouniey into
Siberia in order to obfcrve the laft tranfit of Venus,
palled through a village inhabited by people called
l-Votiacis,

I ... ^ ^ ^ r 701 ]

I Giants H'^/zari/, neither men nor women of whom were above range of columns, is,

'» Ciat'eway. ^qxh feet high. The accounts of the Patagonians alfo,
• which cannot be entirely difcredited, render it very
probable, that foraevvhere in South America there is
a race of people very conliderabiy exceeding the com-
mon lize of mankind, and conlequently that we can-
rot altogether difcredit the relations of giants handed
domi to us by ancient authors ; though wliat degree
of credit we ought to give them, is not eafy to be de-
termined. See Patagonia.

Kebe/ Gij.vTs, in ancient mythology, were the fons
of CceIus and Terra. According to Heflod, they
fprang from the blood of the wound which Coelus re-
ceived from his fon Saturn, and Hyginus calls them
fons of Tartarus and Terra. They are reprefented as
men of uncommon l^ature, with ftrength proportioned
to their gigantic fize. Some of them, as Cottus, Bri-
areus, and Gyges, had each 50 heads and 100 arms,
and ferpents inllead of leg?. They were of a terrible
afpeft, their hair hung loofe about their ihoalders, and
their beard was fuffered to grow unmoleiled. Pallene
and its neighbourhood %vas the place of their refidence.
The defeat of the Titans, to whom they were nearly
related, incenfed them againll Jupiter, and they all
confpired to dethrone him. Accordingly tliey reared
Mount OJa upon Pelion, and Olympus upon OiTa

G I A

general, from 20 to 30 feet ; Gianfs

and from thence attacked the gods with huge rocks,
fome of which fell into the fea and became illands,
and others fell on the earth and formed mountains.
Jupiter furamoned a council of the gods ; «hen being
informed that it was necelfary to obtain the alTiilance
of fome mortal, he by the advice of Pallas called up his
fon Hercules ; and with the aid of this hero he ex-
terminated the giants Enceladus, Polybotes, Alcyon,
Porphyrion, the two fons of AlcEUS, Ephialtes, Othus,
Eurytus, Clytius, Tithyus, Palla?, Hippolitus, Agrius,
Thoon, and Typhon ; the lall of whom it was more
difficult to vanquilh than all the others. Jupiter hav-
ing thus gained a complete victory," call the rebels
down to Tartarus, where they were to receive the full
punilhment of their enormous crimes : according to
the accounts of fome of the poets, he buried them alive
under Mount .^tna and different iflands.

Giants Caufeix'ay, a vaft colleclion of bafaltic pil-
lars in the county of Antrim, on the north coaft of Ire-
land. See Basalt £s.

The principal or grand caufeway confifts of a moft
regular arrangement of many hundred thoufands of co-
lumns of a black kind of rock, very hard : almoft all of
them are of a pentagonal figure, but fo clofeiy and
compactly fituated on their fides, though perfectly
diftinft from top to bottom, that fcarce any thing can
be introduced between them. The columns are of an
unequal height and breadth ; fome of the highed, vi-
fible above the furface of the ilrand, and at the foot
of the impending angular precipice, may be about 20
feet ; they do not exceed this height, at leaif none of
the principal arrangement. How deep they are fixed
in the ftrand, was never yet difcovered. This grand
arrangement extends nearly 200 yards, vifible at low
water ; how far beyond is uncertain : from its declin-
ing appearance, howc-ier, at low water, it is probable
it does not extend under water to a diftance any thing
equal to what is feen above. The breadth of the
principal caufeway, which runs cut in ojic continued

at one jilace or two it may be nearly 40 for a few dmiew
yards. In this account are excluded the broken and '~

fcattered pieces of the fame kind of coniJru-^ion, that
are detached from the fides of the grand caufeway, as
they do not appear to have ever been contiguous to the
principal arrangemeitt, though they have frequently
been taken into the width : which has been the caufc
of fuch -vild and dilUmilar reprefentations of this caufe-
way, which different accounts have exhibited. The
higheft part of this caufeway is the narroweft, at the
very foot of the impending cliff from whence the
whole projects, where, for four or five yards, it is not
above ten or fifteen feet wide. The columns of this
narrow part incline from a perpendicular a little to the
wellward, and form a flope on their tops, by the very
unequal height of the columns on the two fides, by
which an afcent is made at the foot of the clitT, from
the head of one colun)n to the next above, gratlati/n,
to the top of the great caufeway, which, at the di-
fiance of half a dozen yards from the cliff, obtains a-
perpendicular polition, and lowering in its general
height, widens to about 20 or between 20 and 30 feet,
and for too yards nearly is always above water. The
tops of tiie columns for this length being nearly of an
equal height, they form a grand and lingular parade,
that may be eafily walked on, rather inclining to the
water's edge. But from high water mark, as it is
perpetually walhed by the beating furges on every
return of the tide, the platform lowers confiderably,
and becomes more and more uneven, fo as not to be
xvalked on but with the greatcft care. At the dillance
of 1 50 yards from the chff, it turns a little to tlie ealt
for 20 or 30 yards, and then finks into the fea. The
figure of thefe columns is almoft unexceptionably pen-
tagonal, or compofed of five fides ; there are but very
few of any other figure introduced : fome feiv there
are of three, four, and fix fides, but the generality of
them are five-fided, and the fpeClator mult look verv
nicely to find any of a different conflruction : yet
what is very extraordinary, and particularly curious
there are not two columns in ten thoufand to be found,
that either have their fides equal among themfelves,
or whofe figures are alike. Nor is the compofition of
thefe columns or pillars lefs deferving the attention of
the curious fpeft.ator. They are not of one folid ftone
in an upright pofition ; but compofed of feveral lliort
lengths, curioufly joined, not with llat furfaces, but
articulated into each other like ball and focket, or
like the joints in the vertebne of fome of the larger
kind of fid], the one end at the joint having a cavity,
into which the convex end of the oppofite is exactly
fitted. This is not vifible, but by disjoining the two
ftones. The depth of the concavity or convexity is
generally about three or four inches. And what is
Hill farther remarkable of the joint, the convexity, and
the correfpondent concavity, is not conformed to the
external angular figure of the column, but exafll;/
round, and as large as the fize or diameter of the co-
lumn will admit ; and confequently as the angles of
thefe columns are in general extremely une()uat, th«
circular edges of the joint are fcldom coincident witii
more than two or three fides of the pentagon, and
from the edge of the circular part of the joint to the
'■sterior fides and angles thpy are quite plain. It is

flil!

G I A [70

Giants fUll fartlier very remarkable, likeivife, that the arti-
-auftway. dJailoiis of tho!"e joints are frequently inverted ; in
* fume the concavity is upwards, in others the reverfe.
This occafions that variety and mixture of concavities
and convexities on the tops of the columns, which is
obfervable througliout tlie platform of this caufevvay,
yet without any difcoverable dcfign or regularity with
refpeft to the number of either. The length alfo
of thefe particular Hones, from joint to joii.t, is va-
rious : in general, they are from 1 8 to 24 inches long j
and, for the moft part, longer toward the bottom of
the columns than nearer the top, and the articulation
of the joints fomething deeper. The fize or diameter
li!<.ev\-ife of the columns is as different as their length
and figure ; in general, they are from 1 5 to 20 inches
in diameter. There are really no traces of uniformity
or defign dilcovered throughout the whole combina-
tion, except in the form of the joint, which is inva-
riably by an articulation of the convex into the con-
cave of the piece next above or below it ; nor are there
any traces of a finilhing in any part, either in height,
length, or breadth, of this curious caufevvay. If there
is here and there a fmooth top to any of the columns
above water, there are others juft by, of equal height,
that are more or lefs convex or concave, -which fliow
them to have been joined to pieces that have been
waihcd, or by other means taken off. And undoubt-
edly thofe parts that are always above water have,
from time to time, been made as even as might be ;
and the remaining furfaces of the joints muft naturally
liave been worn fmoother by the conflant fridlion of
weather and walking, than where the fea, at every
tide, is beating upon it and continually removing
fome of the upper ftones and expofmg frelli joints.
And farther, as thefe columns prelferve their diameters
from top to bottom, in all the exterior ones, which
have two or three fides expofed to view, the fame may
with reafon be inferred of the interior columns whofe
tops only are vifible. Yet what is very extraordinary,
and equally curious, in this phenomenon, is, that not-
withflanding the univerfal dilTimilitude of the columns,
both as to their figure and diameter, and though per-
fectly diftincl from top to bottom, yet is the whole
arrangement fo clofely combined at all points, that
hardly a knife can be introduced between them either
on the fides or angles.

The cliffs at a great diftance from the caufeway, ef-
pecially in the bay to the eaftward, exhibit at many
places the fame kind of columns, figured and jointed in
all refpefts like thofe of the grand caufevvay : fome of
them are feen near to the top of the chff, which in
general, in thefe bays to the ealf and weft of the caufe-
way, is near 300 feet in hei<rht ; others again are feen
about midway, and at different elevations from the
ftrand. A very confiderable expofure of them is feen
in the very bottom of the bay to the eaftward, near a
hundred roods from the caufevvay, where the earth has
evidently fallen away from them upon the ftrand, and
exhiljits a moft curious arrangement of many of thefe
pentagonal columns, in a perpendicular pofition, fup-
porting, in appearance, a cliff of different ftrata of earth,
clay, rock, &c. to the height of 1 50 feet or more, above.
Some of thefe columns are between 30 and 4c feet high,
from the top of the Hoping bank below th^vn ; and,
being longeft in the middle of the arrangement, ihort-

2 ] GIB

ening on either hand in view, they have obtained the Gil
appellation of organs; fror.i a rude liker.efs in this par- Gil
ticular to the exterior or frontal tubes of that inftru- ^"^^
ment ; and as there aro few broken pieces on the
ftrand near it, it is probable that the outfide range of
columns that nov/ appears is really the original exte-
rior line, to the feaward, of this colledion. But how
far they e.^tend internally into the bowels of the in-
cumbent cliff, is unknown. The very fubftance, in-
deed, of that part of tlie cliff which projecls to a point,
between the two bays on the eaA and iveft; of the
caufeway, feems coinpofed of this kind of materials ;
for befides the many pieces that are feen on the fides
of the cliff that circulate to the bottom of the bays,
particularly the taftern fide, there is, at tlic very point
of the cliff', and juft above the narrow and highell part
of the caufeway, a long collection of them feen, whofe
heads or tops jull appearing without the Hoping bank,
plainly flio\v them to be in an oblique pofition, and
about half ivay between the perpendicular and hori-
zontal. The heads of thefe, likewife, are of mixed
furfaces, convex and concave, and the columns evident-
ly appear to have been removed from their original up-
right, to their prefent inclining or oblique pofition, by
the finking or falling of tiie cliff.

GIBBET, or GiBET, a machine in manner of a gal-
lows, whereon notorious criminals, after execution, are
hung in irons or chains, as fpeftacles in lerrorem. See
Gallows. — The %vord in French, gibet, properly de-
notes what vve call gallows : it is fuppofed to come
originally from the Arabic gibel, " mount or elevation
of ground ;" by reafon gibets are ufually pljced on hills
or eminences.

GIBBON, Edwasd, a hiftorian of diftinguifhed
eminence, was born at Putney in the year 1737. He
was the fon of a gentleman of fortune and family dif-
tinclion, who fat as a member in two feparate parlia-
ments. EdvVard when a boy, was of fuch an extreme-
ly delicate conftitution, that his life was frequently
defpiiired of. When at the fchool of VVeftminfter, his
progrefs was often retarded by repeated Ihocks of bad
health. After being for a long time under the ma-
nagement of the beft medical praiflitioners, his confti-
tution was radically changed for the better, which in-
duced his father to place him in Magdalen college as
a gentleman commoner, that he might be puftied into
manly acquiCtions. This was prior to tlie completing
of his fifteenth year. Before this time his reading had
beefi of fuch a nature as to ftore his mind with much
valuable hiftorical knowledge, although his grammati-
cal and philofophical knowledge at this time was not fo
extenfive as that of fome others at the fame period of
life. He fays of bimfelf ; I arrived at Oxford with a
ftock of erudition that might have puzzled a doilor,
and a degree of ignorance of which a fchool-boy would
have been aftiamcd. Under fuch circumllances he was
but ill prepared to receive the benefits of an univeility
education, and this was no doubt the reafon why he
exclaimed fo bitterly againft; the public and private in-
ftruclions at Oxford.

He was fond of polemical divinity from his infancy,
and during his leifure moments he turned his attention,
when fartiier advanced, to the celebrated controverly
between Papids and Proteftants ; and as he had not
then acquired talents fuiiicient to enable liim to combat

error

G I B

[ 703 ]

G I B

• error and defend the truth, he fell a victim to the fo-
• ^ j-.hirtry of the church of Rome. His father, v.ith a
v\e\v to reclaim him from the love of what he confider-
ed as the ir.oft deftruflive of all errors, fcnt him to
Lsiil'anne in S'virzerland, and put him under the care
of Mr Pavilliard, a clergyman of the Calviniftic per-
fuafion. This gentleman called his pupil Edward,
" A little thin figure, .v;ith a large head, difputing,
and urging with the greateft ability, all the beft ar-
guments that had ever been iifed in favour of Popery."
'j'he mafterly exertions of Mr Pa\-illiard, who had to
deal with a young man of fo!id reafon and matured re-
Heftion, accompli(hed the recantation of Mr Gibbon,
and he received the facrament in the Proteftant church
on the 25th of December 1754. At Laufanne, too,
he made great progrels in many branches of knowle<ige
■u-hich he had hitherto neglecled, and acquired a regu-
lar habit of ftuny. He became .maner of the French
and Latin languages, and ivas a profound logician.
He gave full fcope to the exercife of reading excellent
autliors, which was his ruling paflion. He did not
appear fond of mathematics, and therefore Toon relin-
quifhcd the ftudy of tliem. At Laufanne he fell in
love with a young lady, the daughter of a village cler-
gyman, but he was frufirated in his hopes, and the
lady became afterwards the wife of the celebrated
Necker.

On his return home in April 1 758, his fatlier re-
ceived him with every mark of tendemefs and affeflion,
and his moiher-In-law found means to conciliate his
good opinion and his confidence. It is a fingular cir-
cumftance that he (hould have taken a captain's com-
mithon in the army, a profeliion, one woi;ld have ima-
gined, for which he was very ill calculated. • Indeed
he foon evinced the truth of this, for his tent and quar-
ters were frequently encumbered with the odd furnl-
ture-of Greek and Latin authors. On the event of
peace he religned his commiffion, and paid a vlfit to
Paris in the year 1763, where he refided a few months,
and aftenvards went to Laufanne, where he remained
about a year, in order to prepare for a journey into
Italy, which he accomplillied in 1765. He thus fpeaks
on the occafion of his entering Rome : " After a lleep-
Icfs night, I trod, with a lofty ftep, the ruins of the
forum ; each memorable fpot, where Romulus flood, or
Tully fpoke, or Ciefar fell, was at once prefent to my
eye ; and feveral days of intoxication were loft or en-
joyed before I could defccnd to a cool and minute in-
veftigation." On the 15th of Oftobcr, he informs us,
the idea of writing the decline and fall of Rome firfl
came into his mind, when the bare-footed friars were
Cnging vcfpers in the temple of Jupiter.

In the year 1770 Mr Gibbon lolt his father, and
fucceeded to an e'tate which was very much involved ;
yet he confidered his circuBiftances as very well adapted
to the great and extenfive work he had undertaken to
accomplilh, which in his own opinion he had probably
never jinifhed, if he had been either poorer or richer
than he was. He had an extenfive circle of acquaint-
ance in London, but the time ncceffarily devoted to
their comf>any, he made up by early rifing and intcnfe
anpiicr.tion. In the year 1774 he was chofcn member
of parliament for the borough of Lilkeard, by the in-
fluence of Lord Elliot, which threatened to give his
iiudlcs a very ftrious iiittrruption. He fat eight years

in the houfe of commons without having the courng.- Co filbiion,
much as once to open his mouth, notwithftanding he Gibljou^.
w^as fuch an elegant writer. Wiien the firll volume of ^~~~
his " Decline and Fall of the rComan Empire", made its
appearance in 1 776, it met with a greater degree of
applaufe than he cxpefled ; but by no praife was he fo
highly gratified as by that which the two great hillo-
rians of Scotland, Hume and Robertfon, beftowed upcu
him. For his two chapters which relate to the fpread
of chriftianity he met with many antagonllls, to whom
he made no reply but to a Mr Davis, which was con-
fidered as a mallerpiecc. There can be no doubt that
Gibbon was a real enemy to revelation in the difguifc
of a believer, a conduft not fo abominable as at firll
fight may appear, fo long as penal laws gxift againft
an open declaration of opinion.

Soon after the publication of the firft volume of his
hiHory, he paid another vifit to Paris, and did not ap-
pear to be in much hade to complete his extenfive
work. In 1 781, however, the fecond and third vo-
lumes of his hiflory were given to the world ; and, al-
though in the eftimation of many competent judges
they were Inferior to the firll, they Hill were allowed
to poflefs furliclcnt merit to fupport his reputation.
Having loft his feat for Lifkeard, the Inducnce of
miniflry brought him in as reprefentative for Lymlng-
ton, and on the diflblution of Lord North's miniftry,
he loft his oRice as one of the lords of trade, which was
a ferious diminution of his income. He again deter-
mined to vliit his favourite Laufanne, where he com-
pleted the remaining volumes of his hiftorj' ; but when
the revolutionary mania began to rage on the conti-
nent, he quitted Laulanne, and fought for an afylum
in England. He mortally hated innovations of every
kind, whether necellary or not, as appears from the
following exclamation : " I beg leave to fubfcrlbe my
aflent to Mr Burke's creed on the revolution of France.
I admire his eloquence, I approve his politics, I adore
his chivalry, and can almoft excufe his reverence for
church eftablilhinents."

During his confoling vifit to Lord Sheffield, who
had met with a trying domeftic lofs, his attention was
called to the rapid progrefs of :. diftemper which had
fubfifted for about 30 years. A mortification at lall
cnfued, which terminated his exIHence on the i6th of
January 1794, in the 67th year of his age. Mr Gib-
bon gives hirafelf a charafter which is perhaps pretty
near the truth. " I am endowed vvith a cheerful tem-
per, a moderate fenfiLIlity, and a natural difpofition to *
rcpofe rather than to aillvity : fome mifchievous appe-
tites and habits have perhaps been correcled by philo-
fophy or time. The love of fludy fupplies each day,
each hour, with a perpetual fource of independent and
rational pleafure." Mr Gibbon poiTcflcd the manners
and fentiments of a gentleman in an eminent degree ;
he was ealy in focicty, of which he vvas extremely fond,
and beloved by all who had the pleafuic of intimately
knowing him.

GIBBOUS, a term in medicine, denoting any pro-
tuberance or convexity of the body, as a perlbn hunch-
ed or hump-backed.

Infants arc much more fubjeft to glbbofity than adultr, .
and it oftener proceeds from external than internal
caufes. A fall, blow, or the like, frequently thus dif-
torts the Under bcnes of infants. When it proceeds

fiom

G I B

[ 7^4 ]

G I B

Gibt

Gi'jbaus from an internal caufe, it is generally fi-oitl a relaxci-
tion of tl-,e ligaments that fuflain the fpine, or a caries
_, of its vertebrae ; though the fpine may be inflefted for-
ward, and the vertebrae thrown out h; a too firong
and repeated aiflion of the abdominal mufcles. This,
if not timely redreffed, grows up and fi.Ves as the bones
harden, till in adults it is totally irretrievable : but
when the diforder is recent, and the perfon young,
there are hopes of a cure. The common method is
by a machine of paileboard, wood, or lleel, which is
made to prefs principally on the gibbous part ; and
this by long wearing may fet all right. The furgeons,
ho^vever, have a different inftrument, w^hich they call
a crofsy much more efficacious, though not quite fo
convenient in the wearing. By the ufc of this, the
parts are always prevented from growing any worfe,
and are often cured During the application of thefe
afliftances, the parts {hould be at times rubbed with
Hungary water, fpirit of lavender, or the like, and de-
fended with a llrengthening plafter.

Gibbous, in Ajtronomxj, a term ufed in reference to
the enlightened parts of the moon, whilft (lie is moving
from the firfl quarter to the full, and from the full to
the laft quarter : for all that time the dark part ap-
pears horned or falcated j and the light one hunched
out, convex, or gibbous.

GIBEAH, a city in the tribe of Benjamin, lying
north of Jerufalem about 20 or 30 furlongs, and built
upon a hill, as its name imports. — This city gave birth
to Saul, the firll king of Ifrael, for which reafon it is
frequently called Gibeah of Saul, or Gibeah the native
country of Saul.

GIBELINS, or Gibelliks, a famous faftion in
Italy, oppofite to another called the GuELPHS.

Thofe two faiflions ravaged and laid wafte Italy for
a long feries of years ; fo that the hiftory of that coun-

try, for the fpace of two centuries.

tha

detail of their mutual violences and {laughters. The Gi-
belins Hood for the emperor againft the pope : but con-
cerning their origin and the reafon of their names we
have but a very obfcure account. According to the
generality of authors, they rofe about the year 1240,
upon the emperor Freilerick II. 's being excommuni-
cated by Pope Gregory IX. Other writers main-
tain, that the two faftions arofe ten years before,
though ftill under the fame pope and emperor. But
the moil probable opinion is that of Maimbourg, who
fays, that the two faiflions of Guelphs and Gibelins
arofe from a quarrel between two ancient and illuftri-
ous houfes on the confines of Germany, that of the
Henries of Gibeling, and that of the Guelphs of
Adorf.

GIBEON, a city feated on an eminence about 40
furlongs from Jerufalem northward, and not far from
the city of Gibeah. See GeBa.

This was the capital city of the Gibconites, who
took the advantage of Jolhua's oath, and of that which
the elders of Ifrael likewife fwore to them, upon an
artificial reprcfentation which they made of their be-
longing to a very remote country, and their defire of ous, being in breadth about five miles,
making an alliance with the Hebrews. Jolhua (ix. 3.
4, ct/cq.) and the elders inconfiderately entered into
a league with thefe people ; but foon difcovered their
millake. Upon this, fending for the Gibeonites, they
reproached them with their fraud j and without revok-

ing the promife which they had made to them, of G
givingnhem their lives, they condemned them to carry *2''
wood and w-ater to the tabernacle of the Lord, as flaves """
and captives taken in war ; in which flate of fer-vitude
tliey remained till the ruin and entire difperlion of the
Jewifh nation.

The Gibeonites were defcended from the Hlvites,
the old inhabitants of that country ; and poffeffed four
cities, whereof Gibeon was the capital. The cities were
Chephirath, Beeroth, Kirjathjearim, and Gibeon, Jolli'.
ix. 17. Thefe cities were afterwards given to the tribe of
Benjamin, except Kirjathjearim, which fell to the tribe
of Judah. The Gibeonites continued ever after I'ubjeil
to thofe burdens which Joihua had impofed on tljem,
and were very faithful to the Ifraelites.

GIBLETS, the offals or entrails of a goofe ; includ-
ing the heart and liver, wi'h the feet, gizzard, &c. The
word is fuppofed to be formed oigob/cts ; from the French
goheau, " mouthful." — Giblets make a confiderable ar-
ticle in cookery : they boil giblets, llew giblets, make
ragouts of giblets, giblet pies, 8lc.

GIBRALTAR, a famous promontory, or rather
peninfula, of Spain, lying in N. Lat. 36. 6. W,
Long. 5. 17. To the ancients it was known by the
name of Ca/pe, and was alio called one of the Pil/ars of
Htrcu/esf by the Arabians it is called Gdel Tank, that
is, " the mouth of Tarek," from I'aick the name of the
Saracen general who conquered Spain in the beginning
of the eighth century. The whole is an immenfe rock,
riling perpendicularly about 440 yards, meafuring
from north to fouth about two Englilh miles, but
not above one in breadth from eall to well. — The town
lies along the bay on the weft fide of the mountain on
a declivity -, by ivhich, generally fpeaking, the rains
pafs through it, and keep it clean. Tiie old tov<n was
confidcrably larger than the new, which at prefent con-
fills of between 400 and 500 houfes. Many of the ftreets
are narrow and irregular : the buildings are of differ-
ent materials ; fome of natural ftone out of the quar-
ries, fome of a faflitious or artificial ftone, and a few
of brick. The people are fupplied with frefh provi-
fions chiefly from the coaft of Barbary, with fruit,
roots, and vegetables of all forts from thence, or from
their own gardens. Befides what is properly called the
town, there are feveral fpacious and commodious pub-
lic edifices eredled ; fuch as barracks for the foldiers,
with apartments for their officers, magazines of dif-
ferent kinds, ftorehoufes for provifions, &c. The in-
habitants, exclufive of the Britilh fubjefts dependent
on the garrifon, or who refide there from other motives,
confift of fome Spaniards, a few Portuguele, a coniider-
able number of Genoefe, and about as many Jews ;
making in the whole, according to Dr Campbell, be-
tween two and three thoufand, without reckoning the
garrifon ; though fome make them much fewer. This
town may be faid to have two ports ; the firft lying to
the north, and is proper only for fmall veffels ; the
other is very commodious for large veffels, and has a
fine ftone quay. The bay is very beautiful and capaci-
nd in length
eight or nine, with feveral fmall rivers running into it.
It is very advantageous to the place. There is no ground
to be found in the middle of it at loo fathoms depth,
fo that 3 fquadron may lie there in great fafety; the
breezes from it are very refreftiing ) and it contributes
likewife

GIB [70

Gibraltar, likewife to lIic fubfiflence of the inhabitants, by fupply-

^T"""™" ing them with plenty of tilh.

The ftrait of Gibraltar, through wliich the ocean
paflcs into the Mediterranean, thereby dividing Europe
from Africa, runs fion well to eall about 13 leagr.es.
In this llrait there are three remarkable promontories
or capes on I'.ie Spanidi fide, and as many oppolite to
them on the Barbary fide. The firft of thefe, on the
tide of Spain, is Cape Trafalgar, oppoiite to which is
Cape Spanel ; and in the neighbourhood of this flood
the fortrefs of Tangier, once in the poffellion of the
Biitilh. The next on the Spanifli fide is TarifTa ; and
over againft it lies Malabata, near the town of Alcal-
far, where the ilralts are about five leagues broad. Laft-
ly, Gibraltar facing the mountain of Abj la, near tiie
fortrefs and town of Ceuta, which make the eaftern en-
, try of the ibaits. ^

This important fortrefs feems to have been firft parti-

Fortrei
firft er.
by the

^ cularly noticed as a place of confequence in the year
^^' 712. At that time the general of the caliph Al Wa-
lid landed aith an army of 1 2,000 men on the ifthmus
between Mount Calpe and the continent ; and that he
mi^ht fecure an intercourle with Africa, ordered a
caitie to be built on the face of that hill. Part of the
building liill remains ; and, from an inlcription difco-
vered above the principal gate, appears to have been
fitiiihed in 725. It continued in the poffeffion of the
, Sa.-acens till the beginning of the I4lh century, when it

Various re- was recovered by Ferdinand king of Caltile. In 1333,
•tolatioDS. ho-.vever, it was obliged to furrender to the fon of the
emperor of Fez, who came to the aflillance of the Moor-
iih iving of Granada. An attempt was made upon it in
1349 by Alonfo king of Caftile ; but when the fortrefs
had been reduced to the laft extremity, a peflilential fe-
ver broke out in the Spanilh camp, which carried oft" the
king hirafelf, with great- part of his army ; after which
t';e enterprife was a'jandoned.

The fortrefs continued in the pofleiTion of the Sa-
racen defendants of the prince of Fez until the year
1 41 3, when it was taken pofleflion of by Jofeph III.
, king of Granada. A defign of attacking itvvas form-
ed by Henry de Gufman in 1435 ; but the enterprife
having mifcarried through his imprudence, he was de-
feated and flain. However, it was at length taken
after a gallant defence by his fon John de Gufman in
1462 ; Cnce which time it has remained in the hands
of the Chriftians. In 1 J40, it was furprifed and pil-
laged by Piali Hamet, one of Barbarofla's corfairs ;
but the pirates having fallen in with fonie Sicilian gal-
leys, were by them defeated, and all either killed or

In the reign of Charles V. the fortifications of Gib-
raltar were modernized, and fuch additions made as to
render them almoft impregnable. It was taken by the
Englifti, however, in the reign of Queen Anne, and
fince that time has remained in their poffeflion ; and
probably will always do fo, unlefs ceded by treaty, as
it appears altogether impoiriblc to reduce it by any
force of artillery, let it be ever fo great. In the year
1704, in confequence of the refolution adopted by the
court of Britain to alTift the archduke Charles in his
pretenfions to the Spaniih crown, Sir George Rooke
was lent with a poiverful tleet into the Mediterranean.
His orders being limited, nothing of conlcquence was
done for fome time, until at laft an attempt on Gibral-

VoL. IX. Part II.

proved and
ftrengthen-

Takei) by
Sir George
Rooke in
1704.

5 ] GIB

tar was rcfolved upon ; not fo much on account of t!ie Gibraltsr.

importance of the conqucft, as to prevent any rcilec- r—^

tions againft the admiral for hiaflivily. On the 21ft
of July that year, 1 8oo troops were landed upon the
illhmus, under the command of the prince of Ilcfte
Dannftadt ; and on the rcfufal of the governor to fur-
render, preparations were made for attackiug the place.
Early in the morning of the 23d, a cannonade w<is
begun from the ricct, and kept up fo brifkly, th it i:i
five or fix hours the Spaniards were driven from nr^n/
of tlieir guns, efpecially at the new mole head. The
admiral perceiving, that, by gaining this part of the
fortification, the reduction of the reft would be faci-
litated, ordered out fome armed boats to take poffef-
fion of it. Oil their approach the Spaniards fprung a
mine, which demolilhed part of the works, killed two
lieutenants and 40 private foldiers, wounding about
60 more. Notwithftanding this difaller, the affailants
kept pofleflion of the work, and took a fmill baftion,
no'v the eight-gun battery, half way between the mole
and the touu. On this the governor thought proper
to capitulate, and the prince of Heffe took poffetriou
of the gates on the 24th. The garrifon, couiifting at
moft of 150 men, marched out with the honours of
ivar ; and the Spaniards who chole to remain were al-
lowed the fame privileges they had enjoyed under the
reign ot Charles II. The works were found very ftrong,
and the place well provided with ammunition and rai-
htary ftores.

Tliis conqueft was atchieved with the lofs of about
60 killed and 216 wounded on the part of the Eng-
hfli. The prince of Hefle remained governor-, and 18
men of war \vere left at Litbon under the command
of Sir John Leake, to fuccour the garrifon if there
ftiould be occafion. The lofs of fuch an important
fortrefs, however, having alarmed both the courts of ,
Madrid and Paris, orders were fent to the Marquis de BefiegeJ
Villadarias, a Spanilh grandee, to lay fiegc to it, in the fame
which he was to be alTifted by a naval force from Tou.y"''''y.'^=
Ion. The prince immediately applied to Sir J°lmyjM^j •
Leake for alfiftance ; but before tlie latter had time
to comply with his requeft, a French fleet arrived,
and debarked fix battalions to the afliftance of the
Spaniards j after which they proceeded to the well-
ward, leaving only fix frigates in the bay. Tiie
trenches were opened on the nth of October, about
which time Sir John arrived with 20 fail of Englilh
and Dutch flrips ; but hearing that the French ivere
about to attack him with a fuperior force, he judged
it proper to return and refit. Having very prudently
left orders at Lilbon to make preparations for this
purpofe in his abfence, he was enabled to accompllili
the work with fuch expedition, that on the 29th of
the fame month, he returned, and furprifed in the bay
three frigates, a fire Ihip, two Englilh prizes, a tar- (
tan, and a ftore fiiip. After this exploit he landed The garri-
fome reinforcements, fupplied the garrifon with (ix'°P'"P
months provifiun and ammunition; at the '^'"^'^ t"ne ^^J^f^!^''
detaching on ihore a body of 530 failors to aflift in re-n,entsand
pairing the breaches which had been made by the ene-provifions
my's lire. by Sir John

Thus the Spaniards were difappointed in their hopes ^"^*'"'

of fuccefs from an attack which had been projected

that very night, and for which purpofe 200 boats had

been coUefted. Still, however, they did »ot defpair ;

4 U and

G

nd fuppofing that tin

IB [7

garrifon would be off their

c6

attempt
fome Spi

guard and fecure 011 account t ." the vicinity of thi
fleet, they formed the rafli defign of attempting to
furprife the place, though the Britiili admiral was ftill
before it. In this mad attempt 500 volunteers alTo-
ciated, taking the facrament never to return, unlefs hi

n. they accoHiplifhed their purpofe. They wc

The Cege
ftill conti.
r.ued.

conducl-
tecrs. ed by a goat-herd to the fouth fide of the rock near

the cave guard, at that time called ihe pafs of locuj}
trees. This they mounted, and lodged therafelves the
firft night in the cave of St Michael : the next they
fcaled Charles V.'s Wall ; furprifed and maffacred the
guard at Middle hill ; where afterwards, by ropes and
ladders, feveral hundreds of the party defigned to fup-
port them were hauled up : but being difcovered, they
S " were attacked bv a ftrong party of grenadiers, and all of
They are them at laft either killed or taken. Thefe brave ad-

*'i venturers were to have been fupported by a body of

taken, -, . . ^ ^ . ' '^ ■' ^ . {

rrench troops, arid lome feints were propofed to draw
off the attention of the garrifon •, but, through the dif-
agreement of the commanding officers, thefe propofals
were not put in execution, and thus the volunteers were
9 left to their fate.

Notwithftanding thefe misfortunes, the Spaniards flill
continued the fiege, and fitted out a flrong fquadron
from Cadiz, with a defign to intercept the convoys of
provifions which might be fent to the garrifon ; flat-
tering themfelves at the fame time, that, on the ar-
rival of their fleet, Sir John would be obliged to re-
tire, and the garrifon of confequence to I'urrender to
their united attacks. They continued their 'ire there-
fore with additional fury, difmounted many of the can-
non, and did elVential injury to the works in feveral
different places. The prince of Hefle, however, was
by no means deficient in his endeavours to difappoint
their expeftations. As it was probable that an at-
tempt might be made to ftorm the curtain, a cuvette
was dug in the ditch, which was filled by the tide, and
a double row of palifades placed parallel to the works.
The chambers of the mine under the glacis were load-
ed, and all means taken to defeat fuch an attempt ; but
on a fudden the Spaniards (eenied to have altered
their defign, and threatened an attack on the lines
■which the garrifon had on the declivity of the hill
to flank the glacis, and overlook their advanced
works. Wliile affairs remained in this fltuation, part
of the fuccours they had long expe£fed arrived in the
bay, December 7. 1704, and in two days after, the re-
mainder came in with near 2000 men, along with a
proportionable quantity of ammunition and provifions.
Thefe had failed from Cape Spartel under convoy of
four frigates ; but v. ere in imminent danger of falling
into the hands of the enemy, whofe fleet they miffook
for their own ; however they efcaped by the fortunate
circumltance of being becalmed, fo that they could not
get up to them.

Sir John Leake having thus powerfully reinforced
the garrifon, thought his pr^fcnce in the bay no longer
neceflary, and therefore fet fail for Lilhon, where he
arrived about the end of the year. In the beginning of
January 1705 the Spaniards were reinforced by a con-
fiderablc body of infantry, and on the nth of the
month made an attack on the extremity of the King's
Lines, but were repulfed. The attack was renewed
next day with 6co grenadiers, French and Walloons,.

The garri
fon rein,
forced.

Vigorous

] GIB

fupported by 1000 Spaniards, under Lieutenant General Gihr.iltar

Fuy. They difpofed themfelves in fuch a manner as '~"

llioued an intention to llorm a breach which had been
made in the Round Tower at the extremity of the
Krno's Lines, and another in the intrenchment on the
The retrenchment which covered the latter
breach, with pait of the intrenchment joining the pre-
cipice of the rock, was defended at night by a captain,
three fubaltems, and 90 men ; but it was cuilomary
for tiie captain to withdraw, with two fubalterns and
6o men, at daybreak. '1 he Round Tower was de-
fended by J 80 men, commanded by a lieutenant-colo-
nel. The maiquis, by deferters from the garrifon, had
obtained intelligence of the flrength of thefe polls, and
planned his attack accordingly. The detachment for
the upper breach mounted the rock at midnight, and
concealed themfelves in the clifts until the captain had
withdrawn ; after which, advancing to the point of the
intrenchment, they threw grenades on the fubaltern
and his party, fo that they were obliged to leave the
place. At the fame time 300 men flormed the Round
Tower, where Lieutenant Colonel Bar made a vigo-
rous defence, though the enemy, having pafled the
breach above, annoyed them on the flanks with great
ifones and grenades. Obferving, however, the Spa-
niards marching down to cut ofi' his retreat f.ora the
town, he retired ; and, by getting over the parapet of
the King's Lines, defcended into the covered way,
where the Engliih guards were poifed. Thus the gar-
rifon were alarmed ; all the regiments %vere alTembled
at their proper polfs ; and Captain Filher endeavoured
to flop the progrefs of the enemy with ly men, but ij
they were repulfed, and himfelf taken prifoncr. At They are
lalf, however, the 'i"ower was retaken by Lieutenant "P""'^'''
Colonel Moncal at the head of 40a or 500 men, after
it had been in the pofleflion of the enemy upivards of
an hour.

The garrifon was now farther reinforced by fix com-
panies of Dutch troops and 2C0 Engliih foldiers, toge- j,
ther with fome provifions and flores. The affailants, The fiege
however, were ftill determined to go on. The mar- --■--
quis dc Villadarias was fuperfeded by Marifchal TefTe,
a Frenchman, with whom Admiral Pointis was defired'
to co-operate in blocking up the place. The marifchal
therefore joined the army with four frelh battalions, be-
fides eight companies which had been lent before ; the
ordnance, which had been greatly injured by conffunt
ufe, was exchanged fur others, and the works, as they
then flood, put into the bell repair. On the part of
the Englilli, a reinforcement was ordered under the
command of Sir Thomas Dilkes and Sir John Hardy,
to join Admiral Leake at Lilhon : which junflion be-
ing efledled, the whole fleet, confifting of 28 Engliih,
4 Dutch, and 8 Portuguefe men of war, having on
board two battalions of land forces, fet fail from Lif- 14
bon. Happily for the befiegcd, however, tlie inceffantThe French
rains and florms about this time had retarded the ope-
rations of the land forces, and greatly diflrcfled the fleet ^l^.^
of the enemy. Eight fliips of the latter were forced
from their anchors by the ftrong weflerly wind, and
obliged to drive aloft. At this critical period Sir John
Leake, with the allied fleet, entered the ftraits. On
his approach the few remaining French fliips put out to
fca ; and the Britiili adm.iral difcovering five fail mak-
ing out of the bay, and a gun fired at them from the
garrifon^

ith frelh

fleet dif|;cr-
■ fid by a

O I B

[ 7^7 ]

G I B

Gibraltar, garrifon, immediately gave chafe. Three French men

^"■■^""^ of war were taken, and the admiral's Ihip and another

driven on ihore, where they were burnt. The reft, on

hearing the report of the guns, had made the beft of

, - their way to Toulon.

TheC;;e The garrifon was now fo well fupplied, that Marif-

tumed iiKo ^]^^i Teffe v.-ithdre^v his troops from the trenches, and

* J Vi'.i' formed a blockade, drawing :in intrenchment acrofs the
and at Ijlt . » 6 .

mi'ed. Ulhmus to prevent the garrilon trom ravas^mg the

country. The prince of HelTe remained for fome time
in the place, where he repaired the batteries, and made
fome additions to the fortifications ; after which he
ioined the archduke Charles at Lilhon. As the latter,
however, t\as reiolved to try his fortune with the earl
of Peterborough in Valencia and Catalonia, the prince
was fent back to Gibraltar to prepare part of the gar-
rifon for embarkation, and loon after was followed by
tlie whole fleet. Major General Ramos was now ap-
pointed governor of Gibraltar, in which only two new
battalions were left, as nothing was to be feared from
the enemy. The new governor, however, brought with
him 403 men for the greater fecurity of the place; but
foon refigned his government to Colonel Roger EUiot,
during whofe time Gibraltar was made a free port by
a fpecial order from the queen.

Colonel Elliot was fucceeded by Colonel Congreve
before the year 1714, and he by Colonel Cotton a
iS Ihort time after. In 1720 the Spaniards leera to have
A new at- threatened another attack. Ceuta, a Spanifli fortrefs
^^'^d b"-^ h'e '" Barbary, had been for many years befieged by the
Moors ; and a powerful armament, commanded by the
marquis de Lada, was now aflembled in Gibraltar bay,
under pretence of relieving the African fortrefs, but
with a fecret defign of firft furpriung Gibraltar •, for
which purpofe they had provided fcaling ladders, &c.
The armament, however, had not been fitted out viiih
fuch fecrecy, but that the Britilli miniftry had intelli-
gence of it. On this they fent orders to Colonel Kane,
governor of Minorca, to embark with part of his gnr-
rifon for Gibraltar under convoy of the fleet in the Me-
diterranean. On his arrival he found the place in a
critical fituation. The garrifon confilled only of three
weak battalions under Major Hetherington, befides
whom there was only one other field o.Ticer, Major
Batterou.x, in the place, and no more than 14 days
ptovifions remaining. The pofture of affairs, however,
was altered by the arrival of Colonel Kane with 500
men, with provifions and ammunition •, which rein-

17 forcement, together with the fpirited behaviour of the
The defign Britilh commodore, induced the Spanilh commander to
given up. abandon his defign, though he remained of opinion that

the foitrefs might then have been carried by a general

18 affault.
Another at- Notwithftanding this difappointment, the Spaniards

continued to keep a watchful eye over Gibraltar ; and,
in the latter end of the year 1726, afTembled an army
in the neighbourhood of Algefiras, encamping, on the
20th of January following, on the plain below St

7

tempt
1726.

Roch, and erefting a battery on the beach to protect Gil
their camp. Though Admiral Hopfon was then at an- '
chor in the bay of Gibraltar, yet, as he had received
no i.itelligence of the aiftual commencement of hoitili-
ties between Britain 'and Spain, he was obliged to al-
low the boats of the latter to pafs with provilions, arms,
and ammunition, between Algefiras and the camp, at
the fame time that colonel, afterwards Brigadier Kane,
who had been a fecond time fent from Minorca, lay un-
der limilar embarralTraents. The operations of the Spa-
niards, however, feemed fo evidently to tend towards
an attack, that the governor thought proper to or-
der fuch of that nation as were in the town to leave
it, and to forbid their galleys to anchor under {lis
guns (a).

The count de las Torres commanded the Spanilh
forces, amounting to near 20,000 men ; and foon af-
ter forming his camp, he advanced within reach of the
garrifon. The brigadier then defired him to keep out
of his reach, other«-ife he ihould do his utmofl to force
him ; but to this the Spanilh commander replied, that,
as the garrifon could command no more than they hiid
power to maintain, he ihould obey his Catholic maje-
lly's orders, and encroach as far as poffible. Hoftili-
ties, however, were not commenced until the loth of
February 1727, when the Spaniards, having brought
materials for batteries to the old H-indmill on the neu-
tral ground, it was determined in a council of war,
that the Spanilh general had commenced hollilities by
encroaching fo far on the liberties of the garrifon.
Still, however, the governor fent to the count to know
the reafon of breaking ground before the garrifon ; but
received for anfwer, that " he was in his mailer's terri-
tories, and was not anfwerable to any other perfon for
his conduct." On this the governor opened the batte-
ries of the Old Mole and thofe of Wiilis upon the Spa-
nilh workmen : however, they perlilled on carrying on
their operations, and at night marched a party down to
the Devil's Tower, where they immediately broke
ground, and began a communication with their other
works. The governor was now informed by fome de-
ferters, that the enemy were forming a mine in a cave
under Willie's Battery, with a defign to blo'V it up :
but the plot being thus happily di!covered, a party was
immediately (lationed to cut off the communication.
On the 22 d of February the Spaniards opened on the
garrifon with 17 pieces of cannon bcfides mortars j and
the day following Brigadier Kane left Gibraltar to feud
a reinforcement from Minorca. On the 3d of March
the enemy opened a new battery of 2 2 guns, on the Old
Mole, and on the 8th another of 15 guns, bearing alfo
upon the fame mole, the guns of which had annoyed
the vedern dank of their approaches.

All this time the garrifon had kept up a conftant
and well dire^kd fire from the batteries which bore
upon the works of the enemy ; but the ordnance in
•general being old, were frequently burftjng j by which
they fufFcred more than from the fire of the bellegers.
4 U 2 The

(a) At this time the fortifications of Gibraltar were confiderahly different from what they had been in 1705.
Several works were ere^led on the heights above the lines called H7//u'.r Balleries ; the Prince's I '•'CS were
extended to the extremity of the rock, and an inundation was formed out of the morafs in front of tne grand
battery. ,

GIB [ 708 ] GIB

The latter were alfo greatly diftrelTed by the fleet un- time, however, the ufual fupplies of proviGons being G'bra'tsr.
' "' "" ' " off, the garrifon began to feel all the horrors of ~^v^-^

der Admiral Hopfon and Sir Charles Wagrer, who, fi;i

the beginning of the fiege, had intercepted their home- f;
bound (hips, and at the fame time areatly benefited the
g-arrifon by bringing the pnzes into the bay. Finding
the Spaniards, however, obftinately bent on their en-
terprife, they formed a defign, on the 2d of April, to
bombard Algefiras, from whence the befiegers were
fupplied with various articles of ammunition ; but the
'fleet happening to be becalmed, the defign was after-
wards unaccountably abandoned ; and on the arrival of
a reinforcement from Mmorca, they failed to the well-
ward, leaving the garrifon to defend themfelves the beft
way they could.

The enemy continued to augment their batteries,
and ereft new ones, until they amounted at iaft to 60
cannon befides mortars ; and, on the 3d of May, the
governor received intelligence that a general affault was
intended ■, to repel which he took every proper precau-

AU the neceflaries of life were very fcarce,
and to be procured only at exorbitant prices. Veal, E^^eilh
mutton, and beef, fold trom half a crown to four Ihil- ^"^'^^

19

Ceffat.on of
hoftilities.

Great lofs
of the S[ra-
niards in
their at-
tempts.

Gibraltar
blocked up
i.-) 1779.

lings per pound ; freib pork from two to three lliil-ings; '"^"'^' '"'''
faked beef and pork fifteenpence ; fowls eighteen fliiU
lings per couple ; ducks a guinea ; fire wood, five ihil-
lings per hundred weight ; a pint of milk and water
fifteenpence ; a fmall cabbage colt five (hillings, and a
fmall bunch of outer leaves fivepence ; Irilh butter
half a crown per pound ; candles as much ; and eggs
fixpence each. As the rock, however, is almoft fur-
rounded by the fea, it was natural to fuppofe, that in
fuch a fcarcity of other provilions great benefit would
have been derived from the ocean ; but the filhermcn,
being all foreigners, and under no regulation, took ad-
vantage of the prefent fcarcity of provilions in the gar-
rifon to exaft a raoft exorbitant price -for the filh they
fupplied. 25

Had matters remained long in this ftate, it is plain The Spa-
that the fortrefs, however Ifrong, mulf have fallen into "'* ''"'^*
the 1 2th, when news arrived that the preliminaries of the hands of the enemy. They were, however, effec- ^nd Ui^
a general peace were figned ; from which time to the tually relieved in confequence of the viftory gained by arimiral

Admiral Rodney over the Spanilli neet commanded by taken by
Don Juan de Langara. The former had been furnilh- I^odney,

tion. The enemy, however, ftill added to their
proaches, and confiderable reinforcements were receiv-
ed by both parties. Hoftilities, however, ceafed on

Hoftilitie!
commencei
bv the gar
rifon.

»3
A woman

firft wound.
ed in the

hiucb.

year 1779, "° farther attempts were made on Gibral-
tar. In the courfe of thefe t'vo lieges the lofs of the
Spaniards was very confiderable; that of 170? colling
them not lefs than 1 0,000 men, including tliofe who
died of ficknefs ; and in that of 1727 their lofs was
computed at near 3000, befides cafualties, which could
not be afcertained. That of the garrifon amounted in
I 705 to 400 ; and in 1727 to 300 ; a very fmall num-
ber, conlidering that during the fiege 70 cannon and
30 mortars burll on the batteries.

The hoilile manifello prefented by the Spanilb am-
baffador to the court of London at the commencement
of the late war, was loon followed by an interruption
of communication betwixt Spain and the fortrefs of
Gibraltar. No direcl intention of attacking or diilref-
fing it, however, vvas manifelled till the 16th of July,
when the port was completely blocked up by a fqua-
dron of two 74 gun fhips, feveral frigates, galleys, &c.
Ten days after they began to form a camp on the plain
below St Roch, three miles from the fortrefs. The
garrifon at this time confided of 5382 men, including
officers, with a company of engineers and artificers ;
but the greatell expeftations were formed from the abi-
lities and valour of General Elliot the governor. As
foon as the breaking off the communication ivith Spain
indicated approaching hofiilities, the governor took
every precaution that could be fuggelled by military
wifdcm ) but though in'ormed of the rupture betw ixt
the two courts having aftually taken place, and though
he beheld the hoftile operations of the enemy, no means
were ufed to interrupt them till the 1 2th of September,
when the batteries of Green's Lodge, Willis, and
Queen Charlotte, were opened for a few hours, with a
view to dillurb the W'->rkraen.

From this time to the beginning of the year 1780
the enemy continued the blockade both by fea and
land, but without doing any damage to the works or
garrifon, and it was not until the 1 2th of January
.that a fingle perfotj was wounded. This happened to
be a woman, who, pafling near one of the houfes, was
jlightly hurl by a Ibot from ;Le enemy. In the mean

ed with a ilrong fquadron, in order to relieve this im-
portant fortrefs ; with which having fet fail, he in a
few days fell in with a Spanilli fleet of 1 6 tranfports
bound from Bilboa to Cadiz, and laden with provilions
and naval fiores, convoyed by a man of war of 64 guns,
four frigates, and two armed veffels. Of thefe only a
fingle tranfport efcaped, the rell being all captured on
the 8th of January 1780 ; and the lofs of them, at the
fame time that it promifed to be very ferviceable to the
garrifon, was equally detrimental to the enemy, who
were now in great want both of provilions and materials
for their ftiipping.

This advantage wss foon after followed by a much
greater. On the l6th of the fame month a Spanifti
fquadron of 1 1 fail of the line was difcovered off Cape
St Vincent ; and the Britilh admiral having taken the
proper methods to come up with the.n as quickly as
polfible, an engagement took place about four in the
afternoon. At this time the headraoll (hips of the
Britilh line clofed in with the nef.rell of the enemy,
and in half an hour one of the Spaniards, mounting 70
guns, and having on board 600 men, blew up, and all
on board perilhed. In two hours more another Spa-
nilli (hip of the line was taken ; notwithllanding which
the fight continued with great vigour till two in the
morning, when the headmoll Ihip of the enemy llruck
to the Sandwich ; after which the firing ceafed. The
weather throughout the night was lb tempelluous that
it was with the utmoll difficulty the Britilh could take
poffeffion of thofe fhips which furrendered. Thefe
were fix in number, but two of them drove aihore and
were loll, only four bein^ brought fafe into GiLiraltar.
Thefe were the admiral's lliip of 8o guns and 700 men,
with three others of 70 guns and 6oo men. The en-
gagement, however, happened fo near the (hore, and
the Britilh were fo eager in fecuring the lee gage to
prevent the enemy's efcape, that Admiral Rodney's
(hip, together with fome of the largell in the fleet, were
in great danger of running on the fuoals of St Lucar j

Gftralta

GIB [709

nor could they be got into deep water again without
' much labour and the exertion ot' great naval fltill. It
was the opinion of all who were prefent in the action,
that had this engagement hapjjened ia the day time,
or had the weather been lefs boiilerous, not one of the
Spaniih (hips could have efcaped ; and even as it was,
thofe which got oiF were fo eflentially damaged as to
^g be unlit for fervice.
The garri- T he news of this important vi£lory arrived at Gib-
fon r.ii.v^dralt-jr on the evening of the day after it was fought;
and rem- and in two days more the garrifon was completely re-
iorud. lieved by the arrival of the flett and convoy, at the fame
time that they were farther reinforced by a regiment
of Highlanders, confifting of 1051 men, olacers in-
cluded. An opportunity was alfo taken of fending
away wi:h the fleet all the invalids and women in the
garrifon ; with whom they fet fail on the icth of Fe-
brur.ry, leavrng in the bay only the Edgar and Panther
fliips of the line, with two frigates.

On the departure of the Britilli tleet the blockade
was immediately refumed ; and notwithilanding the
ample fupplies lately received, the garrifon foon began
again to experience the inconvenicncy of wanting freih
provinons. It had hitherto received thefe in abun-
dance from the coaft of Barbary ; but an unaccount-
able alteration had now taken place, fo that the fnend-
Ihip of the emperor of Morocco was transferred from
Great Britain to Spain in a manner totally unprece-
dented. His partiality towards the latter was the
more furprifing, as Britain had given no provocation,
and the enmity between Spain and Morocco feemed to
}. be in a manner conftitutional, and founded upon fuch
The garri- caufes as could never ceafe to operate. Thus, how-
*°" ^^ j'" ^^6r, the garrifon became daily more and more dif-
foa^tt! *° treffed, from being obliged to make conftant ufe of
their fait proviiions, and even this with the ftricleft
economy. The induftry and refolution of the Britilh
feamen and officers, indeed, fometimes overcame all
obftacles, fo that they found means to procure the ne-
ceflary refrelliments ; though in fo doing they were
certainly expofed to the utmoll dani^er from the enemy.
At the fame time the defence of the garrifon was fo
vigorous, that while it continued to be fupplied even
in this fcanty manner, the Spaniards began to lofe all
hope of reducing it ; for which realon tiiey formed a
jg projeft of burning all the Britilli (hipping in the bay.
Onfiiccefs- The night appointed for putting this fcheme in exe-
ful attempts cution was the 6th of June 1780, when 10 fire-fhips,
E •''"r'nl^^ favoured by an uncommon darknefs, llood over from
P ' '^"the Spaniili to the Britilh fide of the bay. Their de-
fign was to fet fire to the ftorehoufes neareft to the
water fide, as well as to the Ihipping there; but hav-
ing been too precipitate in firing their (hips, and
being received alfo by a very heavy cannonade, the at-
tempt was fruftrated. On this occafion tlie fkill and
intrepidity of the Britilh feamen were eminently dif-
played. Having manned their boats, they grappled
the fire {hips already in flames ; and, notwithilanding
their dreadful appearance and the danger of their ex-
ploding, towed them clear of the vefTels under the
v.-alls, and cxtingulihed them.

The failure of this project was a grievous difap-
pointment to Don Barcelo the Spanifli admiral, who
lay ready with his f<]uadron to intercept the Britilh
vefTels that jniglit attempt to efcape ; at the fame time

ftroyed.

] GIB

that the batteries on their lines were in readinefs to Gl'irjh-.r.

bombard the town, if the fire-lhips had fucceeded in *^~'

caufing any conflagration on fliore. The failure of the
prefent attempt, however, was foon followed by other 19
difailers. As foon as they had, with great labour, ''P»"''1'
puihed forivard their new works, and conilrucled new.""'''"^'"
batteries, they were certainly dellroyed by the be-
fieged ; and their mortification on thefe occalions was
the greater, as it was ufual for the governor to allow
them to complete their works before he commenced
his deftruclive operations. Thus the labour of many
days was often loft in a few hours, and afterwards was
to be refumed u'ith as little profpeft of fucccfs as be- 30
fore. The garrifon was now confiderably annoyed by ^^^ g»rii.
the Spaniih gun boats, to which indeed the ihipping '"."j^"""'^'
were eciually expofed with themfclves. Thefe '.vere vef-s,,j„^ih *
fels from 30 to 40 tons burden, conftruded fo that they gun boats;
lay lo%v in the water, which rendered them diilicult to
be aimed at. They had 15 oars on a fide, carried 40 or
50 men, with a 26 pounder on the prow ; and, from
the facility of managing them, two were deemed, in
calm weather to be a match for a frigate of moderate
fize. All their efforts, however, could iVilI do no
more than to reduce the garrifon to great ftraits for
want of proviiions ; and to this dreadful inconvenience
the Britilh fubmitted with the greateil cheerfulnefs.
From- the time of Admiral Rodney's departure in the
month of February 1783 to the month of 0:lober,
almoft the only proviiions in the garrifon were fuch as
tended to produce the fcurvy ; which accordingly
raged in fuch a manner, as to threaten the mod fatal
confequences. An antidote, however, was happily 31
procured by the capture of a Danilh dogger from The fcurvy
Malaga laden with lemons and oranges, which the go- '^-" '" '°^
vernor immediately purchafed for the ufe of the gar-
rifon and diftributed among them. " At this time
(fays Captain Drinkwater) the fcurvy had made dread-
ftil ravages in our hofpitals, and more were daily
confined : many however, unwilling to yield to its
firft attacks, perfeveied in their duty to the more ad-
vanced llages. It was therefore not uncommon, at
this period, to fee men, who, fome months before,
were hale, and capable of enduring any fatigue, fup-
porting themfelves to their polls upon crutches, and
even nith that aiTiilance fcarcely able to move along.
The moil fatal confequences in fliort were to be appre-
hended to the garrifon from this terrible diforder,
when this Dane was happily direcled to our relief." -sj
According to Mr Cairncrofs, an eminent furgeon,''*''^'"^'''''"*'*
who was prefent during this fiege, _" the fc-irvy « hich ^^"°"'" °''
now raged in Gibraltar, differed in no refpeft from • '
that difeafe utually contraiEled by failors in long fea
voyages ; and of which the immediate caufe feemed to
be the fubfilling tor a length of time upon falted pro-
vifions only, without a (iifficient quantity of vegetables
or other acefcent foods. The circumflances related in
the voyage of that celebrated circumnavigator Lord
Anfon of confohdated fraclurss difuniting, and the
callofity of the bone being pcrfeilly dilTolvcd, occur-
ed frequently in our hof'itals, and old fores and
wdunds opened anew from the nature of the diforder.
Various antifcorbutics were ufed without fucccfs, fuch
as acid of vitriol, four crout, extratl of malt, cITence of
fpruce, &c. ; but the only fpecifics were frefli lemons
and oranges given liberally ; or, when they could not

be

G I B

'Gibraltar, be procured, the preferveJ juice in fucli quantities,
' from one to four ounces per day, as tV.e patient could

bear. Whilft the lemons were found, from one to
three were adminirtered each day as circumflances di-
rected. The juice given to thofe in the moft malig-
nant (late was fometimes diluted with fugar, wine, or
fpirits ; but the convalefcents took it without dilu-
tion. Women and children were equally affected ; nor
were the officers exempted from this dreadful diforder.
It became almolt general at the commencement of the
winter feafon, owing to the cold and moilture, and in
3_5 the beginning of fpring when vegetables were fcarce.
Method of The juice was preferved by adding to 60 gallons of
.prefervins exprelTed liquor about five or ten gallons of brandy,
^'="""' •'"'"■ which kept it in fj uholeforae a Hate, that feveral
cafks were opened in good condition at the clofe of
the fiege. The old juice, however, was not fo fpeedi-
ly efficacious as the fruit, though by perfevering longer

34 in its ufe it feldom failed.
(^'"h'^i'T Till this month the allowance of (alt provifions had
f°j [-Q^' ^l^f^' J continued undiminiffied ; but now it was judged necef-
of provi. fary to reduce the allowance of bread and meat, and
■iisiis. to make fome other regulations in order to enforce the

llricleft economy with regard to food. Every thing
of this kind that could be praclifed, however, feemed
infufficient to preferve the garrifon from abfolute
\vant. In the beginning of the year 1 781 proviCons
became exceedingly fcarce, by reafon of the almoft to-
tal expenditure of what was contained in the public
(lores, and the vigilance of the enemy's cruifers. A-
bout the middle of February the town bakers left off
work for want of flour ; and many of the poorer fort
wanted bread. The price of frelh provifions again
rofe to a moll enormous height. Small pigs fold at
two guineas J tiukeys at three ; geefe at 3ofliillings;
fowls and ducks at 10 ffiillings ; damaged bifcuit a
(hilling the pound ; peafe 1 8d ; and all other neccfTa-
ries in proportion ; at the fame time the fcarcity of fuel
was fuch, that it was fometimes fcarcely procurable in

35 quantity fufficient to drefs the vifluals.
The garri- The garrifon had hitherto derived affiftance occa-
fun entire- {JQ^iaJly from the gardens on the neutral ground, though
o^" the ufe' ^'^^ quantities of vegetables had been removed thence
^ftheneu- by the enemy. Towards the end of the month of
iral ground. October 17 So, however, the Spaniards determined to

expel the Hritilh from the gardens entirely : and this
they accomplilhed in fpite of all that could be done to
prevent them. From this time the refources with re-
gard to vegetables depended entirely upon the atten-
tion paid to cultivation ; which, happily for the garri-
fon, was attended with fijch (uccefs, efpeclally during
35 the winter months, that the produce came at Ull to be
Supplied Vy„g3rly equal to the demand. At laft, on the I 2tli of
fl'eet''""''' ''^P"' •7^'.' '"PP^'«5 "■^^'^ brought by the Britilh fleet
under Admirals Darby, Digby, and Rofs, though they
could not be got in ivithout great difficulty. The
gun boats already mentioned were now much increafed
in number and flrength of conllruftion ; infefting the
bay in fuch a manner as greatly to interrupt the de-
barkation of the (tores. As no ve(rels of the fame
kind had been prepared to oppofe them, they could
fcarce be prevented from effecting their purpofe of burn-
ing the (tore ■'' ips. With this view they had approach-
jcd them every morning in hazy weather to tho ntjra-

10 ] GIB

ber of between 2 3 and 30, feveral of them carrying Glbrali ■
mortar-pieces ; and as they ufed both (ails and oars, *— v~— -
they eluded all purfuit, by withdrawing on the rile of
any breeze. To keep otT thefe troublefome guelts, fe-
veral (tout frigates were obliged to ib.tion themfelves
along the bay for the proteftion of the liiipping ; but
even this did not prevent them from continuing their
moleilation ; and notwithltanding the vigilance and
aftivity of the Britifli failors, it uas leldom that they
could come near enough to do them any damage. In
fpite of all their endeavours, however, the garrllbn was -y
eftectually relieved: an exploit which fo exceedingly The apa-
irritate.d the court of Spain, that they determined to 'J'i"''^* '*-
exert the utmolt force of the kingdom rather than fail e^tTl '° ^^'
in the execution of their favourite project. The worksidves to*
before the town were therefore carried on with morethe utmoft.
vigour than ever, and the moft tremendous prepara- >

tions made to caufe the obftinate garrifon feel the re-
("entment of an exafperated enemy. Their batteries
were now mounted with guns of the heavlelt metal,
and with mortar pieces of the largeft fize ; the number
of the former augmented to near 200, and of the latter
to upwards cf 80. For three weeks this prodigious
artillery continued to pour forth an almolt inceflant
fliower of (hot and (hells, infomuch that, in the time
jult mentioned, they had conlumed loo,ooolb. of
gunpo^vder, and thrown into the town lour or (ive
thoufand (hot or ffiells every 24 hours. 3S

By fuch an immenfe bombardment the town was al-ThetowT
moft totally laid in ruins. The inhabitants, computed ^"''^^J'' ^*'
at more than 3000 in number, experienced every dif-
ficulty that could arife from the deilruftion of their ha-
bitations : feveral of them were killed, and all forced
to leave the towTi, and take (belter under tents with
what accommodation could be provided for them in
fuch fcenes of horror and confufion. Numbers took
the opportunity of retiring with the fleet ; while many
that remained were now reduced from a ftate of opu-
lence to the greateft diftrefs. The condutt of Gover-
nor Elliot was very humane and compafllonate to fuch
as were inclined to depart ; allowing them a free paffage
to England, and fupplying them with provifions for
the voyage.

During this bombardment, not only the greateft
part of the effecls belonging to the inhabitants were
deltroyed, but the fortifications were in many places jp
greatly injured; and the worlt was, that the remainder Diforderly
were de(troyed by the foldiers, who had arrived at f"ch ^^''"'''""''
a pitch of Hcentioufnel's, that they neither regarded ^^^^.^ ^ ° '
nor would obey their officers. They were incited to
this deftruftive fcheme by the avarice of fome of the
inhabitants vvho had hoarded up and concealed a quan-
tity of necelTary articles, in order to procure an advan-
ced price. They now, therefore, kept no bounds in
dilfipation, wafte, and extravagance ; a remarkable in-
Itance of which is given by Captain Drinkwater, in
their roalling a pig by a fire made of cinnamon. To
put a (lop to thefe atrocious proceedings, rigorous mea-
fures were of neceffity adopted ; and it was intimated,
that any foldicr convifted ■oi being drunk or afleep upon
his port, or found marauding, IhoulJ be immediately
executed. The lofs of human lives during this dread-
ful bombardment was lefs than could have been exped-
ed ; but many remarkable circumltances are taken

notice

GIB [ 711 ] GIB

Cibr.'.'.tar r.otice of by Captain Drinkwater, foinc of which are of Fiance and Spain ; fo that by the latter part of No- CibraUar.

^""^ related ia the note (B.) vember 1 78 1, they had brought them to fuch a flate "
By the beginning of June 1781, the enemy had re- of perfeflion as filled both kingdoms uith the mod
laxed confiderably in their firing, feldom exceeding fanguine cxpeirtations of fucccls. Governor Elliot,
600 Ihot in a day ; and continued gradually to dimi- honever, far from being difmayed at thefe formidable
nifli this number fo remarkably, that towards the end bulwarks, fuffered them to proceed without moleilation
of Auguft they leldom fired in the day, and only dif- to the end of their fcheme, that he might as in a mo-
charged fix or fcven, and fometimes not above three, meni delkoy the labour of fo many months, and thus 41
fliot in the night. The batteries at land, however, render the difappointmcnt the greater. In the night ''''fX "^^
were fucceeded by the gun boats ; which renewed their of the 27th of November, a chofen party of 2000 men 1"""^^/
attacks every day, keeping the garrifon in continual was detached, in order to dellroy the enemy's works
alarm, and never failing to do more or lefs execution, and batteries ; and their fuccefs was efjual to their
To retlrain them, therefore, a battery of guns capable mod; fanguine cxpeflations. They marched out in
of throwing their {hot to a great diliance was erected great order and lilence about two o'clock in the morn-
as near as polTible to the enen y ; snd as it readied ing, under the command of Brigadier General Rofs ;
their very camp, it was determined to open it upon after which they proceeded with the lame circumfpec-
them as often as the gun boats made their attacks ; tion, but with the utmoll celerity, to the enemy's
which being foon perceived, they thought it prudent works, which they ilormed and overthrew with a-
^o to defill in lome meafure from that mode of holHlity. llonifiiing rapidity. The Spaniards were inflantly

The works They continued iHU, however, to improve their works, thrown into confuSon, r.,id tied on every fide ; the

01 the ene- ^„^ f^^ jjjjj purpofe employed the beft engineers both guns and mortars on the batteries were all fpiked up ;

I brought
to the ut.
moil per-
fection.

and

(e) Two boys belonging to the artificer company were endowed with fuch wonderful fltength of vifion, that
they could fee the ftiot of the enemy in the air almoft as foon as it came from the mouth of the -gun ; and
were therefore conftantly placed upon fome part of the works to give notice to the foldiers of the approaching
danger. During the time of the hotteft fire, however, the men were fo habituated to the fall of Ihells and fhot
around them, that they contracted an infenfibility of danger, and almoft required to be cautioned by their offi-
cers to avoid the explofion of a Ihell wlien lyii% vvith the fufee burning at their feet. In confequence of this
inattention, they frequently neglefled the advice of the boys above mentioned, and their neglcci could not but
be productive of fatal effects. An inftance of this happened on the Princefs Amelia's battery, where a fhot
thus difregarded came through one of the capped emhrafures, carried off one of the legs from three foldiers,
and wounded a fourth in both. In other cal-s, in which the perfons themfelves have obferved the Ihot or Ihells
coming towards them, they have been fafclnated by its appearance, and unable to move from the fpot, as
fmall "birds are faid to be by the rattleliiake. " This fudden arreft of the faculties (fays our author) was
nothing uncommon : feveral inftances occurred to my own obfervation, where men, totally free, have had their
fenfes lo engaged by a ftiell in its defcent, that tlfbugh fenfible of their danger, even fo far as to cry for affift-
ance, they have been immoveably fixed to the place. But what is more remarkable, thefe men have fo inllan-
taneoufly recovered themfelves on its fall to the ground, as to lemove to a, place of fafety before the Ihell burft."
In this manner Lieutenant Lowe of the l 2th regiment was fafcinated by a ihot which he faw coming, but had
not power to remove from the place before it fell upon him and took off his leg.

Where thefe (liells burft they produced inftant and certain deftruftion, mangling in the moft dreadful man-
ner. The follo;\ing are fome inftances : A matrofs had the misfortune of breaking his thigh by fome acci-
dent ; and being a man of great fplrit, could fcarce bear the confinement ncceffary for its reunion. In cpnfe-
quence of this he went abroad too foon, and thus unfortunately broke the bone a fecond time. Being now
confined to bed, a ihell happened to fail into the room where he was, and, rebounding, lodged itfelf diieftly
upon him. The convalelcents and fick inftantly fummoned all their flrength, and crawled tjut of the room,
while the poor matrofs lay below the ftiell, kept down by its weight, and utterly unable to ftir. In a few fe-
conds it burft, and took off both his legs, and fcorched him in a dreadful manner. He furvived the explofion,
was fenfible to the laft moment, and died regretting that he had not been killed on the batteries. _ The cafe
of a foldier of the 73d regiment lliows, that even in the moft dangerous cafes we (hould never defpair of reco-
very while life remains. I his unfortunate man had been knocked down by the wind of a ftiell, ivhich, inftantly
burfting, killed his companion, and mangled himfelf in a fliocking manner. His Ikull was dreadfully fraflurcd,
bis left arm broken in two places, one of his legs ftiattered, ihe'fliin and roufclcs torn off from part of his right
hand, the middle finger broken to pieces, and his whole body moft fevcrely bruifed and marked with gun-
powder. He prefented fo horrid an objed to the furgeons, that they had not the leaft hopes of faviiig his
life, and were at a lofs what part to attend to firft. He was that evening trepanned ; a few days afterwards
his leg was amputated, and other wounds and fractures were drelTed. Being poffeffcd of a moft excellent conftitu-
tion, nature performed wonders in his favour, and in 11 weeks his cure was completely efTtflcd. On the
1 8th of September a ftiell from the lines fell into a houfe where the town major Captain Burke, with Majors
Mercier and Vignoles of the 39th regiment were fitting. It took off Major Burke's thigh ; afterwards fell
through the ftcor into the cellar : there it burft, and forced the tiooring with the unfortiuiate major up to the
ceiling. When aftiftance came, they found him almoft buried in the ruins of the room. He was inftantly convey-
ed lo the hofpital, where he died foon after the wounded part bad been amputated. JVLijors Mercier and

Vig)\oles

GIB C 71

Gitraltar.'art] tlic arlilleiTmen, artificers, and failors, exerted
*''""^' tliemfclves fo vigoroully, that in the fpace of an hour

tlie magazines were blown up, the ftorehoufes of arms,
ammunition, and military implen^ents of every kind, and
all the works that had I t e;; conflrufred, were iet on fire,
and totally confumed ; the uhole damage done on this oc-
caiion being eftimated at up»\ ards of two milUcns fterlinor.
For fever^l days after this difafter the Spaniards
continued inactive, without e\'en making anv attempt
to extinguilb their batteries, which ftill continued in
flames ; but in the beginning of December, as if fud-
<]enly aioufed from their reverie, upwards of lOOO
Kicn were fet to work in order to prepare a great
number of falcines, from whence it was concluded that
they def.gned to repair their works. In this they
proceeded with their uiual perleverance and diligence ;
but as the former methods of attack had conltantly
failed, it was evident, that if the place could be reduced
at all, it muft be by fome means hitherto unattempted ;
and for the reduftion of this fingle fortrefs, the Spa-
iiifli monarch, after the conqueft of Minorca, deter-
mined to employ the whole Itrength of his empire,
^j Among the various projects formed at this time, that
Floating of the chevalier D'Arcon, a French engineer of di-
batteries flinftion, proved the mofl acceptable to the court of
invented b) gpain : and thcueh the expence attending it was im-
lier D'Ar- i"en(c, this leemed m the prelcnt circumliances to be
con. but a matter of fmall confideration. His plan was to

cor.ftruft fuch floating batteries as might neither be
liable to be funk nor let on fire. With this view their
bottoms were made of the thickeft timber, and their
iides of wood and cork long ioaked in water, with a
layer of wet fand betwixt them. Their thicknefs was
fuch, that they were impenetrable to cannon ftiot ;
and to prevent the eficcls of red-hot balls, a num-
ber of pipes were contrived to carry water through
every part of the veflel, and pumps fufficient to fur-
iiilh a conftant fupply for the purpofe. The people
at the batteries were flieltered from the bombs by a
rope netting, made floping that they might roll off,
and fpread with wet ikins to prevent fire. Ten of
thefe batteries were conrtrufted out of the hulls of large

2 1 GIB

\-eirels, fome of 50 or Co guns, cut do-.vn fur that pur- ^. raits:.
pofe, and carrying from 10 to 28 guns each, with '— — v— — '
sbout half as many in referve in cafe of accidents.
Eich gun was ferved by 36 artillery men ; and thefe
floating batteries were to be feconded by So large
boats carrying guns and mortars of heavy metal j a
great number of iliips of force and fiigates, with fome
hundreds of fmall craft, were to accompany them with
troops, for the inflant execution of ivhtt might be
judged neceffary. On this occaficn upwards nt looa
pieces of artillery and 8r,0G0 barrels of gunpowder
were provided. A body of i 2,000 of the bed troops
of France were now added to the Spanilh army before
the place ; the body of engineers was the beft that both
kingdoms could produce ; and numbers of volunteers,
of the beft families in botli, attended the fiege. Num-
bers of military gentlemen al.'b came from every part
of Europe to be vvitneiles of what palTed at this cele-
brated fiege, which was now compared to the moft fa-
mous recorded in hilfory. The conduiling of it was
com.mitted to the duke de Crillon, who had diliin-
guilheJ himfelf by the conqueft of Minorca. Tivo
princes of the blood royal of France, the count of Ar-
tois brother to the king, and the duke of Boiubon his
coufin, came to be witnefles of this extraordinary en-
terprife. Thefe behaved with the greattft politenefs
both to the governor f.nd garrifon. The count of Ar-
tois tranfmitted a packet of letters for various indivi-
duals in the garrifon, which had been intercepted and
carried »to Madrid, and ^vliich he requelkd that he
might be the means of conveying to thoie for whom
they were defigned. Both he and the duke of Eour-
bon fignified to General Elliot the high regard they
had for his perfon and charafter ; and the duke de
Crillon himfelf took this opportunity of exprelTing
the -fame fentiments, and to entreat him to accept of
fome refrefhments. General Elliot returned a polite
anfwer, but accepted of tlie prefent with reluctance,
and requefted him for the future not to confer any fa-
vours of that kind upon him. ^3
Such a prodigious armament raifed the confidence Prod. gicuj

of the befiegers fo high, that they looked upon the"™'^™^"'
° ° abfoi'shtbe-
^o^a^ei^foretiefor,
_tre(s.

Vignoles had time to efcape before the (hell burft ; neverthelefs they were (lightly wounded by the fplinters, as
were a ferjeant and his daughter, who happened to be in the cellar when the (hell entered.

The following are related as inft ances of very extraordinary efcapes from the dellrudlive power of thefe en-
gines, and which indeed it fcems difficult to account for. — A corporal had the muzzle of his firelock clofed,
and the barrel twifted like a French horn, by a iliell, without any injury to his perfon. A lliell happened to
fall into a tent where two foldiers were afleep, without awakening them by its fall. A ferjeant in an adjacent
tent heard it, and ran near 40 yards to a place of fafety, when he recollefted the fituation of his comrades.
Thinking the fhell had fallen blind, he returned and awakened them ; both immediately rofe, but continued
by the place, debating on th.e narrow efcape they had had, when the fliell exploded, and forced them with
great violence againft a garden wall, but, " miraculoufly" did no further mifchicf toa 1 deftroying every thing
in the tent. On the new year's day of 1772, an officer of artillery obferved a flicU falling toivards the place
where he ftood, and got behind a traverfe for proteiSllon. This he had fcarcely done, ivhen the Ihell fell into
the traverfe, and inftantly entangled him in the rubbifli : one of the guard, named Martin, obferving his diftrefs,
generoufly rifked his own life in defence of his officer, and ran to extricate him : but finding his own efforts in-
effeflual, called for afflftance ; when another of the guard joining him, they relieved the officer from his fituation j
and alraoft at the fame inllant the (hell burft, and levelled the traverfe with the ground. Martin was afterwards
promoted, and rewarded by the governor ; who at the fame time told him, that " he ihould equally have noti-
ced him for attending to his comrade." A Ihell happening to fall into the room where Enfign Mackenzie of the
73d regiment was fitting, carried away part of his chair, and fell into the room below, where it burft, lifting
him and the chair from the floor without further injury.
2

G I B

■ conqueft of the pkce as an abfolute certainty. They
began to be impatient at tlie delnys which arofe in
bringing matters to the utmoll point of perfeftion ;
and the commander in chief was thou^lit by far too
modert, when he faid that the garrifon might hold
out for a fortnight. " It appeared (Jays Captain
Drinkwater) that they meant, pre\'iou'i to their final
efforts, to rtrike if polfible a terror through their op-
ponents, by difplayliig an armament more powerful
than had probably ever been brought before any for-
trtls. Forty-feven fail of the line, including three in-
ferior two-deckers j ten battering (liips, deemed per-
ie&. in defign, and efteemed invincible, carrying 2 i z
guns ; innumerable frigate-, xebcques, bomb ketches,
cutters, gun and mortar boat-:, and fmaller craft for
difembarking men, were aflenibled in the bay. On
the land fide were mofl ftupendous and Urong batteries
and works, mounting 200 pieces of he;;vy ordnance,
and protetled by an aimy of near 40,000 men, com-
manded by a viftorious and aftive general, and anima-
ted by the immediate pretence of two princes of the
blood royal of France, with other dignified perfonages,
and many of their own nobility. In their certainty
of fuccefs, however, the enemy feeraed entirely to have
overlooked the nature of that force which was oppo-
fed to them ; for though the garrifon fcarcely con-
iiffed of more than 7000 effeftive men, including the
marine brigade, thev forgot that they were now ve-
terans in this fervice, had long been habituated to the
cfiefts of artillery, and were by degrees prepared for
the arduous contlicl that awaited them. We were at
tl;e fame time commanded by officers of approved cou-
rage, pi-udence, and aftivity ; eminent for all the ac-
compljflmients of their profelTion, and in whom \ve had
unbounded confidence. Our fpirits too were not a
little elevated by the fuccefs attending the firing of
red-hot (hot (c\ which in this attack we hoped would
enable us to bring our labours to a conclufion, and
relieve us from the tedious cruelty of a vexatious
blockade."

As a prelude to the dreadful ftorm which was about
to be poured forth on this devoted garrifon, the ene-
my, on the 9th of September 1782, opened a battery
of 64 of their brgell cannon, which was fluutly ac-
companied with a terrible fire from other batteries,
and a great number of mortars. On this and the fol-
lowing day an attack was made upon the batteries
ercfted on Europa Point (fo called from being the
mofl foutherly point of the continent of Europe),
which at that time were entirely under the manage-
ment of Captain Curtis of the Brilliant frigate, who
had diftinguidied himfelf during the fie;;c, and now
commanded a brigade of feamen by whom the batteries
were ferved. By thefe the fire of the Spaniards was
fo warmly returned, that they not only could make no
impreffion, but were forced to retire, after having re-
ceived fo much damage, that two of their principal
fliips were obliged to withdraw to the bay of Algefiras
oppofite to Gibraltar, in order to refit. On the I 2th
Vol.. IX. Part II.

G I B

the enemy made preparations for the enfuiug day, Giji':iltar.

which was allotted for their grand and decifive attack. '""^

Accordingly, on the morning of the 13th, the ten 44
floating batteries came forward, under'the command of '^'^'"'^*' "*"
Don Bucnventura de Moreno, a Spauilh officer of great '('.'(jQfj'j.p^
gallantry, and who had fignalized himfelf at the taking .,;'.r,ber "^
of Minorca. Before ten o'clock they had all got into 1783.
their proper tlatious, anchoring in a line about a thou-
fand yards diflant from the lliore. As foori as they
were properly arranged, they began a heavy cannonade,
and were feconded by all the cannon and mortars in
the enemy's lines and approaches, at the lame time
that the garrifon opened all its batteries both with
hot and cold fliot from the guns, and ihells from the
howitzers and mortars. This terrible fire continued
on both fides without intermifTion until noon ; when
that of the Spaniards began to Uacken, and the fire
of the garrifon to obtain a fuperiority. About two
o'clock the principal battering (hip commanded by
Don Moreno was obfcrved to emit Imoke as if on fire,
and fome men were feen bufy upon the roof fearching
from whence it proceeded. The fire from the garrifon
was now kept up without the leaft difconti nuance or
diminution, while that from the floating batteries was
perceived fenfibly to decreafe ; fo that about feven in
the evening they fired but few guns, and that only at
intervals. At midnight the admiral's (hip was plainly
feen to bum, and in an hour after was completely in
flames. Eight more of thefe batteries took fire fuc-Xerrfble
cefljvely ; and on the fignals of diflrefs made by them,de(lni(ftion
the multitude of feluccas, launches, and boats, withof the Spa-
which they were furrounded, all came to their aflillance,"'"'^''
and began to take the men out of the burning vefTcls.
Captain Ciu-tis, who lay ready with the gunboats to
take advantage of any favourable circumflance, came
upon them at two in the morning, and forming a line
on the enemy's flank, advanced- upon them with fuch
order and expedition as to throw them into immediate
confufion. At this fudden and une\pe£led attack
they were fo allonllhed and difconcerted, that they fled
precipitately with all their boats, totally abandoning
the floating batteries to be burnt, and all who were
in them to perifli in the flames. This would undoubt-
edly have been their fate, had riot Captain Curtis ex-
tricated them from the fire at the imminent danger of
his own life and that 01 his men. In this work he was
fo eager, that while his boat was alongfide of one of
the largeft batteries, it blew up, and the fragments of
the wreck fprcading all around to a va.1 diftance, fome
heavy pieces of timber fell into his boat and pierced
through its bottom, killing one man and wounding
feveral others. He efcaped with difficulty out of this
boat, which was funk, as well as another, by the fame
accident. The floating batteries were every one con-
fumed ; and the violence with which they exploded was
fuch that doors and windows at a great diftance on
(hore were burll open. About 400 people were faved
from them ; many of whom were picked up floating on
rafts and pieces of timber. Indeed the blowing up of
4X the

(r) This was fuggefted by Lieutenant Governor Boyd, and had been attended with remarkable fuccefs, Sep-
tember 8th, when the enemy's advanced works were almoft deftroyed by it.

In-ftuity
ct the com
bined fleet

47
Tlie blnc-
kadecontl
nueJ.

GIB [71

tlie be'.itfies as the flames reached their powder rooms,
and the difcharge of tlie guns in fucceffion as the metdl
became heated by the fire, rendered any attempt to
fave them very dangerous.

Tliis terrible catallrophe took place in light of the
combined fleets of France and Spain. It had been pro-
pofed that they fhould co-operate upon this important
occafion, by attacking the garrifon at Europa Point,
and fuch places as appeared moft expol'ed to an attempt
bv fea. This, it was afterwards faid, muft have occa-
fioned a material diverfion of the garrifon's force, and,
by dividing it, have weakened confiderably the vigor-
ous means of defence ufed in thole parts which were
ailually attacked. The reafon afligned for this inac-
tivity was the want of wind.

Though this terrible repulfe eSFedlually convinced
the Spaniards that Gibraltar could not be taken by
force, fome hope flill remained, that, without any fur-
ther exertions on their part, the garrifon would be
obliged to furreuder from want of ammunition and
provifions. With this view they continued to blockade
it clolely, and to cut off all communication, flattering
themfelves that Britain would not be able to colleifl a
naval force fufficient to drive their fleet from the bay
before the fortrefs was reduced to extremity ; and this
they imagined muft be the cafe in a few days. Such
diligence, however, had been ufed on the part of the
Britilh, that a fleet was already affembled at Portf-
mouth, conflfting of 35 fail of the line, in excellent
condition, and filled with the beft officers and failors in
Jlurope. The command was given to Lord Howe,
■who was accompanied in the expedition by Admirals
Barrington, Milbank, Hood, Sir Richard Hughes, and
Commodore Hotham, all of them men eminent in their
profeflion. At the fame time alio it fortunately hap-
pened, that a large Britilh fleet of merchantmen had
jufl: arrived in fafety from the Baltic ; and that a Dutch
Iquadron, which had been cruifmg on their own coafts,
not being able to penetrate fouthwards in order to join
the French, had retired into port, and given up the in-
tention of effecting any juni;lion for that feafon.

At this time the Britilh nation was in the utraoft
anxiety about the fate of Gibraltar. The progrefs of
the fhips was delayed by contrarv winds, and it was not
until they had gained the fouthern coaft of Portugal
that they received information of the defeat of the
enemy's attempt on the 13th of September. On the
Iith of Oftober Lord Howe entered the Straits, and
feveral of the flore fliips deflined for Gibraltar came
fafe to anchor under the cannon of the fort without any
TOolellation from the enemy. The combined fleet in
the mean time had been much damaged by a ftorm -,
two fliips of the line were driven alhore near Aloefnas ;
two more were driven out of the bay into the Mediter-
tanean ; others loll their mafls, and molf of them fuf-
fcred confiderably. One in particular, a fliip of 70
guns, was carried by the ftorm acrofs the bay, and ran
aground under the works of Gibraltar, where flie was
taken by the garrifon, with her whole complement of
men, confifling of 700. Notwithlianding the endea-
vours of the enemy to defl roy her, (he was fafely got
oif, and properly repaired. The combined fleet, how-
ever, put to fea on the 13th, with a view to prevent
the remaining ftorelhips that had overfhot the bay to
the eafi from making good their entrance into it j and

4 ] G I E

at the f:rKc time to rejoin th.e two fliips that had been Glbral- r

feparated from the main body by the ftorm. Having ~^ '

the advantage of the wind, they bore down upon the
Biitilh fleet, ivhich drew up in order of battle to re-
ceive them •, but notwithltanding their iuperioritv,
they declined coming to an engagement. 0:i the wind
becoming more favourable next, day. Lord Huwe took
the opportunity to bring in the ftorelhips that were in
company ; and the day following the remainder were
conveyed to Gibraltar, the troops for the reinforcement
of the garrifon were landed, wilh a large fupply of
powder, and ample provif.on in every other rel'ped.
As they returned through the ftraits they were threa-
tened with an engagement by the combined fleets ; but
though the latter had a fuperiority of 1 2 (hips of the
line, they kept a wary diltancc. Some firing indeed
took place, but it was attended with little effeit on
either fide. ■, 4S

This laft relief proved entirely decifive ; for though The garri-
the blockade continued till news arrived of the prelimi- '"". ' ^
naries of peace being figned, in the beginning of Fe- ^ ' ^
bruary 1783, no other attack was made. The news of
the pacification were received with the utraoft joy by
the Spaniards. Mutual civihties paffed between the
commanders in chief, and the Duke de Crillon paid
many handfome compliments to the governor and gar-
rifon for their noble defence ; declaring that he had ex-
erted himfelf to the utmofl: of his abilities, and though
he had not proved fuccelsful, yet he was happy in hav-
ing his fovereign's approbation of his conduft.

The poifcflion of Gibraltar is efleemed of very great importance
confequence to Britain. It not only gives us the com-of GibraU
mand of the Straits, and their navigation ; but aflbrdstar.
refrefl\ment and accommodation to our fleets in time of
war, and to our merchantmen at all times ; which, to
a maritime power, is of very great advantage. From
its fituatlon, it divides both the kingdoms of France
and Spain ; that is, it hinders a ready communica-
tion by fea between the different parts of thefe king-
doms. This, of courfe, hinders the conjuncflion of
their fleets and fquadrons with each other, or at leaft
renders it fo difficult as to be a perpetual check upon
thefe ambitious powers. It awes alio the piratical
ftates of Bnrbary, and in like manner the emperor of
IVlorocco ; infomuch, thiit our commerce is more fafe
than that of any other Etuopean power, which gives
us great advantages in point of freight. It is other-
wife highly favourable to our trade in the Mediterra-
nean and Levant. It procures us the refpeiSl of the Ita-
lian and other powers ; who, though far diftant from
Britain, muft confider this as an inftance of her power
to hurt or aflTift them. It alfo faves us the expence of
fquad rons or convoys, upon any difputes or diilurb-
ances that may happen among thefe powers, and
^vhich would othervvife be neceffary for the proteflion
of our navigation.

" The form of this mountain is (fays Major Irarie)
oblong ; its fummit a (harp craggy ridge ; its direftion
is nearly from north to fouth ; and its greateft length,
in that direftion, falls very little ftiort of three miles.
Its breadth varies with the indentations of the ftiore, but
it nowhere exceeds three quarters of a mile. The line
of its ridge is undulated, and the two extremes are fome-
what higher than its centre. jo

" The fummit of the Sugar Loaf, which is the point Natural

ofhiftory.

GIB [7

• ot its greateft eleration towards the fouth, is 1439 feet ;

■ the Rock Mortar, which is the higheft point to the
north, is 1350 ; and the Signal Houl'e, which is nearly
the central point between thefe two, is 1276 feet above
the level of the fca. The wcllern fide of the mountain
is a feries of rugged (lopes, interlperfed with abrupt pre-
cipices. Its northern extremity is perfeclly perpendi-
cular, except towards the north-welt, where what are
called the Lines intervene, and a narrow pajage of flat
ground that leads to the iiihmus, and is entirely cover-
ed with fortification. The eaftern fide of the moun-
tain moftly confifts of a range of precipices ; but a bank
of fand, riling from the JNIeditertauean in a rapid accli-
\ity, covers a third of its perpendicular height. Its
fouthern extremity falls, in a rapid llope from the fum-
mit of the Sugar Loaf, into a rocky flat of confiderable
extent, called Windmill Hill.

'' The principal mafs of the mountain rock confrTs of
a gray, denfe (svhat is generally called primary) mar-
ble ; the diflferent beds of which are to be examined in
a face of 1350 feet of perpesdicu'.ar height, which it
prefents to Spain in a conical form, Thefe beds, or
llrata, are of various thickne's, from 20 to upwards of
40 feet, dipping in a direction from eall to weft, nearly
at an angle of 35 degrees. In fome parts of the folid
mafs of this rock are found teftaceous bodies entirely
tranfmuted into the conftituent matter of the rock, and
their interior hollows filled up with calcareous fpar ; but
thel'e do not occur often in its compolition, and its beds
;;re net feparated by any intermediate ilrata.

'' The caves of Gibraltar are many, and fome of them
of great extent. That which moft deferves attention and
examination is called St Michael's Cave, which is fitu-
ated upon the fouthern part of the mountain, almoft
equally diftant from the Signal Tower and the Sugar
Loaf. Its entrance is looo feet above the level of the
fea : This entrance is formed by a rapid Hope of earth,
which has fallen into it at various periods, and which
leads to a fpacious hall, incrufted with fpar, and appa-
rently fupported in the centre by a large malfy ftaladi-
lical piUar. To this fucceeds a long feries of caves of
difficult accefs. In thefe cavernous receffes, the forma^
lion and procefs of ftalaclites is to be traced, from the
tiimfy quilt-like cone, fufpended from the roof, to the
roburt trunk of a pillar, three feet in diameter, which
rifcs from the floor, and feems intended by Nature to
fupport the roof from which it originated.

" The only inhabitants of thefe caves are bats, fome
of which are of a large fize. The foil, in general, upon
the mountain of Gibraltar is but thinly fown ; and in
many parts that thin covering has been walhed off by
the heavy autumnal rains, which have left the fuperS-
cies of the rock, for a confiderable extent, bare and
open to infpedion. In thofe fituations, an obferving
eye may trace the e.TcAs of the flo.v, but conitant, de-
compofition of the rock, caufed by its expofure to the
£ir, and the corroCon of fea-falts, which, in the heavy
gales of eafterly winds, are depofited with the fpray on
every part of the mountain. Thofe uncovered parts of
the mountain rock alfo expofe to the eye a phenomenon
worthy of fome attention, as it tends clearly to demon-
ftrate, that, hoivever high the furface of this rock may
now be elevated above the level of the fea, it has once
been the bed of agitated waters. This phenomenon is
to be obfcrved in many parts of the rock, and is con-

15 ] GIB

llantly (omJ. in the beds of torrents. It conSfl"; of pot- Cibt.iliir,
like holes, of v.irious fizcs, hollowed out of the folid ~~~v— '
rock, and formed apparently by the attrition of gravel
or pcbtlcs, fet in motion by the rapidity of rivers or
currents in the fea.

" Upon the weft fide of the mountain, towards its
bafe, fome ftrata occur, which are heterogeneal to the
mountain rock : the firft, or higheft, forms the fcgment
of a circle ; its convex fide is towards the mountain,
and it flopes alfo in that direction. This ftratum con-
fifts of a number of thin beds ; the outward one, being
the thinneft, is in a Itate of dccompofition, and is moulder-
ing down into a blackifli brown or ferruginous coloured
earth. The beds, inferior to this, progreftively incrcafe
in breadth to 17 inches, where the ftratification refts
upon a rock of an argillaceous nature.

" This lad bed, nhich is 17 inches thick, confifts of
quartz of a blackilh blue colour, in the fepta or cracks
of which are found fine quartz cryrtals, colourlefs, and
perfeftly tranfparent. Thefe cryftals are compofed of iS
planes, difpofcd in hexangular columns, terminated at
both extremities by hexangular pyramids. The largell
of thofe that Major Imiie faw did not exceed one-
fourth of an inch in length : They, in general, adhere
to the rock by the fides of the column, but are de-
tached without difliculty. Their great degree of tr.uif-
parency has obtained them the name of Gibraltar
diamonds.'''' ji

" In the perpendicular fiilures of the rock, and in fome^""'^*'^'"'"''
of the caverns of the mountain (all of which afford f^'''i-'\^^'^l^°^
dent proofs of their former communication with the
furface), a calcareous concretion is found, of a leddifti
brown ferruginous colour, with an earthy fracture, and
confiderable hiduration, incloiing the bones of various
animals, fome of which have the appearance of being
human. Thefe bones are of various fizes, and lie in all
direftions, intermixed with ftiells of fnails, fragments of
the calcareous rock, and particles of fpar ; all of which
materials are ftill to be feen in their nritural uncombined
rtates, partially fcattered over the furface of the moun-
tain. 'I'liefe have been fwept, by heavy rains at dif-
ferent periods, from the furface into the fituations above
dcfcribed, and having remained for a long feries of years
in thofe places of reft, expofed to the permeating aftioii
of water, have become enveloped in, and cemented by,
the calcareous matter which it depofits.

"The bones, in thiscompofition, have not the fmalleft
appearance of being petrified j and if they have under-
gone any change, it is more like that of calcination than
that of petrifadion, as the moft fohd parts of them ge-
nerally admit of being cut and fcraped down with the
fame eafe as chalk.

" Bones combmed in fuch concretions are not pecu-
liar to Gibraltar : they are found in fuch large quanti-
ties in the country of Dalmatia and upon its coails, in
the illands of Cherfo and Ofero, that fome naturalifts
liave been induced to go fo far as to affert, that there has
been a regular ftratum of fuch matter in that country,
and that its prefent broken and interrupted appearance
has been caufed by earthquakes, or other convulfions,
experienced in that part of the globe. But, of late,
years, a traveller (Abbe Alberto Tortis) has given a
minute dcfcription of the concretion in which the bones
are found in that country : And by his account it ap-
pears, that with regard to fituation, ccaipoCtion, and
4 -X 2 ' colou,.

G I B

[ 71^ ]

G I B

Gibraltar, colour, it is perfectly fimilar to that found at Gibraltar.
» By his defcription, it alfo appears that the two moun-

tain rocks of Gibraltar and Dalraatia confift of the fame
fpecies of calcareous lione ; from ivhich it is to be pre-
fumed, that the concretions in both have been formed
in the fame manner and about the fame periods.

" Perhaps if the fiffures and caves of the rocks of Dal-
matia were ftill more minutely examined, their former
communications with the furface might yet be traced
as in thofe defcribtd above •, and, in that cafe, there
ivould be at leaft a ftrong probability, that the materials
of the concretions of that country have been brought
together by the fame accidental caufe which has pro-
bably colleiEled thofe found in the caverns of Gibraltar.
Major Imrie traced, in Gibraltar, this concretion, from
the lovveft part of a deep perpendicular fiffure, up to
the furface of the mountain. As it approached to the
furface, the concretion became leis firmly combined,
and, when it had no covering of tlie calcareous rock, a
fmall degree of adhefion only remained, which was evi-
dently produced by the argillaceous earth, in its com-
pofition, having been moiilened by rain and baked by
the fun.

" The depth at which thefe materials had been pene-
trated by that proportion of llalaftitical matter, capable
of giving to the concretion its greate'l adhefion and fo-
lidity, he found to vary according to its fituation, and
to the quantity of matter to be combined. In fiffures,
narrow and contrafled, he found the concretion poilei-
fing a great degree of hardnefs at fi.K feet from the fur-
face; but in other fituations, more extended, and where
a larger quantity of the materials had been accumula-
ted, he found it h;>d not gained its greateft degree of
adhefion at double that depth. In one of the caves,
where the mafs of concretion is of confiderable fize, he
perceived it to be divided into different beds, each bed
being covered with a cruft of the ftalaftitical fpar, from
one inch to an inch and a half in thicknefs, which feems
to indicate, that the materials have been carried in at
various periods, and that thofe periods have been very
remote from each other.

" At Rofia bay, upon the weft fide of Gibraltar, this
concretion is found in what has evidently been a cavern,
originally formed by huge unlhapely mafl'es of the rock
Tvhich have tumbled in together. The fiffure, or ca-
vern, formed by the difruption and fubfidence of thofe
maffes, has been entirely filled up with the concretion,
and is now expofed to full view by the outward mafs
having dropped douTi in conlequence of the encroach-
ments of the fea. It is to this (pot that ftrangers are
generally led to examine the phenomenon ; and the
compofition, having here attained to its greateft degree
of hardnefs and folidity, the halty obferver, feeing the
bones inclofed in what has fo little the appearance of
having been a vacuity, examines no further, but imme-
diately adopts the idea of their being incafed in the fo-
lid rock. -The communication from this former chafm,
to the furface from which it has received the materials
of the concretion, is ftill to be traced in the face of the
rock, but its opening is at prefent covered by the bafe
of the line wall of the garrifon. Here bones are found
that are apparently human ; and thofe of them that ap-
pear to be of the legs, arms, and vertebra; of the bacK,
arc icattcred among others of various kinds and fizcs,
even down to the fmalleft bones of fmall birds. Major

Imrie found here the complete jaw-bsne of a fheep ; it Gibtalf j-

contained its full complement of teeth, the enamel of * — ~

which was perfect, and its whitenefs and luftre in no
degree impaired. In the hollow parts ot fome of the
large bones was contained a minute cryftallization of
pure and colourlefs calcareous ipar ; but, in moft, the
interior part confided of a fparry cruft of a reddilh co-
lour, fcarcely in any degree tranlparent.

" At the northern extremity of the mountain, the con-
cretion is generally found in perpendicular fiffures. The
miners there employed upon the fortifications, in exca-
vating one of thoie fiffures, found, at a great depth from
the furface, two ikulls, which were fuppoied to be hu-
man ; but, to the Major, one of them, if not both, ap-
peared to be too fmall for the Iwman fpecies. The bone
of each was perfectly firm and folid ; from which it is
to be prefumed, that they were in a ftate of maturity
before they ivere inclofed in the concretion. Had they
appertained to very young children, perhaps the bone
would have been more porous, and of a lefs firm tex-
ture. 'I'he probability is, that they belonged to a fpe-
cies of monkey, which ftill continues to inhabit, in con-
fiderable numbers, thofe parts of the rock which are to
us inacceffiblc.

" This concretion varies, in its compofition, accord-
ing to the fituation in which it is found. At the extre-
mity of Prince's Lines, high in the rock which looks
towards Spain, it is found to confift only of a reddiih
calcareous earth, and the bones of fmall birds cemented
thereby. The rock around this fpot is inhabited by a
number of hauks, that, in the breeding feafon, neltle
here and rear their young: the bones in this concretion
are probably the remains of the food of thofe birds.
At the bafe of tlie rock, below King's Lines, the con-
cretion confills of pebbles of the prevailing calcareous
rock. In this concretion, at a very confiderable depth
under the furface, was found the under parts of a glafs ' Ptil-
bottle, uncommonly fliaped, and of great thicknefs; i"-^-^*""'
the colour of the glafs was of a dark green*." ' '

" The fubterraneous galleries are very e.\tenfive,Subterrane-
pierce the rock in feveral places and in various direc- ""s galle.
tions, and at various degrees of elevation ; all of them""*
have a communication with each other, either by ftights
of fteps cut in the rock, or by wooden flairs where the
paffages are required to be very perpendicular.

" The centinels may now be relieved during a fiege
from one ])oft to another in perfedl fafety ; whereas, pre-
vioufty to the conftruding of thefe galleries a vaft num-
ber of men were killed by the Spaniards while march-
ing to their feveral ftations. The width of thtfe grl-
leries is about twelve feet, their height about fourteen.
The rock is broken through in various places, both for
the purpofe giving light and for placing the guns to
bear on the enemy. In different parts there are fpa-
cious receffes, capable of accommodating a confiderable
number of men. To thefe receffes they give names,
fiich as St Patrick's Chamber, St George's Hall, &c.
The whole of thefe finguhir ftruflurts have been form-
ed out of the folid rock by blafting with gunpowder.
Through the politenefs of an ofticer on duty, a place
called Smart's Refervoir was opened for our infpedion,
which is a great curiofity, and not generally permitted
to be fticwn. It is a fpring at a confiderable depth in
tlie body of the rock, and is above 700 feet above the
level of the fca3 we dcfcended into the cavern that con-
tains

G I B

[ 717 ]

G I B

Gibralt.u, tains it by a rope ladder, and wnih tlie aid of lighted
, Giblon. candles proceeded through a narrow palUige over cryftal-
• lized protuberances of the rock till we came to a hollow,
v.-hich .-ippears to have been opened by fome convuHion
ct nature. Here, from a bed of gems, arilc-s the falu-
fary fount, clear as the brilliant of the eaft, and cold as
the icicle. We hailed the nymph of the grot, and, pro-
itrating ourfeUes, quaffed hygean iiedlar from her fparry
urn. When reilorcd to the light of day, \vc obtained,
through the medium of the fame gentleman, the key of
St George's Hall, at which we anived by a very intri-
cate and gloomy path to the fpacious excavation, which
is upwards of an hundred feet in length, its height near-
ly the fame. It is formed in a femicircular part of
the rock : fpacious apertures are broken through, where
cannons of a very large calibre command the illhraus,
the Spanith lines, and a great part of the bay. The
top of the rock is pierced through, Co as to introduce
furticient light to enable you to view every part of it.
It appears almofl incredible that fo large an excavation
could be formed by gunpowder, without blowing up
the whole of tliat part of the rock, and ftill more fo,
that they ihould be able to direct the operations of fuch
an inllrument, fo as to render it fubfervient to the pur-
pofe of elegance. We found in the hall a table, pla-
ced, I fuppofe, for the conveniency of thofe who are
traverfing the rock. The cloth was fpread, the vrine
went round, and we made the vaulted root relbund with
* Minth. the accents of mil th and the fongs of conviviality*."
liUg 1793. GIBSON, Richard, an Engliih painter, com-
monly called tlie Divarf, was originally page to a la-
dy at Mortlake ; who, obferving that his genius led
him to painting, had the generofity to get him in-
Prucled in the rudiments of that art. He devoted him-
felf to Sir Peter Lely's manner, and copied his pii'lures
to admiration, efpecially his portraits : his paintings
in water colours were alfo elleemed. He was in great
favour with Charles I. who made him his page of the
back flairs; and he had the honour to inflrudl in draw-
ing (^ueen Mary and Qiieen Anne when they were
princeiles. He married one Mrs Anne Shepherd, who
was alfo a dwarf; on which occaiion King Charles I.
honoured their marriai^e with his prefence, and gave
aivay the bride. Mr Waller wrote a poem on this oc-
cafion, entitled •' The Marriage of the Dwarfs ;" in
which are thefe lines :

Defign or change makes others wive,
But nature did this match contrive ;
Eve might as well have Adam fled.
As file deny'd her little bed
To him for whom heav'n feem'd to frame
And meafure out this only dame."

Mr Fenton, in his notes on this poem, obferves that
he had feen this couple painted by Sir Peter Lely ;
and that they were of an equal ftature, each being
three feet ten inches high. They had nine children,
£ve of whom arrived at maturity ; thefe were well
proportioned, and of the ufual ftandard of mankind.
But what nature denied this couple in ftature, fhe gave
then in length of days : for Mr Gibfon died in the
7 5th year of his age ; and his wife, having furvived him
almofl 20 years, died in 1709, aged 89.

Gibson, Dr Edmund, bifliop of London, was born

in Weilmorland, in 1669. He applied hlmfelf e.irly f'- -'
and vigoroufly to learning, and difplayed his know- '""""''
ledge in ftveral writings and tranilations, which re-
commended him to the patronage of Archbifhop Ten-
nifon. He was appointed domellic chaplain to his
Grace ; and we foon after find him reclor of Lam-
beth, and archdeacon of Surry. Becoming thus a
member of the convocation, he engiiged in a contro-
verfy, which was carried on with great warmth by
the members of both houfes, and defended his pa.
tron's rights, as prefident, in eleven pamphlets ; he
then formed and completed his 'more comprehenfive
fcherae of the legal duties and rights of the Ei'.glifh
clergy, which was at length publifhed under the title
of Codex Juris Kcclefiaftict /ingticani, in folio. Arch-
bifhop Tennifon dying in I 715, and Dr Wacke bilhop of
Lincoln being made archbilhop of Canterbury, Dr Gib-
fon fucceeded the latter in the fee of Lincoln, and in
1720 was promoted to the bilhoprick of Loudon. He
now not only governed his dlocefe with the moti exa6t
regularity, but by his great care promoted the fpiritual
affairs of the chiitch of England colonies in the Weft
Indies. He was extremely jealous of the leafl of the
privileges belonging to the church ; and therefore,
though he approved of the toleration of the Proteilant
DiiTenters, he continually guarded againfl all the at-
tempts made to procure a repeal of the corporation
and teff ads; in particular, his oppofition to thofe li-
centious aflemblies called tnafqiierades, gave great um-
brage at court, and efFeftually excluded him from all
further favours. He fpent the latter part of his life
in writing and printing paftoral letters, vifitation-
charges, occafional fermons, and tracts againfl the
prevailing immoralities of the age. His paftoral let-
ters are juflly efteemed as the moll mallerly produClions
againft infidelity and enthufiafm. His moft celebrated
work, the Codex, has been already mentioned. His
other publications are, 1. An edition of Drumraond's
Po/emo-Middinia, and James V. of Scotland's Can-
tilena Rujlica, with notes. 2. The Chronicon Saxoni-
cum, with a Latin tranflation, and notes. 3. Reli-
quice Sjtelmanniance, the pofthumous works of Sir
Henry Spelman, relating to the laws and antiquities
of England. 4. An edition of ^tintilian dt Arte
Oraloria, with notes. 5. An Engliih tranflation of
Camden's Britannia, with additions, two volumes fo-
lio : and, 6. A number of fraall pieces, that have been
collefted together and printed in three volumes folio. —
His intcnfc application to ftudy impaired his health ;
notwithftanding which, he attained the age of 79. He
expired in September 1748, after an epifcopate of near
33 years. — With regard to Billiop Gibfon's private life
and character, he was in every refpeft a perfect econo-
mift. His abilities were fo well adapted to difcliarge
the duties of his facred function, that during the in-
capacity of Archbilhop Wake, the tranfa£lion of ec-
clcfiaftical affairs was committed to the bilhop of Lon-
don. He was a true friend to the eflablifhed church
and government, and as great an enemy to perfecu-
tion. He was ufually confulted by the moft learned
and exalted perfonages in church and ftate, and the
greateft deference was paid to his judgment. He
poflefTed the focial virtues in an eminent degree ; his
beneficence was very extenfive ; and he had fuch gen<-

roCty,

GlJcon
II

Giov'e-

GIG [71

rofily, tliat 'le freely gave Hvo thouiand five hundred
pounds, left him by Dr Crow, who was once his chap-
lain, to Crow's own relations, who were very poor.
' GIDEON the fon of Joaih, of the tribe of Mamf-
feh. He dwelt in the city of Ophrali ; and had a very
extraordinary call to deliver the Ifraeliles from the op-
preffion of the Midianites, to which they had be-
come fubjeA after the death of Barak and Deborah.
Having effected their deliverance by fupematural aid,
he was chofen judge of Ifrael in the year of the world
2759, and died in 2768. (See Judges, chap. \'i. vii.
and viii.)

GIFT, Donum, in Law, is a conveyance which
pafleth either lands or goods ; and is of a larger ex-
tent than a grant, being applied to things moveable
and immoveable ; yet as to things immoveable, when
taken ftriftly, it is applicable only to lands and tene-
ments given in tail ; but gifl and grant are too often
confounded.

New Tear^s Gifts, prefent" made on new year's
day, as a token of the giver's good will, as well as by
way of prefage of a happy year.

This praftice is very ancient, the origin of it among
the Romans being referred to Tatius king of the Sa-
bines, who reigned at Rome conjointly with Romu-
lus, and who having confidered as a good omen a pre-
fent of fome fprigs of ver\ain gathered in a wood con-
fecrated to Strenia the goddefs of ftrength, which he
received on the firft day of the new year, authorized
this cuftom afterwards, and gave to thefe prefents the
name of Stren?e. However this may be, the Romans
on that day celebrated a feftival in honour of Janus,
and paid their refpefts at the fame time to Juno ; but
they did not pais it in idlenefs, left; they ihould become
indolent during the reft of the year. They fent pre-
fents to one another of figs, dates, honey, &c. to Ihow
their friends that they willied them a happy and agree-
able life. Clients, that is to fay, thofe who were un-
der the proteftion of the great, carried prefents of
this kind to their patrons, adding to them a finall
piece of filver. Under Auguftus, the fenate, the
!;nights, and the people, prefented fuch gifts to him,
and in his abfence depofited them in the Capitol. Of
the fucceeding princes fome adopted this cuftom, and
others abolilhed it, but it always continued among the
people. The early Chriftians condemned it, becaufe
it appeared to be a relick of Paganifra, and a fpecies
of fuperftition ; but when it began to have no other
objctt than that of being a mark of veneration and
efteem, the church ceafed to difapprove of it.

GIGG, GiGA, or Jig, in Mujtc and Dancing, a
gay, brifk, fprightly compofition, and yet in full mea-
fure, as well as the allemand, which is more ferious.
Menage takes the word to arife from the Italian giga,
a mufical inftruraent mentioned by Dante. Others
fuppofe it to be dcri\'ed from the Teutonic gicg, or
ghiighe, " a fiddle." This is a favourite air in moft
nations of Europe ; its charadleriftic is duple time,
marked |, or Y : it conCfts of two ftrains, without
any determinate number of bars.

GIGGLEWICK, a town in the weft riding of
Yorkihire, half a mile from Settle, ftands on the river
Ribble ; where, at the foot of a mountain, is a fpring,
the moft noted in England for ebbing and flowing
fometimes thrice in an hour, and the water fubfides

8 ] GIL

three quarters of a yard at the reflux, though the lea
is 30 miles off. At this town is an eminent free gram-
mar fchool J and in the neighbourhood are dug up
tlags, flate, and ftonc.

GIHON, in Ancient Geography, one of the rivers
of Paradife ; according to Wells, the eaftem branch
of the Euphrates, into which it diWdcs after its con-
juncftlon with the Tigris.

GILAN, or Ghilak, a confiderable province of
Pcrfia, on the fide of the Cafpian fea, to the fouth-
well. It is fuppofed to be the Hyrcania of the an-
cients. It is very agreeably fituated, having the lea
on one fide and high mountains on the other ; ar.d
there is no entering in but through narrow paffes,
which may eafily be defended. The fides of the
mountains are covered with many forts oi fruit trees,
and in the higheft parts of them there are deer,
bears, wolves, leopards, and tygers ; which laft the
Pcrfians have a method of taming, and hunt with
them as we do with dogs. Gilan is one of the moft
fruitful provinces of PerCa, and produces abundance
of filk, oil, wine, rice, and tobacco, befides excellent
fruits. The inhabitants are brave, and of a better
complexion than the other Indians, and the women
are accounted extremely haudfome. Refht is the capi-
tal town.

GILBERT, or Gii-BERd, m/Ziam, a phyfician,
was born at Colchefter in the year.1540, the yeldeft
fon of the recorder of that borough. Having fpent
fome time in both univerfities, he went abroad ; and
at his return fettled in London, where he practifed
with confiderable reputation. He became a mem-
ber of the College of Phyficians, and phyfician in or-
dinary to (^ueen Elizabeth, who, we are told, gave
him a penficn to encourage him in his ftudies. From
his epitaph it appears that he was alfo phyfician to
King James I. He died in the year 1605, aged 63 ;
and was buried In Trinity church in Colchefter, where
a handfome monument was erefted to his memory. His
books, globes, inftruments, and foffils, he bequeath-
ed to the College of Phyficians, and his piclure to the
fchool gallery at Oxford. He wrote, I . De Magneu,
niagncticifque corporibus, el de magna tragnete tellure,
physiologia nova ; London 1 600, folio. 2. De mun-
do nojiro fuhlunari pkilofophia nova : Amfterdam 165 1,
4to. He was alfo the inventor of two mathematical in-
ftruments for finding the latitude at fea v.ithouU tlie
help of fun, moon, or flars. A defcription of thefe
inftrument? was afterwards publifhed by Thomas Blon-
de\ille in his Theoriques of the Planets.

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, a brave officer and ikil-
ful naN-igator, was born about the year 1539, in
Devonftiire, of an ancient and honourable family.
Though a fecond fon, he inl.etited a cor.fiderable for-
tune from his father. He was educated at Eton, and
afterwards at Oxford ; where probably he did not con-
tinue long. It feems he was intended to linilh his ftu-
dies in the Temple ; but being introduced at court
by his aunt Mrs Catharine Alhky, then in the queen's
fervice, he was diverted from the ftudy of law, and
commenced foldier. Having diftinguilhed hirafelf
in feveral military expeditions, particularly that to
Ntwhaven in 1563, he was fent over to Ireland to
affift in fuppreffmg a rebellion ; where, for his fignal
fervices, he was made commander in chief and gover-

GIL [7

nor 01 Munne', and knir;hted by tlie 101 J Jcputv, Sir
Kenry Sidney, on the fird day of the year 1 570.
_ He returned foon niter to England, where lie married
a rich heirefs. Neverthekrs, in 1572, he failed with
a fquadron of nine ihips to reinforce Colonel Morgan,
who at that time meditated the recovery of Flufliing.
Probably on his return to England he refumed his
co'.mograp'iical lludies, to which he was naturally in-
clined : for, in the year 1576, he publiftied his book
on the north-weft paffage to the Eaft Indies •, and as
Martin Frobiihcr failed the fame Venr, probably it was
in confequence of this treatife. In 1578, he obtained
from the queen a very ample patent, cmpowe;ing him
to difcover and poflefs in North America any lands then
unfettled. He failed to Xewtoundland, but foon re-
turned to England without fuccefs 5 neverthelefs, in
15S3, he embarked a fecond time with five {hips, the
largeft of ^vhich put back on account of a contagious
dirtember on board. Our general landed on New-
foundland on the third of Augull, and on the fifth
took poffellion of the harbour of St Jolni's. By vir-
tue of his patent, he granted Icafes to feveral people ;
but though none of them remained there at that time,
they fettled afterwards in confequence of thefe leafes ;
fo that Sir Humphry deferves to be remembered as
the real founder of the vaft American empire. On the
23th of Augult he put to fea again, on board a fraall
floop ; which on the 29th foimdered in a hard gale of
wind. Thus perilhcd Sir Humphrey Gilbert ; a man
of quick parts, a brave foldier, a good mathemati-
cian, a lki!fi.?l navigator, and of a very enterprifing
genius. We learn alfo, that he was remarkable for
his eloquence, being much admired for his patriotic
fpeeches both in the Englilh and Irifh parliaments. He
wrote " A difcourfe to prove a palTage by the north-
weft to Cathaia and the Eaft Indies, printed London
1576." This treatife, which is a mafterlv performance,
is preierved in Hakluyt's Colledtion of Voyages, vol.
iii. p. I I. The ftyle is fuperior to moft, if not to all,
the writers of that age ; and fliows the author to have
Ireen a man of confiderab'e reading. He mentions,
r.t the clofe of tliis work, another treatife on naviga-
tion, which he intended to publiQi : it is probably
Soft.

GILEERTINES. an order of religious, thus call-
ed from St Gilbert of Sempringham, in the county of
Lincoln, who founded the fame about the year 114S :
the monks of which obferved the rule of St Auguftine ;
and were accounted canons : and t'ae nuns that of St
Benedia.

The founder of this order erected a double monafte-
ry, or rather two differeit ones, contiguous to each o-
ther, the one for men, the other for women, but parted
by a very high wall. ,

St Gilbert himfelf founded 13 monafteries of this
order, viz. four for men alone, and nine for men and
woTr,en together, v.-hich had in them 700 brethren
BTid 1500 lifters. At the diffolution there were about
25 lioufes of this order in England and Wales.

GILBOA, in Ancient Gtograplnj, mountains of Sa-
maria, ftretchlng out from weft to eaft, on the confines
of the half tribe cf Alanafieh, and of the tribe of IflFa-
char, and to the fouth part of the valley of Jtzreel ; be-
ginning weftward at the city of Jezreel, fituated at the
foot of thefe mountains, reaching aJinoft quite to the Jor-

19 ] GIL

dan, lying at the diflance of fix miles from Scylhopo-
lis. Famous for the death of Saul and his fon Jona-
than, and the defeat of tiie Ifraelites by the Philif- ;
tines.

GILCHRIST, Dr Ebexf.zer, an emincilt Scots
phyfician, was born at Dumfries in 1 707. He began
the ftudy of medicine at Edinburgh, which he after-
wards profecutcd at London and Paris. He obtained
the degree of dcftor of medicine from the univerfity of
Rheims ; and in the year 1 732 he returned to the place
of his nativity, where he afterwards cor»ftantly refided,
and continued the praftice of medicine till his death.
It may with juftice be faid, that few phyficians of the
prefent century have exercifed their prcfcllion in a man-
ner more refpeclabk or iucccfsful thau Dr Gilchrift ; and
few have contributed more to the improvement of the
healing art. Having engaged in bufmefs at an early
period of life, his attention v.-as wholly devoted to ob-
iervation. Endowed by nature with a judgment acute
atid folid, witii a genius active and inventive, he foon
diftinguiilicd himftlf by departing, in various important
particulars, from eftabliftied but unfuccefsful modes oi
practice. Several of the improvements which he in-
troduced have procured him great and deferved reputa-
tion both at home a^d abroad. His praiSlice, in or-
dinary cafes, was allowed to be judicious, and placed
him high in the confidence and efteem of the inhabi-
tants of that part of the country where he lived. But
his ufcfulnefs ivas not confined to his own neighbour-
hood. On many occafions he was confulted by letter
from the moft diftant parts of the country. In differ-
ent collections are to be found feveral of his perform-
ances, ^\■hich prove that he had fomething new and
ufeful to offer upon every fubjeft to which he applied
himfelf. But thofe writings which do him the greateft
honour, are two long diflfertatlons on Nervous Fevers,
in the Medical Effays and Obfervations publilhcd by a
Society in Edinburgh ; and a treatife on the ufe of Sea
\'oyages in medicine, which firft made its appearance in
the year 1757, and was after v.ards reprinted in 1771.
By means of the former, the attention of phyficians was
firft turned to a fpecies of fever which is now found to
prevail univerfally in this countrj' ; and the liberal ufe
of v.ine, which he was the firft among the modems to
recommend, has fince been adopted in thtfe fevers by
the moft judicious phyficians of the prefent age, and
has probably contributed not a little to the fuccels of
their praiflice. His treatife on Sea Voyages points out in
a manner fo clear, and fo much on the fure footing of
experience, their utility in various diftempers, particu-
larly in confumptions, that there is now a prolpeit ot
our being able to employ a remedy in this untraclable
difeafe much more efficacious than any hitherto in uk.
Dr Gilchrift died in 1 774.

GILD, cr Guild. See Guild.

GILD AS, fumamed //;f W-z/f, was bom in Wales
in the year 51 1. Where he was educated is unctr,
tain ; but it appears from his own writings that he
was a monk. Some writers fay that he went over to
Ireland ; others, that he vifited France and Italy.
They agree however in afferting, that after his return to
England he became a celebrated and moft aftlduous
preacher of the gofpcl. Du Pin fays he founded a
monaftery at Vcnetia in Britain. Gildas is the otJy
Britifh author of the fixth century whofc works aie
printed ;

Gilchiltt

Gllclas.

Gilding

'when firft
introduced
at Rome.

y»Ife\iM-
ing with la
^uer or
Dutch leif.

GIL [72

printed ; tKey are tlierefore valuable on account of
their antiquity, and as containing the only informa-
tion we have concerning the times of which he wrote.
His Hiflory of Britain is, however, a very flimfy per-
formance, and his ftyle obfcure and inelegant.

GILDING, the art of fpreading or covering a
thing over with gold, eilher in leaf or liquid. The
art o: gilding was not unknown among the ancients,
though it never arrived among them at the perfeftion
to which the modems have carried it. Pliny affurcs
us, that the firft gilding feen at Rome was after the
deftmftion of Carthage, under the cenforfhip of Lucius
Muramius, when they began to gild the ceilings of
their temples and palaces •, the Capitol being the firft
place on which this enrichment was bellowed. But
he adds, that luxury advanced on them fo haftily, that
in a little time you might fee ail, even private and
poor peifons, gild the very walls, vaults, &c. of their
houfes.

We need not doubt but they had the fame method
with us, of beating gold, and reducing it into leaves ;
though it (liould feem they did not carry it to the
fame height, if it be true which Pliny relates, that
they only made 7 150 leaves of four fingers fquare out of
a whole ounce. Indeed he adds, that they could make
more ; that the tbickeft were called braBe.i; Prcenejlince,
by reafon of a ftatue of the goddefs Fortune at Prse-
nefte gilt with fuch leaves •, and that the thinner fort
was called braBeie que/Iorice.

The modern gilders do alfo make ufe of gold leaves
of divers thickn'efles ; but there are fome fo fine, that
a thouland do not weigh above four or five drachms.
The thickeft are ufed for gilding on iron 2nd other
metals ; and the ihinneft on wood. But we have ano-
ther advantage over the ancients in the manner of ufmg
or applying the gold : the fecret of painting in oil,
difcovered of late ages, fiirniihes us with means of gild-
ing works that fhall endure all the injuries of time and
weather, which to the ancients was impraclicable. —
They had no way to lr.y the gold on bodies that
would not endure the fire but with whites of eggs or
fize, neither of %vhich will endure the xvater ; fo that
they could only gild fuch places as were fheltered from
the moifture of the weather.

The Greeks called the compofition on which they ap-
plied their gilding on wood leucophcrum or leucophorum ;
which is tiefcribed as a fort of glutinous compound
earth, ferving in all probability to make the gold ftick
■and bear polilhing. But the particulars of this earth,
its colour, ingredients, &.C. the antiquaries and natural-
ifls are not agreed upon.

The luftre and beauty of gold have occafioned feve-
ral inquiries and difcoveries concerning the different
methods of applying it to difTerent fubftances. Hence
the art of gilding is very extenfive, and contains many
particular operations and various management.

A colour of gold is given by painting and by var-
■nifhes, without employing gold ; but this is a falfe kind
of gilding. Thus a very fine golden colour is given
to brafs and to filver, by applying upon thefe metals a
gold-coloured varnilh, which, being tranfparent, (hows
all the brilliancy of the metals beneath. Many orna-
ments of brafs were vamitlied in this manner, which is
called gold laqucring, to dillinguilh them from thofe
which are really gilt. Silver leaves thus vamiflied are

G I L

then Called gilt Uaiher. See GiUit

° 1

put upon leather, which i

Laquer. *"~°"

Amongft the falfe gilding may alfo be reckoned
thofe which are made with thin leaves of copper or
brafs, called Dutch leaf. In this manner are made all
the kinds of what is called gilt paper.

In the true gilding, gold is applied to the furface of
bodies. The gold intended for this purpofe ought in
general to be beat into thin leaves, or othcrwife divided
into very fine parts.

As metals cannot adhere well merely by contact to Gilding
any but to other metallic fubftances, when gold is to with fize,
be .ipplied to the furface of fome unmetalhc body, that
furface muft be previoufly covered with fome gluey and
tenacious fubllance by which the gold ftiall be made
to adhere. Thefe fubftances are in general called /^Kf-r.
Some of thefe are made of vegetable and animal glues,
and others of oily, gluey, and drying matters. Up-
on them the leaves of gold are applied, and preffed
down with a little cotton or a hare's foot ; and when
the whole is dry, the work is to be Cnilhed and polilh-
ed with a hard inftrument, called a dog''s lootli, to give
luftre. 5

When the work is required to be capable of refift- With oil
ing rain or moifture, it ought to be previoufly covered
with a compofition of drying oil and yellow ochre
giound together ; otherivife a water fize may be ufed,
which is prepared by boiling cuttings of parchment or
white leather in water, and by mixing with this fome
chalk or whiting : feveral layers of this iize muft be
laid upon the wood, and over thefe a layer of the fame
fize mixed with yellow ochre. LalUy, Another mix-
ture, called goldJi%e, is to be applied above thefe ; up-
on which the gold leaves are to be fixed. This gold
fize, the ufe of which is to make the gold leaf capable
of being burniftied, is compofed of tobacco-pipe clay,
ground with fome ruddle or black lead, and tempered
with a little tallow or oil of olives. The edges of glaffes
may be gilt by applying firft a very thin coat of var-
nilh, upon which the gold leaf is to be fixed ; and when
the varnifli is ha.'dened, may be burniftied. 1 his var-
nilh is prepared by boiling powdered amber with linfeed
oil in a brafs veffel to which a valve is fitted, and by
diluting the above folution with four or five times its
quantity of oil of turpentine ; and that it may dry fooner,
it may be ground with fome white lead. 5|

The method of applying gold upon metals is entirely Of gi'dinj
different. The furface of the metal to be gilt is firft '"f**'*-
to be cleaned ; and then leaves are to be applied to it,
which, by means of rubbing with a polilhed biood-
ftone, and a certain degree of heat, are made to ad-
here perfeflly well, In this manner filver leaf is fixed
and bumiihcd upon brafs in the making of what is call-
ed French plate, and fometimes alfo gold leaf is burniih-
ed upon copper and upon iron.

Gold is applied to metals in feveral other ways.
One of thefe is by previoufly forming the gold into a
palle or amalgam with mercury. In order to obtain
a fmall amalgam of gold and mercury, the gold is firft
to be reduced into thin plates or grains, which are
heated red hot, and thrown into mercury previoufly
heated, till it begins to fmoke. Upon ftirring the
mercury with an iron rod, the gold totally difappcars.
The proportion of mercury to gold is generally as fix
01 eight to one.

With

G I L

dil'ling. Willi tliis amalgam the furface of tlie metal to be
>■ gilded is to be covered j then a fufficient heat is to be

applied to evaporate the mercury : and the gold is lall-
ly to be biirnilhed with a blood-ftone.

This method of gilding by am.ilgamation is chiefly
ufcd for gilding copper, or an alloy of copper, with a
fmaU portion of zinc, which more readily receives the
amalgam ; and is alfo preferable for its colour, which
more refembles that of gold than the colour of cop-
per. When the raetal to be gilt is wrought or chafed, it
ought to be previoufly covered with quici^filver before
the amalgam is applied, that this may be eafier fpread :
but when the furface of the metal is plain, the amalgam
may be applied direclly to it. The qulcklilver or amal-
gam is made to adhere to the metal by means of a little
aquafortis, which is rubbed on the metallic furiiace at the
fame time, by which this furface is cleanfed from any
ruft or tamilh vrhich might prevent the union or adhe-
iion of the metals. But the ufe of the nitrous acid in
this operation is not, as is generally fuppofed, confined
merely to cleanfe the fmface of the metal to be gilt
from any ruft or tamilh it may have acquired ; but it
alfo greatly facilitates the application of the amalgam
7 to the iurface of that metal, probably in the following

"Ufeoftlie juji,j,gr. ji- grft diffblves part of the mercury of the
■JZ'"'"j:^" amalgam ; and when this folution is applied to the
' '" "' copper, this latter metal having a llronger affinity
for nitrous acid than the mercury has, precipitates
the mercury upon its furface, in the lame manner as
a poliflied piece of iron precipitates copper upon
its furface from a folution of blue vitriol. When
the metal to be gilt is thus covered over with a thin
precipitated coat of mercury, it readily receives the
amalgam. In this folution and precipitation of mer-
curv, the principal ufe of the nitrous acid in the pro-
cefs of gilding appears to confift. The amalgam be-
ing equally fpread over the furface of the metal to be
gilt by means of a brufli, the mercury is then to be
evaporated by a heat juft furficient for that purpofe ;
for if it be too great, part of the gold may alfo be ex-
pelled, and part of it will run together, and leave fome
of the luiiace of the metal bare : while the mercury is
evaporating, the piece is to be from time to time
taken f.ora the fire, that it may be examined, that the
amalgam may be 'pread more equally by means of a
bruiL, that any defeclive parts of it may be again co-
vered, and that the heat may not be too fuddenly ap-
plied to it : uhf^n the m.ercury is evaporated, which is
known by the furface being entirely bc-come of a dull
yellow colour, the metal mud then undergo other ope-
lations, by which the fine gold colour is given to
it. Firfl, The gilded piere cf metal is rubbfd with a
fcratch brufii (which is a bruQi compofed of brafswire)
till its furface is made fmci th ; then it is covered over
with a compofition called gilding "wnx, and is again ex-
jjofed to the fire till the wax be burnt off. This wax
is compofed of bees wax, fometimes mixed with fome
of the following fubftances -, rtd ochre, verdigrife, cop-
per fcalcs, alum, vitriol, borax ; but according to Dr
Lewis, the faline fubftances a'one aie fufficient, with-
out any wax. By this operation the colour of the gild-
ing is heightened ; and this efTec! feems to be produ-
ced by a perfcft dilTipation of lome mercury remaining
after the former operation. This di(li|)ation is well ef-
fccled bv this equable application of heat. The gilt
Vol. iX. Part II.

!i ] GIL

furface is then covered over with a f::li;ie compofition, CiKliw;.
confiiling of nitre, alum, or other vitriolic lak, ground """"^ '".
together, and mixed up into a parte with water or urine.
Tiic piece of metal thus covered rs expofed to a certain
degree of heat, and then quenched in water. By this
method its colour is further improved, and brought
nearer to that of gold. This etieft feems to be produ-
ced by the acid of nitre (which is difengaged by the
vitriolic acid of the alum, or other vitriolic fait, during
the expofare to heat) adding upon any particles of cop-
ger which may happen to lie on the gilded furrace.
LaiUy, Some artiils think that they give an additional
lultre to their gilt work by dipping it in a liquor
prepared by boiling :bme yellow materials, as fulphur,
orpiment, or turmeric. The only advantage of this
operation is, tha: a part of the yellow matter, as the
Uilphur or tumeric, remains in fome of the hollows of
the carved work, in which the gilding is apt to be
more imperfetl, and to which it gives a rich and foHd
appearance.

Iron cannot be gilt by amalgamation, unleu^, as it is
faid, it he previoufly coated with copper by dipping in
a folution of blue vitriol. Iron may alfo receive a
golden coat from a faturated folution of gold in aqua-
regia, mixed with Ipirit of wine, the iron having a great-
er affinity with the acid, from which it therefore pre-
cipitates the gold. Whether any of thefe two methods
be applicable to u(e, is uncertain : but the method com«
monly employed of fixing gold upon iron is that a-
bove mentioned, of burnilhing gold leaf upon this me-
tal when heated fo as to become blue ; and the opera-
tion will be more perfeifl If the furface has been pre-
■vioufly Icratched or graved.

Anotlier method is mentioned by authors of gilding
upon metals, and alfo upon earthen ware, and upon
glafs ; which is, to fufe gold \vith regulus of antimo-
ny, to pulverize the mafs which is fufficiently brittle
to admit that operation, to fpread this powder upon
the piece to be gilt, and expofe it to fuch a fire that
the regulus may be e\Tiporated, while the gold re-
mains fixed. The inconveniences cf this method, ac-
cording to Dr Lewis, are, th.-it the powder does not
adhere to the piece, and cannot be equally fpread ;
that part of the gold is dilhpated along with the regu-
lus ; that glafs is fufible with the heat neceflfary for the
evaporation of regulus of antimony ; and that copper
is liable to be corroded by the regulus, and to have its
furface rendered uneven. s

On this fub jecl of gilding by amalgamation Dr Lewis Improve--
has the following remarks. " There are two principal "'sn' ^y
inconveniences in this bufinefs : One, that the work- %^^Co^
men are expofed to the fiimes of the mercury, and gene- cf Aiu.
rally, fooner or later, have their health greatly impaired
by them; the other, the lofs of the mercury ; for though
part of it is faid to be detained in cavities made In the
chim:!cy for that purpofe, yet the greaiell p.art of it is
loft. From fome trials I have made, it aj)pcared that
both thefe inconveniences, particularly the firft and
moft confiderable one, might in good mcafure be a-
voided, by means of a furnace Of a due conllrudion. If
the con:municatIon of a furnace with its chimney, in-
ftead of being over the fire, is made under the grate,
the alh-pit door, or other apertures beneath the grate,
clofe.'!, and the mouth of the furnace lef« open ; the
current of air, which c' rwife would have entered be-
4 Y neatU,

GIL [72

fiiitling. r.eatli, enters now at the top, and pifTxnc; down through
"""V— ' the grate to the chimney, carries with it completely
both the vapour of ihe fuel and the fumes of fuch mat-
ters as are placed upi n it: the back part of the fur-
nace thould be railed a little higher above the fire than
the fore part, and an iron jjlate laid over it, that the air
may enter only at the front, where the workman Hands,
who i\-ill be thus effeflually fecuied from the fumes and
from being incommoded ivith the heat, and at the fame
time have full liberty of introducing, infpefting, and
removing the ivork. If fuch a furnace is made of
ilrong forged (not milled) iron plate, it will be fufli-
ciently durable : the upper end of the chimney may
reach above a foot and a half higher than the level of
the fire : over this is to be placed a larger tube, leav-
ing an interval of an inch or more all roimd between
it and the chimney, and reaching to the height of 10
or 1 2 feet, the higher the better. The external air,
paffing up between the chimney and the outer pipe,
prevents the latter from being much heated, fo that the
mercurial fumes will condenfe againft its fides into run-
ning quickfilver, ^vhich, falling doi\Ti to the bottom,
is there catched in a hollow rira, formed by turning in-
Avards a portion of the lower part, and conveyed, by a
n pipe at one fide, into a proper receiver.
;. du Fay'i " Mr Hellot commu'\icates, in the Memoirs of the
leihod of French Academy for the year 1745, a method of mak-
I'ling gold ;„g raifed figures of gold on works of gold or filver,
;ures. {^^^^ among the papers of M. du Fay, and of which
M. du Fay himfelf had feen feveral trials. Fine gold in
po^vder, fuch as refults from the parting of gold and
filver by aquafortis, is direfted to be laid in a heap on
a levigating ftone, a cavity made in the middle of the
heap, and half its weight of pure mercury put into
the cavity ; feme of the fetid fpirit obtained from
garlic root by dillillation in a retort, is then to be ad-
ded, and the whole immediately mingled and ground
ivith a muller till the mixture is reduced into an uni-
fonn gray powder. 'J"he powder is to be ground with
lemon juice to the confidence of paint, and applied on
the piece previoufly well cleaned and rubbed over with
the fame acid juice ; the figures drawn with it may be
railed to any degree by repeating the application. The
piece is expofed to a gentle fire till the mercury is eva-
porated I'o as to leave the gold yellow, which is then to
be prefled down, and rubbed with the finger and a
little fand, which makes it appear fo%l and brilliant ;
after this it may be cut and embellilhed. The author
obferves, that being of a fpongy texture, it is more ad-
vifable to cut it with a chiflel than to raife it with a
graver ; that it has an imperfeftion of being always
pale ; and that it would be a defirable thing to find
means of giving it colour, as by this method ornaments
might be made of exquifite beauty and with great fa-
cility. As the palcnefs appears to proceed from a part
of the mercury retained by the gold, I apprehend it
might be remedied by the prudent application of a
little warm aquafortis, which dilTolving the mercury
from the exterior part, ^vould ^ive at leaft a fuperficial
high colour : if the piece is filver, it muft be defend-
ed from the aquafortis by covering it with ^vax. In-
ilruments and ornaments of gold, ftalned by mercury
ivhcre the gold is connefled with fubflances incapable
of bearing fire, may be reftored to their colour by the
ikme. means.

2 ] GIL

" The foregoing procefs is given entirely On the Giidin,'-
authority of the French writer. I have had no expe- "~~"v— —
rience of it myfelf, but have feen very elegant figures A.io>'i,>r
of gold raifed upon filver, on the fame principle, by a ...■ .v
diiferent provedure. Some cinnabar was ground, not
with the diililled fpirit, but mtu the exprell'ed juice of
garlic, a fluid remarkably tenacious. This mixture
was Ipread all over the poliihed illver ; and when the
firft layer is dry, a fecond, and after this a third, was
applied. Over thefe were fpread as many layers of
another mixture, compoled chieriy of alphaltum and
linleed oil boiled down to a due confilfence. The whole
being dried with a gentle heat on a kind of wire
grate, the figures were traced and cut down to the fil-
ver fo as to make its iurface rough : the incifions were
filled with an amalgam of gold, raifed to different
heights in different parts according to the nature of the
defign ; after which a gentle fire, at the fame time that
it evaporated the mercury, delfroyed the tenacity of
the gummy juice, i'o that the coating, which ferved to
confine the amalgam, and as a guide in the application
of it, was no^v eafily got off. 'l"he gold ^\as then
preffed do^vn and embellilhed as in the former method ;
and had this advantage, that the furface of the filver
under it having been made rough, it adhered more
firmly, fo as not to be in danger of coming off, as
M.du Fay fays the gold applied in his way fometimes did.
The artili, however, found the procefs fo troublefome,
that though he purchafed the receipt for a confiderabk
fura, he has laid the praftice afide."

Finally, Some metals, particularly filver, may be gilt
in the following manner :

Let gold be dilTolved in aqua regia. In this folu- j;,,|-j. ^,5.
tion pieces of linen are to be dipt, and burnt to black thod of gild-
alhes. Thefe allies being rubbed on the furface of the '"g filler.
filver by means of a wet linen rag, apply the particles
of gold wliich they contain, and which by this metliod
adhere very well . The remaining part of the afiies is
to be wafiied off ; and the furface of the filver, which
in this Hate does not feem to be gilt, is to be burnilh-
ed with a blood-llone, till it acquire a fine colour of
gold. This method of gilding is very eafy, and con-
fumes a very fmall quantity of gold. Moll gilt orna-
ments upon fans, fnuff boxes, and otlier toys of much
Ihow and little value, are nothing but filver gilt in this
manner. _ .11

Gold may alfo be applied to glafs, porcelain, and Methods
other vitrified matters. As the furface of thefe matters of gilding
is very fmooth, and confequently is capable of a veryS'^'*-
pcrfeS contaft with gold leaves, thefe leaves adhere to
them with fome force, although they are not of ree-
tallic nature. This gilding is fo much more perfect,
as the gold is more exaftly applied to the furface of
the glafs. The pieces are then to be expofed to a cer-
tain degree of heat, and burniihed flightly to give them
luftre.

A more fubllantial gilding is fixed upon glafs, ena-
mel, and porcelain, by applying to thefe lubftances
powder of gold mixed with a folution of gum arabic,
or with fome effential oil, and a fmall quantity of bo-
rax ; after which a fufficient heat is to be applied to fof-
ten the glafs and the gold, which is then to be burniih-
ed. \A'ith this m.ixture any figures may be draiv.i.
The powders for this purpofe may be made, i. By
grinding gold leaf with honey, which is afterwards

G I L

to be wailied away with ivatc

dry

.oil!

2. By ciillilling to
gold in aqua regia. 3. By eva-
; orating t'.ie mercury trom an amalgam of gold, taking
cure to llir ivcU the mafs near the end of the procefs.
4. oy preciuitating gold from its folutioii in aqua re-
gia, by applying to it a folution of green vitriol in wa-
ter, or fome copper, and perhaps fome other metallic
fubllances.

GI'.EAD, the fon of Macnir, and grandfon of
Manafleh, had his inheritance allotted l;im in the moun-
tains of Gilead, from whence he took his name. The
mount." ns oi Gilead were part of that ridge which
runs fro.n Mount Lebanon louthward, on the eall of
the Holy Land ; gave their name to the whole country
which lies on the eafl of the fea of Galilee, and inclu-
ded the mountainous region called in the New Teila-
ment Trachonitis. Jeremiah (xxii. 6.) feems to fay,
that Gilead begins from Mount Libanus. ' Thou art
Gilead unto me, and the head of Lebanon.' Jacob,
at his return from Mefopotamia, came in fix days to
the mountains of Gilead (Gen. xxxl. 21. &c.) where
this patiiarch, with Laban his father-in-law, railed a
heap of Hones, in memory of their agreement and co-
venant, and called it Galeed, i. e. " an heap of vvit-
neffes," and which Laban called j'«'frt7--/<3/w//«//;fl. Thefe
mountains were covered with a fort of trees abounding
with gum, called the balm of Gilead, which the Scvip-
t-u.-e commends much (Jer. viii. 2 ( . xlvi. 1 1 li. 8). The
merchants who bought Jofeph came from Gilead, and
were carrying balm into Egypt, (Gen. xxxvii. 2J.)

The Gileadites being invaded by the Ammonites,
&c. chofe Jephthah for their genera], who vanquilhed
2il their enemies.

Balm of Gilead. See Amyris, Botaky Index.

GTLGAL, in Ancient Gengrrpliy, a place between
Jericho and Jordan, noted for the firll encampment of
*he r.raelites on this fide Jordan, about a mile from Je-
rirho. It fomelimes alfo denotes Galilee, (Jolhua
xii 73.)

GILL, Jofiv, D. D. a Proteftant diffenting mini-
fler of the Bat>iift denomination, and the fon of Edward
an^ Eli7,abnli Gill, was born at Kettering in North-
amptoniliire, Nov. 23. 1697. At a very early period
of life, his father, who was a deacon of the Baptift
chuich at Kettering, dilcovered in him an uncommon
capacity W learning ; and his ability for literary pur-
iuits afterwards appeared by the rapid pro'jrefs in what-
ever became the objeft o^ his ftudy. He was fent to a
grammar Ichool in th>- ne'ghbouihood •, where he foon
iiirpaiied thote bovs who were much his feniors 'n age
and as pupils. At this fchool he continued till he ar-
rivid at his )lth year; where he read raoft of the La-
tin clafTics, and made coniiderable prohc iency in the
Greek language.

Mr Gill's celebrity as a fcholar, and his ftrong at-
tachment to books, were foon obferved by the ncik!h-
bouring clergy, who frequently met and converfed vith
him at a bookfeller's (hop, to v.hich he refoned for the
purpofe of reading ■, and indeed fuch wa- his applica-
tion to books, that it became a proverbial faj ing among
the common people, " Such a thinv' is as certam, as
that John Gill is in the bookfeller's (hop."

He left the grammar fchool, however, early in life.
This was cccafioncd by the ina f rious ronduf! of his
n-.afler, who "infilled that the children ot difienting pa-

3 ] GIL

rcr.tj ihould, with other fcholars that belonged to the
tllabhlhnient, attend him to church on ivetk days du-
ring the performance of divine fervicc. The difl'^nters
conildered this requifition as a rtrctch of poiver to
which his engagements v.ith them gave no claim ; and
as it was virtually making conformity a tell by whicii^
his pupils were to exped the benefits of tuition, they
relented his conduct ; and t'le children of thole parent?
that were in atilucnt circumllance< \vere removed to fe-
minaries where the fame advantages might be obtained
without being fubjeft to the impofitions of clerical bi-
gotry. But as the parents of Mr Gill had it not iii
their power to confer on him the lame pririlege, the
fame fteps could not be taken to facilitate his advance-
ment in learning. To pave the way, however, for the
completion of his lludies, efforts were made by feveral
miiiiiler.s, of different denominations, to get him upon
one or other of the funds in London. For this purpofe
fpecimens of his progrefs in the different branches of li-
terature were tranfmitted to the metropolis : in anfvver
to which it was objected, "that he was too young, and
that Ihould he continue, as it might be expefted he
would, to make fijch rapid advances in his Itudies, he
^vould go through the common circle before he ivould
be capable of taking care of himl'elf, or of being em-
ployed in any public fcrvice." But thefe foimidable
objeftions were of no weight with our young fcholar :
his love of learning was unconquerable. Infupeva )le
dilhculties, it is true, obrtrufted the way in which lite-
rary eminence is ufually acquired ; but thefe diihcuiues
could neither reprefs his ardent defire of knowledge,
nor damp the zeal and application that had marked his
former liudies. For though his time was daily devoted
to the bufmefs of his father ; yet he had fo far improved
the hours of leifuie, as to be able, before he arrived at
his ipth year, to read all the Greek and Latiu authors
that fell in his way. He Ifudied logic, rhetoric, moral
and natural philofophy ; and leanit the Hebrew lan-
guage fo as to read it with eafe, without any other af-
Mance than Buxtorf's grammar and lexicon.

Neither the purfuit of learning, hoi-, ever, nor the
other neceffary avocations incumbent on Mr Gill, could
eradicate thofe religious imprelVions received in early-
life. On November I. I 71 6, he made a public pro-
feflion of his faith before the Baptill church at Ketter-
ing, and was baptized the fame day by Rlr Thomas
Wallis. Of this church Mr Gill had not been long a
member before he was called to the work of the mini-
ftry : foon -fter which, he removed to Higham-Ferrers,
with a view to purfue his lludies under the direction of
Ml Davis ; but his Hay at this place was foon inter-
rupted by an invitation from London in I7ifr, to preach
to ihc Bnptift church in Horllydown, over which he
wa'. the fame year, being the 22d of his age, ordain-
ed pallor; which othce he fudamed upwards of 5 1
years.

Mr Gill had not been long in London, before rabbi-
nical learning, of which he had before confiderable
knowledte, became an objea of purfuit. To facilitate
hi- progrefs through the intricacies of this labyrinth,
he C(.n'.3.':.d an acquaintance with one of tiie moft
learned Jev\ilh rabbies. He read the Targums, the
'lalmuds, the Rabbot, their ancient commentaries,
thi ' • . ! 7'.bnr, and whatever elfe of this kind he was
able to piocuit. O. the oriental languages he made
4 Y 2 hwifcit"

GIL [72

CUI. hlmfclf a complete maftcr : in fliort, t:iEre was no
''~y^~~ branch of knov.tedge that could either enlarge or en-
rich Biblical learning, which, however difficult, was
not attempted and attained : and it may be truly aiTert-
ed, that in this line he had but few equals, and that
the annals of literuturc do not exhibit a charatter by
whom he was excelled.

In 1748 Mr Gill publifhed a commentary on the
Ne\v Teftament in three volumes folio. The immenfe
reading and leai-nins; difcoverable in this arduous work,
attrafted the attention of the Marifchal College and
Univerfity of Aberdeen ; and procured for him, with-
out either his folicitation or his knowledge, a diploma,
creating him doftor in divinity. This intelligence
was communicated to the doftor in the moft hand-
fome terms by the profeflbrs Ollxirn and Pollock ; who
declared, " that on account of his knowledge of (he
Scriptures, of the Oriental languages, and of Jewifli
antiquities, of his learned defence of the Scriptures
againft Deifts and Infidels, and the reputation gained
by his other works ; the univerfity had, v.ithout his
privity, unanimoufly agreed to confer on him the de-
gree of doftor in divinity."

Dr Gill's fentiraents, as a divine, were throughout
Calviniilic : " And perhaps no man (fays the Rev.
Mr Toplady, a minifter in the church of England)
fince the days of Aullin, has written fo largely in de-
fence of the fyllem of grace ; and certainly no man
has treated that momentous lubjeft in all its branches,
more clofely, judicioully, and fuccefsfuUy. What was
faid of Edward the Black Prince, that he never fought
a battle which he did not win •, what has been remark-
ed of the great duke of Marlborough, that he never
undertook a fiege which he did not carry -, may be
juflly accommodated to our great philoibpher and di-
vine ; who, fo far as the diftinguilhing dotlrines of the
fofpel are concerned, never befieged an error which
e did not force from its ftrong holds, nor ever en-
countered an adverfary whom he did not baffle and
fubdue. His learning and labours, if exceedable,
were exceeded only by the invariable fanftity of his
life and converfation. From his childhood to his en-
trance on the miniftry, and from his entrance on the
miniftry to the moment of his diffolution, not one of
his molt inveterate oppofers was ever able to charge him
with the leaft fhadow of immorality. Himfelf, no lefs
than his writings, demonlnated that the doftrine of
grace does not lead to licentioufnefs. Thofe who had
the honour and happinefs of being admitted into the
number of his friends, can go tlill farther in their tefti-
mony. They know that his moral demeanor was more
than blamelefs : it was from firrt to lalt confiftently ex-
emplary. And Indeed an undeviating confillency, both
in his views of evangelical truths, and in his obedience
as a fervant of God, was one of thofe qualities by which
liis caft of character was eminently marked. He was in
every refpeft a burning and a lliining light : Burning
with love to God, to truth, and to fouls ; Ihining
as an example to believers, in word, in faith, in
purity ; a pattern of good works, and a model ot all
holy converfation and godllnefs ; and while true religion
and found learning have a fmgle fiiend remaining in
the Brititli empire, the works and name of Gill will be
precious and revered."
' ' He died at CamberwcU, Odober 14. 1771, ad 73

4 J GIL

years lo months and lo days. In 17 18 the Doctor
married Mrs Elizabeth Negus ; by whom he had ir.a^ry
children, tv/o of whom only furvived him. Mrs Gill
died in 1764.

His works are, A Commentary on the Old and New
Teltament in 9 vols folio. A Body of Divinity in 3
vols quarto. The Caufe of God and Truth, 4 vols Svo.
A Treatife concerning the Prophecies of the Old Tef-
tament refpetling the Meifiah. A Dlilertation on the
antiquity of the Hebrew Language, Letters, Vowel
Points, and Accents. Sermons on the Canticles, fo-
lio ; befides a great number of fermons and controver-
fial pieces on different fubjecls.

Gill, a meafure of capacity, containing a quarter of
an Englifh pint.

GILLS or Branchi.'e of fillies. See Anatomy

GILLINGHAM, a parifii in Dorfetllure, on the
river Stour, near the foreft of its own name ; where,
anno 10 16, King Edmund Ironlide vanquilhed the
Danes. It is one of the largeft parilhes in the county,
being 41 miles in circuit, containing 64,000 acres. It
lies on the borders of Wilts and Somerfet, four nules
north-weft of Shaftlbury. It has a manufadure of li-
nen, but the chief produce is grazing and the dairies.
Near it are the traces of an ancient relidence of Normau
or Saxon kings, 320 feet long and 240 broad, fur-
rounded by a rampart of earth. Henry I. refided here,
and King John repaired it at the expence of the coun-
ty. Edward I. fpent his Chrillmas here in 1270 ; but
the whole of the materials are removed, and the foun-
dation of the houfe only can be traced, which was in
the form of the letter L, In length 1 80 feet by 80
broad, and the foot of the letter 48 by 40 ; the area
of the houfe containing I 68,000 fquare feet. It ftooU
half a mile from the church, on the road to Shallon,
encompafled by a moat, now dry, in fome places nine
feet deep and 20 broad. The rampart appears to have
been 30 feet thick. Here is a free fchool, a large old
building, and a workhoufe, as well as two ftone
bridges. In 169411 received damage of near 4000I.
by a fire. Near it is Gillingham foreft, four miles
long and one mile broad. The church is a large ancient
fabric.

Gillingham, a parlfti of Kent, three miles below
Chatham, and on the fame fide of the Medway. Part
of Chatham dock is in this parifti ; and here is a caftle
well furnilhed with guns that commands the river, there
being no lefs than 170 embrafures for cannon ; which
would ftop the progrefs of any enemy that ftiould hap-
pen to make ^vay by Sheernefs fort, before they could
reach Chatham. Here are alfo copperas works. At
this place 600 Norman gentlemen, who came over in
the retinue of the two princes Alfred and Edward,
were all barbaroufly hiurdered by Earl Godwin. It
was in remote times the property of the archbilhop of
Canterbury, who had here an elegant palace, the old
hall of which is now converted into a barn ; It is built
principally of flint, but the windows arc filled up vvith
brick. Near it are the remains of the chapel, %;c. and
a great part of the whole of its original outer walls may
be traced.

GILOLO, a large ifland of the Pacific ocean, ly-
ing between 1° S. Lat. and 2° N. Lat. and between
I 25° and 1 28° E. Long. It belongs to the Dutch ;

but

G I L

[ 725

Gilpin, but does not produce any of the fins fpices, tnough it
"""V""" lies in th^ neiglibourhood of the fpice illand?. The
natives nie fierce and cruel favages.

GILPIN, Bernard, redor of Houghton, difkin-
guiflied by his extraordinary piety and hofpitality, was
del'cended from an ancient and honourable family in
Weftmorland, and born in 151 7. As he was bred in
the Catholic religion, fo he for fome time defended it
againft the reformers, and at Oxford held a difputation
with Hooper afterw ard bifhop of Worceller and a mar-
tyr for the Protellant faith ; but was ftaggered in ano-
ther difputation with Peter Martyr, and began ferioufly
to examine the conteAed points by the belt authorities.
Thus, being prefented to the vicarage of Norton in the
diocefe of Durham, he foon religned it, and went a-
broad to confult eminent profeiTors on both fides ; and
after three years abfence returned a little before the
death of Queen Mary, fatisfied in the general doclrines
of the reformation. He was kindly received by his
uncle Dr Tonllall, biiliop of Durham •, who loon after
gave him the archdeaconry of Durham, to which the
Teflory of Effington was annexed. When repairing to
his parilb, though the perlecution was then at its height,
he boldly preached againft the vices, errors, and cor-
ruptions of tlie times, efpecially in the clergy, on which
a charge confiiring of 1 3 articles was dra«ni up againft
him, and prefented in form to the bilTiop. But Dr
Tonftall found a method of difmlfTmg the caufe in fuch
a manner as to protecl his nephew, without endanger-
ing himlelf, and foon after prelented him to the rich
living of Houghton le Spring. He was a fecond time
accufed to the bifhop, and again protected ; when his
enemies, enraged at this fecond defeat, laid their com-
plaint before Dr Bonner, bifiiop of London ; who im-
mediately gave orders to apprehend him. Upon which
Mr Gilpin bravely prepared for martyrdom ; and or-
dering his houfe fteward to provide him a long garment
that he might make a decent appearance at the ftake,
fet out for London. Luckily, however, he broke his
leg on the journey ; which protracted his arrival until
the news of the queen's death freed him from all fur-
ther apprehenfions. Being immediately fet at liberty,
he returned to Houghton, where he was received by
his parifhioners with the fincereft joy.

Upon the deprivation of the Popifli bifhops, he was
offered the fee of Carlille, which he declined 5 and con-
fining his attention to his reflory, difcharged all the
duties of his funclion in the raoft exemplary manner.
To the greatefl humanity and courteiy, he added an
unwearied application to the inflnidion of thofe under
his care. He was not fatisfied with the advice he gave
in public, but ufed to inftruft in private ; and brought
his parifhioners to come to him with their doubts and
diiliculties. He had a moil engaging manner tou-ards
thofe whom he thought well difpofed : nay, his very
reproof ivas fo conduced, that it feldom gave offence ;
the becoming gentlenefs with which it was urged made
it always appear the effect of friendftiip. Thus, with
unceafing atliduity, did he employ himfelf in admonifh-
ing the vicious, and engaging the well-intentioned ; by
which means, in a few years, he made a greater change
in his neighbourhood than could well have been
imagined. A remarkable inftance, .vhat reformation
a finglc man may effcd, when he hath it earnellly at
heart !

, ] GIL

But his Iiopcs ^vere not fo much in the prefcnt gens-
ration, as in the fuccecJing. It was an eafier talk, he ~
found, to prevent vice, than to correct it ; to form the
young to virtue, than to amend the bad habits of the
old. He employed much of his time, therefore, in
endeavouring to improve the minds of the younger part
of his parilh ; fuffering none to grow up in an igno-
rance of their duty •, but prefTmg it as the wifelt part
to mix religion with their labour, and amldil the cares
of this life to have a conitant eye upon the next. He
attended to every thing which might be of fervice to
his parilhioners. He was very afliduous in preventing
all law fuits among them. His hall is faid to have
been often thronged with people, who came to him
about their differences. He was not indeed much ac-
quainted with lavT ; but he could decide equitably, and
that fatisfied : nor could his fovereign's comrailTion
have given him more weight than liis o^vn charafter
gave him.

His hofpitable manner of living was the admiration
of the whole country. He fpent in his family every
fortnight 40 bulliels of corn, 2D bulliels of malt, and
a whole ox ; befides a proportionable quantity of other
kinds of provifion. Strangers and travellers found a
cheerful reception. All were ^velcome that came ;
and even their beafts had fo much care taken of them,
that it was humoroully faid, " If a horfe was timied
loofe in any part of the country, it would immediately
make its way to the reitor of Houghton's."

Every Sunday, from Michaelmas till Ealler, was a
fort of public day with him. During this feafon he
expected to fee all his parilhioners and their families.
For their reception, he had three tables well covered :
the firlt was for gentlemen, the lecond for hult)andmen
and fanners, and the third for day labourers. This
piece of holpitahty he never omitted, even when lofles,
or a fcarcity of provifion, made its continuance rather
difficult to him. He thought it his duty, and that
was a deciding motive. Even when he was abfent from
home, no alteration was made in his family expences ;
the poor were fed as ufaal, and his neighbours enter-
tained.

But notwithftanding all this painful induitry, and the
large fcope it had in fo extended a parilh, Mr Gilpin
thought the fphere of his benevolence yet too confined.
It grieved him extremely to fee everywhere, in the pa-
rifties around him, fo great a degree of ignorance and
fuperiiition, occafioned by the Ihameful neglect of the
paftoral care in the clergy ot thofe parts. Thefe bad
confequences induced him to fupply, as far as he could,
what was Avanting in otkers. For this purpofe, every
year he ufed regularly to vifit the molt neglected pa-
riihes in Northumberland, Yorkfhire, Chelhire, Weft» -
morland, and Cumberland ; and that his oivn parilh in
the mean tim.e might not fuffer, he was at the ex-
pence of a conilant afliiiant. In each place he Itaid
two or three days ; and his method was, to call the
people about him, and lay before them, in as plain a
\ ay as poffible, the danger of leading wicked or even
carelefs lives ; explaining to them the nature of true re-
ligion •, inftrufling them in the duties they owed to
God, their neighbour, and themlelves ; and ihowing
them how greatly a moral and religious conduct would
contribtite to their prefent as w-ell as future happinefs.

As Mr Gilpin had all the wanuUi of an enthufiaft,
though

GIL [72

tlioiigh u;iclcr tKe diredlion of a very calm and fober
' juilgnient, he never wanted an audience, even in the
\vildeft parts ; where he roufed many to a fenfe of reli-
gion, who had contrafted the molt inveterate hnbits of
inattention to every thing of a ferious nature. And
wherever he came, he ufed to vifit all the gaols and
places of confinement ; few in the kingdom having at
that time any appointed miniller. And by his labours,
and afleftionate manner of behaving, he is faid to
have reformed many very abandoned perfons in thofe
places. He would employ his intcre'! likeisnfe for
fuch criminals whofe cafes he thought attended n'ith
any hard circumftances, and often procured pardons
for them.

There is a traft of country upon the border of Nor-
thumberland, called Readf-dale and Tine-dale, of all
barbarous places in the north at that time the molt
barbarous. Before the Union, this place was called
the dehat-able land, as fulijeft by turns to England and
Scotland, and the common theatre where the two na-
tions were continually acting their bloody fcene'^. It
■was inhabited by a kind of defperate banditti, rendered
fierce and aclive by conftant alarms : they lived by
theft, ufed to plunder on both fides of the barrier ; and
what they plundered on one, they expofed to fale on
the other ; by that means efcaping juftice. And in
this dreadful country, .vhere no man would even travel
that could help it, Mr Gilpin never failed to fpend
fome part of every year.

He generally chofe the Chriftmas holidays for his
journey, becaufe he found the people at that feafon
mort difengaged, and raoft eafily afferabled. He had
fet places for preaching, which were as regularly at-
tended as the alTize towns of a circuit. If he came
tvhere there >vas a church, he made ufe of it : if not,
of barns, or any other large building ; where great
c^o^vds of people «ere fure to attend him, fom.e for liis
inifruftions, and others for his charity. This was a
very difficult and laborious employment. The country
wris fo poor, that what provi'.ion he could get, extreme
hunger only could make palatable. The inclemency
of the weather, and the badnefs of the roads through a
mountainous country, and at that feafon covered with
fnow, expofed h'm likewife often to great hardlhips.
Sometimes he was overtaken by the night, the country
being in many places defolate for feveral miles together,
and obliged to lodge out in the cold. -^ t fuch times,
we are told, he would make his fervant ride about with
his horfes, whilll himfelf on foot ufed as much exercife
as his age and the fitigucs of the preceding d-iy would
permit. x\ll this he cheerfully underwent ; elleeming
fuch fervices well compenfated by the advantages which
he hoped might accrue from them to his uninftrucled
felio^v creatures.

The difintereftcd pains he took among thefe barba-
rous people, and the good otfices he was always ready
to do them, drew from them the warmell and fincerell
expreflions of gratitude. Indeed, he was little lefs than
adored among them, and might have brought the whole
country almoll to what he ple.ifed. One inftance that
is related, lliows how greatly he was revered. By the
carelelfnefs of his fervants, his horfes were one day
ftolen. The news was quickly propagated, and every
one exprefled the higheft indignation at the facl. The
Jibief was rejoicing over his prize, when, by the report
3

6 ]

G I L

of the country, he found \vlijfe horfes he had taken.
Terrified at wnat he had done, he inftantly came trem-
bling back, confeifed the faiS, returned the horfes, and
declared he believed the devil would have feized him
direclly, had he carried them off knowing them to
have been Mr Gilpin's.

We have already taken notice of Mr Gilpin's un-
commonly generous and hofpitable m.-;nner of living.
The value of his rectory was about 4D0I. a year : an
income, indeed, at that time very confiderable, but yet
in appearance very difproportionate to the generous
things he did ; indeed, he could not have done them,
unlefs his frugality had been equal to his generofity.
His friends, therefore, could not but wonder to find
him, amidli his many great and continual expences, en-
tertain the defign of building and endowing a gram-
mar fchool : a defign, however, which his exaft eco-
nomy foon enabled him to accomplilh, though the ex-
pence.ofit amounted to upwards of jcol. His fchool
was no fooner opened, than it began to flouriih 5 and
there ivas fo great a refort of young people to it, that
in a little time the town v,-as not able to accommodate
them. He put himfelf, therefore, to the inconvenience
of fitting up a part of his own houfe for that purpofe,
where he feldom had fewer than 20 or 30 children.
Some of thefe were the fons of perfons of diftinclion,
ivhom he boarded at eafy rates : but the greater part
were poor children, whom he not only educated, but
clothed and maintained : he was at the expence like-
wife of boarding in the town many other poor children.
He ufed to bring feveral every year from the different
parts where he preached, particularly Readf-dale and
Tine-dale j which places he was at great pains in ci-
vilizing, and contributed not a little towards rooting
cut that barbarifm which every year prevailed lefe
among them.

As to his fchool, he not only placed able mailers in
it, whom he procured from Oxford, but himfelf like-
wife conrtantly infpefled it. And, that encouragement
might quicken the application of his boys, he always
took particular notice of the molt forward : he ivould
called them his oivn fcholars, and would fend for theia
often into his ftudy, and there Inllruft them hlmftjlf.
One inethod ufed by him to fill his fchool was a little
fingular. Whenever he met a poor boy upon the road,
he would make trial of his capacity by a few queftions,
and if he found It fuch as pleafed him, he would pro-
vide for his education. And befides thofe whom he
fent from his own fchool to the univerfities, and there
wholly maintained, he would likewife give to others^
who were in circumitances to do fomething for them-
felves, what farther aifutance they needed. By vvhieh
means he induced many parents to allow their children
a liberal education, who other\vife would not have one
it. And Mr Gilpin did not think it enough to afford
the means only of an accademical educ.ition to thele
young people; but endeavoured to make it as benefi-
cial to them as he could. He ftill confider.-d himfelf
as their proper guardian ; and feemed to think himlelf
bound to the public for their being made ufcful mer»-
bers of it, as far as it lay in his power to make them
fo. With this view he held' a punctual correfpond-
ence with their tutors ; and made the youths them-
felves frequer'ly ■■rtc to him, and give him an ac-
count of their Itudiej. So folicitous indeed was he

about

GHp;-

GIL [7

about tlieni, knowing the many temptations to which
their age and fituation expofed them, that once every
other year he generally made a journey to the univer-
iities to inlpecl their behaviour. And this uncommon
care was not unre\varded ; for many of his fcliolars be-
came ornaments to the church, and exemplary inftances
of piety.

'J^o the account that hath been already given of Mr
Gilpin's hofpitality and benevolence, the following par-
ticulars may be added. Every Thurfday throughout
the year, a very large quantity of meat was drefled
wholly for the poor ; and every day they had what
quantity of bioth they wanted. Twenty-four of the
poorelt were his coniiant penlioners. Four times in
the year a dinner was provided for them ; ^vhen they
received from his fteward a certain quantity of corn,
and a fum of money : and at Chriftmas they had al-
ways an ox divided among them.

Whenever he heard of any in diftrefs, whether of
his o^vn parldi or any other, he was fure to relieve
them. In his walks abroad, he would frequently bring
home with him poor people, and fend them away
clothed as well as fed. He took great pains to inform
himfelf of the circumftances of his neighbours, that the
modefty of the fufferer lyight not prevent his relief.
But the money beft laid out was, in his opinion, that
which encouraged induftry. It was one of his greatell
pleafures to make up the lofles of his laborious neigh-
bours, and prevent their finking under them. If a poor
man had loft a beaft, he would fend him another in its
room : or if any farmer had had a bad year, he would
make him an abatement in his tythes. Thus, as far
as he ^vas able, he took the misfortunes of his parilh
upon himfelf j and, like a true fliepherd, expofed him-
felf for liis flock. But of all kinds of induftrious poor,
he was moft forward to affift thofe who had large fami-
lies ; fuch never failed to meet with his bounty, when
they wanted to lettle their children in the world.

In the diftant parilhes where he preached, as well as
in his own neighbourhood, his generofity and benevo-
lence were continually ibowing therafelves ; particular-
ly in the defolate parts of Northumberland, " When
he began his journey," lays an old manufcript life of
him, " he would have 10 pounds in his purfe ; and,
at his coming home, he would be 20 nobles in debt,
which he would aUvays pay within a fortnight af-
ter. In the gaols he vifited, he was not only care-
ful to give the prifoners proper inftrudions, but ufcd
to purchafe for them likesvife what neceffaries they
wanted.

Even upon the public road, he never let flip an op-
portunity of doing good. He has often been known
to take off his cloak, and give it to a half naked tra-
veller : and when he has had fcarce money enough in
his pocket to provide himfelf a dinner, yet would he
give away part of that little, or the whole, if he found
any who feemcd to ftand in need of it. Of this bene-
volent temper, the following inftancc is prcferved. One
day returning home he faw in a field feveral people
crowding together ; and judging fomething more than
ordinary had happened, he rode up, and found that
one of the horfes in a team bad fuddenly dropped
down, which they were endeavouring to raife ; but in
vain, for the horfe was dead. The owner of it feemed
ipuch dejefled with his misfortune ; and declaring how

27 ] GIN

grievous a lofs it would be to him, Mr Gilpin bade him
not be diiheartened : " I'll let you have (fays he),
honell man, that horfe of mine," and pointed to his
fervant's. — " Ah ! matter (replied the countryman),
my pocket will not reach fuch a beall as that."
" Come, come (faid Mr Gilpin), take him, take him ;
and when I demand ray money, then thou flialt pay
me."

'I'his worthy and excellent divine, who merited and
obtained the glorious titles of t/ie Father of the Pooi\
and the Apojile of the North, died in 1583, in the 66th
year of his uge.

GILTHEAD. See Sp.\rus, Ichthyology /W«-.

GIN. See Geneva.

Gin, in mechanics, a machine for driving piles,
fitted with a windlafs and ^^^nches at each end, where
eight or nine men heave, and round which a rope is
reeved that goes over the wheel at the top : one end
of this rope is feized to an iron monkey, that hooks
to a beetle, of different weights, according to the piles
they are to drive, being from eight to thirteen hun-
dred weight ; and ^vhen hove up to a crofs piece, near
the wheel, it unhooks the monkey, and lets the beetle
fall on the upper end of the pile, and forces the fame
into the ground : then the monkey's own weight over-
hauls the windlafs, in order for its being hooked again
to the beetle.

GINGER, the root of a fpecies of amomum. See
Aaiomum, Botany Index.

GINGIDIUM, a genus of plants, belonging to the
pentandria clafs. See Botany Index.

GINGIRO, or ZiNDERO, a fmall territory of Africa,
to the fouth of Abyllinia , being feparated from it by
the river Zebee, by which it is alfo almoft entirely fur-
rounded. This river is extremely large, having more
water than the Nile, and being much more rapid ; fo
that, during the rainy feafon, it ivould be altogether
impaffable, ^vere it not for the large rocks (vhich are
in its channel. The extreme diiiiculty ^vhich occurs
in pafTmg this river, however, is the means of preferv-
ing the kingdom of Gingiro, ^vhich Avould otherwife
be conquered in a fmgle feafon by the Galla.

The moft remarkable particular with regard to this
kingdom is, that the fovereign is a profeffed votary of
the devik " This fuperftition (fays I\Ir Biucs) reaches
down all the weftern fide of the continent on the At-
lantic ocean, in the countries of Congo, Angola, and
Benin. In fpite of the firmeft foundation in true
philofopliy, a traveller, wlio decides from the informa-
tion and invelligation of fads, vAW find it very difficult
to treat thefe appearances as abfolute fictions, or as
owing to the fuperiority of cunning of one man iu
overreaching another. For my own part, I confefs,
I am equally at a lofs to afl'ign reafons for diihelieving
the fiiSion on which their pretenfions to fome preter-
natural information are founded, as to account for them
by the operation of ordinary caufcs."

In tliis kingdom every thing is condudcd, or pre-
tended to be conduded, by magic ; and all thofe
flaves, which in other African countries are fold to
Europeans, are here facrificed to the devil, human
blood being a necelTary part in all their accurfcd fo-
lemnities. " How far (fays Mr Bruce) this reaches to
the foulhward, I do not know ; but I look upon this
to be the geographical bounds of the reign of the,

dcvi!

G I O

r r

Cngiro clcvil on tl;e north fide of the equator in the peninful

". of Ahica."
--■■'^ With regard to this country, very little farther is

known, than I'ume of the cuftoms of the people
iranfiently picked up by tlie Jefuit miflionaries in
AbyfTniia. From them we learn, that tb.e kingdom is
hereditary in one family, though it does not regularly
dcfcend to the eldeit ion, the king being chofen by
the nobles ; in which they refembie their neighbours
the Abyffinians. When the king dies, his body is
wrapped in a iine cloth, and a caw is killed. The
body fo wrapped up is next enclofcd in the cow's fkin ;
and all the princes of the royal family fly and hide
ihemfelves in the bullies, while thole who are intrufted
xvith the eleflion enter the thickets, beating about
evei-ywhere as if for game. At lall a bird of prey,
tailed in their language /iber, appears, and hovers over
the pcrfon dcrtined to be king ; crying and making a
great noife wi hout quitting his flation. By this
means the perfon defthied to be elefled is found out,
furrounded, as is reported, by lions, tigers, panthers,
and other ivild bealls ; all which are fuppofed to be
brought by the power of magic or of the devil. —
After the king is found, he tlics upon thofe who came
in quell of him with great fury, killing and wound-
ing as many as he can reach, until at laft he is dragged
To the throne whether he will or not. One particular
family have the privilege of conducing him to the
throne ; and if they fliould not happen to find him at
(irlt, they have a right to take him out of the hands of
thofe who did fo ; and thus another battle enfues be-
fore the vacant throne can be filled. Laftly, Before
he enters his palace, two men muif be killed •, one at
the foot of a tree by which the houfc is fupported ;
and the other at the threlhold of the door, which is
befmeared with the blood of the viftim. It is the
particular privilege of one family to afford thefe vic-
tims ; and fo far are they from leeking to avoid this
fate, that they glory in the occalion, and willingly
oSer themfelves to meet it. Thi« laft particular, Mr
Bruce lays, he had in Abyffinia from people coming
irom GIngiro.

G INGl V.iE, the gums. See Gums.

GINGLYMUS, in Anatcmij, one of the fpecies of
-articulation. It is that jointure of the bones where
each bone mutually receives the other ; fo that each
bone both receives and is received. See Axatomy

GINKGO, the maiden-hair trek. See Mauri-
xiA, Botany Index.

GINORA, a genus of plants belonging to the do-
decandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
with thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany
hiaex.

GINSENG. See P.\nax, Botany and Materia
Medica Index.

GIOIA, Flavio, of Amalfi, in the kingdom of
Naples, the celebrated mathematician ; who, from his
knowledge of the magnetic powers, invented the ma-
riner's compafs, by which the navigation of the Eu-
ropeans was extended to the moll dillant regions of
the globe : before this invention, navigation was con-
fined to coafting. The king of Naples being a younger
branch of the royal family of France, he marked the
y)rth point with a fleur-de-lis, in compliment to that
3

28 ] G T R

counliy. It is faid the Chinefe knew the compafs Ciord^i
long before j be this as it may, the Europeans are in-
debted to Gioia for this invaluable difcovery. He flou- , ^"^'^''
rhhed A. D. 1300. *~

GIORDANA, Ll'ca. See Jordano.

GIORGIONE, fo called from his comely afpeft,
was an illuftiious Venetian painter, born in 1478. He
received his firft inltruftions from Giovanni riellino j
but lludying afterwards the works of Leonardo da
Vinci, he foon furpafl'ed them both, being the firft
among the Lombards who found out the admirable
effecls ot llrong lights and Ihadows. Titian became
his rival in this art ; and was lo careful in copying the
life, that he excelled Giorgione in difcovering the de-
licacies of nature, by tempering the boldnefs of his
colouring. The molt valuable piece of Giorgione in
oil is that of Chrift carrying his crofs, now in the
church of San Rxivo in Venice ; where it is held in
great veneration. He died of tlie plague young, ia
15. 1.

GIRAFFE. See Cervus, Mammalia Index.

GIRALD, Barry, or Clmldus Cambrenjis. See
Barky.

GIRALDI, LiLlo Gregorio, an ingenious critic,
and one of the moll learned men that modern Italy
has produced, .was born at Ferrara in 1479. He was
at Rome when it was plundered by the emperor
Charles V.J and having thus loll all he had, and being
tormented h)y the gout, he llruggled through life with
ill foitune and ill health. He wrote, neverthelefs, 17
performances, which were colleftcd and publillied at
Rafil in 2 vols, folio in 1 580, and at Leyden in 1696.
Authors of the firft rank have beflovved the higheft
eulogies on Giraldus ; particularly Cafaubon and
Thuanus.

GiRALDI, JiJm Boplif. Cintio, an Italian poet of
the fame family with the foregoing Lilio, was boiix
in 1504. He was fecretary to the duke of Ferrara,
and arterwards became proteffor of rhetoric at Pavia.
He died in 1573. His works, which conlifl chietly of
tragedies, were loUeded and pubHllicd at Venice by his
fon Celfo Giraldi, in 1583 ; and fome fcruple not to
rank him among the bell tragic writers Italy has pro.
duced.

GIR/'. Ri;ON, Francis, a celebrated French ar-
chiteft and fculptor, born at Troycs in 1627. Louis
XIV. being informed of his great talents, fent him to
Rome with a penfion of looc crowns. At his return
into France, he laboured for the royal palaces and
the gardens of Verfailles and Trianon ; where there
are many of his works executed in bronze and in mar-
ble, from the dtligns of Charles le Brun. The mau-
foleum of Cardinal de Richelieu, in the Sorbonne, and
the equellrian ftatue of Louis XIV. at the Place de
Vendorae, where the llalue and horfe are caft in one
piece, pafs for his moft excellent performances. Gi-
rardon was profeflbr, re£lor, and chancellor, oi the
Academy of Painting and Sculpture i and had the poft
of infpeftor general of all the works done in fculpture.
He died in 1 71 5.

GIRDERS, in Archiicclure, the largeft pieces of
timber in a tloor. 7 heir ends are ufually faliened in-
to the lummcrs, or brcft (umnicrs ; and the joills are
framed at one end to the giid-vs.

By the ftatute for rebuilding London, no girder is

Cirdle to be lels th-.in ten inches into tl;e wall, and llieir ends
II . to be ahvavs laid in loam, &.c.
,^"'g^''"- GIRDLE {Cinpilus or Zona), a belt or band of
leather or other matter, tied about the reins, to keep
that part riicre firm and light.

It u:is anciently the cufiom for bankrupts and other
infolvent debtors to put off and furrender their girdle
in open court. The rcalbn of this was, that our an-
cellurs ufcd to carry all their neceflary utenills, as
purfe, keys, &c. tied to the girdle ; whence the girdle
became a fymbol of the ftate. Hillory relates that
the widow of Philip I. duke of Burgundy, renounced
her right of fucceffion by putting ofFher girdle upon the
cuke's tomb.

I'hfi Romans always wore a girdle to tuck up the
tunica when they had occafion to do any thing : this
cuftom was fo general, that fuch as went without
girdlef, and let their go^vns hang loofe, were reputed
idle diiibiute perfons.

Llaicitn^s or V!rgin''s Girdle. It was a cuftom among
the Greeks and Romans for the huiband to untie his
bride's girdle. Homer, lib. xi. of his Odyfiey, calls the
girdle ■rrx^titni* ^"^'hi*, maid''s girJIe. Fciius relates, that
it was made of Iheep's wool,- and that the huiband un-
tied it in bed ; he adds, that it was tied in the Her-
culanean knot ; and that the huftand unloofed it, as a
happy prefage of his having as many children as Her-
cules, who at his death left feventy behind him.

The poets attribute to Venus a particular kind of
girdle called cejlus, to which they annexed a faculty of
infpiring the paflion of loie.

GIRGASHITES, or Gergesenes, an ancient
people of the land of Canaan, whole habitation was
beyond the fea of Tiberias, -where we find fome foot-
fteps of their name in the city of Gergefa, upon the
lalte of Tibeilias. The Jewifh doftors inform us, that
\vlien Jofhua firft came into the land of Canaan, the
Girgathites took a refolution rather to forfake their
country than fubmit to the Hebrews, and accordingly
retired into Africa. Neverthelefs, it is certain that a
good number of them llaid behind, fince Jothua
(xxiv. 1 1.) informs us that he fubdued the Girgalhites,
and they whom he overcame were certainly on this
fide Jordan.

GIRGENTI, a town of Sicily, which occupies part
of the lite of the ancient Jlgrigentum, It has only one
flrcet fit for carriages. It is inhabited by i 5,000 per-
fons ; but has no remarkable buildings or works of art
that deferve mention : the only antitpiities to be feen
tvere a Latin infcription of the time of the Antonines,
as is pretended, relative to fome affociation between
Agrigentum and Lilybieum •, and ?. piece of ancient
niafonry in the foundations of a church pretended
to be the remains of a temple of Jupiter. At fome
diftance, on the old ground in the vale, ftands the
cathedral, a clumfy building patched up by barba-
rous architects with variou.'i difcordant parts. This
church is enriched with no works of modem paint-
ers or fculptors that claim any title to praife, but
the baptifmal font is made out of an ancient farcopha-
gus faced with very beautiful balTo relievos. This
fee is the richeft in ."jicily, but has the charafter of be-
ing lefs enlightened and polifhed than the red of the
ifland. Among the curiofities belonging to the catlie-
dral is an Etrufcan vafe of rare fize and prefervatiop.

Vol. IX. Part II.

29 ] CIS

There are alfo fome golden pateras of extreme rarity. Cnor.
The monalleiy of San Nicolo ftands on a little emi- 'I
nence in the centre of the old city, admirably fi- "''^
tuated. The range of hills towards the fouth-eaft
finks gradually, lb as to admit a noble reach of fca ~
and of plain, terminated on each fide by thick groves
of fruit trees. Above appear the remains of ancient
grandeur, wonderfully conttafted with tlie humble
Ilraw cottages built at their feet. In the orchard of
this convent is a fquare building with pilafters, which
is fuppofed to have been part of the palace of the Ro-
man pra-tor.

Girgenti has the convenience of a port ; for which,
however, it is lefs indebted to its natural fituation
than to the recent afliftance of art. The harbour is
formed by means of a pier carried out in three fides
of an oclagon, with a battery at the head j the light-
houfe is to be erected on the cliffs on lliore, as there is
no polTibility of railing it high enough on the mole
without danger of finking. The v.'ork is admirable as
to ftrength and neatnefs, but the intention of creating
a fafe and complete haven has not been fully anfvvered ;
the Sirocco commands it entirely, and drives in great
quantities of fand, ^vhith it is feared will in time choke
up the port ; even now ftiips of burden find it difficult
to get in, but the Caricatore is confiderable, and
the magazines in the rocks along the ftiore are very
fpacious.

GIRONNE, or Gironky, in Heraldry, a coat of
arms divided into girons, or triangular figures, meeting
in the centre of the Ihield, and alteniately colour and
metal.

GIRT, the fituation of a (hip which is moored fo
ftrait by her cables, extending from the hawfe to two
diftant anchors, as to be prevented from fwinging or
turning about according to any change of the wind or
tide, to tlie current of which her head would otlierwife
be directed. The cables arc extended in this manner,
by a ftrong application of mechanical powers Avithin
the fliip ; fo that when (lie veers, or endeavours to fwing
about, her fide bears upon one of the cables, which
catches on her heel, and interrupts her in the ail of
traverfing. In this pofitlon (he muft ride ^vilh her
broadfide to the wind or surrent, till one or both of the
cables are llackened.

GISCO, fon of Himilco the Carthaginian general,
was banilhed from Carth.age by the influence of his ene-
mies. Being afterwards recalled, he was made general
in Sicily againft the Corinthians, about 309 years be-
fore die Chriflian era, and by his fuccels and intreoi-
dity he obliged the enemies of his country to fue for
peace. See Carth.^ge.

GISEOROUGH, a town of England, in the weft
riding ot Yorklliire, on the road from Whitby to
Durham, 224 miles from London, and four miles from
the mouth of the Tees, where is a bay and harbour for
(liips. It had formerly an abbey, which was once the
common burial place of the nobility of thefc parts, and
its church by the ruins feems to have been equal to the
beft cathedrals in England. The foil, befidcs its fer-
tility in pafture and a conftant verdure adorned with
plenty of field tlowers almoft all the year, has earths
of fundry colours, fome iron, and mines of alum, which
were firlt difcovered in the reign of King James I. and
have been lince very much improved. Sir Paul Pin-
4 Z dar,

G L A [73,

dar, ivho firfl farmed them, paid rents to the king
1 2,5Col. to the Earl Mufgrave 1640I. and to Sir
I, William Penninian 600I. and had moreover 800 men
by fea and land in conflant pay ; yet he was a confi-
derable gainer, becaufe there was then fcarce any other
to be had, and the price was 26I. a ton ; but now
there are feveral other alum works in this county,
which have taken a great part of the trade from hence •,
fo that the works here have for fome years lain ne-
glefted.

GITTITH, a Hebrew word occurring frequently
in the Pfalras, and generally tranflated ivinepreffes. 7~he
conjedures of interpreters are various concerning this
word. Some think it fignifies a fort of mufical inllru-
ment j others, that the pfalms with this title were
fung after the vintage ; laftly, others, that the hymns
of this kind were invented in the city of Gath. Cal-
met is rather of opinion, that it was given to the clafs
of young women or fongftreflfes of Gath to be fung by
them, Pfal. viii. i. Ixxxi. i. Ixxxxiv. r. Dr Hammond
thinks that the pfalras with this title were all fet to
the fame tune, and made on Goliath the Gittite.

GIULA, a ftrong toivn of Upper Hungary, on
the frontiers of Tranlylvania. It was taken by the
Turks in 1566, and retaken by the Imperialills in
1695. It is feated on the river Kereihlan, in E. Long.
2 1. I.N. Lat. 46. 2 J.

GIUSTANDEL; a large and ftrong town of Tur-
key in Europe, and in Macedonia, with a Greek arch-
biihop's fee. It is feated near the lake Ochrid-i, in
E. Long. 20. 50. N. Lat. 41. 10.

GLACIERS, a name given to forae very extenfive
fields of ice among the Alps. Mr Coxe obferves of
thefe mountains in general, that they are compofed of
many parallel chains, the highell of which occupy the
centre, and the others gradually dimini(h in proportion
as we recede from thence. The central chain appears
covered with pointed rocks ; all parts of which, that
are not ablblutely perpendicular, lie hid under perpe-
tual fnow and ice even in fummer. On each fide of
this ridge are fertile and cultivated valleys, interfperfed
with niunerous village;:, and watered by numerous
tlreams. The elevated peaks of the central chain are
covered with fnow : but their declivities, excepting
thofe that are extremely fteep, have all a covering of
ice as well as fnow ; the intermediate parts being filled
with vaft fields of ice, terminating in the cultivated
valleys above mentioned. The fame phenomena, though
on a Imaller fcale, occur in thofe chains that are at a
diftance from the principal one : In thofe which are
moft remote, no ice, and fcarcely any fnow, is obferved,
_unlefs upon fome of the raoft elevated fumraits ; and
the mountains diminidiing in lieight and ruggednefs,
appear covered with verdure, until at lall they termi-
Date in Imall hills and plains.

Thus the glaciers may be divided into two forts ;
one occupying the deep valleys fituated in the bofora
of the Alps, and dillinguhhed by the name of Ice val-
leys ; the others are thofe which clothe the declivities
and fides of the mountains. Thefe two kinds of gla-
ciers are diftinguilhed by Mr Coxe into the upper and
lower glaciers.

The lower glaciers are by far the moft confiderable ;
fome of them extending feveral leagues in length.
They do not communicate with each other, as has been

G L A

generally fuppofcd, few of them being parallel to t!;e Glaci-
central chain ; but, llretching moftly in a tranfverfe di- ^r~v~
reclion, are bordered at the higher extremity by iuac-
ceffible rocks, and at the lower extending into the cul-
tivated valleys. The thicknefs of the ice varies in dif-
ferent parts. In the glacier des Bois, which extends
more than 15 miles in len^^th, and upwards of three in
breadth, M. Saullure found it generally from 80 to
1 00 feet ; but he was credibly informed, that in fome
places it was not lefs than 6qo feet, and even more.
Thefe vaft malTes of ice ufually reft on an inclined planej
where, being pulhed forward by their own weight, and
but weakly fupported by the nigged rocks beneath
them, they arc interfered by large crevices, and have
an appearance of walls, pyramids, &c. according to the
pofition of the eye in viewing them. In thofe parts,
liovvever, where they lie upon even ground, or fuch as
has only a gentle inclination, the furface of the ice is
nearly uniform, the crevices being few and narrow, and
the glacier being crolTed by travellers on foot without
any difficulty. The iurface of the ice is rough and gra-
nulated, io that people may walk upon it, excepting fuch
places as have a fteep defcent. It is opaque, full of
fmall bubbles about the fiae of a pea, very porous, and
greatly refembles a mixture of fnow and water congeal-
ed. A vaft quantity of ftones and earth falls down
from the mountains upon the glaciers, and are by them
thrown off on each fide according to the defcent of the
ice, as will be afterwards explained. The place on
ivliich thefe reft is more hard and elevated than the reft
of the ice, and is very difficult to walk upon ; the earth
is likevvife laid upon them in fuch regular heaps, that
it appears to have been done by art. This colleftion
of earth and ftones is termed by the natives the Mo-
raine.

Mr Coxe, who vifited the glacier des Eois, informs
us, that the appearance of it at a diftance ^vas fo tremen-
dous, that it fcemed imprafticable to crofs it. Numer-
ous and broad chafms interfefted it in every diredion ;
but entering upon it, the company found that courage
and aftivity were only required to accomplilh the taflc.
They had large nails in their Ihoes, atid fpiked fticks ;
w-hich on this occafion were found to be particularly
ferviceable. Having pr'tfed the moraine, and deicend-
ed upon tlic glacier itfelf, they found the ice foftened
by a warm wind wliich rendered it lefs llippery than
ufual. Having walked acrofs it for about a quarter of
an hour, they came again to the moraine, along which
they continued their journey for half an hour, and then
entered upon the great body of the glacier, " Here
(fays Mr Coxe) it was curious to obferve the numerous
little rills produced by the colledlion of drops occa-
fioned by the thawing of the ice on the upper part of
the glacier : thefe little rills hollow out fraall channels,
and, torrent-like, precipitate themfelves into the chafms
with a violent noife, increafing the body of waters form-
ed by the melting of the interior furtace, and finding
an outlet under the immenle arch of ice in the valley
of Chaniouni, from which the Arveron rufhes." As
our traveller proceeded on his journey, he w'as fur-
prifed by the noife of » large fragment of rock which
had detached itlelf from one ol the higheft needles,.and
bounded from one precipice to another with great ra-
pidity ; but before it reached the plain, it was almoft
reduced to dull. " Having proceeded about an hour

(fays

G L A

[ 73t 1

G L A

Glaciers, (fays he) we were aftonillied with a view more magnifi-
'~~V~— ' cent than imagination can conceive : hitherto the gla-
ciers had fcarcely aniwered my expeftations, but now
they far furpaffed them. Nature had clad herlelf in all
her terrors. Before us was a valley of ice 20 miles in
extent, bounded by a circular glacier of pure unbroken
fnow, named Takul, wliich leads diretlly to the foot
of Mount Blanc, and is furroundcd by large conical
rocks, terminating in lliarp points like the towers on an
ancient fortification ; to the right rofe a range of mag-
nificent peaks, the intervals filled with glaciers; and
far above the rell, the magnificent fummit of INIount
Blanc, his higheft point obfcured with clouds. He ap-
peared of fnch immenfe magnitude, that, at his pre-
fence, the circumjacent mountains, however gigantic,
feemed to Ihrlnk before him, and hide their dlminijhcd
heads. In half an hour we arrived at the moraine,
which forms a boundary of the valley, croffed it, and
proceeded upon a body of ice about three quarters of a
mile broad. Here the ice was more even and free from
chafms than in the great valley. We then paffed a fe-
cond moraine, and beyond that another mafs of ice to
a third moraine : defcending from thence we came upon
the laft ridge of ice, broader confidcrably than the two
former, and full of large chalms : it is feparated from
the rock only by a very narrow moraine. Thefe mo-
raines contain great quantities of cryrtal."

They continued to afcend the valley of ice, the fcene
conftantly incrcafing in magnificence and horror ; and
having walked about five miles on the ice, they arrived
at lait at the foot of the eminence named Couvercle,
where they were obliged to quit the ice. The domg
this was extremely dangerous, and at one place very tre-
mendous. It was a bulging fmooth rock, with a pre-
cipice of confiderable depth terminated by a vail crevice
in the ice, which feemed to Hop all further progrefs :
a fmall hollow in the middle, however, aflForded room
tor one foot ; and having fixed this, they fprung over to
the other fide, being helped and directed by the guides
Tvho went over firlt. Having gained the top of the
Couvercle, they had a view of three of the glaciers, viz.
that of Talefre to the left, /' Echaut in front, and Ta-
iul on the right ; all uniting in that great one called
the Glacier de Bois. The Couvercle itfelf is a moft ex-
traordinary rock, having the appearance of a large ir-
regular building with many fides ; the fubftance of
which is granite. Having reached the top, they ivere
furprifed with a thunder itorm, from which they took
(helter under an impending rock. The vieiv was ex-
ceedingly magnificent ; the glaciers appearing like a
rugged expanfe of frozen fca bounded by gigantic rocks,
and terminated by Mount Blanc. A lingle rock ap-
peared of a triangular figure covered with Alpine plants;
and which by rcalon of its contrail with the rugged and
fnowy mountains in the neighbourhood, has obtained
the name of the Garden. During this, as well as other
cxcurfions among the Alps, Mr Coxe had occafion to
obferve that the colour of the fky was of a much deeper
blue than in the lower regions.

The upper glaciers may be fubdivided into thofc
which cover the fummits. and thofe which extend along
the fides of the Alps. 'Ihofe on the very fummit, how-
ever, though they have the appearance of ice, are not
fo in reality, but confift entirely of fnow hardened by
the extreme cold. M. Sauffure found that which co-

vered the top of Mount Blanc to be penetrable, though
with dilficulty, by a Hick ; but below this hard cruft *
was a foft fnow without coherence. The fides are co-
vered with a mixture of ice and fnow ; by rcalon of the
fuperior power of the fummer fun to diflblve the fnow,
which afterwards congeals into hard ice.

Several conjcihires have been made concerning the
formation of thcfc extraordinary bodies of ice. Mr
Coxe agrees with M. Gruner in opinion, that they are
produced by the continual diflolution of the fnoiv in
iummer, and its congelation by the fucceeding frofts.
Hence, on the fumn-.its of the mountains where the fun
has very little power, the glacier is foft, and contains
no ice ; as we defcend the mountains the confidence
becomes firmer, becaufe there is a confiderable mixture
of fnow water, the congelation of which augments the
hardnefs ; and in the valleys, the glacier is hardell of
all, becaufe the portion of water is there much iuperior
to that of the fnow. Hence it feems plain that the
glaciers derive their origin from the melting of the fnow
on the upper parts of the mountains, and the congela-
tion of the water as it advances : and to this caufe
M. Sauffure adds the quantity of fnow which often
rolls do«n into the valleys, and congeals along with the
water jufl mentioned.

Another quellion concerning the glaciers naturally
occurs, namely. Whether they are to be confidered av
in a ftate of increafe or diminution ? Mr Coxe is of opi-
nion, that they occafionally increafe and decreafe ; in
proof of which he adduces the following obfervation :
" Tlie borders of the glacier of Montanvert are mollly
fkirted with trees : to-.vards its bafe a vaft arch of ice
lifes to near loo feet in height ; under which the river
Arveron rulhes with confiderable force, and in a large
body of water. As we approached the ice, we paffed
through a wood of firs : thofe trees nhich (land at a
little diftance from the arch are aboul 8o feet high,
and are undoubtedly of a very great age. Between
ttiefe and the glacier the trees are of a later growth ; as
is evident from their texture and inferior fize. Others,
ftill fmaller, have been overturned and enveloped in the
ice : there feems to be a kind of regular gradation in
the age of thefe feveral trees, from the largeft which
are ftanding to the fmallell that lie prollrate." — Hence
our author concludes, that the glacier once extended
as far as the row of fmall firs ; but that upon its gra-
dual diffolution, a number of trees fliot up on the fpot
it had occupied ; fince which time the ice has again ad-
vanced, and overturned the laft grown trees before they
had attained to any confiderable height. — This he
thinks alfo confirmed by the following fad. — " Large
(tones of granite are ufually found at a fmall diftancc
from the extremities of the glacier. Thefe (tones have
certainly fallen from the mountains upon the ice; have
been carried on in its progrefs ; and have tumbled into
the plain upon the diflTolution or finking of the ice which
fupported them. Thefe ftones, which the natives call
Moraine, form a kind of liorder to vards the foot of the
valley of ice, and have been puflied forward by the gla-
cier in its advances ; they extend even to the place oc-
cupied by the larger pines."

In oppofition to thofe who maintain that there is a

conftant accumulation of ice and fnoiv in the Alpine

regions, our author makes the following remarks :

I. Between the years 1775 and 1785 the glacier of

4 Z 2 Grindclevald

G L A [73

Glacierf. Grlndelevald had diminilhcd to fuch a degree, that the
"~"~^'~~^ fpot which its extremity occupied in the former year

that occupied by it in the
the Murailles'de Glace,

was at leaft 400 pases tron
latter. 2. In the yeari7J_
which in 1776 he had delcribed as forming the border
ot the glacier of Boffon, no longer exifted ; and young
trees had (hot up in the parts which were then covered
by the glacier of Montanvert. Still, however, it may
be urged, that thele changes only take place in the
valleys wiiere the power of the lun is confiderable ;
and that from thence we cannot form any adequate
idea of what palTes in the more elevated regions, where
in all probability more fnow falls than can be diflolved.
In fupport of this opinion, it is alleged, that the cold
produced by the mafs of ice already formed ought to
augment it ftill more ; and that within the memory of
the prefent generation, many places have been covered
with ice which were not fo before. To thefe argu-
ments, however, Mr Coxe replies, that the caufes,
which diminiih the ice in the upper regions, are no
Icfs powerful than the cold which tends to augment
it. Thefe are, i. Rain or fleet ; which falling upon
the lower glaciers, thaw the ice, increafe the rills on
hi furface, excavate channels, and in many ways tend
to diminlfli its quantity. 2. Evaporation, which takes
place even from the lurface of the ice itielf, afts ftill
more powerfully ; and its action is not confined to any
particular feafon. 3. The falling of the fnow and
ice ; both that which comes gradually from the
clouds, and that which defcends from the mountains in
great maffes, called by the natives avalanches. When
thefe laft fall down into milder regions, though fome-
times they may refift the influence of the fun and
form ice valleys, yet they generally diflblve. They
are moft common in the upper glaciers, though Ibme-
times they defcend upon the lower, while the gradual
defcent of fnow from the clouds, which chiefly takes
place in the lower, contributes very much to leffen the
mafs. 4. All the lower glaciers or valleys of ice reft
on an inclined plane, are hollow, and undermined by
torrents which are conftantly flowing from the upper
glaciers, as well as from their own lowermoft furface.
Their foundation being thus conftantly diminilhing,
the lower glaciers are carried imperceptibly forward
into the cultivated fields, where an end is neceffarily put
to their progrefs by the heat f)f the fun. Hence we
may fee the reafon of that ftrange phenomenon taken
notice of by Mr Coxe, that with one hand he could
touch ripe com, and vvith the other folid ice. This
defcent of the glacier is demonftrable from the trees
overturned by it, and the moraine always obferved at
the bottom of the lower glaciers. 5. The heat of the
fun is an evident caufe of the diminution of the gla-
ciers. To this Mr Coxe adds another caufe lefs gene-
rally known, viz. the warm winds which blow by night
as well as by day both in the unper and lovver glaciers.
" Thefe warm winds (fays he^ are during iummer fo
common in thofe parts, that I never crofled a glacier
without feeling in fome particular pofitions a warmth
fimilar to the air of a hot bath." 6. Another caufe
is the mean temperature of the earth itfelf j which,
where it is not expofed to the piercing cold of the at-
mofphere, is found to have a temperature always above
the freezing point. As the vaft thicknefs of the fu-
perincumbent ice, therefore, is in the prefent cafe abun-

Gladiatc

2 ] G L A

dantly fufficient to prevent the accefs of the atrno- Glacis
fphere, it is plain that the lower furface of it rauft, by
being in conta<il with the earth, continually decay..
With regard to the other argument drawn from the
known increafe of the ice in fome places, Mr Coxe
does not deny it ; but iniifts, that there is no continual
increafe of the whole, but that if it increafes in fome
places, it diminilhes in others ; and his opinion in this
refped was confirmed by thofe who frequent the
mountains.

GLACIS, in building, an eafy Infenfible flope or
declivity.

The defcent of the glacis is lefs fteep than that of the
talus. In gardening, a defcent fometimes begins in ta-
lus, and ends in glacis.

The glacis of the corniche, is an eafy imperceptible
flope in the cymatium, to promote the defcent and
draining off the rain water.

Glacis, in Fortification, that maf^ of earth which
ferves as a parapet to the covered way, floping eafily to-
wards the champaign or field.

GLADE, in Gardening and Agriculture, an open-
ing and light paifage made through a wood, by lopping
off the branches of trees along that way,

GLADIATORS, in antiquity, perfons who fought,
generally in the arena at Rome, for the entertainment
of the people.

The gladiators were ufually flaves, and fought out of
necefllty ; though fometimes freemen made profeflion
thereof, like our prize-fighters, for a livelihood.

The Romans borrowed this cruel diverfion from the
Afiatics : fome fuppole that there was policy in the
praflice, the frequent combats of gladiatois tending to
accuftom the people to defpife dangers and death.

The origin of fuch combats feems to be as follows :
From the earlieft times with which v.-e have any ac-
quaintance in profane hiftory, it had been the cuftom
to facrifice captives, or prifoners of war, to the manes
of the great men who had died in the engagement ;
thus Achilles, in the Iliad, lib. xxiii. facrifices twelve
young Trojans to the manes of Patroclus ; and in Virgil,
lib. xi. ver. 81. jSneas fends captives to Evander, to
be facrificed at the funeral of his fon Pallas.

In courfe of time they came alio to lacrifice flaves
at the funerals of all perfons of condition : this was
even efteemed a neceffary part of the ceremony ; but
as it would have appeared barbarous to have malTacred
them hke beafts, they were appointed to fight with
each other, and endeavour to fave their own lives
by killing their adverfary. This feemed fomewhat lefs
inhuman, becauie there was a poflibllity of avoiding
death, by an exertion of flcill and courage.

This occafioned the profeffion of gladiator to become
an art : hence arofe mailers of the art, and men learned
to fight and exercife. Thefe matters, whom the
Latins called lanifta-, bought them flaves to be trained
up to this cruel trade, whom they afterwards fold to
fuch as had occafion to prefent the people with fo hor-
rible a Ihow.

Thefe exhibitions were at firft performed near the
fepulchre of the deceafed, or about the funeral pile -,
but were afterwards removed to the circus and amphi-
the:itres, and became ordinary araulements.

The firft ftioiv ot gladiators, c^Wcdmunus gladiatoriitm,,
was exhibited at Rome, according to Valerius Ma.\inius,

by

G L A . r 73

by iVI. and D. Brutus, upon the death of their father, in
the year of the city 490. On this occafion there were
probably only three pair of gladiators. In 537, the three
fons of M. iEmilius Lcpidus the augur, who had been
three times conful, entertained the people with the cruel
P'eafure of feeing 22 gladiators fight in the forum. In
547, the tirlt Africanus diverted his army at New Car-
thage with a Ihow of gladiators, which he exhibited in
honour ot his father and uncle, who had begun the re-
duction of Spain. In procefi of time, the Romans
became fo fond of thefe bloody entertainments, that
I'.ot only the heir of any great and rich citizen lately
deceafed, but all the principal raagiftrates, prefented
the people with fliows of this nature, to procure their
affection. The adiles, praetors, confuls, and, above
all, the candidates for offices, made their court to the
people, by entertaining them frequently with thefe
fights : and the priells were fometiraes the exhibitors
of the barbarous ftiows ; for we meet with the litdi pon-
tificales in Suetonius, Augull. cap. 44. and with the
tudi facerdotalcs, in Pliny, Epift. lib. vii. As for the
emperors, it was fo much their intereft to ingratiate
themfelves with the populace, that they obliged them
with combats of gladiators almoll upon all occafions ;
and as thefe increafed, the number of combatants in-
creafed likewiie. Accordingly, Julius Ca-far, in his
aedilelhip, diverted the people with 320 couple. Titus
exhibited a Ihow of gladiator?, wild beafts, and repre-
fentations of lea fights, which lafled 100 days j and
Trajan continued a folemnity of this nature for 123
days ; during which time he brought out tooo pair of
gladiators. Before this time, under the republic, the
number of gladiators was fo great, that when the con-
fpiracy of Catiline broke out, the fenate ordered them
to be difperied into the garrifons and fecured, lelt they
lljould have joined the difaffeded party. See Gladia-
tors War.

Thefe fports were become fo common,- and their
confequences in a variety of refpeds fo dangerous,
that Cicero preferred a law that no perfon diould ex-
hibit a fliow of gladiators within two years before he
appeared candidate for any office. Julius C;efar order-
ed, that only a certain number of men of this profef-
fion (hould be in Rome at a time ; Auguftus decreed,
that only two (hov.s of gladiators ihould be prefented
in a year, and never above fixty couple of combatants
in a (how 5 and Tiberius provided by an order of le-
uate, that no perfon lliould have the privilege of gra-
tifying the people with fuch a folemnity unlefs he was
worth 400,000 fefterces. They were alfo conliderably
regulated by Nerva.

The emperor Claudius reflrained them to certain
occafions ; but he foon afterwards annulled what he
decreed, and private perfons began to exhibit them
at pleafure as ufual ; and fome carried the brutal fatis-
fafiion fo far as to have them at their ordinary feafls.
And not flaves only, but other perfons, would hire
themfelves to this infamous office.

U'he mafter of the gladiators made them all firft fwear
that they would hghtto death ; and if they failed, they
were put to death either by fire, or fwords, clubs,
whips, or the like.

It was a crime for the wretches to complain when
they were wounded, or to afli for death or feek to
avoid it when overconie ; but it was ufual for the em-

3 ] G L A

peror or the people to grant them life when they gave Gladiator!.

no figns of fear, but waited the fatal iboke with cou- ^r—

rage and intrepidity : Auguftas even decreed that it
fliould always be granted them.

From Haves and freedraen the inhuman fport at
length fpread to people of rank and condition ; fo that
Auguftus was obliged to iffue a public edi6l that none
of the fenatorian order lliould become gladiators ; and
foon after he laid the fame refiraint on the knights :
ncverthelefs Nero is related to have brought upwards
of 400 fetL.tors and 6oD Roman knights upon the
arena ; though Lipfiius takes both thefe numbers to be
faliified, and not without reafon reduces them to 40
fenators and 60 knights : yet Domitian, that other
monfter of cruelty, refined upon Nero, exhibiting com-
bats of women in the night time.

Conftantine the Great is faid to have firft prohibited
the combats of gladiators in the Eaft, At leEil he for-
bade thofe who were condemned to death for their
crimes to be employed \ tliere being an order llill ex-
tant to ^\e. prcefeiHus l>r<elQrii rather to fend them to work
in the mines in lieu thereof : it is dated at Berytus in
Phoenicia, the firil of Odober 325.

The emperor Honorius forbade them at Rome on oc-
cafion of the death of Telemachus, who coming out
of the Eaft into Rome at the time of one of thefe fpec-
tacles, went down into the arena, and ufed all his en-
deavours to prevent the gladiators from continuing the.
fport ; upon which the fpeftators of that carnage, fired
with anger, ftoned him to death. It muft be obfer\-ed,
however, that the practice was not entirely aboliftied,
in the Weft before Theodoric king of the Oifrogoths.
Honorius, on the occafion firft mentioned, had prohibit-
ed them 5 but the prohibition does not feem to have
been executed. Theodoric, in the year 500, aboliftied"
them finally.

S'>me time before the day of combat, the perfon who
prefented the people with the' ftiows gave them notice
thereof by programmas or bills, containing the names
of the gladiators, and the marks whereby they were
to be diftinguiihed : for each had his feveral badge ;
which was moft commonly a peacock's fcither, as
appears from the fcholiaft of Juvenal on the I58tli
verfe of the third fatire, and Turnebus Adverf. lib. ii.
cap. 8. They alfo gave notice how long the (hows
would lalt, and how many couples of gladiators there
were ; and it even appears, from the 5 2d verfe of the
feventh fatire of the fecond book of Horace, that the/
fometimes made reprefentations of thefe things in paint-
ing, as is praftifed among us by thofe who have any
thing to ftiow at fairs.

The day being come, they began the entertainment
by bringing two kinds of weapons ; the firft were
ftaves or wooden foils, called rudes ; and the fecond
were effisdive weapons, as fwords, poniards, 8cc,-
The firft were called arma luforia, or exercitoria ; tlie
fecond decretoria, as being given by decree or fentence
of the praetor, or of him at whole expence the fpec-
tacle was exhibited. They began to fence or flcir-
mi(h with the firft, which was to be the prelude
to the battle ; and from thefe, when well warmed,
they advanced to the (econd at the found of the
trumpets, with which they fought naked. Then
they were faid vertere arma. The terms of ftriking
^\ere fielerf et repetere ; of avoiding a blow, exire ;

aI^d

G L A

isdiators. and when one of the combatants received a
""^i able wound, his adverfary or the people cried out,
IJabet, or Hoc habet. The firfl; part of the engagement
was called venti/are, prceluiierc ; and the fecond, dimicnrc
ad cerium, or -oerjis armis pugnarc : and fome authors
think, with much probability, that it is to thefe two

73+3 G L A

k- lace of Chighi. This man, when he had received the
mortal ftroke, is particularly careful ut prociimbat hoiicjle,
" that he might fall honourably." He is feated in a re-
clining pofture on the ground, and has jull ftrength
fufficient to fupport himielf on his right arm : and in
his expiring moments it is plainly feen, that he does

kinds of combat that St Paul alludes in the paflage not abandon himfelf to grief and dejeftion ; but is fo-

Cor, ix. 26, 27. " I Cght, not as one that beateth
the air ; but I keep my body, and bring it into fub-
jeclion." *

If the vanquifhed fui-rendered his arms, it was not
in the victor's power to grant him life ; it was the
people during the time of the republic, and the prince
or people during the time of the empire, that were
alone empowered to grant the boon. The reward
of the conqueror was a branch of palm tree, and
a fum of money, probably collecled among the fpec-
tators : fometimes they gave him his conge, or dif-
miifed him by putting one of the wooden foils or
rudes in his hand ; and fometimes they even gave
hira his freedom, putting the pilseus on his head.
The fign or indication, whereby the fpeftators ihow-
ed that they granted the favour, was premere pol/icem,
v.hich M. Dacier takes to be a clenching of the fingers
of both hands between one another, and fo holding
the two thumbs upright clofe together ; and, when
they would have the combat finiftied and the vanquiih-
ed llain, vcrterunt poliicem, they bent back the thumb ;
which we learn from Juvenal, Sat. iii. ver. 36. The
gladiators challenged or defied each other, by fliow-
ing the little finger ; and, by extending this, or fome
other, during the combat, they owned themfelves

licitous to maintain that firmnefs of afped which the
gladiators valued themfelves on preferving in this fea-
fon of dillrefs, and that attitude which they had learnt
of the matters of defence. He fears not death, nor
feems to betray any tokens of fear by his countenance,
nor to Ihed one tear : qiiis mediocris gladiator ingemiiil,
qiiis vultitm mutavit unquam, quis non modo Jfetit, •uerum
etiam decubh tiirpiter, fays Cicero, in that part of his
Tufculan where he is defcribing the aftonilmng firm-
nefs of thole perfons. We fee, in this inllance, not-
withftanding his remaining ftrength, that he has but
a moment to Uve ; and we view him with attention,
that we may fee him expire and fall : thus the ancients
knew how to animate marble, and to give it almoft
every expreffion of life.

GLADIOLUS, Corn flag, a genus of plants
belonging to the triandria clafs, and in the natural me-
thod ranking under the fixth order Etifaliv. See Bo-
tany Index.

GLAIR of eggs, is the fame as the white of eggs,
and is ufed as a varnifli for preferving paintings. For
this purpofe it is beat to an unftuous confiftence, and
commonly mixed with a little brandy or fpirit of mne,
to make it work more freely, and with a lump of fu-
gar to give it body and prevent its cracking : and then

vanquiflied, and begged mercy from the people : Vitli fpread ovtx the ])i6ture or painting with a brulh
efenfam digiti veniam a populo pojiulabant, fays the old GLAMORGANSHIRE, a county of South

fcholiafl on Perfius. Wales, faid to have derived its name from a contrac-

There were various kinds of gladiators, diftinguilhed tion of the Wellh words Gwaid Morgan, or " the

county of Morgan," and fuppofed to have been thus
called from a prince of this part of the country, faid

by their weapons, manner, and time of fighting, &c
as, The andahata-, mentioned under Andabat;e. The
calervarii, who always fought in troops or companies,
number againll number ; or, according to others, who
fought promifcuoufly, without any certain order. The
dlmachrc, who fought armed with two poniards or fvvords,
or with fword and dagger. The effedarii, who fought in
cars. Thejifca/es, or Ccefariani, who belonged to the
emperor's company ; and who, being more robuft and
dexterous than the reft, were frequently called for,
and therefore named i\{opoflulatitii. Several other kinds
are mentioned in the ancient authors.

Gladiaiors War (^be/lum Gladiatorium or Sparla-
cwn^, called alfo \\\tfervile war, was a war which the
Romans fuftained about the year of their city 680.
.Spartacus, Crinus, and Oenomaus, having efcaped, with
other gladiators to the number of feventy-four, out
of the place where they had been kept at Capua, ga-
thered together a body of ilaves, put themfelves at
their head, rendered themfelves matters of all Campa-
nia, and gained feveral victories over the Roman prae-
tors. At length tltey were defeated in the year 682,
at the extremity of Italy j having, in vain, attempted
to pafs over into Sicily.

Tliis war proved very formidable to the Romans.
CrafTus was not able to finifli it : the great Pompey
was forced to be fent as general.

T/ie Dying Giad/atok, a moft valuable monutnent
/of ancient fculpture, which is oou' preferved in the pa-

to have been killed 8co years before the birth of
our Saviour : but fome other writers deiive the name
from the word Mor, which in the Britidi tongue
fignifies the/ea ; this being a maritime county. It is
bounded on the fouth, and part of the welt, by Brif-
tol channel ; on the north-weft, by Caermarthenftiire ;
on the north, by Brecknockftiire ; and on the eaft, by
Monmouthfliire. It extends 48 miles in length from
eaft to weft, 27 in breadth from north to fouth, and
is 116 in circumference. It it divided into 10 hun-
dreds, in which are one city, 7 market towns, 1 1 8 pa-
rifties, about 10,000 houfes, and 58,000 inhabitants.
It is in the diocefe of Llandaff. This county, in the
time of the Romans, was part of the diftrift inhabited
by the Silures, and had feveral Roman ftations. Thus
Boverton, a few miles to the fouth of Cowbridge, is
fuppofed to be the Bovium of Antoninus : Neath to be
his Nidum ; and Loghor, to the weft of Swanfey, to
be his Leucarum. The principal rivers of this county
are the Rhymny, the Taff', the Ogmore, the Avon,
the Cledaugh, and the Tave. The air, in the fouth
part, towards the fca, is temperate and healthful ; but
the northern part, which is mountainous, is cold and
piercing, full of thick woods, extremely barren, and
thin of inlial.-itants. The mountains, however, lervc
to feed herds of cattle, and fend forth ftreams which
add greatly to the fertility of the other parts of the
county :

G L A [7

county : ihey have likewife coal and lead ore. The
fouth part is fo remarkably fertile, pleafant, and po-
pulous, that it is generally Ityled the garden of Wales ;
but it has no manufafture. This county was former-
ly fiill of caftlef, moft of which are now fallen to de-
cay. It has many fmall harbours on the coall for
exporting coals and provifions. Of the former it
fends large quantities both to England and Ireland ;
but of the latter, to England almort folely, efpecially
butter. It fends two members •o parliament, one
for the fliire, and one for the borough of Cardiff the
capital.

GLAMOUR, or Glamer, an old term of popu-
lar fuperftition in Scotland, denoting a kind of ma-
gical mill believed to be raifed by forcerer5, and which
deluded their fpecTators with villous of things which
had no real exiilence, altered the appearance of thofe
which really did exirt, &.c. — The ealtern nations have
a fimilar fuperltltfon, as we may learn from the Ara-
bian Nights Entertainments and other works of orien-
tal fiftion.

GLAND, in Anatmmj. See Anatojiy Imkx.

GLANDERS. See Farriery Index.

GLANDORE, a town of Ireland, fituated in the
county of Cork and province of Mumler, near the har-
bour of that name.

CiA.VDOKS Harhour, fituated two leagues weft of the
Galley-head in the county of Cork, province of I^un-
fter, N. Lat. 51. 22. W. Long. 8. 56. Between this
harbour and Rofs the co;iIl continues high and bold,
with only two fmall coves ; that to the eaft called
Mil/cove, and that to the well Cowcove. This harbour
lies three miles weft of Rofs ; and though fmall, is an
exceeding good one ; near it is a caftle of the fame
name, and on the upper end is a deep and dangerous
glin, called the Leap. Glandore gives title of earl to
the family of Croftjie.

GLANDULyE Resales. See Anatomy Index.

GLANS, in ylnatomij, the tip or button of the pe-
nis, or that part covered with the prepuce, called alfo
balanus. See Anatomy Index.

Gl.\ks is alfo ufed to denote the tip or extremity
of the clitoris, from its refemblance, both in form
and ufe, to that of the penis. See Anatomy Index.

GLANA'IL, Joseph, a learned and ingeniou":, but
fanciful and credulous, writer in the 17th century, was
born at Plymouth in 1636, and bred at Oxford. He
became a great admirer of Mr Baxter, and a zealous
perfon for a commonwealth. After the Reftoration, he
publiftied The Vanity of Dogmatizing ; was chofen a
fellow of the Royal Society ; and, taking orders in
1662, was prefented to tiie vicarage of Frome-Selwood
in Somerfetfhire. The fame year he publillied his
Lux Oritntalis : in 1 665, his Sccpjts Scien'.ijica ; and in
the year following, Some Philofophical Confiderations
touching the being of Witches and Witchcraft, and other
pieces on the fame fubjccl. In' 1 660, he publiflied
Plus ultra ; or, The Progiefs and Advancement of Know-
ledge fince the Days of Ariftotlc. He likewife publiflied
A feafonable Recommendation and Defence of Reafon ;
and P/ii/ofopA/a Pia, or A Difcourfe of the Religious
Temper and Tendencies of the Experimental Philofo-
phy. In 167S he was made a prebendary of Worcef-
ter, and died in 1680.

CLARIS, one of the cantons of Swiflerland, is

35 ] G L A

bounded on the eaft, partly by the Grifons, and part- G!ari?,
ly by the territory of Sargans ; on the north, by the ^^Glalgow
bailiwick of Gafter, and by the lake Wahlellatt ; *
on the call, by the canton of Schwits ; and on the
fouth, by part of the canton of Uri, and part of the
league of the Grifons. It is a mountainous country,
being entirely within the Alps.

Glaris, a towii of Swilferland, capital of the can-
ton of the fame name, is feated in a plain, at the
foot of high craggy mountains. The ftreets are large,
and the houfes kept in good repair. It has fome pu-
blic buildings ; among which are two churches, one in
the middle of the town, and the other without upon
an eminence. In this eminence there is a cavern,
with grotefque figures formed by the water that drops
therein. The general atfemblies of the country were
formerly held on the firft Sundays in May, where all the
males p.bove the age of fixteen were obliged to appear.
Both the Calviniih and the Roman Catholics are to-
lerated in this town, and they have divine fervice by
turns in the fame church. It is feated on the river
Lint, E. Long. 9. 13. N. Lat. 47. 6.

GLASGOW, a large city of Lanerkftiire or
Clydefdale in Scotland, fituated in W. Long. 4. 30.
N. Lat. ^^. 50.

Concerning the foundation of this city wx have no
authentic records. The word in the Gaelic language
fignifies a gray fmilh ; from whence it has been in-
ferred, that fome fpot in the maft ancient part of the
city was originally the refidence of fome blackfmith
ivho had^ become eminent in his profeffion, fo tKat the
place went by his name. i

In the year 563, a biihopric is faid to have been Bifiiopric (
founded here by Saint Mungo, or Kentigern, fuppof- GIa%ow,
ed to be the fon of Thamates, daughter of Loth king ^u^jjj^^,
of the Pidls j but in what ftate the town at that time
was, is altogether uncertain. Moft probably the priefls
and difciples whu attended St Kentigern would con-
tribute confiderably towards its advancement; the aged
and infirm, who were unfit for the purpofes of war, or
fuch as were religioully inclined, would come and
fettle round the habitation of the holy man, in order to
have the benefit of his prayers ; and as a number of
miracles were faid to have been wrought at his tomb,
the fame caufes would ilill contribute to the increafe
of the town.

Hirtory has not informed us of the name of the
prince who founded and endowed the bilnopric of Glaf-
gow in favour of St Kentigern. But from an abftraft
of the life of Kentigern (contained in Mr Innes's Criti-
cal Effay on the Ancient Inhabitants of Scotland),
which was written in the 1 2th century, we learn, that
the faint being ill ufed by Marken or Marcus, one of
the kings of the Britons, retired into Wales. On the
invitation of Roderic, however, one of Marken's fuc-
ceflors, lie returned to Glafgow, and enjoyed the fee
till 60 r, when he died. He was buried in the church
of Glafgow, %vhere his monument is ftill to be fecn j
and we find him marked among the faints in the Ro-
man kalendar, January 13. 577.

The immediate fucceffors of Kentigern were Bal-
drede and Conwal. The firft eftablilhed a religious
houfe at Inchinnan ; the fecond went into Lothian to
preach to the Saxons ; and both of them are ranked as
faints in the Roman kalendar, Baldrcde on the 6th of

March

G L A [7

Marcli 608, and Conwal on the l8th of May 612.
From this time, however, till the 1115, we have no
dillinfl accounts concerning the city or billiopric of
Glafgow. We find then, that David I. king of Scot

S^ ]

G L A

ofthepeo- land made an attempt to

the people from a

ftate of grofs barbarity into which they were fallen,
and reflored to the church thofe lands of which Ihe had
been robbed. The only account we have of the tranf-
aiStions with regard to Glafgow, during that period, is
in the inquifition made by David concerning the
church lands of Glafgow, and is as follows. — " This
church, by the divine appointment, admitted St Ken-
tigem into the bifhoprio, who fumilhed large draughts
of knowledge to thole thirfting after heavenly things,
&c. But a fraudulent deftroyer, employing his common
■wiles, brought "in, after a long feries of time, unac-
countable fcandals into the Cumbrian church. For af-
ter St Kentigern and many of his fuccefTors were re-
moved to heaven, various dillurbances everywhere arif-
ing, not only deftroyed the church and her poffeffions,
but, wafting the whole country, drove the inhabitants
into exile. Thefe good men being dclfroyed, various
tribes of different nations flocking in from fevcral
quarters, poflijffed the forefaid deferted country ; but
being of different origins, and varying from each
other in their language and culloms, and Tiot eafily
agreeing among themfelves, they followeJ the manners
of the Gentiles, rather than thofe of the true faith.
The inhabitants of which unhappy and abandoned
country, though living like brutes, *the Lord, who
fliould perifh, vouchfifed to vlfit in

choofei

that
mercy," &c.

From the year j
of the bifliopric ar
markable particula

1 1 6 to the Reformation, the records
: tolerably complete. The moll re-
:s furnilhed by them are the follow-

In 1 136, John Achaius, chofen bifhop of Glafgow
by David I. built and adorned a part of the cathedral,
which he folemnly confecrated on the 9th of July. The
king was prefent at the ceremony ; and beftowed on the
church the lands of Perdeyk, now Patrick. This pre-
late alfo divided the diocefe into the two archdeanries
of Glafgow and Teviotdale ; and eftablifhed the offices
of dean, fubdean, chancellor, treafurer, facrilf, chan-
tor, and fucceffor ; and fettled a prebendary upon
each of them, out of the donatives he received from the
king.

In 1 174, Joceline, abbot of Melrofe, xvas elected
bifliop, and confecrated by Efkilus, bifhop of Lunden
in Denmark, the pope's legate for that kingdom, on
the ift of Jime 117^ He rebuilt the cathedral, or ra-
ther made an addition to the church already built by
John Achaius. He alfo procured a charter from Wil-
, .^^^^ Ham king of Scotland, erefling Glafgow into a royal
ereded borough, and likewife a charter for a fair to be held
into a royal there annually for eight days.

borough. In 1335, John Lindfay, bifhop of Glafgow, was

killed in an engagement at fea with the Englifh, as he
was returning home from Flanders. His fucceiVor,
William Rae, built the ftone bridge over the Clyde.
In the time of Matthew Glcndoning, who was elefted
bifhop in 1387, the great fpire of the church, which
had been built only of wood, was confumed by light-
ning. The bifhop intended to have built another of
(lone ; but was prevented by death, in X408, from ac-

complilhing his purpol'e. His fucceffor, William Lau- Glifgowl
der, laid the foundation of the veftry of the cathedral, — y-—^-
and built the great toiver of llone as far as the iirlt
battlement. The great tower of the epifcopal palace
■was founded about tlie year 1437, on which Bilbop
Cameron expended a great deal of money. ^

In 1447, William TurnbuU, a fon of the family ofG!a(gow
Bcdrule in Roxburghlhire, was chofen bilhop. He ^'"''"^''^d '««
obtained from King James II. in 145c, a charter "6^- ^^j-^^^"'''
ing the town and the patrimony of the bilhops intOunivcrfit?
a regality. He alfo procured a bull from Pope Ni- junaeri.
cholas V. for eredling an univerfity ■within the city,
which he endowed, and on which he alfo beftowed
many privileges. He died in 1 454, lea^ving behind
him a moll excellent charaCler. The eftabhlhment
of the college contributed more than any thing that
had been formerly done towards the enlargement of
the town. Before this time the town feems to have
been incoiifiderable. Mr Gibfon * is of opinion, that • /M. c/
the number of its inhabitants did not exceed 1 500. G/a/goTn,
But though the eftablilhment of the univerfity greatly P 74-
increafed the number of inhabitants, it in fad dellroyed
the freedom of the town. Bifliop TurnbuU feeras to Which de-
have made a point of it with King James II. that theftroys the
city of Glafgow, v.ith the bifhop's foreft, ftiould be '^''"^'"" "*
ereiiled into a regality in his favour ; which was accord- "^^'
ingly done at the time above mentioned ; and this at
once took away all power from the citizens, and tranf-
ferred it to the biftiop. As the powers of the bifliop,
however, were reckoned by TurnbuU infufhcient to con-
vey to the members of the univeriity all that freedom
which he wifhed to beltow upun them, he therefore ob-
tained from the king a great many piivilcges for them ;
and afterwards he himlelf, with the confent of his
chapter, granted them many more. g .

The good effeiils of the eftablifhmcnt of the college °-pu I atioa
were very foon obvious in Glafgow. The number of. ^ Gl.ilgorf
inhabitants increafed exceedingly; the high ftreet,'^"'^''*'
from the convent of the Black Friars, to where the
crofsis now placed, was very foon filled up ; the ancient
road which led to the common being too far diftant
for the conveniency of the new inhabitants, the Gal-
lows-gate began to be built. Soon after, the collei;iate
church of the bleffed Mary (now the Tron church) be-
ing founded by the citizens, occafioned the Trongate
ftreet to be carried to the weftward as far as the church.
The reft of the city increafed gradually towards the
bridge, by the building of the Saltmarket ftreet. The
borough roads, and the cattle that grazed on the com-
mons, were now found infulTicient to maintain the in-
creafed number of inhabitants ; for which reafon a
greater degree of attention than formerly was paid to
the fifhing in the river. Many poor people fublifted
themfelves by this occupation ; they v.ere incorporated
into a fociety ; and in order that tliey might be at hand
to'profecute their bufinefs, tliey built a confiderable
part of the ftreet now called the Bridge-gaie, but at
that lime Tipjers gale.

Notwithflanding all this, however, the city of Glaf-
gow did not for a long time attain the rank among the
other towns of Scotland which it holds at prefent. In
1556, it held only the nth place among tl.e-n, as ap-
pears by Q^ueen Mary's taxation. The introduflion
of the reformed religion proved for fome time preju-
dicial to the opulence of the city. The money which

had

-by,

OLA .. [ 7

•r.iafjow. had formerly been expended among the citizens by the
*"■""* bilhop and l:is clergy, was now diverted into other
channels : the advantages refulling from the.univeiTity
were alio for a time lolt ; for as the reformers generally
dclpifed human learning, the college was in a manner
y deferted.
Great part In the time of the civil wars, Glafgow fufiered fe-
of th^ town ygfg]y_ '^-Q j},g mifchief attending, intelline difcord,
b fir" ^^'^'■^ added a peftilence and famine ; and to complete
their misfortunes, a vidcnt fire broke out in June 1652,
which- deftroyed the greatell part of the Saltmarkct,
Trongste, and High Itrcet. The fronts of the houfes
at that time were nioftly of wood, to that they became
an eafy prey to the tlames. The fire continued w^ith
great violence for the fpace of 18 hours; by which a
great many of the inhabitants were ruined, the habi-
tations of almoft 1000 families being totally delboyed.
Oil this account colleifioiis were made through differ-
ent parts of the country J and to prevent fuch accidents
for the future, the i-onts were built with freeftone,
which abounds in the neighbourhood.

By the ch;;rter given to Bilhop Turnbnll in 1 450,
the citizens had "been deprived of the power of eicfting
their own magiftrates, which was thenceforth exercifed
by the bilhop ; which, ho\vever, was not done with-
out feme refiilance on the part of the inhabitants. Af-
ter the Reformation was introduced into Scotland, we
find this power exercifed by the citizens, the bilhop,
the earl of Lennox, and others. 'I'he idea that the town
was a bilhop's borough, and not a roy;il free borough,
gave occalion to this unu aled manner of appointing
the magillracy ; and though, in 1633, they were de-
chued to be a royal free borough, by the parliament, yet
their freedom of clccHon was afterivards diilurbed by
the privy council, by Crora\vell, and the duke of York.
C .. ,. . But on the 4th of June 1690, the to^vn was declared
dc.ired free by a charter of William and Mary ; and in confir-
V/^!i'-ni '"3t:on of this charter it was inferted in the acl of par-
,1\ 't'.^- liament, dated June 14th the fame year, that they
ftiould have power to cleCt their own magiftrates as fully
and freely, in all refpeiSs, as the city of Edinburgh or
' any other royal borough within the kingdom ; which
freedom of elecUon Hill continues.

Uy the affeflment of the boroughs in 1695, we find
the city of Glafgow reckoned the fecond in Scotland
t) in point of wealth, which place it ftill continues to hold.
Great in. To account for this great increafe of wealth, wc rnuft
creafp of its obferve, that for a long time, even before the rellora-
*'^^"''" tion of Charles II. the inhabitants of Glafgow had
been in poflisflion of the fale both of raw and refined fu-
gars for the greatefl part of Scotland ; they had a pri-
vilege of diftilling fpirits from their molalTes, free of
all duty and excife ; the herring iifhery was alfo carritd
on to what was at that lira* thought a very confiderable
extent ; they were the only people in Scotland who made
I'oap ; and they fent annually fome hides, linen, &c. to
Briflol, from whence they brought back in exchange,
a little tobacco, fugiir, and goods, of the manufaiSlure
of England, with which they fupplied a confiderable
part of the kingdom. From the year 1707, however,
in which the union betwixt Scotland and England
took place, we may d<ite the profperity of Glafgow.
By the union, the American trade was laid open to the
inhabitants : and fo fenfible were they of their advan-
tageous fituation, that they began almofl inllantly to
Vol. IX. Part II,

37 ]

G L A

profecute that commerce ; an affiduous application to GI. f;!)'.*.
which, ever finre, hath greatly curtributed to rail'e the v— -^
city to the pitch of affluence and fplendof which it at
prclent enjoys. I'he city was now greatly enlarged ; and
as the community were fenfible of the inconvenience that
attended the want of a fufficiency of water in the river
for carrying on their commerce, they refolved to have
a port of their own nigher the mouth of the river. At
firit, they thought of making their harbour at Dum-
barton : but as this is a royal borougb, the -magjllriites
oppofed it ; bccaufe they thought that the inilu\ of
failors and others, occafioned by the harbour, would be
fo great, that a fcarcity of provifions would be occa- ,0
fioncd. The magiftrates and town council of Glafgow, Ere :T;ioii of
therefore, purchafed fome lands on the fouth fide of the ^°"- '''"'-
river Clyde for this purpofc 5 and fo expeditious were ^''^^'
they in making their harbour, and rearing their town,
that in 1710a bailie was appointed for the government
of Port-Glafgow, It is now a very confiderable parilh,

jpiles nigher the mouth of Clyde than Glaf-

and lies 21
gow.

In 1725, Mr Campbell, the member of parliament
for Glafgow, having given his vote for having the malt
tax extended over Scotland, a riot enfued among the
lower clafs of people. In this difturbance, Mr Camp-
bell's funiiture was deftroyed, and fome excnemen were
maltreated for attempting to take an accoimt of the j^
malt. General Wade, who commanded the forces in .OiPurbance
Scotland, had fent two companies of foldiers, under about the
the command of Captain Bufhel, to prevent any ci;f.«''<:'f"^ '''"•
turbance of this kind. Captain Buftiel drew up his
men in the ftreet, where the multhude pelted tlieni
with Hones. He firil endeavoured to difperfe the mob
by firing with powder only : but this expedient failing,
he ordered his men to load their pieces with ball ; and,
without the fanflion of th.e civil authority, command-
ed them to 'fire four different ways at oncoI By this
difcharge about 20 perfons were killed and wounded ;
which enraged the multitude to fuch a degree, that ha-
ving procured iome arms, they purfued Bulbel and
his men to the caftle of Dumbarton, about 14 miles di-
ftant. General Wade being informed of this tranfac-
tion, aflembled a body of forces, and being accompa-
nied by Duncan Forbes, lord advocate, took poflcluon
of the town : the magiftrates were apprehended and
carried prifoners to Edinburgh ; but on an examination
before the lords, their innocence clearly appeared, up-
on which they were immediately difmiffed. Bulliel
was tried for murder, convifted, and condemned ; but,
inftead of fuffering the penalties of law, he was indul-
ged nith a pardon, and promoted in the fervice. Mr
Campbell petitioned the houfe of commons for an in-
demnification of his lofles : a bill was pafled in his fa-
vour j and this, together with fome other expenccs
incurred in the affair, coft the town 9000I. fter-

During the time of the rebellion in 1745 > ^^^ citi-
zens of Glafgow gave proof of their attachment to re-
volution principles, by raifing two battalions of 6oo
men each, for the fervice of government. This piece
of loyalty, however, had like to have coll them dear.
The rebels, in their journey fouth, took a refolution to
plunder and burn the city : which would probably have
been done, had not Mr Cameron of Lochiel threaten-
ed, in that cafe, to withdraw his clan. A heavy con-
5 A tribution,

G L A

[ 73S ]

G L A

G!.ilgow. tiibution, hov/cver, ivas laid on. Tlie city was com-
' "•r~— pelled to pay 5000I. in money, and 500I. in goods ;
and on tlie return of the rebels from England, they
were obliged to furni(h them with 12,000 linen fhirt>,
6000 cloth coatv, 6000 pairs of ihoes, 6000 pairs of
hofe, and 6qoo bonnets. Thefe goods, with the mo-
ney formerly paid them, the expence of raifmg and
fubfifting the two city battalions, and the charge of
maintaining the rebel army in free quarters for ten days,
coll the community about 1 4,000!. llerling ; io,oool.
of which they recovered in 1749, by an application to
12 parliament.
;hange of About the year 1750, a very confiderable change
aaniTeis (qq]^ place in the manner of living among the inhabi-

tnd method^ c r^i ,- rr^-n 1 • • • •

)i" living. ^^""^^ °^ Glalgow. lill this time, an attentive in-
duftry, and a frugality bordering upon parfimony,
had been their general charafteriftic •, the feverity of
the ancient manners prevailed in its full vigour :
But now, when an extenfive commerce and increafed
manufaftures had produced wealth, the ideas of the
people were enlarged, and fchemes of trade and im-
provement were adopted which people would formerly
have been denominated madmen if they had under-
taken ; a new ftyle was introduced in living, drefs,
building, and furniture j wheel carriages were fet up,
public places of entertainment uere frequented, and
an alTembly-room, ball-room, and playhoufe, were
built by fjbfcription ; and from this time we may
date all the improvements that have taken place, not
only in Glafgoiv, but all over the weft of Scotland.
The • beft method, however, of eftimating the grow-
ing improvement of any town, is by the frequency
of their applications for afliftance to parhament ; we
fliall therefore enumerate the afts of parliament which
13. have been pafled in favour of the city of Glafgow lince
wriiament ^''^ J"^^'^ '75°- I" '753) ^n aft paffed for repairing
n favour of^^'^''^ roads leading into the city of Glafgow. In
ie city. 1756, an aft for erefting and fupporting a light-
houfe in the illand of Little Cumray, at the mouth
cf the Clyde, and for rendering the navigation of
the frith and river more fafe and commodious. —
In 1759, an aft for improving the navigation of
the river Clyde to the city of Glafgow, and for
building a new bridge acrofs the river. — In 1 767,
the people of Glafgow having propofed to make
a fmall cut or canal from the frith of Forth to
that of Clyde, for the conveniency of their trade to
the eallern fide of the illand, feveral gentlemen at
Edinburgh, and throughout different parts of the
kingdom, propofed that this canal lliould be executed
upon a much larger fcale than what had been original-
ly projefted. An aft was accordingly obtained, and
and the canal executed in the manner defcribed under
the article Canai,. — In 1770, another aft was obtain-
ed for improving the navigation of the river, building
the bridge, &c. being an amendment of the former aft
for thefe purpofes. In 1771, an aft for making and
widening a paffage from the Saltmarket to St Andrew's
church ; for enlarging and completing the churchyard
of that church, and likewife for building a convenient
exchange or fquarc in the city ; alfo for amending and
explaining the former aft relative to the navigation of
the Clyde. An aft for making and maintaining a na-
vigable canal and waggon way from the collieries in
the parilhcs of Old and New Monkland, to the city of

Glafgovv. This lau canal, which was undertaken with G!.ifgo.v.
a view to reduce the price of coals, has not been at- '~~^ '_
tended with the delired eil'eft ; but the other im-
provements have been produftive of very great advan-
tages. ' 14

The moft ancient part of the city (lands on a riling Defcriptioa
ground. The foundation of the cathedral is 104 feet"''^'"' "'J''
higher than the bed of the river •, and the defcent from
the high ground reaches to about 100 yards below the
college. The reft of the city is built chiefly upon a
plain, bounded fouthwaid by the Clyde, and north-
ward by a gentle ridge of hills lying in a parallel di-
reftion with that river. Thefe grounds, till lately,
coniifted of gardens and fields ; but are now covered
with buildings, in confequence of the increafmg ivealth
and population of the city. The llreets are all clean
and well paved ; and ftveral of them interfefting one
another at right angles, produce a very agreeable ef-
feft. The four principal llreets, crofting one another
in that manner, divide the city liearly into four equal
parts ; and the different views of them from the crofs,
or centre of interfeftion, have an air of great magnifi-
cence. The houies, conlifting of four or live tloors in
height, are built of hewn Hone, generally in an exceed-
ing good tafte, and many of them elegant. T!ie moll
remarkable public buildings are, ,.

I. The Cathedral, or High Church, is a magnificent Of the cs-
building, and its fituation greatly to its advantage, as'hedraL
it Hands higher than any part of the city. It has been
intended to torm a crofs, though the traverle part has
never been finiftied. The great tower is founded upon
four large maffy pillars, each of them about 30 feet in
circumference. The tower itfelf is 255 feet fquare
witl:in ; and is furrounded by a ballullrade, within
which rifes an oftangular fpire terminated by a vane.
The tower upon the well end is upon the fame level,
but appears not to have been finiflied, though it is co-
vered over with lead. In this tower is a very large bell
I T feet four inches in diameter. The principal entry
was from the weft ; the gate 1 1 feet broad at the bale,
and 1 7 feet in height. The weft end of the choir is
now a])propri:itcd for a place of divine worlliip ; and is
divided from the remaining part by a Hone partition,
which is enclofed by another llonc wall parting it from
the nave. It is impoffible to form an adequate idea of
the awful folemnity of the place occanoned by tlie lof-
tinefs of the roof and the range of pillars by which the
whole is fupported.

The nave of the church rifes four fteps higher than
the choir ; and on the weft fide Hood the organ loft,
formerly ornamented with a variety of figures, but
now defaced. The pillars here are done in a better
laftc than thofe in the choir, and their capitals are or-
iKiniented v\ith fruits. The arched roof of the altar
is fupported by five pillars, over which \vas a fine ter-
race walk, and above it a large window of curious
xvorkmanftiip, but now fliut up. On the north fide of
the altar is the veftry, being a cube of 28 feet, the
roof arched and vaulted at top, and fupported by one
pillar in the centre of the houfe. Arched pillars from
every angle terminate in the grand pillar, which is 19
feet high. The lower part of the fouth crofs is madi
ufe of as a burying place for the clergy of the city ;
and is by much the fineft piece of workmanftiip in the
whole building. It is ^^ feet long, 28 broad, and

15

G L A

r 739 J

C L A.

1 5 liigh ; alxhed and vaulted at lop, and fupportcd
by a middle range of pillars, with their capitals highly
ornamented ; corrcfponding to which are columr.s ad-
joining to the walls, which, as they rife, fpring into
lemi-arches, and are everywhere met at acute angles
by their oppofites, and are ornamented with carvings
at the doling and eroding of the lines. At the eaft
end of the choir you defcend by flights of Heps upon
each fide into palTages which, in former times, were the
principal entries to the burying vault which is imme-
diately under the nave. It is now made ufe of as a
parifti church for the barony of Glafgow ; and is full of
pillars, fome of them very maffy, which fiipport the

gations) and St Andrew's church, there is a number jGlaf.^ow
of others, as the College church, Ram's-horn, Tron, "^
Wynd, &c. together with an Englilh chapel, Highland
church, fevcral feceding meeting-houfes, and others for
fcdfaries of various denominations. 17

3. The CoUcgc—TVe front of this building extends The <^'''-
along the eaft fide of the high Iheet, and is upwards of '"^S^-
330 feet long. The gate at the entrance is decorated
with rurtics, and over it are the king's arms. The
building confifts of tw'o principal courts or fquares.
The fir'd is 88 feet long and 44 broad. The well fide
is elevated upon ilone pillars, on which are placed pila-
fters fupporting the Doric entablature, and ornamented

arched' roof: but it is a very uncomfortable place for with arches forming a piazza; Above thefe is the

devotion. The fpace under the altar and veftry, public hall ; the afccnt to which is by a double llight of

though now made ufe of as a burying place by the he- fteps enclofed by a handfome ftoiie balluftrade, upon

ritprs of the barony, was formerly, according to tradi- the right of which is placed a lion, and on the left an

tion, employed for keeping of the relicks ; and indeed, unicorn, cut in freeftone. The fpire Hands on the

from the beautiful manner in which this place is finifii- eaft fide, is 135 feet high, and has avery good clock,

ed, one would imagine that it had not been deftined Under this is the gateway into the inner and largell

ion ufe. Here is (hown the monument of St court, which is 105 feet long and 79 broad. Over the

common

Mungo, or Kentigern, with his figure lying m a cum-
bent pofture.

The whole length of the cathedral within the walls
is 284 feet, its breadth 65 ■■, the height of the choir,
from the floor to the canopy, 90 feet ; the height
of the nave, 85 feet ; the height of the middle tower,
220 feet. This fabric was begun by John Achaius in
1123, and confecrated in 1 136 : and continued by fuc-
ceeding bilhops till fuch time as it was finilhed in the
manner in which it ftands at prefent. The wealth of
the fee of Glafgow, however, was not fuflicient for fo
great an undertaking, fo that they were obliged to have
recourfe to all the churches of Scotland for afliftance
in it.

This venerable edifice was in danger of falling a
viaim to the frenzy of fanaticifm in 1579 ; and owed
its prefervation to the fpirit and good fenfe of the
tradefmen, who, upon hearing the beat of drum for
collecting the workmen appointed to demolifli it, flew
to arms, and declared that the firft man who pulled
down a fingle ftone fiiould that moment be buried un-
der it.

Near the cathedral are the ruins of the bifliop's pa-
lace or callle, enclofed with a wall of hewn ftone by
Archbilhop James Beaton ; the great tower built by
Archbifliop Cameron in 1426.

2. St AndreviS's Church was begun by the commu-
nity in 1739, and finiftied in 1756. It is the fineft
piece of modem architecture in the city ; and is built
after the model of St Martin's in the Fields, London,
whofe architeft was the famous Gibbs. The length of
the church is 1 04 feet, and its breadth 66. It has a
fine arched roof, well ornamented with figures in ftuc-
co, and fuftained by ftone columns of the Corinthian

entry, in a niche, is a ftatue of Mr Zacharias Boyd,
^vho was a benefactor to the univerfity. On the eaft
fide of the court is a narrow paffage leading into a
handfome terrace walk, gravelled, 122 feet long by
64 feet broad. This walk is enclofed to the eaft by an
iron pallifade, in the centre of which is a gate leading
into the garden. This laft confifts of feven acres of
ground, laid out in walks for the recreation of the llu-
dents ; and there is alfo a botanic garden. On the
fouth fide of the walk ftands the library ; a very neat
edifice, well conftrufted for the purpofe intended, and
containing a very valuable collection of books. Under-
neath are preferved in cafes all the Roman infcriptions
found on Graham's Dike, together with altars and
other antiquities collected from dift"erent parts of Scot-
land.— Adjoining there is an obfervatory, well furnifli-
ed with aftronomical inftruments. The college alfo pof-
felVes, by bequeft, the late Dr Hunter's famous anato-
mical preparations, library, and mufeura. A building
is now (1806) preparing for its reception. iS

4. The Tolbooth, or Town-Hoiife, is a magnificentTown-
and extremely elegant building. The front is adorned ''°-''^' ^'^*
with a range of Ionic pilafters ; and is elevated on
ftrong rufticated pillars with arches, forming a piazza
for merchants and others to ftielter themfelves from the
weather when met upon bufinefs. One of the apart-
ments was the aflembly hall ; a neat room, 47 feet long,
and 24 in breadth and hei^;ht, finiftied in a good tafte,
though too fmall for the city. The town hall is a very
fpacious and lofty apartment, 52 feet long by 27 broad,
and 24 in height. It is finiflied in a very grand man-
ner ; the ceiling is divided into diiferent compartments
well ornamented. In it are full length portraits of
King James VI. and VII. Charles I. and II. William

order. Correfpondent to the model, it has a place for and Mary, (^ueen Anne, King Georgel. II. and III

the altar on the eaft, in which is a very ancient Vene
tian window •, but the altar place being feated, makes
this .end appear to no great advantage. The fronts of
the galleries and the pulpit are done in mahogany in a
very elegant manner. The fpire by no means corre-
fponds with the reft of the building ; and, inftead of
being an ornament, difgraces this beautiful fabric. Its
height is 170 feet

and Archibald duke of Argyll in his jufticiary robes.
The two laft are by Raml'ay. Oppofite to the front of
this building is the exchange walk, which is well paved
with freeftone, and enclofed from the ftreet Ijy ftone
pillars. In the middle of this area is an cqiieftrian fta-
tue of King William III. placed upon a lofty pedeftal,
and furrouiided with an iron rail. — In 1781, the ex-
change under the piazzas was greatly enlarged, by tak-

Befidcs the cathedral (which contains three congre- ing down the louver part of the town hall and aflembly

5 A 2 room ;

G L A

CiafgdV

[ .740 ]

G L A

Town's
hof^jitaL

Markets

room ; and at the fame time, by a tontine fciieme en-
tered into by the inhabitants, a moft elegant coffee
room was added, with a fuite of buildings adjoining for
the purpofes of a tavern and hotel, alTembly room, and
olPxes for notaries and underwriters. The afTerably
room, however, being found to be ftill too fmall, a
fubfcription of above 5000I. has been raifed by a fimi-
lar plan of a tontine to.- building a new one, which is
propofed to be erefted in the north corner of one of
t!ie new ftreeis which join Ingram ftreet to Argyll
itreet.

5. The GiuUHa/l or MerdmnlsHoufe. This build-
ing is iituated upon tlie (outh lide of Bridgegate llreet ;
and is in length 82 feet, in breadth 31. The great
hall, which is the whole length and breadth of the
building, is fo capacious, that it is better adai'ted for
the reception of creat an \ numerous affembHes than
any other in thr . luc is adorned with a
very elegant fp;!

6. The Toiv'j' ' ' 'i ry neat building, con-
fiding of two win^i and a inr^e front : the length 156
feet, the breadth of the centre 30 feet, and the depth
of the wings 68 feet. Behind the building is an infir-
mary 127 feet long by 25 feet broad, the alcent to
which is by a tlight of Heps. . The lower part of this
building is appointed for the reception of lunatics.
The area between the buildings is large, which, with
the agreeable open fituation of the hofpital on the river,
mult conduce to the health of the inhabitants.

7. T/ie Grammar School is fituated in the new part
of the town, to the north-weft, and was built in 1787.
It is a very handfome building, containing a large hall,
gnd fix airy commodious teaching rooms. In this
fchool there are four claffes, the courfe being four
years : each clafs is carried on the whole four years by
the fame mafter ; fo that, there being no reftor, each
mafter is head of the fchool one year in rotation. It is
under the direftion of a committee of the town coun-
cil ; who, affilted by the profellbrs, clergy, and other
perfons of learning, frequently vifit it during the fef-
fion ; and at an annual examination, prizes of books are
diftributed to the fcholars according to their refpeflive
merits. The number of fcholars is above 300. — The
building is not yet entirely finifhed ; and the rooms
which are not occupied by the Latin clafles are intend-
ed for teaching writing, arithmetic, drawing, &c.

8. The New Briiige is built in an elegant raaraier.
It is 3 1 feet wide ; with a commodious fyotway for
j.aiTengers, five feet broad, on each fide, raifed above
the road made for carriages, and paved with freeftone.
'J'liis bridge is about 500 ffet in length : and conl^fts
cf feven arches, the faces of which are wrought in ruf-
tic, w'lth a ftrong block cornice above. The arches
fpring but a little way above low water mark •, which,
though it renders the bridge ftronger than if they
fprung from taller piers, dimlnirties its beauty. Be-
tween every arch there is a fmall circular one : thefe
break the furce of the waier when the ri^er riles to a
flood, and add to the ftrength of the whole. The pa-
rapet wall or breaflwork is cut out in the Chinefe
tafte : and the two ends arc finifhed ofF with a fiveep.
This bridge was begun, in 1768, md finidied in 1772.

9. The Markets in Kinq^s Street are juftly admired,
as being the completell of their kind in Britain. They
are placed on b^tb fides of the Ihett. That on the

ft fide, appropri^.tcd entirely for bjtcher meat, Is ir2 G'--lgo'v
feet in 1. '\ ' ' ; in breadth. In the centre is a »
fpapiou iM'ed on each fide with coupled

Ionic tL . . M their pedeftals, and fupport-

ing an an;;ii rn- .M-.i.inf-nt. At the north end is a very
neat hall belonging to the incorporation of butchers,
the front ornamented with rultics and a pediment. The
markets upon the weft fide of the fl^reet confill of tliree
courts, fet apart for fi(h, mutton, and ciieefe. The
whole of the front is 1 73 feet, the breadth 46 feet ; In
the centre of which, as on the oppoiite fide, u a very
fpacious gateway of the Doric order, fupporting a pedi-
ment. Tills is the entry to the mutton market. Each
of the otlier two hns a well proportioned arch taced
with rui'- • :". ' .1 trance. All thel'e markets are
well ]\ i ■ ; !i ■ :";,e ; have walks all round thernj
and are t ■:i.:o .j\ i ior ihelter by roofs ftanding upon
ftone piers, under which the different commodities are
expofed to falc-. They have likewile pump wells with-
in, for clcanfing away all t!ie filth ; which render the
markets always fwect and agreeable. Thefe markets
w-ere erefled in 1754.

to. The Herb Marie! is neat and commodious; and
the principal entry is decorated with columns. It is
fituated in the Candleriggs, and is laid out in the lame
manner with the markets in King's Street.

1 1 . The Guard Hoicje is a very handfome building, Guaid
with a piazza formed by arche.s, and columns ot thelwufe.
Ionic order fet upon their pedeflalf. It was originally
fituated on the High llreet, at the corn-r of the Candle-
riggs ftreet : but has lately been carried near half way
up the Candleriggs, where it occupies the ground on
which the weigh-iioule formerly llood, and is made
larger and more coraniodious tiian it was before. An
excellent new weigh-houfe iias been erefted at the head
of the Candleriggs : And at the foot of the Candle-
riggs, or corner next the High ftreet, where the guard,
houfe was formerly fituated, a fuperb new hotel has
been built, containing 75 fire rooms.

The moft remarkable public charities in Glafgo^v

i. Muirhend''s or St Nicholases Hoffikal. This wasp„biic cl.;
originally appointed to fubfift 12 old men and a chap-rities.
lain : but its revenues have, from fome unknown caules,
been loft ; fo that no more of them no^v remains than
the paltry futn of 139!. 2s. ^d. Scots money, 128I.
of which is annually divided among four old men, at
the rate of 2I. 13s. 4d. fterling each.

2. Hulchefo7i''s Hofpital, was founded and endowed
in 1639 by George Hutchefon of Lamb-hill, notary
public, and Mr Thomas Hutchefon his brother, who
was bred a pieacher, for the maintenance of old mfn
and orphans. The fiinds of this hofphal were increafed
by James Blair merchant in Glafgow in 1710, and by
fubferjuent donations. From the lale of fome of their
lands which lay convenient for building, and the rife of
the reft, the income is now above 1400I. which is di-
ftributed in penfions to old people from 3I. to 2ol. and
in educating about 50 children.

3. The Merchant"'} Houfe likewife diftributes in pen-
fions and other charities about 800I. yearly.

4. The Tow/i\r Hofpital, above defcribed, ^vas open-
ed fur the reception of the poor on tlie 1 5th of Novem-
ber 1733. 'J"he funds whence this hofpital is fubfift-
ed arc, the general feftion, the town council, the trades

houfe

id

Members
of the uni-
TcrCty.

G L A [741

lioiife and mciclinnts lioufe, tlie iiitcrell of money be- tl
lon'ingto tliof fund<;, which are fums that have been u:
mortified for tlie ufe of the houfe. The!e fupplics,
lio.vever, are found infufiicient to defray the exp-:nces
of the houfe ; for which reafon an alVeiTment is annual--
!y made upon the inhabitants in the follo'ving manner.-
The magiltrates nominate 12, 14, or fometimes more
gentlemen of icnown i'.itegvity and charafler, who have
a lift laid before thera of all the inhabitants in town.
Thi« lift thev divide into 1 6 -or i 8 colnmns. Each of
thefe columns contains the names of fach inhabitants as
carry on trade to a certain extent, or are I'uppofed to
be well able to pay the fum affixed to the particular
column in w^hich their names are inferted. If it is ne-
celTary to raife 500I. for inftance, then each name, in
every fenarate column, is valued at as much as the for-
tunes of the perfons in each particular column are fup-
pofed to be. If loool. or more is to be raifed, it is
only continuing a proportional increafe through the
vihole of the columns. The higheft fum that ever was
thus raifed, was I2s. 6d. upon every tlioufand pounds
that ep.ch perion was fuppofed to be worth. The num-
ber of people maintained in this hofpital are about
620.

5. Wilfori's Charily for the education of boys, was
founded ty George Wilfon, who in 1778 left 3000I.
for that purpofe. This fund is now confiderably in-
creafed, and gives education and clothing to 48 boys,
%vho each continues four years, fo that 1 2 are admitted
annually.

Befides thefe, there are many public fchools for the
education of children ; as well as many inftitutions of
private focieties for the purpofe of relieving the indi-
gent and inftrufting youth, fuch as Graham'' s Society,
BuchanaJi's Sociely, the Highland Society, &c. Thefe
laft put annually 20 boys apprentices to trades, and
during the firft three years give them clothing and edu-
cation.

The univerfity of Glafgow owes its origin, as we
have already obierved, to Bilnop Tumbull. The in-
iHtution confided at firft of a reftor, a dean of faculty,
a principal who taught theology, and three profeffors
of philofophy ; and, foon after this, the civil and ca-
non laws were taught by forae clergymen. From the
time of its eftablilLment in 1450 to the Reformation in
1560, the college was chiefly frequerlted by thofe who
were intended for the churcli j its members were all
ecclefiaftics, and its principal fupport was derived from
the church. The Reformation brought the univerfity
to the verge of deftruftion : mailers, ftudents, and fer
vants, all forfook it. The magiftrates were fo fenfible
of the lofs which the community had fuftained by this
defertion, that they endeavoured to reftore it in i ^72,
by beftowing upon it confiderable funds, and prefcrib-
ing' a fet of regulations for its management. Thefe,
however, proved infuflicient •, for which reafon King
James VI. ereiTted it anew, by a charter called the 'Sova
Ereflio, T577, and beftowed upon it the teinds of the
paridi of Govan. The perfons who were to compofe

] G L A

(.fore alfo been increafeJ : fo that at prefent the
univerfity of Glafgow confilts of a chancellor, reftor,
dean of faculty, principal, and 1 4 profelf.irs (fix of
thera in tlic gift of the crown), together ^vith burfurs,
&c. 'J'he archbilhop of Glafgow vfas formerly chan-
cellor of the univerfity ex officio ; at prefent, tlie chaii-
cellor is chofen by the redor, dean of faculty, princi-
pal, and inallers.

rhc chancellor, as being the head of the univerlity,
is the fountain of honour, and in his name are all. aca-
demical degrees betlovved. Tlie othce of reftor is to
c.xercife that academical jurifdiftion in difputes among
the lludents themfelves, or between the ftudents and
citizen.';, which is beftowed upon the greater part of the
univerfities in Europe. Ha is chofen annuilly in the
comitia ; that is, in a meeting in which aU the lludents,
as ^vell as the other members of the univerfity, have a
voice. Immediately after his admilTion, hevas beei^in
ufe to choofe certain perfons as his affeffors ; and coun-
fellors in his capacity of judge ; and, in former periods,
it was cuftoraary to name the minifters of Glafgow, or
any other gentlemen who had no connexion with the
univerfity ; but, for a great W'hile pall, the reftor has
conllantly named the dean of faculty, the principal,
and mafters, for his aiTellbrs ; and he has ahvays been,
and ftill is, in the daily jiraClice of judging in tlie caufes
belonging to him, with the advice of his affelfors. Be-
lides thefe powers as judge, the reclor fummons and
prefides in the meetings of the univerfity for the elec-
tion of his fucceflbr ; and he is likewife in ufe to call
meetings of the profeflbrs for drawing up addreties to
the king, elefthig a member to the general aifembly,
and othtr bufinels of the like kind.

The dean of faculty has, for his province, tlie giv-
ing direftion ^vith regard to the courfe of ftudies ; the
judging, together with the reclor, principal, and pro-
I'effors, of the qualifications of thofe who defire to be
created mailers of arts, doilors of divinity, &c. ; and
he prefides in meetings which are called by him for
thefe purpofes. He is chofen annually by the reSor,
principal, and mailers.

The principal and mafters, independent of the reftor
and dean, compofe a meeting in which the principal
prefides ; and as they are the perfons for whofe behoof
chietly the revenue of the college was eltablilhed, the
adminillration of that revenue is therefore committed to
them. The revenue arifes from the teinds of the parifn
of Govan, granted by King James VI. in IJ57 ; from
the teinds of the parilhes of Renfrew and Kilbride,
granted by the fame monarch in 1 61 7, and coniirmed
by King Charles I. on tlie 28th of June 1630; from
the teinds of the parifiies of Calder, Old and New
i\'Ionkland, conveyed to them by a charter from
Charles II. in 1670 j from a tack of the archbilliop-
ric ; and from fcveral donations conferred by private
perfons.

The college of Glafgow, for a very confiderable
time after its ereclion, followed the mode of public

teaching which is

ven to this day in Oxford

princinal, three profeflbrs of and Cambridge, and in many other univerfities 'through-

t.^.e new univerfity 1

philofophy, four ftudents burfais, one ceconomus, a

principal's fervant, a janitor, and cook.

Since the year 1577, the funds of the univerfity have
been confiderably increafed by the bounty of kings and
the donations of private perfons. The profeflbrs have

out Europe ; that is, each profelTor gave a lew IcCtures
every year, gratis, upon the particular fcience which
lie profefled : but, in place of this, the profeflbrs have,
for a great ^vhile pail, adopted the mode of private
tetching : that is, they ledlure and examine two hour^
'll every

thetr

,GUfg.

G L A [74

Glafgow. every day dviring the fefllon, viz. from the loth ot" Oc-
^■""Y— ' tober to the loth of June ; a method which comes much
cheaper to the ftudent, as he has it in his power, if he
is attentive, to acquire his education without being un-
der the neceflity of employiaig a tutor. They have alfo
private claffes, in which they teach one hour per day.
The number of ftudents who have attended this college
for feveral years paft, has been upwards of 500 each
27 feafon.
Hiftory of Xhe trade of Glafgow is faid to have been firfl pro-
° moted by one Mr William Elphinftone in 1420. This
trade was moft probably the curing and exporting of
falmon ; but the firfl authentic document concerning
Glafgow as a trading city is in 1546. Complaints hav-
ing been made by Henry VIII. king of England, that
feveral Englifh Ihips had been taken and robbed by vef-
fels belonging to Scotland, an order of council was if-
fued, difcharging fuch captures for the future ; and
among other places made mention of in this order is the
city of Glafgow. The trade which at that time they
carried on could not be great. It probably confided of
a few fmall veffels to France loaded with pickled fal-
mon ; as this filhery was, even then, carried on to a
confiderable extent, by Glafgow, Renfrew, and Dum-
barton. Between the years 1630 and 1660, a very
great degree of attention feems to have been paid to in-
land commerce by the inhabitants of Glafgow. Prin-
cipal Baillie informs us, that the increafe of Glafgow
arifing from this commerce was exceedingly great.
The exportation of falmon and of herrings was alfo
continued and increafed. In the war between Britain
and Holland during the reign of Charles II. a privateer
was fitted out in Clyde to cruife againft the Dutch.
She was called the Lion q/ Gliifgow, Robert M' Allan
commander ; and carried five pieces of cannon, and 60
hands.

A fpirit of commerce appears to have arifen among
the inhabitants of Glafgow between the years 1660 and
J 707. The citizens who diftinguifiied themfelves moft
during this period were Walter Gibfon and John An-
derfon. Gibfon cured and packed in one year 300
lads of herrings, which he feiit to St Martin's in France
-on board of a Dutch veflel called the St ^gate of 4 i;o
tons burden ; his returns were brandy and fait. He
w-as the firft who imported iron from Stockholm into
Clyde. Anderfon is faid to have been the firft who
imported white wines.

Whatever their trade was at this time, it could not
be confiderable : the ports to which they were obliged
to trade lay all to the eaftward : the circumnavigation
of the ifland would therefore prove an aimoft unfur-
mountable bar to the commerce of Glafgow ; and of
confequence the people on the caft coaft would be pof-
fefted of aimoft all the commerce of Scotland. The
imion with England opened a field for commerce for
which the fituation of Glafgow, fo convenient in refpeft
to the Atlantic, was highly advantageous. Since that
time the commerce of the eaft coaft has declined, and
that of the weft increafed to an amazing degree. No
fooner was the treaty of union figned, than the inhabi-
tants of Glafgow began to profccute the trade to Vir-
ginia and Maryland ; they chartered veffels from
Whitehaven, fent out cargoes of goods, and brought
back tobacco in return. The method in which they
>ij firft proceeded in this trade was certainly a very prii-

2 ] G L A

dent one. A fupercargo went out with every veffel.
He bartered his goods for tobacco, until fuch time as ^
he had either fold off his goods, or procured as much
tobacco as was fufficient to load his veflel. He then
immediately fet out on his return ; and if any of his
goods remained unfold, he brought them home ^vith
him, While they continued to trade in this w-ay, they
w ere of great advantage to the country, by the quan-
tity of raanufaftures which they exported ; their own
wealth began to increafe ; they purchaCed ihips of their
own; and, in 17 18, the firft veflel of the property of
Glafgow croffed the Atlantic. Their imports of to-
bacco were now confiderable, and Glafgow began to
be looked upon as a confiderable port ; the tobacco
trade at the ports of Briftol, Liverpool, and Whiteha-
ven, was oblerved to dwindle away \ the people of
Glafgow began to fend tobacco to thele places, and to
nnderfell the Englilli even in their oivn ports. Thus
the jealoufy of the latter was foon excited, and they
took every method in their power to deftroy the trade
of Glafgow. The people of Briftol prefented remon-
lUances to the commiflioners of the cuftoms at London
againft the trade of Glafgow, in 1717. To thefe re-
monftrances the merchants of Glafgow lent fuch anfwers
to the commiffioncrs, as convinced them that the com-
plaints of the Briftol merchants were without founda-
tion. But in 1721, a moft formidable confederacy was
entered into by aimoft all the tobacco merchants in
South Britain againft the trade of Glafgow. Thofe of
London, Liverpool, and Whitehaven, prefented feve-
rally to the lords of the trealury, petitions, arraigning
the Glafgow merchants of frauds in the tobacco trade.
To thefe petitions the Glafgow people gave in replies ;
and the lords of the treafury, after a full and impartial
hearing, were pleafed to difmifs the caufe with the fol-
lowing fentence : " That the complaints of the mer-
chants of London, Liverpool, and Whitehaven, were
groundlefs ; and that they proceeded from a fpirit of
envy, and not from a regard to the intereft of trade, or
of the king's revenue."

But the efforts of thefe gentlemen did not flop here.
They brought their complaints into the houfe of
commons. Commiflioners were fent to Glafgow in
1722, who gave in their reports to the houfe in 1723.
The merchants fent up dillinft and explicit anfwers to
thefe reports ; but fuch was the intereft of their adver-
faries, that thefe anfwers were difregarded. New of-
ficers were appointed at the ports of Greenock and
Port Glafgow, whofe private inftruflions feem to have
been to ruin the trade if poflible, by putting all ima-
ginable hardfhips upon it. Hence it languiftied till the
year 1735; hut after that time it began to revive,
though even after its revival it was carried on but flow-
ly for a confiderable ipace of time.

At laft, however, the adive and enterprifing fpirit
of the merchants, feconding the natural advantages of
their fituation, prevailed over all oppofition ; and the
American trade continued to tlourilh and increafe until
the year 1775, infomuch that the importation of to-
bacco into Clyde that year from the provinces of Vir-
ginia, Maryland, and Carolina, amounted to 57,14?
hogflieads. But fince the breach with America, this
trade has now greatly fallen oft', and very large fums
are faid to remain due to the merchants from that
quarter of the world.

With

G L A

[ 743 ]

G L A

With regard to the manufactures of Glafgovv, Mr
Gibfon is of opinion that the commerce to A'lierica
firlt fuggefled the idea of introducing them, in any
confiderable degree at leaft. The lirft attempts in this
way were about the year 1725, and their increafe for
fome time was very llow, nor did they begin to be
confiderable till great encouragetr.ent was given by the
legillature to the linen manufaflure in Scotland. The
firft caufes of the fuccefs of this manufacture were the

noticed, the merchants of Glafgow have turned their
attention more to manufeftures, vvhich have of late,
efpccially that of cottons and muflins, increafed in a
very rapid degree, and bid fair for putting the city in
a more Hourilhing condition than ever it was before.
The manufafturing houfes, the influx of people for
carrying on the manufaftures, the means and encou-
ragement ivhich thefe afford to population, and the
wealth thence derived by individuals as well as accru-

Glafgow.

aft of parliament in 1748, whereby the wearing of ing to the community, have all tended lately to in-
French cambrics was prohibited under fevere penalties ; creafe, and are daily increaling, the extent of the city^.
tliat of 1751, allowing weavers in dax or hemp to and the elegance of the buildings. Befides various ira-
fettle and exercife their trades anywhere in Scotland provements in the old ftreets, iWeral Ijandfome new-
free from all corporation dues ; and the bounty of ones as well as ne^v fquarcs have been added. The '
three halfpence per yard on all linens exported at and lite of thefe new buildings is the traft: of rifing

under i8d. per yard. Since that time a fpirit of ma-
nufacture has been excited among the inhabitants of
Glafgow ; and gre.it variety of goods, and in very
great quantity, have been manufatfured. Checks, li-
nen, and linen and cotton, are manufaflured to a great
extent. Printed linens and cottons were begim to be
manufaflured in 1738 ; but they only made garments
till 1754, "hen handkerchiefs were firft printed.

Incles were firli made here about the year 173-. —
The engine looms ufed at that time v.'ere fo inconve-
nient, and took up fo much time in making the goods,
that the Dutch, who were the only people poffeffed of
the large incle looms, were almoll iblely in poffelfion
of this manufacture., Mr Hervey, who began this
branch in Glalgow, was f» fenfi'ule of the difadvauta-
ges under which it laboured, that hs went over to Hol-
land ; and in fpite of the care and attention which the
Dutch took to conceal their methods of manufafturing,
he brought over with him from Haerlem two of their
looms, and one of their workmen. This Dutchman

ground already mentioned as the north boundary or
the town previous to its late extenfion. The welleru
part of it, which is perfeftly level, is occupied by a'
fpacious fquare, denominated George's Square ; two
iiJes of which are built and inhabited, and a third be-
gun. The grafs plot ui the middle is enclofed with i
handfome iron railing. The fquare is deficient in re-
gularity ; the houfes on the weft fide being a ftory
higher than thofe of the eaft ; but in other felpefts it is
very neat. To the eaft of this fquare are fevera!
new ftreets hud out and paved, and fome of them al-
moft completely built on. The principal, though as
yet the moft incomplete of thofe ftreets, is Ingram
Street, which runs from eaft to weft. From this the
others begin ; fome of them being carried northivard
up the hill, others going fouthward and joining the
main ftreet of the town. One of the fineft of thefe
crofs ftreets is Hutchefon Street.

The fouth boundary of the city \vas mentioned toThc
be the Cl>de. Over this river there are two bridges. ^<^'

remained fome years in Glafgow ; but on fome dilguft One of them, the Old Bridge, built about 400 years

he went to Manchefter, and inftrucled the people thi
in the method of carrying on the manufacture.

In 1757, carpets were begun to be made, and are
now carried on to a confiderable extent. Hunters
cloths, blankets, and other goods of the fame kind, arc
alfo made.

Befides thefe, a great variety of articles are manu-
factured at Glafgow, of which our limits will not per-
mit us to enter into a detail, fuch as foap, refining of
fugar, ironmongery, braii, jewellery, glai's both com-
mon and white, pottery, &.c. Types for printing are
made in this city by Dr WiH'on and Sons, equal,
if not fuperior, in beauty to any others in Britain.
Printing of books was firft begun here by George An-
derfon about the year 1638. But there was no good
printing in Glafgow till the year 1735, when Robert
Urie printed feveral books in a very elegant manner.
The higheft perfeciion, however, to which printing
hath yet been carried in this place, or perhaps in any
other, was by the late Robert and Andrew Foulis,
(who began in the year 1740) ; as tlie many correft
and fplendid editions of tjooks printed by them in
diiicrcr:t languages furficiently teftify. Some of their
clalhrs, it is faid, are held in fuch high eftcem abroad,
as to fell nearly at the price of ancient MSS. The
fame gentlemen alfo eftabliihed an academy of paint-
ing ; but the wealth of Scotland being unequal to the
undertaking, it has been fince given up.

Since the flagnation of the American trade, already

ago by Archbilhiop Rae, but fince repaired and partly
rebuilt, confifts of eight arches •, and connects tlie fub-
urb of Gorbals, fituated on the oppofite fide of the
river, with the city. The other is the New Bridge,
defcribed above. — On the banks of the river, eaftward,
is the Green, a fpot appropriated to the ufe of the
inhabitants, with conveniences for waftiing and drying
linens, and with agreeable and extenfive walks for re-
creation.

On the fame or fouth fide of the town, weftward,
is the Broomiclaw, where the quay is Cluated. Till
within thefe fcv years, the river here and for feveral
miles diftance, was fo ftiallow and fo obftrucled by
flioals, as to admit only of fmall craft from Greenock,
Port Glafgow, and the Hlghlaiuls ; but of late it has
been cleared and deepened fo as to admit vefftls of con-
fiderable burden ; and it is intended to make the depth,
as nearly equal as pofl^ible to that of the canal, in
order that the veflels from Ireland and the weft coaft
may not be induced excluiively to afcend the weft
end of the canal and deliver their goods at Canal bafon, -
but may come up Clyde and unload at the Broomie-

'="'■• 30

The government of the city of Glafgow is vefted in Gc vern-
a provoft and three bailies, a dean of guild, deacon ■''<^"'. '»«-
conveener, and a treafurer, with a common council of "'• f^"^' °-
2 mechanics. The provoft and" '^ '^"'''
ft, by the fet of the borough, be
^cd from the merchant rank, and the other bailie
from -

J 3 merchants and
two of the bailies i

G L A [ 744 ]

rTpcw. f^j,,,^ fjjg trades rank, i. e. the mechanics. The pro- to rank
"""""^ vjiHs, from courtefy and cullom, AyXeA lord ftrovrj].
J f c is properly lord ot" the police of the city, prefident
ot the community, and is ex officio a jufticc of the
peace ior both the borough and county.

Many of the inhabit-v^ts of Glafgo\v were convinced
of the neceffity of a ne\s' lyllcra of police, a number of
years before the fan6lion of parliament was obtained^ for
that purpofe, ivhich was granted in the year 1800.
Tlie aft vefted the management of the police in the
lord provort, bailies, dean of guild, deacon conveener,
and 24 coramiflioners, one being clio'.'en out of each
ward into which the city is divided. The objecl of
the bill was to procure an extenfion of th,; royalty, to
pave, light, and clean the ftreets, for regulating the
police, and nominating officers and watchmen, appoint-
ing commiflioners, raifmg funds, and granting certain
powers to the magiftratcs and council, town and dean
of -uild courts, and for feveral other purpofes.

In the framing of this lyilem of police, it has been
ivifely pro-saded that the commiflioners fliall not eiijoy
the office for life ; nor even for a long period, but upon
the fuppofition of being re-elefted, and that every per-
ion properly qualified may have a chance for the of-
fice, and by confequence be entitled to a voice in the
management of the funds, and in the diiefiion of
every thing which refpefts the inftitution.

In order to raifc funds for defraying the expence of
th.e police eftabliftimeril, the lord provoft, magiftrates
and comm.iffioners, on the firft Monday of September,
annually aflefs all occupiers, renters, or pofleffors of
dwelling houfes, cellars, fliops, warehoufes, and other
buildings within the royalty, in proportion to the rent
of the different fubjeas, of which the following table
gives an accurate ftatement.
On the yearly rent of fubjefls valued at

4I. and under 61. fterling annually, 4d. per pound.
At 61. and under lol. 6d. do.

At lol. and under 15I. pd. do.

At 1 5I. and upwards, led. do.

As foon as the aft pafled, thofc gentlemen ^vho were
appointed to carry it into execution, began the dif-
charge of their duty according to the fpirit of faid aft,
and the following office-bearers were nominated for th&t
purpofe ; a mafter of police, a clerk of ditto, collector,
treafurer, farveyor, together with other 15 officers of
police, and 74 watchmen. Thefe have power to bring
to juftice perfons guilty of ftreet robberies, houfe-break-
•ngs, affaults, thefts, Ihop-llftir.g, picking pockets, fre-
quenters of diforderly houfes ; to fupprefs mobs and
riots ; to r.flift in extinguilhing fires, in guarding and
watching the ftreets, and in aiiifting the magiftrates in
every thing which relates to the police, peace, and good
order of the city. Thefe officers have hitherto giverr
general fatisfaftion in the difcharge of their duty, by
i'eeing that the flrcets are kept clean, well lighted and
guarded. I« a word, property and perfonal fafety are
put beyond the reach of danger, and the inllitution
promifcs to be of the moil unfpeakable advantage to
the inhabitants at large.

Many whole and elegant ftreets have of late years
been added to it, fo that its rapid extenfion, increafmg
population, and flourifliing commerce, juftiy entitle it

G L A

ith fome of the firft cities in Scotland, or per- Gb'^ow,
ha}S in the Eriliih empire. • v— '

'j'he revenue of the town arifes from a duty upon all
grain and meal brought into the city (which tax is de-
nominated the Icdies) ; from the rents of lands and
houfes the property of the community ; from an impolt
of tivo pennies Scots upon' every Scots pint of ale or
beer brewed, inbrought, or fold within the city ; from
certain duties payable out of the markets ; from the
rents of the feats in churches ; ficm the dues of cra-
nage at the quay, at the weigh-houfe, &c. As to the
tonnage on the river, the pontage of the bridge, and
llatute work ; thefe, making no part of the city reve-
nue, are kept feparate and dillinct under tlie manage-
ment of commiflioners appointed by aft of parliament. - j

About the time of the Union, the number of inha- Number of
bitants in Glafgow was reckoned about 14,000. jn '"'"'''-
1765, when a new divifion of the parifiies took place, ^^ '*
they were eitimated at 28,000. In 17 85, when an
accurate furvey was made, the niimber v. as about
36,000; belides the fuburbs, containing the Calton,
Gorbals, and Anderllon, reckoned about icoo. Since
that time new buildings, as above noticed, have been
erefted, and the city has become confiderably more
populous, but no exaft eflimatc has been made ;
though it is generally thought that the number of inha-
bitants cannot at prefent (1806) be computed ?x much
lefs than 86,630, and accordingly, they are more than
doubled fince 1 791, at which time they only amounted

1041,777. - ; ,

Tlie climate of Glafgow, fimllar to that of moft other
parts of the ifland, is variable ; but there are fome cir-
cumfiances peculiar to its local fituation which tend to
affeft it more than that of fome other places nearer the
middle of the country. That part of the county in
which Glafgow is fituated, is almoll in the narrowed
part of the ifthmus betwixt the Forth and Clyde, from
which poCtion the air is frequently refrclhed by tem-
perate breezes from the fea. The wind is iouth-weft
and well-for nearly two-thirds of the year, which is fatu-
ratcd with vapour in its paflage acrols the Atlantic j
and the Iky being frequently clouded ^vith it, the heats
of fummer are not fo intenfe as in fome other places.
Fogs are not fo common as in the neighbourhood of
Edinburgh, and fevere frorts are feldom of long con-
tinuance, nor are fnows either very deep, nor do they lie .
long. Thunder and lightning aie rare about Glafgow,
and feldom deftruftive.

The foil in the vicinity is partly a rich clay and part-
ly a light fand. The grain railed round the city is not
fufficient for the confumpt of the inhabitants, but vafl<
quantities are brought from Ireland, Ayrlhire, and the
eaft country. While digging the foundation for the
Tontine buildings in the midii of the city, a piece of
a boat was found feveral feet below the furface of the
ground, imbedded wi fand and gravel, from which it
would appear that the channel of the river had once
run in that direftion. In Auguft 1801, while repair-
ing a divifion of the cathedral, below the pavement op-
poiite to the pulpit, about two feet deep, part of a hu-
man Ikeleton was found, and a gold chain about 30
inches long lying above the bones of the leg. The date
on the ftone was 1599, but the infcription in the Saxon
cliarafter was wholly effaced.

The

G L A [_ 745

The general charaRer of the people u tV.at of In- v
daitry and actention to bulinefs, by which mmy of thera
have aiifen to a ftate of independence. They were for-
merly faid to be remarkable for feverity and apparent
fantlity of manners ; bat at prefent they are not more
diftinguiihed in this refped than any of their neigh-
bours. The crimes of robbery and houfe -breaking

] G L A

was great plenty of the lierb kali ; that plant, burR-ftg
to ailies, its falts mixed and incorporated with the fand,
or ftones fit for vitrification, and thus produced glafs •,
and that, this accident being known, the people of Si-
don in that neighbourhood elYayed the work, and broui;ht
glafs into ufe ; fmce which time the art has been conlin-
lly improving. Be this as it will, however, the firft glafs-

requent at a former period than they houfes mentioned in hiilory were erefled in the city of

vcre much

are now ; but as thefe were for the moft part commit
ted by ftrangers, it would be uncandid on that account
to attach blame to the inhabitants : the recent regula-
tions, however, refpedling the internal police of the city,
have nearly put a Hop to luch depredations.

GLASS, a tranfparent, brittle, failitious body, pro-
duced from fand melted in a ftrong iire with 'tixed
alkaline fait?, lead, flags, &c. till the whole becomes
perfeclly clear and line. The word is formed of the
Latin ^/nj/um, a plant called by the Greeks i/hn's, by the
E.omans vitrum; by tie ancient Britons guadum, and
by the Englifli woad. We find frequent mention of
this plant in ancient writers, particularly Xlalar, Vitru-
vius, Pliny, 8cc. who relate, that the ancient Britons
painted or dyed their bodies with glaftum, guadum, vi-
trum, &c. i. e. with the blue colour procured from this
plant. And hence, the factitious matter we are fpeak-
ing of cams to bo called glafs i as having always fome-
what of this bluifhnefs in it.

At what time the art of glafs-making was firft in-
vented, is altogether uncertain. Some imagine it to
Tiave been invented before the flood : but of this we
have no direft proof, though there is no improbability
in the fuppofition j for we knov.', that it is almoft im-
poiijble to excite a very violent fire, fuch as is neceffary
in metallurgic operations, without vitrifying part cf the
bricks or Hones v.here'vith the furnace is built. This
indeed might furnifti the fiift hints of glafs-making ;
though it is alfo very probable, that fuch imperfcfl vi-
trifications would be obferved a long time before people
thought of making any ufe of them.

Neri traces the antiquity of glafs as far back as the
time of Job. That writer, fpeaking of the value of wif-

Tyre, and here was the only ftaple of the manufacture
for many ages. The fand which lay on the- (bore for
about half a icile round t!;e mouth of the river B^-
lus was peculiarly adapted to the making of glafs, as
being neat and glittering ; and the wide range of the
Tyrian commerce gave an ample vent for the produc-
tioris of the furnace.

Mr Nixon, in his obfervations on a plate of glafs
found at Herculaneum, which was deftroyed A. D.
80, on which occafion Pliny loft his life, ofiers feveral
probable conjeclures as to the ufes to which fuch
plates might be applied. Such plates, he fuppofcs,
might ferve 'ox fpecula or looking glalTes ; for Pliny, in
fpeaking of Sidon, ■i.i.di^, fiquidtm etiam fpccula excogita-
veral : the refleftion of images- from thcfe ancient fpe-
cula being effefted by befmearing them behind, or
tinging them through with fome dark colour. An-
other ufe in which they might be employed, was for
adorning the walls of their apartments, by way of
wainfcot, to which Pliny is fuppofed to refer by his
vitrea camera, lib. xxxvi. cap. 25. { 64. Mr Nixcn
farther conjeftures, that thefe glafs plates might be
ufed for windows, as well as the lamina of lapis fpecu-
laris and phengites, which were improvements in luxury
mentioned by Seneca and introduced in his time,
Ep. xc. However, there is no pofititive authority re-
lating to the ufage of glafs windows earlier than the
clofe of the third century : Monifejiias eft (fays Laftan-
tius *), menlem ej/e, quce per oculos ea qux fuHt oppojiia, * Dafif.,
tran/piaat, quaji per fenejlras lucenlc vitro autJpeculariDt't'^'^i'-S-
lapide obduEias.

The firft time we hear of glafs made among the
Romans ivas in the reign of Tiberius, when Pliny re-

dom (chap, xsviii.verfc 17 ), fays, that gold and rrjr/'a/ lates that an artift had his houfe dcmolilTied for mak-

cannot equal it. But this word, which Neri will have
to fi^nify faflitious glafs, is capable of a great many
diflPerent interpretations, and properly fignifies only
whatever is beautiful or tianfparent. Dr Merret ivill
have the art to be as ancient as that of pottery or the
making of bricks, for the reafons already given, viz.
that by all vehement heat fome impirfeit vitrifications
are produced. Of this kind undoubtedly was the foffil
glafs mentioned by Ferant. Imperator. to have been
found under ground where great fires had been. But
it is evident, that fuch imperfect vitrificalions'mighthave
pafied unnoticed for ages ; and confequenlly we have
no reafon to conclude from thence, that the art of glafs-
making is of fuch high antiquity.

Tlie Egyptians boaft, that tliis art was taught them
by their great Hermes. Ariftaphanes, Arlftotle, A-
i?xander Aphrodifeus, Lucretius, and St John the
divine, put it out of all doubt that glafs was ufed in
their days. Pliny relates,. that it was firft difcovered
accidentally in S>ria, at the mouth of the river Belus,
by certain merchants driven thither by a ftorm at fea ;
who being obliged to continue there, and drefs their

ing glafs malleable, or rather fle.tible \ though Pj-
tronius Arbiter, and fome others, aflure us, that the
emperor ordered the artift to be beheaded for his in-
vention.

It appears, hoivever, that before the conqneft of
Britain by the Romans, glafs-houfes had been erefled
in this ifland, as well as in Gaul, Spain, and Italy.^
Hence, in many parts of the country arc to be found
annulets of glafs, having a narrow perforation and thick
rim, denominated by the remaining ^.\\.ox\% gleir.eu naid-
reedh, ox glafs adders, and which were probably in for-
mer times ufed as amulets by the druidsf. It canf Secrfn-
fcarcely be queftioned that the Britons were fufficiently^'"'''''"
well verfed in the manufaflure of glafs, to form out f**'""'
of it many more ufeful inllruments than the glafs beads.
Hiilory indeed allures us, that they did manufafture a
confiJerable quantity of glafs veflels. Thefe, like their
annulets, were moft probably green, blue, yellow, or
black, and many of them curioufly ftreaked with other
colours. The procefs in the manufacture would be
nearly the fame with that of the Gauls or Spaniards.
The fand of their Ihores being reduced to a fufficient

victuals by making a fire on the ground, where there degree of finenefs by ait, was mixed ivith three-fourths
Vou IX. Part II. 5 B of

G L A

_ /

of its weiglit of their nitre (much the fame with our
kelp), p.nd both were melted together. The metal v. as
then poured into other velTels, where it was left to
harden into a mafs, and afterivards replaced in the fur-
nace, w^lere it became tranfparent in the boilinfj, and
ivas afterwards figured by blowing, or modelling in
the lath, into fuch vefiels as they wanted.

It is not probable that the arrival of the Romans
would improve the glafs manufacture among the Bri-
tons. The tafte of the Romans at that time was \uii
the reverfe of that of the inhabitants of this iflaiid. 'j'he
former preferred filver and gold to glafs for the com-
pofition of their drinking vefTels. They made indeed
great improvements in their own at Rome, during the
government of Nero. The veflels then formed of this
metal rivalled the bowls of porcelain in their dearnefs,
and erjualled the cups of cryftal in their tfanfparency.
But thefe were by far too colfly for common ufe ; and
therefore, in all probability, were never attempted in
Britain. The glafs commonly made ufe of by the Ro-
mans was of a quality greatly inferior •, and, from the
fragments which have been difco\ered at the ftations or
towns of either, ajipear to have confilled of a thick,
lometimes white, but moftly blue green, metal.

According to venerable Bede, artificers fkilled in
making glafs for windows were brought over into Eng-
land in the year 674, by Abbot Benedict, who were em-
ployed in glazing the church and monaftery of Werc-
mouth. According to others, they were firft brought
over by Wilfrid, biftiop of Worcefter, about the fame
time. Till this time the art of making fuch glafs was
unknown in Britain ; though glafs windows did not
begin to be common before the year 1 1 80 ; till this
period they were very fcarce in private houfes, and con-
fidered as a kind of luxury, and as marks of great mag-
nificence. Italy had them firfl, ne.\t France, from
whence they came into England.

Venice, for many years, excelled all Europe in the
finenefs of its glaffes; and in the thirteenth century, the
Venetians were the only people that had the fecret of
jnaking cryftal looking glaffes. The great glafs works
^vere at Muran, or Murano, a village near the city,
v.hich fumiflied all Europe with the fineft and largert
glaffes.

The glafs manufafture was firft begun in England in
J 557: the finer fort \\-as made in the place called
Crutched Friars, in London ; the fine flint glafs, little
inferior to that of Venice, was firft made in the Savoy
houfc, in the Strand, London. This manufafture ap-
pears to have been much improved in 1635, when it
was carried on with fea coal or pit coal inftead of wood,
and a monopoly was granted to Sir Robert Manftll,
vho was allowed to import the fine Venetian flint glaffes
for drinking, the art of making which was not brought
to perfcflion before the rtjgn of William III. But the
firft glafs plates, for looking glaffes and coach windows,
were made, 1673, ^' Lambeth, by the encouragement
cf the duke of Buckingham ; who, in 1670, introduced
the manufaflure of fine glafs into England, by means
of Venetian artifts, with amazing fuccefs. So that with-
in a century paft, the French and EnglilTi have not on-
ly come up to, but even furpaffcd the Venetians, and
we are now no longer fupplied from abroad.

The French made a confidcrable improvement in the
art of glafs, by the invention of a method to caft very

[ 746 ]

G L A

large plates, till then unknown, and fcarce praftifed y<t G'sf!.
by any but themfelves and the Englilh. That court v—^

applied itfelf v.ith a laudable induftry to cultivate and
improve the glafs manuficlure. A company of glafs-
men was eftabliftied by Istters patent ; and it was pro-
vided by an arret, not only that the working in glafs
ftiould not derogate' any thing from nobility, but even
that none but nobles ftiould be allowed to work there-
in.

An extenfive manufaftory of this elegant and valu-
able branch of commerce was firft eftablilhed in Lan-
caftiire, about the year 1773, through the fpirited ex-
ertions of a very refpeftable body of proprietors, who
were incorporated by an aft of parliament. From
thofe various difficulties conftantly attendant upon new
undertakings, when they have to contend with power-
ful foreign eftahlilhments, it was for fome time con-
fiderably embarraffed ; but government, of late, having
taken off fome rcftricVions that bore hard upon it, and
made fome judicious regulations relative to the mode
of le\7ing the excife duty, it now bids fair to rival, if
not furpafs, the moft celebrated continental manufac-
tures, both with refpeft to the quality, brilliancy, and
fize of its produftions. j

With regard to the theory of vitrification, ^ve are 11 coty of
almoft totally in the dark. In general, it feems to be ^'"'fi<^2tion
■that ftate in which folid bodies are, by the vehement """"^'''■
aftion of fire, fitted for being diffipated or carried off
in vapour. In all vitrifications there is a plentiful eva-
poration : and if any folid fubftance is carried off in
vapour by the intenfe heat of a burning fpeculum, a
■^"itrification is always obferved previoufly to take place.
The difference, then, between the ftate of fufion and
vitrification of a folid body we may conceive to be,
that in the former the element of fire a(?ls upon the
parts of the folid in fuch a manner as only to disjoin
them, and render the fubftance fluid ; but in vitrifica-
tion the fire not only disjoins the particles, but com-
bines with them in a latent ftate into a third fubftance j
i\hich, having now as much fire as it can contain, can
receive no further change from that element except
being carried off in vapour.

But though we are unable to effeft this change up-
on folid bodies without a very violent heat, it is other-
wife in the natural proceffes. By what we call cnjjlal-
ii%ation, nature produces more perfect glaffes than we
can make with our furnaces. Thefe are called precious
Jlones ; but in all trials they difcover the effenlial pro-
perties of glafs, rmd not of ftones. The moft diftin-
guifliing property of glafs is its refifting the force of
tire, fo that this element cannot calcine or change it
as it does, other bodies, but can only melt it, and
then carry it off in vapours. To this laft all the
precious ftones are fubjeft. The diamond (the hard-
eft of them all) may be diffipated in a kfs degree of
heat than ;vhat would diffipate common glafs. Nor
can it be any objeftion to this idea, that fome kinds
of glafs are capable of being converted into a kind
of porcelain by a long-continued cementation with cer-
tain materials. This change happens only to thofe
kinds of glafs which are made of alkaline fait and
fand ; and Dr Lewis hath ftiown that this change is
produced by the diffipation of the faline principle,
which is the Icaft fixed of the two. Glafs, therefore,
we may ftill confider as a fubftance upou wliicli the fire

has

Glafc. has

Remark-
able pro-

G L A

other cfFecl than either to melt

gUfs.

Siirprillng
fragility o

gial>,

[

dithpate it in
"■ vapour.

The other properties of glafs are very remarliable,
lomc of which follow :

1. It is one of the moft elaftic bodies in nature. If
the force with which glafs balls ftrike each other be

reckoned i6, that wherewith they recede by virtue of with the glafs extremely fmall, onght to caufe
their elafticity will be nearly 15.

2. When glafs is fuddenly cooled, it bccc
ceedingly brittle ; and this brittlenel's is fc
attended with very furpriting phenomena. Hollow balls
made of unannealed glafs, with a fmall hole in them,
will fly to pieces by the heat of the hand only, if the
hole by which the internal and external air communi-
cate be Hopped with a finger. Some veflels, however,

r made of fuch unannealed glafs have been difcover-

A ed, which have the remarkable property of refilling
very hard llrokes given from without, though they
ihiver to pieces by the ihocks received from the fall of
very light and minute bodies dropped into their cavi-
ties. Thefe glaffes may be made of any Ihape : all
that needs be obferved in making them is, that their
bottom be thicker than their fides. The thicker the

bottom is, the ealier do the glaffes break. One whofe edly the fracture would always take place at the very
bottom is three fingers breadth in thicknefs flies with inftant of the llroke ; but we have feen that this did
as much eafe at leaft as the thinned glafs. Some of not happen fometimes till a very conhderable i'pace of

time had elapfed. It is evident, therefore, that this

747 ] G L A

in his principles of pcrcuflion. He thinks 0 at thii ex-
periment entirely overthrows the opinion of thofc wlio
meafure the force of perculVion by the vis viva, or ab-
folute apparent ihength of the ftroke. According
to his principles, tlie great hardnefs and angular fi-
gure of the flint, which makes the fpace of contaft

im-
preihon on the glafs valfly greater than lead, or any
other metal ; and this may account for the Hint's
breaking the vcllei, though the bullet, even falling
fr»m a confiderable height, does no damage. Hollow
cups made of green bottle glafs, fome of them three
inciies thick at the bottom, were inliantly broken by 11
ihiver of flint weighing about two grains, though they
had refilled the fliock of a mulket ball from the heigh:
of three feet.

That Mr Euler's theory cannot be conclufive more
than the other, muft appear evident from a very ilight
confideration. !t is not by angular bodies alone that
the glail<;s are broken. The marbles with which chil-
dren play are roimd, and yet they have the fame effect
with the angular flint. Befides, if it was the mere
force of percuflion which broke the glaffes, undoubt-

thefe veffels have been tried with flrokes of a mallet
fufficient to drive a nail into wood tolerably hard, and
have held good without breaking. They have alfo
refided the fhock of feveral heavy bodies, let fall Into
their cavities, from the height of two or three feet ;
as mufket balls, pieces of iron, or other metal pyrites,
iafper, wood, bone, &c. But this is not furpriling,
as other glaffes of the fame Ihape and fize will do the
lame : but the wonder is, that taking a fliiver of flint
of the fize of a fmall pea, and letting it fall into the
glafs only from the height of three inches, in about
two feconds the glafs tlies, and fome'iines at the very

effect is occafioned by the putting in motion lomc
fubtile fluid with which the fubilance of the glafs is
filled ; dv.d that the motions of this fluid, when once
excited in a particular part of the glafs, foon propagate
themfelves through the whole or greateft part of It, by
which means the cohefive power becomes at laft too
weak to refill them. There can be little doubt that
the fluid jull now mentioned is that of eleclricity. Ii
is known to exift in glafs in very great quantity ; and
it alfo Is known to be capable of breaking glaffes even
when annealed with the greateft care, if put into too

of the Ihock ; nay, a bit of flint no larger violent a motion. Probably the cooling of glafs haflily

S
Attempts
to account
iorit.

than a grain, dropped into feveral glaffes fuccefllvely,
though it did not immediately break them, ytt when
fet by, they all flew in lefs than three quarters of an
hour. Some other bodies produce the lame eftccl with
flint ; as fapphire, diam.ond, porcelain, hard temper-
ed fteel ; alfo marbles fuch as boys play witli, and like-
wife pearls.

Thefe experiments were made before the Royal
Society ; and fucceeded equally when the glaffes were
held in the hand, when they were relied on a pillow,
put 5n water, or filled with water. It Is alfo remark-
able, that the glaffes broke upon having their bottoms
flightly rubbed with the finger, though fome of them
did net fly till half an hour after the rubbing. If the
glaffes arc everywhere extremely thin, they do not
break in thefe circumilances.

Some have pretended to account for thefe pheno-
mena, by faying, that the bodies dropped into the
veffels caufe a conculhon which is ftronger than the
cohefive force of the glafs, and confequently that a
rupture mulf enfue. But why does not a ball of iron,
gold, filver, or copper, which are perhaps a ihoufand
times heavier than the flint, produce the fame tffe& ?
It is becaufe they are not elallic. But furely iron is
more elaliic than the end of one's finger. Mr Euler

make it more electric than is confii^ent with Its
cohefive power, fo that it is broken by the leaft in-
creafe of motion in the electric fluid by frifllon or
otherwife. This is evidently the cafe when it Is bro-
ken by rubbing with the finger ; but why it fliould
alfo break by the mere contact of flint and the other
bodies above mentioned, has not yet been fatisfaftorily
accounted for. g

A molt remarkable phenomenon alfo is produced in Rotatio
glafs tubes placed in certain circumitances. When thefe i;'"!"* tu
are laid before a fire in a horizontal polltion, having .'""^'
their extremities properly fupported, they acquire a
rotatory motion round their axis, and alfo a progref-
five motion towards the fire, even when their fupports
are declhiing from the fire, fo that the tubes will move
a httle way up hill towards the fire. When the pio-
greffive motion of the tubes towards the fire is flopped
by any obftacle, their rotation ftill continues. When
the tubes are placed hi a nearly upright polture, leaning
to the right hand, the motion will be from ealt to welt ;
but if they lean to the left hand, thtir motion will be
from wtlt to call j and the nearer they are placed to the
perfectly upright poiture, the lefs will the motion be
eitlier way.

If the tube is placed horizontally on a glafs pane.

lias endeavoured to account for thefe appearances from the fragment, for inflance, of coach window- glafs

5 B a ilead

G L A

[ 748 ]

G L A

Glafs. ftead of moving towards tbc fire, it will move from it,

*"""' and about it; axis in a contrary direction to what it

had done before ; nay, it will recede from the fire, and

move a little up hill when the plane inclines towards

tho fire. Thefe experiments are recorded in the Phi-

*N°476. lofophical Tranfadions *. They fucceeded bell with

V '• tubes about 20 or 22 inches long, which had in each

7 end a pretty flrong pin fixed in cofk for an axis.
Atttiipt* The reaion given for thefe phenomena, is the fwell-
to accoui.t i,ig of the tubes towards the fire by the heat, which
is knov/n to expand all bodies. For, fay the adopters
of this hypothcfis, granting the exiilence of fuch a
fwelling, gravity mult pull the tube down when fap-
ported near its extremities ; and a frefli part being ex-
pofed to the fire, it mull alfo fwell out and fall down,
and fo on. — But without going farther in the expla-
nation of this hypothefis, it may be here remarked,
that the fundamental principle on which it proceeds is
falfe j for though fire indeed make bodies expand,
it dees not increafe them in weight ; and therefore the
fides of tiie tubs, though one of them is expanded by
the fire, muft ilill remain in eqmlibrio ; and hence we
mull conclude, that the caufes of thefe phenomena re-
main yet to be difcovered.

4. G!a!s is lefs dilatable by heat than metalline
fubftances, and folid glsfs flicks aie lefs dilatable than

i'^/Arwr/: tubes. This w^-.s firft difcovered by Col. Roy, in ma-
■ ''^^"' king experiments in order to reduce barometers to a
greater degree of exaclnefs than hath hitherto been
found prafticable -, and fince his experiments were
made, one of the tubes 18 inches long, being compa-
red v\ith a folid glafs rod of the fame length, the for-
mer was found by a pyrometer to expand four times
as much as the other, in a heat approaching to that
IhlJ. of boiling oil. — On account of the general quality

vol lx%nii. ^^^;jI, gigfj 1,35 of expanding lefs than metal, M. de
^' ^'''' Luc recommends it to be ufed in pendulums : and he
fays it has alfo this good quality, that its expanfions
are always equable, and proportioned to the degrees
of heat ; a r.uality which is not to be found in any other
fubftance yet known.

5. Glais appears to be more fit for the conden-
fation of vapours than metallic fubftances. An open
glafs filled with water, in the furaraer time, will ga-
ther drops of water on the outfide, jull as far as the
water in the infide reaches ; Jand a perfon's breath
blown on it manifeilly moiftcns it. Glafs alfo be-
comes moiil with dew, vthen metals do not. See
Dew.

6. A drinking glafs partly filled with water, and
rubbed on the brim with a wet finger, yields mufical
notes, higher or lower as the glafs is more or lefs full ;
and will make the liquor frifli and leap. See Har-
monica.

7. Glafs is poffeffed of very great eleflrical virtues.
g See Elf.ctricity, poffim.

Mateiials Materials for Making of Glass. The materials where-
forgl.il!. of glafs is made, we have already mentioned to be fait

and fand or ftones.

I. The I'alt here ufed is procured from a fort of aflies

brought from the Levant, called poherine, or rochelta ;

which aflies are thofe of a foit of water plant called
f Set 5a/- ia/if, cut down in the fumraer, dried in the fun, and
/cla, iuany ^^^^^ j„ Jjggps, either on the ground or on iron grates ;

the alhes falling into a pit, grow into a bard raafs, or

ilone, fit for ufe. It may alfo be procured from com-
mon kelp, or the allies of the fucus vefculofus. See -
Kelp.

To extra<El the fait, thefe alhes, or polverlne, are
powdered and Sfted, then put into boiling water, and
there kept till one third of the water be confumed 5
the whole being llirred up from time to time, that
the afaes may incorporate with the lluid, and all its
falts be extrafted : then the veffel is filled up with
new water, and boiled over again, till one half be
confumed ; what remains is a lort of ley, llrongly im-
pregnated with fait. This ley, boiled over again in
frefli coppers, thickens in about 24 hours, and ftioots
its fait ; which is to be ladled out, as it (hoots, into
earthen pans, and thence into wooden vats to drain
and dry. This done, it is giofsly pounded, and thus
put in a. fort of oven, called ca/car, to dry. It may
be added, that there are other plants, befules kali and
fucus, ^vhich yield a fait fit for glafs ; fuch are the
common way thillle, bramble, hops, wormwood, woad,
tobacco, fern, and the whole leguminous tribe, as peafe,
beans, &.c.

Pearl aflies form a leading flux in the manufaflure
of glafs, and mollly fupply the place of the Levant
alhes, the barillas of Spain, and many other kinds,
whick were formerly brought here for making both
glafs and foap.

There are other fluxes ufed for different kinds of
glafs, and for various purpofes, as calcined lead, nitre,
fea fait, borax, arfenic, fmiths clinkers, aiul wood-
afhes, containing the earth and lixiviate falts as pro-
duced by incineration. With regard to thefe feveral
fluxes, we may obferve, in general, that the more
calx of lead, or other metallic earth, enters into the
compofition of any glafs, fo much the more fufible,
foft, coloured, and denfe this glafs is, and reciprocally,-
The colours given to glafs by calces of lead, are
(hades of yellov/ : on the other hand, glaiTes that con-
tain only faline fluxes partake of the properties of falts ;
they are lefs heavy, lefs denle, harder, whiter, more
brilliant, and mwe brittle than the former ; and glal-
fes containing both faline and metallic fluxes do alfo
partake of the properties of both thefe fubltances.
Glafles too faline are eafily fufceptible of alteration by
the aftion of air and water : efpecially thofe in which
alkalies prevail ; and thefe are alio liable to be injured
by acids. Thofe that contain too much borax and
arfenic, though at firft they appear very beautiful,
quickly tarnilh and become opake when expofed to
air. By attending to thefe properties of different
fluxes, phlogiftic or faline, the arlift may know how
to adjull the proportions of thefe to fand, or powdered
flints, for the various kinds of glafs. See the article
Vitrification.

2. The fand or ftone, called by the artifts tarfc, is
the fecond ingredient in glafs, and that which gives it
the body and firmnefs. Thefe Hones, Agricola ob-
ferves, mull be fuch as will fufe ; and of thefe fuch as
are white and tranfparent are bcft j fo that cryllal
challenges the precedency of all others.

At Venice they chiefly ufe a fort of pebble, found
in the river Tefino, relembling white marble, and cal-
led cuo^olo. Indeed Ant. Neri allures us, that all llones
which will flrlke fire with lletl, are fit to vitrify ; but
Dr Morret (liows, that there arc fomc exceptions from

this

G L A

[ 749 ]

G L A

t'ais rule. Flints are admirable ; and when calcined,
' po'.vdered, and fearced, make a pure white cryflalline
metal : but the expence of preparing them makes the
mafters of our ghfs-boufes fparing of their ufe. Where
proper (lones cannot be ib conveniently liad, fand is
ufed. The beit for this purpofc is that which is white,
£uall, and . ihining ; examined by the microfcope, it
appears to be Imall fragments of rock cryllal. For
green glafs, that which is of a foft texture, and more
gritty J it is to be well waftied, which is all the prepa-
ration it needs. Our glafs-houfes are furnilhed with
white fand for their cryilal gl.iiTes from Lynn in N.^r-
folk and iMiidfloue in Kent, and with the coarler for
green glafs from WooUvich.

Some mention a third ingredient in glafs, viz. man-
ganefe, a kind of pfeudo loadftone, dug up in Ger-
many, Italy, and even in Mendip hills in Somerfetlhire.
But the proportion hereof to the reft is very inconfi-
derable ; befide, that it is not ufed in all glafs. Its
otTice is to purge off the natural greenifh colour, and
give It fome other tinflure required.

For this purpofe it fliould be chofen of a deep co-
lour, and tree from fpeciis of metalline appearance,
or a lighter call ; manganefe requires to be well calcined
in a hot furnace, and then to undergo a thorough levi-
gation. The effedl of manganefe in deftroying the co-
lours of glafs, and hence ca'ded the foap of glaJs, is ac-
counted for by P.I. Montamy, in his Traite des Couleurs
p'iur la Peinture en Email, in the following manner :
the mangane.'e deilroys the green, olive, and blue colours
of glafs, by adding to them a purple tinge, and by tlie
mixtufe producing a blackifh brown colour ; and as
blacknefs is caufed merely by an abforption of the rays
of light, the blackifli tinge given to the glafs by the
mixture of colours, prevents the refleflion of fo many
rays, and thus renders the glafs lefs coloured than be-
fore. But the black produced by this fubftance fug-
gefts an obvious reafon for uiing it very fparingly in
thofe compofitions of glafs which are required to be
very tranfparent. Nitre or faltpetre is alio ufed with
the fame intention j for by deftroying in a certain de-
gree the phlogiflon which gives a ftrong tinge of yel-
low to glafs prepared with lead as a flux, it fer\'es to
free it from this coloured tinge ; and in faline glafles,
nitre is iequifite in a fmaller proportion to render them
lutFiciently tranfparent, as in the cafe of looking glafs
and other kinds of plates.

Kinds of Class. The manufactured glafs now in
ufe may be divided into three general kinds ; white
tranfparent glafs, coloured glafs, and common green or
bottle gla^s. Of the firft kind there is a great variety ;
as the Hint glafs, as it is called with us, and the Ger-
man cryftal glafs, which are applied to the fame ufes ;
the glais for plates, for mirrors, or looking glaffes ; the
glafs for windows and other lights ; and the glafs for
phials and fmall veffels. And thefe again differ in the
fjbftances employed as fluxes in forming them, as" well
as in the coarftnefs or fincnefs of fuch as are ufed for
their body. The flint and cryfl.al, mirror and beft
window glafs, not only require fuch purity in the
fluxes, as may render it praclic;iljle to free the glafs
perfeflly from all colour ; but for the fame reafon
likexvife, either the white Lynn fand, calcined flints,
or white pebbles, fliould be ufed. The others do not
demand the fame nicety in the choice of the materials j

though the fecond kind of window glafs, and the bell Gla
kind of phial, will not be fo clear as they ought, if '
either too brown fand or impure falts be fuffciCl to
enter into their corapofition.

Of coloured glafs there is a great variety of forts,
differing in their colour or other properties according
to the occaflous for wlilch they are wanted. The
diflferences in the latter kind depend on the accidental
preparation and management oi the ar Jills by whom
they are raanufadared, as will be afterwards ex-
plained.

Furnaces for the Maling of Glass. In this manufac-
ture there are three forts of furnaces ; one called cal-
car is for the frit ; the fecond is for working the
glafs ; the third ferves to anneal the glafs, and is call-
ed the leer. See Plate CCXLVII.

The calcar refembles an oven ten feet long, feven
feet broad, and two deep j the fuel, which in Britain
is fea coal, is put into a trench on one fide of the fur-
nace ; and the flame reverberating from the roof upon
the frit calcines it. The glafs furnace, or working
fiirnace, is round, of three yards diameter, and two
high : or thus proportioned. It is divided into three
parts, each of which is vaulted. The lower part is
properly called the crown, and is made in that fomi.
Its ufe is to keep a brifk fire, which is never put out.
The mouth is called the bocca. There are leveral holes
in the arch of tills crown, through which the flarae
pafles into the fecond vault or partition, and reverbe-
rates into the pots filled with the ingredients above
mentioned. Round the infides are eight or more pots
placed, and piling pots on them. The number of pots
is always double that of the boccas or mouths, or of
the number of workmen, that each may have one pot
refined to work out of, and another for metal to refine
in while he works out of the other. Through the
working holes the metal is taken out of the pots, and
the pots are put into the furnace ; and thele holes are
flopped with moveable covers made of lute and brick,
to fcreen the workmen's eyes from the fcorching flames.
On each fide of the bocca or mouth is a bocarella or
little hole, out of which coloured glafs or finer metal
is taken from the piling pot. Above this oven there
is the third oven or leer, above five or fix yards long,
where the veffels or glafs are annealed or cooled :
this part confills of a tower, befides the leer, into
■which the flame afcends from the furnace. The tower
has two mouths, through which the glaffes are put in
with a fork, and fet on the floor or bottom : but they
are drawn out on iron pan< cMcAfraclies, through the
leer, to cool by degrees •, fo that they are quite cold
by the time they reach the mouth of the leer, which
enters the farofel or room where the glaffes are to be
flowed.

But the green-glafs furnace is fquare ; and at each
angle it has an arch for annealing or cooling glaffes.
The metal is wrought on two oppofite fides, and on
the other two they have their colours, into which are
made linnet holes for the Ere to come from the fur-
nace to bake the frit, and to difcharge the fmoke.
Fires are made in the arches to anneal the work, fo
that the whole procefs is done in one furnace.

Thefe furnaces mull not be of brick, but of hard
fandy ftones. In France, they build the outlide of
bricii ; and the Inner part, to bear the fire, is made of a

lort.

G L A [7

fort of tullers earth, or tobacco-pipe clay, of ivliich
~ eaith they alfo make thtir melting pots. In Britain
the pots are made of Stourbridge clay.

Mr Blancourt obferves, that the worft and roughed
work in this art is the changing the poti wlien they
are worn out or cracked. In this cafe, the great
working hole mult be uncovered ; the faulty pot mull
be taken out with iron hooks and forks, and a new
oiie mull be fpeedily put in its place, through the
flames, by the hands only. For this work, the man
guards himfelf with a garment made of ikins, in the
ihape of a pantaloon, that covers him all but his eyes,
and is made as wet as pofllble ; the eyes arc defended
with a proper fort of glafs.

Injlnimentsfor Making ofGiAiS. The inftruments
made ufe of in this work may be reduced^ to thefe
that follow. A blowing pipe, made of iron, about
t(\-o feet and a half long, with a wooden handle. An
iron rod to take up the glafs after it is blown, and
to cut off the former. ScilTars to cut the glafs when
it comes off from the firft hollow iron. Shears to cut
and Ihape great glaffes. Sic. An iron ladle, with the
end of the handle cafed with wood, to take the metal
out of the refining pot, to put it into the workmen's
pots. A fmall iron ladle cafed in the fame manner,
to fkim the alkahc fait that Avims at top. Shovels,
one like a peel, to take up the great glaffes ; another
like a (ire-fhovel, to feed the furnace with coals. A
hooked iron fork, to ftir the matter in the pots. An
iron rake for the fame purpofe, and to llir the frit. An
iron fork, to ciange or pull the pots out of the fur-
nace, &c.

Compqfilions for White and Cnjjlal Gijss. I. To
make cryjlal glafs, take of the whiteft tarfo, pounded
fmall, and fearced as fine as flour, 200 pounds ; of the
ialt of polverine 130 pounds; mix them together, and
put them into the furnace called the calcar, firfl heat-
ing it. For an hour keep a moderate fire, and keep
flirring the materials with a proper rake, that they may
incorporate and calcine together ; then increafe the fire
for five hours; after which take out the matter ; which
being now fufticiently calcined, is called frit. From
the calcar put the frit in a dry place, and cover it up
from the dull for three or four months. Now to make
the glafs or cryftal : take of this cryftal frit, called alfo
lollito ; fet it in pots in the furnace, adding to it a due
quantity of magnefia or manganefe : when the two are
fufed, cafl the fluor into fair water, to clear it of the
fait called yaWwr; which would otherwife make the
cryftal obfcure and cloudy. This lotion mull be re-
peated again and again, as often as needful, till the
cryftal be fully purged ; or this fcum may be taken off'
by means of proper ladles. Then fet it to boil four,
five, or fix days ; which done, fee whether it have man-
ganefe enough ; and if it be yet greenill), add more
manganefe, at difcretion, by little and little at a time,
taking care not to overdofe it, becaufe the manganefe
inclines it to a blackilh hue. Then let the metal clarify,
till it becomes of a clear and ftiining colour ; which
clone, it is fit to be blown or formed into veffels at plea-
fure.

2. Flint glafs, as it is called by us, is of the fame
general kind with that which in other places is called
f ryllal glafs. It has this name from being originally
made with calcined flints, before the ufe of the wliite

SO ■] G L A

fand was underllood ; and retains the name, though no
flints are now ufed in the compofition of it. This *"
flint glafs differs from the other, in having lead for its
flux, and white fand for its body ; whereas the fluxes
ufed for the cryftal glafs are falls or avfenic, and the
body confirts of calcined flints or white river pebbles,
tarfo, or fuch flones. To the white fand and lead a
proper proportion of nitre is added, to burn away the
phlogifton of the lead, and alio a fnjiill quantity of
magnefia ; and in fome works they uie a proportional
quantity of arfenic to aid the fluxing ingredients. The
moft perfeft kind of flint glafs may be made by fufing
with a very ftrong fire 120 pounds of the white fand,
50 pounds of red lead, 40 pounds of the beft pearl
alhes, 20 pounds of nitre, and five ounces of magnefia.
Another compofition of flint glafs, which is laid to
come nearer to the kind now made, is the folloiving:
120 pounds of fand, 54 pounds of the bell peail allies,
36 pounds of red lead, l 2 pounds of nitre, and 6 ounces
of magnefia. To either of thefe a pound or two of ar-
fenic may be added, to increafe the flux of tlie compo-
fition. A cheaper compofition of flint glafs may be
made with 120 pounds of white fand, c?j pounds of
the beft pearl alhes, 40 pounds of red lead, 13 pounds
of nilre, 6 pounds of arfenic, and 4 ounces of magnefia ;
or inftead of the arfenic may be fubftituted 15 pounds
of common fait ; but this will be more brittle than
the other. The cheapeft compofition for the worft
kind of flint glafs confills of 120 pounds of white fand,
30 pounds of red lead, 20 pounds of the beft pearl alhes,
10 pounds of nitre, 15 pounds of common fait, and fix
pounds of arfenic. The beft German cryftal glafs is
made of 1 23 pounds of calcined flints or white fand, 70
pounds of the beft pearl allies, 10 pounds of faltpetre,
half a pound of arfenic, and five ounces of magnefia.
And a cheaper compofition is formed of i 20 pounds of
calcined flints or white fand, 46 pounds of pearl allies,
7 pounds of nitre, 6 pounds of arfenic, and 5 ounces of
magnefia,

A glafs much harder than any prepared in the com-
mon way, may be made by means of borax in the fol-
lowing method : Take four ounces of borax, and an
ounce of fine fand ; reduce both to a fubtile powder,
and melt them together in a large clofe crucible fet in
a wind furnace, keeping up a ftrong fire for half an
hour ; then take out the crucible, and when cold break
It, and there will be found at the bottom a pure hard
glafs capable of cutting common glafs like a diamond.
This experiment, duly varied, fays Dr Shaw, may lead
to fcveral ufefiil improvements in the arts of glafs, en-
amels, and factitious gems, and fliows an expeditious
method of making glafs, without any fixed alkali, which
has been generally thought an effential ingredient in
glafs, and it is not yet known whether calcined cryftal
or other fubftances being added to this fait inftead of
fand, it might not make a glafs approaching to the na-
ture of a diamond.

There are three principal kinds of glaffes, diflin-
guilhed by the form or manner of woiking them ; viz.
I. Round glafs, as thofe of our veffels, phials, drinking
glaffes, &c. II. Table or window glafs, of which there
are divers kinds ; viz. crown glafs, jealous glafs, &.c.
III. Plate glafe, or mirror glafe.

I. IVoriing or Blowing Round Glass. The working
furnace, we have v'bferved, is round, and has fix boccas

G L A

apertures: at one of ihtfe, called tLc

[ 7SI ]

G L A

C!?.r. or apertures: at one of ihtfe, called the jf£'<3.' /-iccrt, the
~ fumace is heated, and the pots of frit are at this fet in
the furnace \ tivo other fmall holes, called hocarcllas,
("erve to lade or take out the melted metal, at the end
of an iron, to work the glafs. At the other holes they
put in pots of fafible ingredients, to be prepared, and
at laft emptied into the lading pot.

'i'here are fix pots in each furnace, all made of to-
bacco-pipe clay, proper to fuftain not only the heat of
the fire, but alfo the effect of the polverine, which pe-
netrates every thing elfe. There are only two of thefe
pots that work : the reft ferve to prepare the matter
for them. The fire of the furnace is made and kept up
Avith dry hard wood, calt in without intermiflion at fix
rpcrturcs.

When the matter contained in the two pots is fuf-
ficiently vitrified, tliey proceed to blow or falhion it.
For this purpofe the workman dips his blowing pipe
into the melting pot ; and by turning it about, the
metal fvicks to the iron more firmly than turpentine.
This he repeats four times, at each time rolling the
end of his inllruraent, with the hot metal thereon, on
a piece of plate iron ; over which is a vefiel of water
which helps to coo!, and fo to confolidate a:id to dif-
pofe that matter to bind more firmly w'vCa. what is to
be taken next out of the melting pot. But after he has
dipt a fourth time, and the workman perceives there
is meta! enough on the pipe, he claps his mouth im-
mediately to the other end of it, and blows gently
through the iron tube, till the metal lengthens like a
bladder about a foot. Then he rolls it on a marble
ilone a little while to polifli it ; and blows a fecond
time, by which he brings it to the Ihape of a globe of
about 1 8 or 20 inches diameter. Every time he blows
into the pipe, he removes it quickly to his cheek ;
otherwife he would be in danger, by often blowing, of
drawing the tlame into his mouth : and this globe may
be flattened by returning it to the fire ; and brought
into any form by ftamp irons, which are aUvays ready.
When the glafs is thus blown, it is cut off at the collet
or neck ; which is the narrow part that ftuck to the
iron. The method of performing this is as follows :
the pipe is reftcd on an iron bar, clofe by the collet j
then a drop of cold water being laid on the collet, it
will crack about a quarter of an inch, which, with a
flight blow or cut of the (hears will immediately fepa-
rate the collet.

After this is done, the operator dips the iron rod
into the melting pot, by which he extrafts as much
metal as ferves to attract the glafs he has made, to
which he now fixes this rod at the bottom of \(\i work,
oppofite to the opening made by the breaking of the
collet. In this pofition the glafs is carried to the great
bocca or m.oulh of the oven, to be heated and fcald-
ed ; by which means it is again put into fuch a foft
ftate, that, by the help of an iron inflrument, it can
be pierced, opened, and vvidened, without breaking.
But the veffel is not finiflied till it is returned to the
great bocca ; where being again heated thoroughly.
End turned quickly about with a circular motion, it
will open to any fize, by the means of the heat and
motion.

If there remain any fuperfluities, they are cut off
with the fhears; for till the glafs is cool, it remains in a
foft fle.\.ib!e ftate. It is therefore taken from the bocca,

and carried to an eailhen bench, covered with brands,
which are coals e.\tmguilhcd, keeping it turning ; be-
caufe that motion prevents any fettling, and prcferves
an evtnncfs in the face of the glafs, where, as it cools,
it conies to its confiftency ; being firft cleared from
the iron rod by a flight ftroke by the hand of the work-
man.

If the vtffel conceived in the workman's mind, and
vvhofe body is already made, requires a foot, or a han-
dle, or any other member or decoration, he makes them
feparately ; and now effays to join them with the help
of hot metal, which he takes out of the pots with his
iron rod : but the glafs is not brought to its true hard-
nefs till it has palled the leer or annealing oven, defcrib-
ed before.

II. Working or blowing of Window or Table Glass.
The method of working round glafs, or veffels of any
fort, is in every particular applicable to the working of
window or table glafs, till -the blowing iron has been
dipt the fourth time. But then inftead of rounding it,
the workman blows, and fo manages the metal upon the
iron plate, that It extends two or three feet in the form
of a cylinder. This cylinder is put again to the fire,
and blown a lecond time, and is thus repeated till it is
extended to the dimenfions required, the fide to which
the pipe is fixed diminilhing gradually till it ends in a
pyramidal form ; fo that, to bring both ends nearly to
the fame diameter, while the glafs is thus flexible, he
adds a little hot metal to the end oppofite the pipe, and
draws it out with a pair of iron pincers, and immediate-
ly cuts off the fame end with the help of a little cold
water as before.

The cylinder being now open at one end, is carried
back to the bocca ; and there, by the help of cold wa-
ter, it is cut about eight or ten inches from the iron
pipe or rod ; and the whole length at another place, by
which alfo it is cut off from the iron rod. Then it is
heated gradually on an earthen table, by which it opens
in length ; while the workman, with an iron tool, al-
ternately lowers and raifes the two halves of the cylin-
der ; which at laft will open like a (heet of paper, and
fall into the fame flat form in which it ferves for ufe ;
in which it is preferved by heating it over again, cool-
ing it on a table of copper, and hardening it 24 hours
in the annealing furnace, to which it is carried upon
forks. In this furnace an hundred tables of glafs may
lie at a time, without injury to each other, by feparat-
ing them into tents, with an iron fliiver between, which
diminifties the weight by dividing it, and keeps the
tables flat and even.

Of window or table glafs there are various forts,
made in different places, for the ufe of building. Thofe
moft known among us are given us by the author of the
Builder's DiAionary, as follows :

I. Crown, of which, fays Neri, there are two kinds,
diftinguiihcd by the places where they are wrought ; viz.
Ratcliff crown glafs, which is the beft and clearcft, and
was firft made at the Bear garden, on the Bankfide,
Southwark, but fince at Ratcliff : of this there are 24
tables to the cafe, the tables being of a circular form,
about three feet fix inches in diameter. 'J'he other kind,
or Lambeth crown glafs, is of a darker colour than the
former, and more inclining to green.

'J'he befl window or crown glafs is made of white

fand 60 pounds, of purified pearl allies 30 pounds, of

faltpetrc

G L

A [ 75

^ one pound, and of arfe-

faltpetre ij pounds, of bi
■'nic half a pound. If the glafs fcould prove yello-
ai?.gneila mud be added. A cheaper compofition for
windov glafs coniifts of 60 pounds of white fan.1, 25
pounds of un purified pearl aflies, ro pounds of common
fait, 5 pounds of nitre, 2 pounds of arfenic, and one
ounce and a half of ma^efia. The common or rrreen
window glafs is compofed of 60 poun.^.s of white fand,
JD pounds of unpurified pearl allies, 10 pounds' of com-
mon fait, 2 pounds of arfenic, and 2 ounces of ir.agne-
fia. But a cheaper compofition for this purpofe con-
£fts of 1 20 pounds of the cheapeft white fand, 30
pounds of unpurified pearl aP.ies, 6d pounds of weod
alhes, well burnt and fitted, 20 pounds of common fait,
and 5 pounds of arfenic.

2. French glafs, called alfo Normandi/ g/afs, and for-
merly Lorraine gltifs, becaufe made in t'-ofe provinces.
At prefent it is made wholly in the nine glifs works -,
five whereof are in the foreft of Lyons, four in the
county of Eu ; the laft at Beaumcmt near Rnuen. It
is of a thinner kind than our croxvn glafs ; and when
laid on a piece of white paper, appears of a dirtyifh
green colour. There are but 25 tables of this to the
cafe.

3. German glafs is of two kinds, the vishite and the
green : the firft is of a whitifti colour, but is fubjeft to
thofe fmall curved ftreaks obferved in our Newcaflle
glafs, though free fircm the fpots and blemifhes thereof.
The green, befides its colour, is liable to the fame
flrcaks as the white , but both them are ftraighter and
lefs warped than our Neucaftle glafs.

4. Dutch glafs is not much unlike our Newcaflle
glafs either in colour or price. It is frequently much
warped like that, and the tables are but fmall.

5. Newcaflle glafs is that mofl ufed in England. It
is of an a(h colour, and much fubjeiS to fnecks, ftreaks,
and other blemifhes ; and befides is frequently warp-
ed. Leybourn fays, there are 45 tables to the cafe,
each containing five fuperficial feet : fome fay there
are but 35 tables, and fix feet in each table.

6. Phial glafs is a kind betwi.vt the flint glafs and
the common bottle or green glafs. The beft kind
may be prepared with 120 pounds of white fand, 50
pounds of unpurified pearl afhes, 10 pounds of com-
mon fait, 5 pounds of arfenic, and 5 ounces of magne-
fia. The compofition for green or common phial glafs
confifls of I 20 pounds of the cheapeft white fand, 80
pounds of wood afhes well burnt and fifted, 20 pounds
of pearl afhes, 1 5 pounds of common fait, and 1 pound
of arfenic.

The common bottle or green is formed of fand of
any kind fluxed by the afhes of burnt wood, or of any
parts of vegetables ; to which may be added \\\tfcor'te
or clinkers of forges. When the foftefl fand is ufed,
2C0 pounds of wood alhes will fuffice for lOO pounds
of fand, which are to be ground and mi.xed toirether.
The compofition with the clinkers confifls of i^o
pounds of wood afhes, jco pounds of fand, and 50
pounds of clinkers or fcori,e, which are to be ground
and mixed together. If the clinkers cannot be ground,
they muft be broke into fmall pieces, and mi.xed with
the other matter without any grinding.

III. M-orking of Plate or Mirror Glass, l. The
toaterials of which this glafs is made are much the

2 ] G L A

fitme as thofe of other works of glafs, viz. an alkali, GI^.
fait and fand. ■— — »-

The fait, however, (hould not be that estrafted from
polverine or the alhes of the Syrian kali, but that from
BARILLA, growing about Alicant in Spain, It is very
rare that we can have the barilla pure ; the Spaniard?
in burning the herb make a pradice of mi.\ing another
hero along with it, which alters its quality ; or of
adding fand to it to increafe the iveight, which is
ealily difcovered if the addition be only made after
the boiling of the afhes, but next to irapofBble if made
in the boiling. It is from this adulteration that thofe
tlireads and otiier defedts in plate glafs arife. To
prepare the fait, they clean it well of all foreign mat-
ters ; pound or grind it with a kind of mill, and finally
fif: it pretty fine.

Pearl aihes, properly purified, will fumith the alkali
fait requilite for this purpofe •, but it will be necefTary
to add borax or common fait, in order to facilitate the
fu:ion, and prevent the glafs from ftifFening in that
degree of heat in ivhich it Is to be wrought into plates.
For purifyi:ig the pearl alhes, diffolve them in four
times their weigat of boiling water, in a pot of call
iron, always kept clean from ruft. Let the folutiotl
be removed into a clean tub, and remain there 24 hours
or longer. Having decanted the clear part of the
fluid from the dregs or fediment, put it again in the
iron pot, and evaporate the water till the falts are left
perfedly dry. Preferve them in ftone jars, well fecu-
red from air and moil^ure.

Pearl afhes may alfo be purified in the higheft de-
gree, fo as to be proper for the manufafture of the
moft tranfparent glafs, by pulverizing three pounds of
the beft pearl afhes with fix ounces of faltpetre in a
glafs or marble mortar, till they are ivell mixed ; and
then putting part of the mixture into a large crucible,
and expofing it in a furnace to a ftrong beat. When
this is red hot, throw in the reft gradually ; and when
the whole is red hot, pour it out on a moiftened ftone
or marble, and put it into an earthen or clean iron pot,
with ten pints of water ; heat it over the fire till
the falts be enrirely melted ; let it then Hand to cool,
and filter it through paper in a pewter cullender. When
it is filtered, put the fluid again into the pot, and eva-
porate the fait to drynefs, which will then be as white
as fnow ; the nitre having burnt all the phlogiftic mat-
ter that remained in the pearl alhes after their former
calcination.

As to the fand, it is to be fi'ted and wafhed till
fuch time as the water come off very clear ; and when
it is well dried again, thfy mix it with the fait, paf-
Cng the mixture through another fievc. This done,
they lay them in the annealing furnace for about two
hours ; in which time the matter becomes very light
and white : in this ftate they are called frit or fritta ;
and are to be laid up in a dry clean place, to give
them time to incorporate : they lie here for at leaft a
year.

When they would employ this frit, they lay it for
fome hours in the furnace, adding to fome the frag-
ments or fliards of old and ill made glalTes ; taking
care firft to calcine the fhards by healing them red
hot in the furnace, and thus catling them into cold
water. To the mixture muft likewife be add-
ed

G L A [7

ed mniigauefe, to promote the fuSoa and putifica-
' tion.

The bed coicpoCtion for looking glafs plates confifts
of 60 pounds of white fand cleanfed, 25 pounds of
purified pearl afties, 15 pounds of faltpetre, and 7
pounds of borax. If a yellow tinge fliould affeft the
glafs, a fmall proportion of magnefia, mixed with an
equal quantity of arfenic, (liould be added. An ounce
6f the magnefia may be firil tried j and if this proves
jnfutlicient, the quantity Ihould be increafed.

A cheaper compoiition for loolcing glafs plate con-
Qrts cf 6d pounds of the white fand, 20 pounds of
pearl alhes, 10 pounds of common fait, 7 pounds of
nitre, 2 pounds of arfenic, and I pound of borax. The
matter of which th.e glafles are made at the famous
Kianufadure of St Gobin in France, is a compoiition
of folder and of a very v.hite fand, which are carefully
cleaned of all he'cercgeneous bodies ; afterwards walhed
for feveral times, and dried fo as to be pulverized in a
mill, confining of many peftles, which are moved by
horfes. WTien this is done, the (and is fifted through
filk fieves and dried.

The matter thus far prepared is equally fit for plate
glafs,- to be formed either for blowing or by calling.

The largeft glalTes at St Gobin are run ; the middle
Cred and fmall ones are blown.

:. Blowing the plates. Tlie workhoufes, furnaces,
&c. ufed in the making of this kind of plate glafs, are
the fame, except tliat they are fmailer, and that die
carquaiffes are difpoled in a large covered gallery, over
iigainft the furnace, as thofe in the following article,
to which the reader is referred.

After the materials are vitrified by the hea! of the
lire, and the glafs is fulficiently refined, the workman
dips in his blowing iron, fix feet long, and two inches
in diameter, lliarpened at the end which is put in the
mouth, and %videned at the other, that the matter may
adhere to it. By this means he takes up a fmall ball
of matter, xvhich flicks to the end of the tube by con-
Jlantly turning it. He then blows into the tube, that
the air may fwell the annexed ball ; and carrying it
over a bucket of water, which is placed en a fupport
at the height of about four feet, he fprinkles the end
of the tube to which the matter adheres, with ivater,
Itill turning it, that by this cooling the matter may
coalefce with the tube, and be fit for fuftaining a
greater weight. He dips the tube again into the fame
pot, and proceeds as before -, and dipping it into the pot
a third time, he takes it out, loaded with matter, in
the ihape of a pear, about ten inches in diameter, and
a foot long, and cools it at the bucket ; at the fame
time blowing into the tube, and with the affillance of
a labourer, giving it a balancin'j motion, he caufes the
matter to lengthen j which, by repeating this opera-
tion feveral times, aflumes the form of a cylinder, ter-
minating like a bail at the bottom, and in a point at
the top. The alhllant is then placed on a ilool three
feet and a half high ; and on this flool there are two
upright pieces of timber, with a crofs beam of the
fame, for fupportiag the glafs and tube, which are
kept in an okique pofition by the afiillant, that the
martcr workman may wilh a puncheon fet in a wooden
handle, and with a mallet, make a bole in the mafs :
this hole is drilled at the centre of the ball that termi-
nates the cylinder, and is about an inch in diameter.

Vol. IX. Part II.

53 ] _ G L A

When the glafs is pierced, the defers of it are per-
ceived J if it is tolerably perfefl, the workman lays
the tube horizontally on a little iron treifel, placed on
the fupport of the aperture of the furnace. Hiving
expofed it to the heat for about half a quarter of an
hour, he takes it away, and with a pair of long and
broad thears, extremely Iharp at the end, widens the
glafs, by inlinuating the ihears into the hole made
with the puncheon, whilft the airiftant, mounted on the
flool, turns it round, till at laft the opening is fo large
as to m.ake a perfeft cylinder at bottom. When this
is done, the workman lays his glafs upon the tretfels
at the mouth of the furnace to heat it : he then gives
it to his affiftant on the flool, and with large ftiears
cuts the mafs of matter up to half its height. There
is at the mouth of the furnace an iron tool called/>5w///,
which is now heating, that it may unite and coalefce
\Tith the glais juft cut, and perform the office which
the tube did before ir was feparated from the glafs.
This pontil is a piece of iron fix feet long, and in the
form of a cane or tube, having at the end of it a fmall
iron bar, a f<30t long, laid equally upon the long one,
and making with it a T. This little bar is fiill of the
matter of the glafs, about four inches thick. This
red hot pontil is prefented to the diameter of the
glafs, which coalefces immediately with the matter
round the pontil, fo as to fupport the glafs for the
following operation. When this is done, they fepa-
rate the tube from the glafs, by fljiking a few blows
wilh a chiiTel upon the end of the tube which has been
cooled J fo that the glafs breaks direclly, and makes
this feparation, the tube being difcharged of the glafs
now adhering to the pontil. They next prefent to the
furnace the pontil of the glafs, laying it on the treffel
to heat, and redden the end of the glals, that the
workman may open it ivith his fliears, as he has al-
ready opened one end of it, to complete the cylinder^
the affulant holding it on Ills ftool as before. For the
laft time, they put the pontil on the treilel, that the
glafs may become red hot, and the workman cuts it
quite open with his lliears, right over againft the fore-
mentioned cut; this he does as before, taking care that'
both cuts are in the fame line. In the mean time,
the man who looks after the carquaiffes comes to re-
ceive the glafs upon an iron ftiovel two feet and a
half long without the handle, and two feet wide, with
a fmall border of an inch and a half to the right and
left, and towards the handle of the (liovel. Upon
this the glafs is laid, flattening it a little with a fmall
flick a foot and a half long, fo tliat the cut of the
glafs is turned upnards. They feparate the glafs from
the pontil, by flriking a few gentle blows between the
two with a chilTel. The glafs is tlien removed to the
tuouth of the hot carquaiffe, where it becomes red hot
gradually ; the workman, with an iron tool fix feet
long, and widened at the end in form of a club at cards
four inches long, and two inches wide on each iide,
very flat, and not half an inch thick, gradually lifts
up the cut part of the glafs to unfold it out of its form
of a tiattened cylinder, and render it fraooth, by turn-
ing it down uijon the hearth of the carquaiffe. The
tool already defcribed being infmuated within the cy-
linder, performs this operation by being pulhed hard
agaiiill all the pai-ts of the glafs. When the glafs is thus
made cjuite Gnuvth, it is nuthcd to the bottom of the
5 C carquain'e

G L A

[ 754 ]

G L A

C^ar-i. carqiuiifle or annealing furnace uitli a fmall iron raker,
''''■"^''"^ and ranged there with a little iron hook. • When the
carquailVe is full, it is flopped and cemented as in the
cafe of run glafles, and the glafs remains there for a
fortnight to be annealed ; after which time they are
taken out to be poliihed. A workman can make but
one glafs in an hour, and he works and refls for fix
hours alternately.

Such was the method formerly made ufe of for blow-
ing plate glafs, looking glalTes, &c. ; but the work-
men, by this method, couid never exceed JD inches in
length, and a proportional breadth, becaufe what were
larger were always found to warp, which prevented
them from reflefting the objefls regularly, and wanted
fubftar.ce to bear the neceiTary grinding. 'J'hefe im-
perfeclions have been remedied by the following inven-
tion of the Sieur Abraham Thevart, in France, about
the year 1688.

3. Ccjling or Running of Large Mirror Glass Plates.
The furnace is of a very large dimenCon, environ-
Hate ed with feveral ovens, or annealing furnaces, called
^CXLVII, carquaiffes, befides others for making of frit and cal-
cining old pieces of glafs. This furnace, before it
is fit to run glafs, colls 3500I. It feldom lafts above
three years, and even in that time it muft be refitted
every fix months. It takes fix months to rebuild it, and
three months to refit it. The melting pots are as big as
large hogflieads, and contain about 2000 weight of metal.
If one of them burfts in the furnace, the lofs of the mat-
ter and time amounts to 250I. The materials in thefe
pots are the fame asdefcribed before. When the furnace
is red hot, thefe materials are put in at three different
times, becaufe that helps the fufion ; and in 24 hours
they are vitrified, refined, fettled, and fit for calling. A
i? the bocca, or mouth of the furnace ; B is the cif-
tern that conveys the liquid glafs it receives out of the
melting pots in the furnace to the calling table. Thefe
cifterns are filled in the furnace, and remain therein fix
hours after they are filled ; and then are hooked out
by the means of a large iron chain, guided by a pulley,
placed upon a carriage with four wheels marked C, by
two men. This carriage has no middle piece ; fo that
when it has brought the ciilem to the cafting table D,
they llip oflf the bottom of the ciftern, and out rufhes
a torrent of tlaming matter upon the table : this mat-
ter is confined to certain dimenfions by the iron rulers
EE, which are moveable, retain the fluid matter, and
determine the width of the glafs ; v\hile a man, with
the roller F refting on the edge of the iron rulers, re-
duceth it as it cools to an equal thicknefs, which is
done in the fpace of a minute. This table is fupport-
ed on a wooden frame, with truftles for the convenience
of moving to the annealing furnace j into w hich, ftrew-
ed with land, the new plate is ftioved, where it will
harden in about 10 days.

What is moft furprifing throughout the whole of this
operation, is the quicknefs and addrcfs wherewith fuch
maify cifterns, filled with a flaming matter, are taken
out of the furnace, conveyed to the table, and poured
therein, the glafs fpread, &c. The whole is incon-
ceivable to fucli as have not been eye witneffes of that
furprifing manufacture.

As fafl as the cifterns are emptied, they carry them
back to the furnace and take frefli ones, , which they
eippty as before. Thus they conUnue to do fo long as

there are any full cifterns ; laying as many plates in each Glafs.
carquaiffe as it will hold, and fioppini; them up with ^~~^ "^
doors of baked earth, and every chink with cement, as
foon as they are full, to let them anneal, and cool again,
which requires about 14 days.

The firll running being difpatched, they prepare an-
other, by filling the cifterns anew from the matter in
the pots ; and after the fecond, a third ; and even 3
fourth time, till the melting pots are quite empty.

The cifterns at each running fliould remain at leaft
fix hours in the furnace to whiten •, and when the fii-ft
annealing furnace is full, the cafting table is to be car-
ried to another. It need not here be obferved, that
the carquaiffes, or annealing furnaces, muft firft have
been heated to the degree proper for them. It may
be obferved, that the oven full, or the quantity of mat-
ter commonly prepared, fupplies the running of 18
glalfes, which is performed in 1 8 hours, being an hour
for each glafs. The workmen work fix hours, and are
then relieved by others.

When the pots are emptied, they take them out, as
well as the cifterns, to fcrape off what glafs remains,
which othervvile would grow green by continuance ot
fire, and Ipoil the glaffes. They are not filled again in
lefs than 36 hours ; fo that they put the matter into the
furnace, and begin to run it every 54 hours.

The manner of heating the large furnaces is very An-
gular ; the two tifors, or perfons employed for that
purpofe, in their fliirts, run fwiftly round the furnace
without making the leall ftop : as they run along, they
take two billets, or pieces of wood, which are cut for
the purpofe : thefe they throw into the firft tiflart j
and continuing their courfe, do the fame for the fecond.
This they hold without interruption for fix hours fuc-
ceflively ; after which they are relieved by others, &c.
It is furprifing that two fuch fmall pieces of wood,
and which are confumed in an inftant, fhould keep the
furnace to the proper degree of heat ; which is fuch,
that a large bar of iron, laid at one of the mouths of
the furnace, becomes red hot in lefs than half a mi-
nute.

The glafs, when taken out of the melting furnace,
needs nothing farther but to be ground, polifhed, and
foliated.

4. Grinding and Folijhing ofPlate Glass. Glafs is
made tranfparent by fire j but it receives its luftre by
the fliill and labour of the grinder and poliftier ; the for- .
mer of whom takes it rough out of the hands of the
maker.

In order to grind plate glafs, they lay it horizontal-
ly upon a flat flone table made of a very fine grained
freeftone ; and for its greater fecurity they plafter it
down with lime or ftucco ■, for otherwife the force of
the workmen, or the motion of the wheel with which
they grind it, would move it about.

This ftone table is fupported by a ftrong frame A,
made of wood, with a ledge quhe round its edges, rif-
ing about two inches higher than the glafs. Upon this
glafs to.be ground is laid another rough glafs not above
half fo big, and fo loofe as to Aide upon it j but ce-
mented to a wooden plank, to guard it from the injury
it muft otherwife receive from the fcraping of tlie
wheel to which this plank is fattened, and from the
weights laid upon it to promote the grinding or triture j.;^.,
of the glaffes. The .whole is covered with a wheel B,f:cxLt-"ll. ■

made..

1'1,-llc <•<• .\I.\^ll.

\

G L A [7

fsl'.fs. mads of hard light wood, about fix inches in diameter,
"^ by pulling of ivliich backwards and forwards alternate-
ly, and fomctimcs turning it round, the workmen,
who always fland oppofite to each other, produce a
conllant attrition between the two glalTcs, and bring
them to what degree of fmoothncfs ihcy pleafe, by firlt
pouring in water and coarfe fand ; after that, a finer
fort of fand, as the work advanceth, till at laft they
tnuft pour in the poivder of fmalt. As the upper or in-
cumbent glafs polilbes and grows fmoothcr, it mufl be
taken away, aivl another from time to time put in its
place.

This engine is called a 7iul' by th.e artifts, and is ufed
only in the largeil fized glaffes ; for in the grinding of
the leffer glaffes, they are content to work without a
wheel, and to have only foar wooden handles faftened
to the four comers of the ftone which loads the upper
plank, by which they work it about.

W hen the grinder has done his part, who finds it very
difficult to bring the glafs to an exafl plainnefs, it is
turned over to the poliiher •, who, ^vith the fine powder
of trlpoli ftone or emery, brings it to a perfect evennefs
and lullre. The inftrument made ufe of in this branch
is a board, cc^ furnilhed with a felt, and a fmall roller,
which the workman moves by means of a double handle
at both ends. The artifl, in working this roller, is af-
filed with a wooden hoop or fpring, to the endof which
it is fixed : for the fpring, by conftantly bringing the
roller back to the fame points, facilitates the action of
the uorkraan's arm.

Colouring of Glass. That the colours given to glafs
may have their fidl beauty, it muft be obferved, that
every pot when new, and firft ufed, leaves a foulnefs
in the glafs from its own earthy parts ; fo that a co-
loured glafs made in a new pot can never be bright or
perfectly fine. For this reafon, the larger of thefe,
^vhen new, may be glazed with ^vliite glafs ; but the
fecond time of ufing the pots lofe tliis foulnefs. The
glazing may be done by reducing the glafs to powder,
and moillening the infide of the pot with water ; while
it is yet moift, put in fome of the powdered glafs, and
ihake it about, till the %vhole inner furface of the pot
be covered by as much as will adhere to it, in confe-
'juence of the moiilure. Throw out the redundant part
of the powdered glai's j and the pot being dry, fet it
in a furnace futhciently hot to \-itrify the glafs adhering
• to it, and let it continue there fome time ; after which,
care muft be taken to let it cool gradually. Thofe
pots which have ferved for one colour mufl; not be ufed
for another ; for the remainder of the old matter will
fpoil the colour of the new. The colours mufl be very
carefully calcined to a proper degree ; for if they are
calcined either too much or too little, they never do
well ; the proper proportion, as to quantity, mufl alfo
carefully be regarded, and the furnaces mult be fed with
dry hard wood. And all the proccfles fucceed much
rhc better if the colour be ufed dividedly, that is, a part
of it in the frit, and the rell in the melted metal.

A hard glafs, proper for receiving colours, may be
prepared by pulverizing 1 2 pounds of the beft fand, •
clearifed by wadiing in a glafs or dint mortar, and mix-
ing feveti pounds of pearl a(hes or any fixed alkaline
fait purified with nitre, one pound of faltpetre, and
lialf a pound of borax, and pounding them together.
A gla.'i lefs hard may be prepared of twelve pound*

55 ] G L A

of white fand cleanfed, feven pounds of pearl allies pu-
rified with faltpetre, one pound of nitre, half a pound "
of borax, and four ounces of arfenlc prepared as be-
fore.

Amethtjjl colour. See Purple below, and the article
Amkthyst.

Balas colour. Put into a pot cryltal frit, thrice wash-
ed in water 5 tinge this \vith manganefe, prepared into
a clear purple ; to this add altimin calivum, fifted fine,
in fmall quantities, and at feveral times : this will make
the glafs grow yellowilh, and a little reddidi, but not
blackilh, and always dilFipates the manganefe. The
laft time you add manganefe give no more of the alu-
mcn cativum, unlefs the colour be too full. Thus will
the glafs be exactly of the colour of the balas ruby.
See Ruby GiASS.

The common black colour. The glafsmakers take old
broken glafs of different colours, grind it to powder,
and "dd to it, by different parcels, a futficient quantity
of a mixture of two parts zaffer and one part man-
ganefe ; when well purified, they work it int.o vef-
fels, &c.

Glafs beads are coloured with manganefe only.

Black velvet colour. To give this deep and fine colour
to glafs, take of cryftalline and pulverine frit, of each
20 pounds ; of calx of lead and tin, four pounds ; fet
all together in a pot in the furnace, well heated ; when
the glafs is form.ed and pure, take Iteel well calcined
,and powdered, fcales of iron that dy off from the
fmith's anvil, of each an equal quantity ; powder and
mix them well ; then put fix ounces of this powder to
the above defcribed metal while in fufion : mix the
whole thoroughly together, and let them all boil ftrong-
ly together •, then let it ftand in fufion 1 2 hours to pu-
rify, and after this work it. It will be a moft elegant
velvet black;

There is another way of doing this, wliich alfo pro-
duces a very fair black. It is this : take a hundred
weight of rochetta frit, add to this two pounds of tar-
tar and fix pounds of manganefe, both in fine poivder ;
mix them well ; and put them to the metal while in
<iifion, at different times, in feveral parcels ; let it
Hand in fufion after this for four days, and then work
it,

A glafs perfeftly black may alfo be formed to ten
pounds of eitlier of the compofitions for hard glafs
above defcribed, one ounce of zaffer, fix drachms of
manganefe, and an equal quantity of iron llrongly caU
cined.

Blue colour. A full blue may be made by adding
fix drachms of zaffer and two drachms of manganefe to
ten pounds of either of the compofitions for hard glafs,
defcribed above. For a very cool or pure blue glafs,
half an ounce of calcined copper may be ufed inftead of
the manganefe, and the proportion of zaffer diminilhed
by one half. Glafs refembling fapi)hire may be made
ivith ten pounds of either of the compofitions for hard
glafs, three drachms and one fcruplo of zaffer, and one
drachm of the calx cajfii or precipitation of gold by tin ;
or, inftead of this latter ingredient, two drachms and two
fcruples of manganefe. Or a fapphire-coloured glafs
may be made by njixing with any quantity of tlie hard
glafs one eighth of its weight of fmalt. A beautiful
blue glafs is alfo produced from the o.xide of cobalt.

Venetian brovm^ with goldfpangUs, commonly callei
5C 2 thfi'

G L A [7

Clafs. the phiio/opher' s Jlone, may be prepared in tlie following
""Y— ' manner : take o^ the lecond compofition for hard glafs
above defcribed, and of the cpmpolition for patle, of
each five pounds, and of highly calcined iron an ounce ;
mix them well, and fufe them till the iron be perfe£lly
vitriF.ed, and has tinged the glafs of a deep tranfparent
yellow brown colour. Powder this glafs, and add to
it two pounds of pondered glafs of antimony ; grind
ihem together, and thus mix them well. Take part
of this mixture, and rub into it 8^ or loo leaves of the
counterfeit leaf gold called Dutch gnld ; and when
the parts of the gold feera futhciently divided, mix the
powder containing it Tiith the other part of the glafs.
Fufe the ^vhole with a moderate heat till the powder
run into a vitreous mafs, fit to be %vrought into any of
the figures or velfels into which it is ufually formed j
but avoid a perfect liquefadlion, becaufe that in a
fhort time detlroys the equal diifunon of the fpangles,
and vitrifies, at leatl in part, the matter of which they
are corapofed ; converting tlie whole into a kind of
tranfparent olive-coloured glafs. This kind of glafs
IS ufed for a great variety of toys and ornaments
with us, who at prefent procure it from the Vene-
tians.

Chalcedony. A mixture of feveral ingredients with
the common naatter of glafs, will make it reprefent the
iemi-opake gems, the jafpers, agates, chalcedonies, &c.
The way of making thefe feems to be the fame
with the method of making marbled paper, by feveral
colours diffolved in feveral liquors, which are fucli as
will not readily mix with one another when put in-
to water, before they are call upon the paper which
is to be coloured. There are feveral ways of making
thefe varioufly coloured glaffes^ but the bed is the fol-
lowing.

Diflblve four ounces of fine leaf filver in a glafs vef-
fel in ftrong aquafortis ; (lop up the veiTel, and fet it
afide.-— In another veffel, diflblve five ounces of quick-
filver in a pound of aquafortis, and fet this afide. —
In another glafs veflel, ditlblve in a pound of aquafortis
three ounces of fine filver, firft calcined in this manner :
amalgamate the filver with mercury, mix the amal-
gam with twice its weight of common fait well puri-
fied •, put the mixture in an open fire in a crucible, that
the mercury may tly off, and the filver be left in form
ct powder. Mix this powde: with an equal quantity
of common fait well purified, and calcine this for fix
hours in a ftroilg fire ; when cold, walli off the fait by
repeated boilings in common water, and then put the
filver into the aquafortis. Set this folution alfo afide.
— In another veiTel, dilTolve in a pound of aquafortis
thvee ounces of fal ammoniac ; pour off the folution and
di'Jplve in it a quarter of an ounce of gold. Set this
alfo afide. — In another veffel, diiToive three ounces of
fal ammoniac in a pound of aquafortis ; then put into
the folution cinnabar, crocus martis, ultramarine, and
ferretto of Spain, of each half an ounce. Set this alfo
afide. — In another veffel, diiTolve in a pound of aqua-
fortis three ounces of fal ammoniac ; then put into it
crocus martis made with vinegar, calcined tin, zaffer,
•ond cinnabar, of each half an oimce ; let each of thefe
be powdered very fine, and put gently into the aqua-
fortis. Set tliis alfo afide. — In another veffel, diffolve
three ounces ot fal ammoniac in a pound of aquafortis,
svnd add to itbrafs calcined with brimftone, brafs thrice

56 ] G L A

calcined, mangancfe, and fcales of iron v/hicli fall from GUr..
the fmith's anvil, of each half an ounce ; let each be ^— %— — ^
well powdered, and put gently into the vciTcl. Then
fet this alfo afide. — In another veffel, diffolve two oun-
ces of fal ammoniac in a pound of aquafortis, and put
to it verdigrife an ounce, red lead, crude antimony,
and- the caput mortuum of vitriol, of each half an
ounce ; put thefe well powdered Icifurely into the vef-
fel, and fet this alfo afiue. — In another veffel, diffolve
two ounces of fal ammoniac in a pound of aquafortis,
and add orpiment, white arfenic, painVrs lake, of each
half an ounce.

Keep the above nine veffels in a moderate heat for
1 5 days, (liaking them well at times. After this pour
all the matters from thefe veiTels into one large veffel,
well luted at its bottom ; let this fland fix days, Ihaking
it at times ; and then fet it in a very gentle heat, and
evaporate all the liquor, and there will remain a powder
of a purplifli green.

When this is to be wrought, put into a pot very
clear metal, made of broken cryflalline and white glafs
that has been ufed ; for with the virgin frit, or Tiich
as has never been wrought, the chalcedony can never
be made, as the colours do not Hick to it, but are
confumed by the frit. To every pot of 20 pounds of
this metal put two or three ounces of this powder at
three feveral times ; incorporate the powder well with
the glafs •, and let it remain an hour between each time
of putting in the povvders. After all are in, let it
fland 24 hours ; then let the glafs be well mixed, and
take an aflay of it, which will be found of a yellowilli
blue ; return this many times into the furnace ; when
it begins to grow cold, it will Ihow many waves of dif-
ferent colours very beautifully. Then take tartar eight
ounces, foot of the chimney two ounces, crocus mar-
tis made with brimllone, hall an ounce ; let thefe be
well powdered and mixed, and put them by degrees
into the glafs -at fix times, waiting a little while be-
tween each putting in. When the whole is put in, let
the glafs boil and fettle for 24 hours ; then make a
little glafs body of it ; ^vhich put in the furnace many
times, and lee if the glafs be enough, and whether it
have on the outfide veins of blue, green, red, yellow,
and other colours, and have, befide thefe veins, waves
like thofe of the chalcedonies, jafpers, and oriental
agates, and if the body kept within looks as red as
fire.

When it is found to anfwer this, it is perfe£l, and
may be worked into toys and veffels, which will always
be beautifully variegated : thefe mull be well annealed,
which adds much to the beauty of their veins. Maffes
of this may be polilhed at the lapidary's wheel as natu-
ral Hones, and appear very beautiful. If in the work-
ing the matter groiv tranfparent, the work muil be
Hopped, and more tartar, foot, and crocus martis, muft
be put to it, which will give it again the neceffary body
and opacity, without which it does not fliovv the co-
lours well.

ChryfoUte colour may be -made of ten pounds of either
of the compofitions for hard glafs defcribed above, and
fix drachms of calcined iron.

Red cornelian colour may be formed by adding one
pound of glafs of antimony, tno ouncts of the calcin-
ed vitriol callcdycrtr/f^ ochre, ard one drachra of mr.nga-
ncle or magnciia, to two pounds of either of the com-
pofitions.

G L A

I 757 ]

G L A

pofitlons for hard glafs. The glafs of antimony and
■' jiiagnefia are firft fufed with the other glafs, and then
pondered and ground with the fcarlet ochre : the whole
mixture is afterwards fufed with a gentle heat till all
the ingredients are incorporated. A glafs rcfembling
t!ie white cornelian may be made of two pounds of ei-
ther of the compofitions for hard glafs, and two drachms
of yellow ochre well wadied, and one ounce of calcined
bones : grind them together, and fule them with a gen-
tle heat.

Emerald colour. See Green below.

Garnet colour. To give this colour to glafs, the work-
men take the following method. They take equal
quantities of cryftal and rochetta frit, and to every
hundred weight of this mixture they add a pound of
ihanganefe and an ounce of prepared zaffer : thefe are
to be powdered feparately, then mixed and added by
degrees to the frit while in the furnace. Great care is
to be taken to mix the manganefe and zaffer very per-
fectly ; and when the matter has flood 24 hours in Rition,
it may be worked.

Glafs of this kind may be made by adding one pound
of glafs of antimony, one drachm of manganefe, and the
fame quantity of the precipitate of gold by tin, to
two pounds of either of the compofitions for hard
glafs ; or the precipitate of gold may be omitted, if the
quantities of the glafs of antimony and manganefe be
doubled.

Gohl colour. This colour may be produced by ta-
king ten pounds of either of the compofitions for hard
glafs, omitting the faltpetre •, and for every pound add-
ing an ounce of calcined borax, or, if this quantity doth
not render the glafs fuihciently fufible, two ounces ; ten
ounces of red tartar of the deepeil colour ; two ounces
of magnefia ; and two drachms ot charcoal of fallow,
or any other foft kind. Precipitates of filver baked on
glafs will llain it yellow, and likewife give a yellow co-
lour on being mixed and melted with 40 or 50 times
their weight of vitreous compofitions j the precipitate
from aquafortis by fixed alkali feems to anfwer beft.
Yellow glaffes may alfo be obtained with certain prepa-
rations of iron, particularly with Pruilian blue. But
Dr Lewis obferves, that the colour does not conftantly
fucceed, nor approach to the high colour of gold, with
filver or wth iron. The nearelt imitations of gold
which he has been able to produce have been effected
Tsith antimony and lead, E jual parts of the glafs of
antimony, of llint calcined and powdered, and of mi-
nium, formed a glafs of a high yellow ; and with two
parts of glafs of antimony, two of ninium, and three
of powdered tlint, the colour approached llill more to
that of gold. The laft compolition exhibited a multi-
tude of fmall fparklcs interfperfed throughout its whole
fubllance, which gave it a beautiful appearance in the
mafs, but were really imperfeftions, owing to air bub-
bles.

Neri directs, for a gold yellow colour, one part of red
tartrir and the fame quantity of manganele, to be mixed
with a hundred parts of frit. But Kunckel obferves,
that thefe proportions are faulty ; that one part, or one
*nd a quarter, of manganc fe, is fufficient for a hundred
cf frit ; but that fix parts of tartar are hardly enout^h,
unlefs the tartar is of a dark red colour, almolt blackilh ;
and that \.f found it expedient to add to the tartar n-
hout a fourth of its weight of powdered charcoal. He

adds, that the glafs fwells up very much in melting, and
that it mull be left unllirred, and worked as it (lands in
fufion. Mr Samuel More, in repeating and varying
this procefs in order to render the colour more perfeft,
found that the minganefe is entirely unelTential to the
gold colour ; aud that the tartar is no otherwife of ufe
than in virtue of the coaly matter to which it is in part
reduced by the fire, the phlogifton or inflammable part
of the coal appearing in feveral experiments to be the
direfl tinging fubftance. Mr Pott alfo obferves, that
common coals give a yellow colour to glafs ; that dif-
ferent coaly matters differ in their tinging power j that
caput mortuum of foot and lamp black anfwer better
than common charcoal j and that the fparkling coal,
which remains in the retort after the rectification of the
thick empyreumatic animal oils, is one of the moll ac-
tive of thefe preparations. This preparation, he fays,
powdered, and then burnt again a little in a clofe velTel,
is excellent for tinging glafs, and gives yellow, brown,
reddith, or blackilh colours, according to its quantity ;
but the frit mufl not be very hard of fufion, for in this
cafe the llron*fire will dellroy the colouring fub-
ftance before the glafs melts : and he has found the fol-
lowing compofition to be nearly the beft j viz. fand
two parts, alkali three parts ; or fand two, alkali
three, calcined borax one •, or fand two, alkali two,
calcined borax one : and though faltpetre is hardly ufed
at all, or very fparingly, for yellow glaifes, as it too
much volatilizes the colouring fubftance ; yet here for
the nioft part a certain proportion of it, eafily deter-
mined by trial, is very neceilary ; for without it the
concentrated colouring matter is apt to make the glafs
too dark, and even of an opake pitchy blacknefs. It
does not certainly appear that there is any material di-
verfity in the eftefls of different coals, the difference be-
ing probably owing to the different quantities of the
inflammable matter which they contain ; fb that a little
more fhall be required of one kind than of another for
producing the fame degree of colour in the glafs. Nor
does the foftnefs or fufibility of the frit appear to be in
any refpeift neceffary.

Gold-coloured fpangles may be diffufed through the
fubftance of glafs, by mixing the yellow talcs vvith pow-
dered glafs, and bringing the mixture into fiifion.

Green. This colour may be imparted to glafs by add-
ing three ounces of copper precipitated from aquafortis,
and two drachms of precipitated iron to nine pounds of
either of the compofitions for hard glafs. The fineil
method of giving this beautiful colour to glafs is this:
Take five pounds of cryftalline metal that has been paf-
fed feveral times through water, and the fame quantity
of the common wliite metal of polverine, four pounds
of common polverine frit, and tiiree pounds of red
lead ; mix the red lead ivell with the frit, and then
"put all into a pot in a furnace. In a feiv hours the
whole mafs will be well purified : then caft the whole
into water, and feparate and take out the lead •, then
return the metal into the pot, and let it ftand a day long-
er in fijfion ; then put in the powder of the reliduum
of the vitriol of copper, and a very little crocus martis,
there will be produced a mod lively and elegant green,
fcarce inferior to that of the oriental emerald. There
are many ways of givin.^ a green to glafs, but all arc
greatly inferior to this. — To make z/ea green, the hneft
cryitalline glafs only rauft be ufed, and no manganefe

UUiii.

G L A

[ 7

Olafi. muft be added at firft to the metal. The cryftal frit
""^■~~ muft be melted thus alone ; and the fait, which fwims
like oil on its top, murt be taken oft" with an iron ladle
very carefully. Then to a pot of twenty pounds of
this metal add fix ounces of calcined brafs, and a fourth
part of the quantity of powdered zaft'er : this powder
muft be well roixed, and put into the glafs at three
times ; it will make the metal fwell at firft, and all mufl
be thoroughly mixed in the pot. After it has flood in
fufion three hours, take out a little for a proof: if it be
too pale, add more of the powder. Twentv-four hours
after the mixing the powder the whole will be ready to
Avork ; but muft be ivell ftirred together from the bot-
tom, left the colour Ihould be deepeft there, and the me-
tal at the top lefs coloured, or even quite colourlefs.
Some ufe for this purpofe half cryftal frit and half ro-
chetta frit, but the colour is much the fineft when all
cryftal frit is ufed.

Lafiij- /az!//i co/ortr. See Lafiis Ljzvti.

Opal colour. See Opal.

Purple of a deep and bri^ltt colour may be produced
by adding to ten pounds of either of fne compofitions
for hard glafs, above defcribed, fix drachms of zaffer and
one drachm of gold precipitated by tin ; or to the fame
quantity of either compofition one ounce of manganefe
and half an ounce of zaffer. The colour of amethyft
may be imitated in this way.

Red. A blood red glafs may be made in the fol-
lowing manner : Put fiX pounds of glafs of lead, and ten
pounds_ of common glafs, into a pot glazed with wirite
glafs. When the whole is boiled and refined, add by
Ixnall quantities, and at fmall diftances of time, copper
calcined to a rednefs as much as on repeated proofs is
found fu.*ficient : then add tartar in powder by imall
quantities at a time, till the glafs is become as red as
blood ; and continue adding one or other of the ingre-
dients till the colour is quite perfeft.

Ruhtj. The way to give the true fine red of the ruby,
with a fair tranfparence, to glafs, is as follows : Calcine
in earthen velTels gold dilTolved in aqua regia ; the men-
ftruum being evaporated by diftillalion, more aqua re-
gia added, and the abftraiElion repeated five or fix
times, till it becomes a red powder. This operation
will require many days in a hot furnace. When the
powder is of a proper colour, take it out : and ^vhen it
is to be ufed, melt the fineft cryftal glafs, and purify it
by often calling it into water ; and then add, by fmall
quantities, enough of this red powder to give it the true
colour of a ruby, with an elegant and perfeft tranfpa-
rence.

The procefs of tinging glafs and enamels by prepara-
tions of gold was firft attempted about the beginning
of the laft century. Libavius, in one of his trads en-
titled Alchjmia, printed in i6o6, conjectures that the
colour of the ruby proceeds from gold, and that gold
dilTolved and brought to rednefs might be iriade to
communicate a like colour to failitious gems and glafs.
On this principle Neri, in his Art of G'afs, dated in
i6r!, gives the procefs above recited. Glauber in 1648
publilhed a method of producing a red colour by gold,
in a matter which is of the vitreous kind, though not
pcrfedl glafs. For this purpofe he ground pou'dered
fiint or fand with four times its weight of fixed alkaline
fait : this mixture melts in a moderately ftrong fire,
zad when cool looks like glafs, but expofcd to the air
3

58] G L A

runs into a liquid ilate. On adding this liquor to fola- Gla!'
tion of gold in aqv>a-regia, the gold and flint preci- *~~~v-
pitate together in form of a yellow powder, which by
calcination becomes purple. By mixing this powder
with three or four times its weight of the alkalme fo-
liition of flint, drying the mixture, and melting it in a
ftrong fire for an hour, a mafs is obtained of a tranfpa-
rent ruby colour and of a vitreous appearance ; which
neverthelefs is foluble in water, or by the moifture of
the air, on account of the redundance of the fait. The
Honourable Mr Boyle, in a work publidied in i68o,
mentions an experiment in which a like colour was in-
troduced into glafs without fufion j for having kept
a mixture of gold and mercury in digeftion for fome
months, the fire was at laft immoderately increafed, fo
that the glafs burft with a violent explofion ; and the
lower part of the glafs was found tinged throughout of
a tranfparent red colour, hardly to be equalled by that
of rubies.

About the fame time CaflTius is faid to have difcover-
ed the precipitation of gold by tin, and that glafs
might be tinged of a ruby colour by melting it with
this precipitate ; though he does not appear, fays Dr Cammtr.
Lewis, from his treatife De Auro, to have been the •<<'•'•<, p.
difcoverer of either. He defcribes the preparation^*'-^
of the precipitate and its ufe ; but gives no account
of the manner of employing it, only that he fays one
drachm of gold duly prepared will tinge ten pounds of
glafs.

This procefs xvas foon after brought to perfeftion by
Kunckel ; who fays, that one part of the precipitate is
furticient to give a ruby colour to i 280 parts of glafs,
and a fenfible rednefs to upwards of 1900 parts; but
that the fuccefs is by no means conftant. Kunckel alfo
mentions" a purple gold powder, relembling that of Ntri ;
which he obtained by infpiffating folution of gold to
drynefs •, abftrafting from it frefli aqua-regia three or
four times, till the matter appears like oil; then preci-
pitating with ftrong alkaline ley, and w aih-ng the preci-
pitate with ^vater. By dlflblving this powder in fpirit of
fait and precipitating again, it becomes, he fays, ex-
tremely fair ; and in this ftate he direfts it to be mixed
\vith a due proportion of Venice glafs.

Orfchal, in a treatife entitled Soljine Vejle, gives the
following procefs for producing a very fine ruby. He
direfts the purple precipitate made by tin to be ground
with fix tlmas its quantity of Venice glafs into a very
fine powder, and this compound to be very carefully
mingled with the frit or vitreous compofition to be
tinged. His frit confills of equal parts of borax, nitre,
and fixed 'alkaline fait, and four times as much calcined
flint as of each of the falts; but he gives no directions
as to the proportion of the gold precipitate or mode of
fufion. Hellot defcribes a preparation, which, mixed
with Venice glafs, was found to give a beautiful purple
enamel. This preparation coniifts of equal parts of
folution of gold and of folution of zinc in aqua-regia
mixed together, with the addition of a volatile fait pre-
pared from fal ammoniac by quicklime, in fufficient
quantity to precipitate the two metals. The precipi-
tate is then gradually heated till it acquires a violel
colour. However, though a purple or red colour, ap-
proaching to that of ruby, may, by the methods above
recited, be baked on glafe nr enamels, and introduced
bto the mafs by Aiiion, the way of equally diffuling

fucii

G L A

[ 7

fuch a colouf through a quantity of fluid glafs is ftill,
'' fays Dr Lewis, a fecret. The following procefs for
making the ruby glafs was communicated to Dr Lewis
by an artiil, who afcribed it to Kunckel. The gold
is direiEled to be diffolved in a mixture of one part of
fpirit of fait and three of aquafortis, and the tin in a
mixture of one part of the former of thefe acids with
two of the latter. The folution of gold being pro-
perly diluted with water, the folution of tin is added,
and the mixture left to Hand till the purple matter
has fettled to the bottom. The colourklV liquor is then
poured off, and the purple fediaient, while moift and
not very thick, is thoroughly mixed with powdered
flint or fand. This mixture is well ground with pow-
dered nitre, tartar, borax, and arfenic, and the compound
melted with a fuitable fire. The proportions of the
ingredients are 2560 parts of fand, 384 of nitre, 240 of
tartar, 240 of borax, 28 of arfenic, five of tin, and five
of gold.

Topo'x, Colour. Glafs refembling this ftone may be
made by pulverizing ten pounds of either of the cora-
pofitions for hard glalTes with an equal quantity of the
gold-coloured glafs, and fofing them together.

White opahe ziiA femhranfparent glafs may be made of
ten pounds of either o£ the compofitions for hard glafs,
and one pound of well calcined horn, ivory, or bone ;
or an opakc whitenefs may be given to glafs by adding
one pound of very white arfenic to ten pounds of Hint
glafs. Let them be well powdered and mixed by grind-
ing them together, and then fufed with a moderate heat
till they are thoroughly incorporated. A glafs of this
kind is mad« in large quantities at a manufaflory near
London ; and ufed not only for different kinds of vef-
fels, but as a white ground for enamel in dial plates and
fnuff boxes, which do not require finilhing with much
fire, becaufe it becomes very white and fijlible with a
moderate heat.

TeJlow. See Gold colour above.
Painting in Glass. The ancient manner of painting
in glafs w as very fimple ; it confilled in the mere arrange-
ment of pieces of glafs of different colours in fome fort
of fymmetry, and conlHtuted what is now called mofaic
wori. See MoASlC.

In procefs of time they came to attempt more regular
defigns, and alfo to reprefent figures heightened with all
their Ihades : yet they proceeded no farther than the
contours of the figures in black with water colours, and
hatching the draperies after the fame manner on glaffes
of the colour of the objecl they defigned to paint. For
the carnation, they ufed glafs of a bright red colour ;
and upon this they drew the principal lineament of the
face, &c. with black.

At length, the tafte for this kind of painting improv-
ing confiderably, and the art being found applicable to
the adorning of churches, bafilics. Sic. they found out
means of incorporating the colours in the glafs itfelf,
by heating them in the fire to a proper degree ; having
firft laid on the colours. A French painter at Marfeilles
is faid to have given the firll notion of this improvement,
upon going to Rome under the pontificate of Julius IL ;
but Albert Durer and Lucas of Leyden were the firll
that carried it to any height.

This art, hoivever, has frequently met with much
iHterruption, and fometimes been almoft totally loft j of

59 1 G L A

which Mr Walpole gives us the following account, in
his Anecdotes of Painting in England.

" The filft interruption given to it was by the refor-
mation, which baniihed the art out of churches ; yet it
was in fome meafure kept up in the efcutcheons of the
nobility and gentry in the windows of their feats. To.
wards the end of Q^ucen Elizabeth's reign it was omit-
ted even there ; yet the practice did not entirely ceafe.
The chapel of our Lady at Warwick was ornamented
anew by Robert Budley earl of Leiceftcr, and his coun-
tefs, and the cipher of the glafs-painter's name yet re-
mains, with the date 1574: and in fome of the chapeU
at Oxford the art again appears, dating itfelf in 1622,
by the hand of no contemptible mailer.

" I could fupply even this gap of 48 years by many
dates on Flemilh glafs j but no body ever fuppofed that
the fecret was loft fo early as the reign of James L and
that it has not perilTied fince will be evident from the
following feries, reaching to the prefent hour,

" The portraits in the windows of the library at
All Souls, Oxford. In the chapel at Queen's Collegp
there are twelve windows dated 1518. P. C. a cipher
on the painted glafs in the chapel at Warwick, 1574.
The windows at Wadham's College ; the drawing pret-
ty good, and the colours fine, by Bernard Van Linge,
1622. In the chapel at Lincoln's Inn, a window, with
the name Bernard, 1623. This was probably the pre-
ceding Van Linge. In the cliurch of St Leonard,
Shoreditch, two window^s by Baptifta Sutton, 1634.
The windows in the chapel at Univerfity College, Hen.
Giles /)//m/, 1687. At Chrift Church, Ifaac Oliver,
aged 84, 1 700. Window in Merton Chapel, William
Price 1700. Windows at (Queen's New College, and
Maunlin, by William Price, the fon, now living, whofe
colours are fine, whofe drawing is good, and whofe tafte
in ornaments and mofaic is far hiperior to any of his
predeceffors j is equal to the antique, to the good
Italian mafters, and only furpaffed by his owi fingular
modefty.

" It may not be unwelcome to the curious reader to
fee fome anecdotes of the revival of tafte for painted
glafs in England. Price, as we have faid, Tvas the only
painter in that ftyle for many years in England. Af-
terwards one Rowell, a plumber at Reading did fome
things, particularly for the late Henry, earl of Pem-
broke ; but Rowell's colours foon vani!hed. At laft
he found out a very durable and beautiful red; but ht; '
died in a year or two, and the fecret with him, A man
at Birmingham began the fame art in 1756 or 1757,
and fitted up a window for Lord Lyttleton, in the
church of Hagley ; but foon broke. A little after
him, one Peckitt at York began the fame bufinefs, and
has made good proficiency, A few lovers of that art
collefted fome difperfed panes- fiora ancient buildings,
particukrly the late Lord Cobham, who eredcd a Go-
thic temple at Stowe, and filled it with arms of the
old nobility, &c. About the year J753, one Afciotti,
an Italian, who had married a Flemi(l> woman, brought
a parcel of painted glafs from Flanders, and fold it for
a few guineas to the Honourable Mr Batemcn, of Old
Windfor. Upon that I fent Afciotti again to Flan-
ders, who brought me 450 pieces, for which, including
the expence of his journey, I paid him thirty-fix gui-

His

vife made more journeys for the fame pur-
pofe y

G L A

pofe ; and fold her cargoes to one Palmer a glazier in
St Martin's lane, ivho immediatedly vaifed the price to
one, two, or five guineas for a fingle piece, and fitted
up entire windows with them, and with mofaics of
plain glafs of different colours. In 1 761, Paterfon,
an audioneer at ElTex houfe in the Strand, exhibited
the two firfl auflions of painted glafs, imported in
like manner from Flanders. All this manufaflure
confirted in rounds of Scripture ftories, ftaincd in black,
and yellow, or in fniall figures of black and white ;
birds and lowers in colours, and Flemilli coats of
arms.

The colours ufed in painting or ftaining of glafs are
very different from thofe ufed in painting either in wa-
ter or oil colours.

For black, take fcales of iron, one ounce ; fcales of
copper, one ounce ; jet, half an ounce : reduce them
to powder, and mix them. For blue, take powder
of blue, one pound ; fal nitre, half a pound : mix
them and grind them well together. For carnation,
take red chalk, eight ounces ; iron fcales, and litharge
of filver, of eacli two ounces ; gum arsbic, half an
ounce: diifolve in water 5 grind all together for half an
hour as Itiff as you can ; then put it in a glafs and ftir
it well, and let it ftand to fettle 14 days. For green,
take red lead one pound ; fcales of copper, one pound ;
and flint, five pounds : divide them itito three parts ;
and add to them as much fal nitre ; put them into a
crucible, and melt them with a Iffong fire ; and when
it is cold, powder it, and grind it on a porphyry. For
gold colour, take filver, an ounce ; antimony, half an
ounce : melt them in a crucible ; then pound the mals
to powder, and grind it on a copper plate ; add to it
yellow ochre, of brick dull calcined again, 1 5 ounces ;
and grind them well together with water. "For purple,
take minium, one pound ; brown Hone, one pound ;
white fiint, five pounds : divide them into three parts,
and add to them as much fal nitre as one of the parts ;
calcine, melt, and grind it as you did the green. For
red, take jet, four ounces ; litharge of filver, two oun-
ces •, red chalk, one ounce : powder them fine, and
mix them. For white, take jet, two parts; white flint,
ground on a glafs very fine, one part : mix them. For
yellow, take Spanilh brown, ten parts •, leaf filver, one
part ; antimony, half a part : put all into a crucible,
and calcine them well.

In the windows of ancient churches, &c. there are
to be feen the moll beautiful and vivid colours imagi-
nable, which far exceed any of thofe ufed by the mo-
derns, not fo much becaufe the fecret of making thofe
colours is entirely loft, as that the moderns will not go
to the charge of them, nor be at the necefl'ary pains,
by rtafon that this fort of painting is not now lo much
in eiteem as formerly. Thofe beautiful works which
were made in the glafs houles were of two kinds.

In fome, the colour was diffiifed through the whole
fubflance of the glafs. In others, which were the more
common, the colour was only on one fide, fcarce pene-
trating within the fubftance above one third of a line ;
though this was more or lefs according to the nature of
the colour, the yellow being always found to enter the
deepeft. Thefe iaft, though not fo ftrong and beauti-
ful as the former, were of more advantage to the work-
men, by reafon that on the fame flafs, though already
coloured^ they could fhow other kinds of colours where
3

760 ] G L A

n there was occafion to embroider draperies, enrich them
fob'ages, or reprefcnt other ornaments of gold, fil- '

ver, &c.

In order to this, they made ufe of emery, grinding
or wearing down the furface of the glafs till fiich tipie
as they were got through the colour to the clear glafs.
This done, they applied the proper colours on the other
fide of the glafs. By thefe means, the new colours were
hindered from running and mixing with the former,
when they expofed the glaffes to the fire, as will appeaf
hereafter.

When indeed the ornaments were to appear white,
the glafs was only bared of its colour with emery, with-
out tinging the place with any colour at all ; and this
Wds the manner by which ihey wrought their light and
heightenings on all kinds of colour.

The firlt thing to be done, in order to paint or ftain
glafs, in the modern way, is to defign, and even colour,
the whole fubjeft on paper. Then they choofe fuch
pieces of glafs as are clear, even, and fmooth, and pro-
per to receive the feveral parts ; and proceed to diftri-
bute tlie defign itfelf, or papers it is drawn on, into
pieces fultable to thofe of the glafs ; always taking care
that the glalVcs may join in the contours of the figures
and the folds of the draperies ; that the carnations, and
other finer parts, may not be impaired by the lead with
which the pieces are to be joined together! The di-
ftribution being made, they mark all the glaffes as well
as papers, that tb.ey may be known again ; which done,
applying every part of the defign upon the glafs intend-
ed tor it, they copy or transfer the defign upon this
glafs with the black colour diluted in gum water, by
tracing and following all the lines and ftrokes as they
appear through the glafs with the point of a penciL

When thefe ftrokes are well dried, which will hap.«
pen in about two days, the work being only in black
and white, they give a flight wafh over with urine, gum
arable, and a little black ; and repeat it feveral times,
according as the ihades are defired to be heightened }
with this preca\uion, never to apply a new wafh till the
former is futficiently dried.

This done, the lights and rifings are given by rub-
bing off the «o!our in their refpeftive places with a
wooden point, or the handle of the pencil.

As to the other colours above mentioned, they are
ufed with gum ivater, much as in painting in minia-
ture ; taking care to apply them lightly, for fear of
effacing the outlines of the defign ; or even, for the
greater fecurity, to ajiply them on the other fide ;
efpecially yellow, which is very pernicious to the
other colours, by blending therewith. And here too,
as in pieces of black and white, particular regard
muft always be had not to lay colour on colour, or
lay on a new lay, till fuch time as the former are well
dried.

It may be added that the yellow is the only colour
that penetrates through the glafs, and incorporates
therewith by the fire ; the reft, and particularly the
blue, which is very tlilKcult to ufe, remaining on the
furfice, or at leaft entering very little. When the
painting of all the pieces is finilhed, they are carried to
the furnace or oven to anneal or bake the colours.

The furnace here ufed is fmall, built of brick, from
18 to 30 inches fquare. At dx inches from the bot-
tom is an aperture to put in the fuel and maintain the

fire.?

G I. A

fire. Over this riptiture is a grate made of three fquare

, bars of iron, which traverfe the furnace, and divide it

into two parts. Two inches above this partition is
another little aperture, through which they take out
pieces to examine how the codion goes forward. On
the grate is placed a fquare earthen pan, lix or feven
inches deep, and five or fix inches lofe every way than
the perimeter of the furnace. On the other fide here-
of is a little aperture, through wliich to make trials,
placed di'reftly oppoiite to that of tlie furnaces delHned
for the fame end. In this pan are the pieces of glafs to
be placed in the following manner ; Fivft, The bottom
of the pan is covered with three ftrata or layers of
quicklime pulverized ; tho!e llrata being feparated by
two others of old broken glal's, the defign v.hercof is to
fecure the painted glafs from the too inteni'e heat of the
fire. This done, the glaiTes are laid horizontally on
the laft or uppermoft layer of lime.

The firft row of gUfs they cover ovet with a layer
of the fame powder an inch deep ; and over this they
lay another range of glaffes, and thus alternately till
the pan is quite full ; taking care that the whole heap
always end with a layer of the lime powder.

The pan being thus prepared, th.;y cover up the fur-
nace with tiles, on a fquare table of earthen ware,
clofely luted all round ; only leaving five little aper-
tures, one at each corner, and another in the middle,
to ferve as chimneys. Things thus difpofed, there re-
mains nothing but to give the fire to the work. The
fire for the two firfl hours muft be very moderate, and
muft be increafed in proportion as the coftion advances,
for the fpace of ten or twelve hours ; in which time
it is ufualiy completed. At laft the fire, which at
firft was charcoal, is to be of dry wood, fo that the
flame covers the whole pan, and even iffues out at the
chimneys.

During the laft hours, they make effays, from time
to time, by -taking out pieces laid for the purpofe
through the little aperture of the furnace and pan, to
fee whether the yellow be perfed, and the other colours
in good order. When the annealing is thought fuffici-
I'nt, they proceed with great haile to extinguilh the
fire, which otherwile would foon bum the colours, and
break the glaffes.

Glass Bolls, which are circular, or otherwife ftiaped
hollow veffels of glafs, may be coloured within, fo as to
imitate the femipellucid gems. The method of doing
it is this : make a ftrong folution of ichthyocolla, or
ifinglafs, in common water, by boiling ; pour a quan-
tity of this while warm into the hollow of a white glafs
vfcffel ; (hake it thoroughly about, that ail the fides may
be wetted, and then pour off the reft of the moifture.
Immediately after this, throw in red lead, iliake it
and turn it about, throw it into many places with a
tube, and the moifture will make it ftick and run in
^vavcs and pretty figures. Then throw in forae of the
painters blue fnialt, and make it run in waves in the
ball as the red kail ; then do the fame with verdigrife,
next with orpimcnt, then with red lake, all well ground ;
always cafting i.n the colours in different places, and
tumhig the glafs, that the moifture within may run
them into the w-aves. Then take fine plafter of Paris,
and put a quantity of it into the ball ; Ihake it alfo
nimbly about ; this will everywhere iiick firmly to th

Tlafs,

Vol.

ia give it a ftrong inner coat, keeping all the
IX, Part II.

761 ] G L A

colours on very fairly and ftrongly. Thefc are fet on
frames of carved wood, and much efteemed as oma- -
ments in many places.

Glass Drop. See Rupert's Drops.

Engraving or? Glass. Profeflbr Beckmann has pro-
ved, that fo early as the year 1670 the art of etching
upon glafs was difcovercd by Henry Sdnvanhard, fou
of George Schwanhard, who was a celebrated glafs-
cutter, patronized by the emperor Ferdinand III. about
the middle of the laft centuiy. At the time of his
death, 1667, the father praftifed his art at Prague
and Ratilbon. Whether the Ion followed the lame bu«
finefs at the fame towns, or removed to Nuremberg, »is
not very evident ; but in the year above mentioned,
fome nifiia regia (nitro-muriatic acid) having acciden-
tally fallen on his fpeilacles, he was furprifed to find
the glafs corroded by it, and become quite foft. He
thus, it is faid, found himfelf in poffelTion of a liquid by
which he could etch writing and figures upon plates of
glafs.

But it is probable, as Beckmann feems to think, that
he had difcovered the fluoric acid itfelf ; for in the year
1 7 25 there appeared in a periodical work the following
receipt for making a powerful acid, by which figures
of every kind can be etched upon glafs.

" When l\\e fpiritus nilri per diflillalionem has paffed
into the recipient, ply it with a ftrong fire, and when
well dephlegmated, pour it, as it corrodes ordinarj-
glafs, into a Weldenburg flalk. Then throw into it a
pulverifed green Bohemian emerald, otherwife caUed
hefpkorus (which, when reduced to powder, and heat-
ed, emits in the dark a green light), and place it in
warm fand for 24 hours. Take a piece of glafs well
cleaned, and freed from all greafe by means of a ley ;
put a border of wax round it, about an inch in height,
and cover it all over with t'le above acid. The longer
you let it ftand fo much the better ; and at the end of
fome time the glafs will be corroded, and the figure?
which have been traced out with fulphur and vamilJi
will appear as if railed above the pane of glafs."

That the Bohemian emerald or hefphorus mentioned
in this receipt is green fparry fluor, cannot, fays the
profeffor, be doubted ; and he feems to have as little
doubt of the receipt itfelf having paffed from Schwan-
hard and his fcholars to the periodical work of 1725,
from which it was inferted in the CEkonomifche Ency-
clopedie of Krunitz. This fuppofition certainly acq'.nres
a confiderable degree of probability from the fimilarity
of Schwanhard's method of etching to that which is
here recommended, and which is fo different from what
is now followed. At prtfent, the glafs is covered with
a vamifli either of ifinglafs diffjlved in water, or of
turpentine oil mixed with a little white lead, through
which the figures to be etched are traced as on copper ;
but Schwanhard, when he had drawn his figures, co-
vered them wth varnifli, and then by his liquid cor-
roded the glafs around them. His figures, therefore,
when the vamifti was removed, remained fraooth and
clear, appearing raifed from a dim or dark ground ;
and M. Beckmann, who perfuaded fome ingenious ar-
tifts to make trial of this ancient method of etching,
declares, that fuch figures have a much better effeti
than thofe which are cut into the glafe.

Foliating of Guss. See FaLiJzi.\a and Loohng-
glafs.

5 D Gilding

L A

See GiLDi

vniqu

Gems taken

Gi.

See

G

Gi'Jin'T of Glas

ImpreJJlons of
Gems.

Glass of Lend, a glafs made with the addition of a
large quantity ot lead, of great ufe in the art of making
counterfeit gems. The method of making it is this :
Put a large quantity of lead into a potter's kiln, and
keep it in a ftate of fufion with a moderate fire, till it
is calcined to a gray loofe poUder •, then fpread it in
the kiln, and give it a greater heat, continually ftirring
it to keep it from running into lumps ; coiitinue this fe-
veral hours, till tlie po-.vder become of a fair yellow ;
then lake it out, and fift it fine : this is called calcined
lead. Take of this calcined lead l 5 pounds, and cry-
ftalline or other frit 1 2 pounds ; mix thefe as well as
poffible together ; put them into a pot, and fet them
in the furnace for ten hours ; then caft the whole, which
w'ill be now perfectly melted, into water ; feparate the
loofe lead from it, and return the metal into the pot ;
and after (landing in fufion I 2 hours more, it will be
fit to work. It is very tender and brittle, and muft be
worked with great care, taking it {lowly out of the
pot, and continually wetting the marble it is ivrought
upon.

It is well known that cerufe or '.vhite lead, minium,
litharge, and all the other preparations and calces of
lead, are eafily fufed by a moderate fire, and formed
into a tranfparent glafs of a deep yellow colour. B«t
this glafs is fo penetrating and powerful a tlux, that it
is necefl'ary to give it a greater confiltence, in order to
render it fit for ufe. With this viev,', two parts of calx
of lead, e.g. minium, and one part of fand or powdered
flints, may be put into a crucible of refraftory clay,
and baked into a compaft body. Let this crucible,
well doled with a luted lid, be placed in a melting
i'arnace, and gradually heated for an hour or an hour
and a half •, and afterwards let the heat be increafed fo
as to obtain a complete fufion, and continued' in that
date for the fame time : let the crucible remain to cool
in the furnace ; and wlien it is broken a very tranfpa-
rent yellow coloured glafs will be found in it. Some
add nitre and common fait to the above mixture, be-
caufe thefe falts promote the fufion and the more equal
diflribution of the land. This glafs of lead has a con-
Cderable fpecific gravity, and its loweft part is always
the heavieft. It is an important tlux in the aflays of
ores to facilitate their fcorificatlon.

Glafs of lead is capable of all the colours of the gems
in very great perfeilion. The methods of giving
them are thefe : for green, take pulverine frit 20
pounds, lead calcined 16 pounds; fift both the pow-
ders very fine ; then m. It them into a glafs, feparating
the unmixed lead, by plunging the mafs in water j af-
ter this return it into the pot, and add brals thrice cal-
cined fix ounces, and one pennyweight of crocus martis
made with ^^negar ; put this in at fix different times,
alwa5's carefully mixing it together, and take a proof
of it •, when the colour is right, let it (land eight hours,
and then work it. If inllead of the calcined brafs the
fame quantity of the caput mortuum of the vitriolum
veneris be ufed, the green is yet much finer.

For topaz colour, take cryftal frit 15 pounds, cal-
cined lead 1 2 pounds ; mix them well together, by
fifting the powders through a fine fieve ; then fet them
in a furnace not too hot, and feparate the fuperfluous

[ 762 ]

G L A

unmixed lead, by calling the whole into v.'ater; repeat
this twice : then add half gold yellow glafs, and let ~
them incorporate and purify, and they will be of the
true and exact colour of tie oriental topazes.

For lea green, take cryftal frit 16 pounds, calcined
lead 10 pounds; mix and fift them together, and fet
them in a pot in a furnace ; in 12 hours the whole
\vill be melted ; then call it into water, and feparate it
fiom the loofe lead ; put them into 'the furnace again
for eight hours j then feparate the loofe lead by walk-
ing a fecond time, and return it to the pot for eight
hours more.

Mufcovij Gliiss. See Mica, Mineralogy Index. ■

Painting on Glass by means of Prints. See Back-
fiainting.

Glass Porcelain, the name given by many to a mo-
dern invention of imitating the china ware with gluls.
The metliod given by M. Reaumur, who was the firll
that carried the attempt to any degree of perfeclion,
is fhortly this ; The glafs veffels to be converted into
porcelain are to be put into a large earthen veilel, fuch
as the common fine earthen dilhcs are baked in, or in-
to fufficiently large crucibles ; the veiTels are to be fill-
ed with a mixture of fine white fand, and of fine gyp-
fum or plafter done burnt into what is called plaller
of Paris, and all the interllices are to be filled up with
the fame powder, fo that the glafs veUels may nowhers
touch either one another, or tiie fides of the vefvel they
are baked in. The velTel is to be then covered down
and luted, and the fire does the rell of the ivork ; for
this is only to be put into a common potter's furnace,
and when it has Hood there the ufual time of the bak-
ing the other vefiels, it is to be taken out, and the
whole contents will be found no longer glafe', but con-
veited into a white opaque fubftarce, which is a veiy
elegant porcelain, and has aimoil the properties of that
of China.

The powder which has ferved once will do again as
well as frelh, and that for a great many times : nay, it
leems, ever fo often. The caule of this transformation,
fays Macquer, is probably that the v'.iriolic acid of the
gypfum quits its hafis of calcareous earth, and unites
with the alkaline fait and laline earth of the j;lafs, with
which it forms a kind of fait, dilferent from the calca-
reous felenite, by the interpolltion of which matter the
glafs acquires the qualities of porcelain.

Glass Pets, the veffels in the glafs trade ufed for
meltir.g the glals. Thofe for the white glafs works are
made of a tobacco pipe clay, brought from the ille of
Wight, which is firll well wadied, then calcined, and
afterwards ground to a fine powder in a mill ; which
being mixed with water, is then trod with the bare
feet till it is of a proper confidence to mould with the
hands into the proper Ihape of the veifels. When ihefe
are thus made, they are afterwards annealed over the
furnace. Tiiofe tor the green glafs work are made ot
the nonluch, and another fort of clay from Stallbrd-
(hire ; they make thefe fo large as to hold three or four
hundred weight of metal. And befides thefe, they have
a fmall fort called piling pots, which they fet upon the
larger, and which contain a finer and more nice metal
fit for the niceft works.

The clay tliat is ufed for this purpofe Ihould be of
the purell and moll refraflory kind, and well clcanfed
from all fandy, ferruginous, :|P;d pyritous matters ; and

G L A [ 763

to this it will be proper to add ground crucibles, white
fand, calcined flints duly levigated, or a certain propor-
tion of the fame clay baked, and pounded not very
finely. The quantity of baked clay that ou^ht to be
mixed with the crude clay, to prevent the pots from
cracking when dried, or expofed to a great heat, is not
abfolutely determined, but depends on the quality of the
crude clay, which is more or leis fat. M. D'Antic,
in a memoir on this fubjeCl, propofes the following
method 01 afcertainin^ it : The burnt and crude clav,
being mixed in different proiiortion'!, fliould be formed
into cakes, one inch thick, and four inches long ?.nd
T< ide. Let thefe cakes be (lowly dried, and expofed to
a violent heat, till they become as hard and as much
contracted as pofTible, and in this ib.te be examined ;
and the cake, he fays, which has fulfered a diminution
of its bulk equal only to an eighteenth part, is made of
the beft proportions. He obferves, in general, that
moft clays require that the proportion of the burnt
ihould be to the fre*h as four to five.

Tin Glass, the fame with Bifmuth. See Bismuth,
Chkmistry I'idex.

Glasses are dlftinguifhed, with regard to their form,
ufe, &c. into various kinds, as drinking ghffes, optical
glafles, looking glaffes, burning glalTes, &.c.

Drinking Glasses, are fimple veffels of common glafs
or cryllal, ufually made in form of an inverted cone.

Each glafs confifts of three parts, viz. the bowl, the
bottom, and the foot ; which are all wrought or blown
feparately.

Nothing can be more dexterous and expeditious than
the manner of blowing thefe parts : two of them open-
ed, and all three joined together. An idea is only to
be had thereof, by feeing it aflually done* For the
method of gilding the eilT;es of drinking glaffes, fee
Gilding on Enamel and Glafs.

Optical Glasses. See Optics.

The improvements hitherto made in telcfcopes by
means of combining lenfes made of different kinds of
^lafs, though very great, are yet by no means adequate
to the expeftations that might reafonably be formed
if opticians could fall on any method of obtaining pieces
of glafs fuiliciently large for purfumg the advantages
of Mr DoUond's difcovery. Unfortunately, however,
though the board of longitude have offered a confider-
able reward for bringing this art to the requilite per-
fection, no attempt of any confequence has hitherto
been made. Mr Keir is of opinion, that the accom-
plilhment of this is by no means an eafy tafk ; as it re-
quires not only a competent knowledge of the proper-
ties of glafs fitted for the purpofe (the faults not being
evident to common infpeftion), but a conliderable de-
gree of chemical knowledge is alfo neceffary in order to
invent a com"olition by which thefe fiults may be
avoided ; and lalUy, a kind of dexterity in the execu-
tion of the work, which can only be acquired by prac-
tice. Our author, however, thinks, that if the fuojeft
were more generally underrtood, and the difficulties
more fully pointed out, for which purpofe he makes
the following remarks, the end may be more eaiily ac-
complifhed.

I. The rays of light paffmg through a glafs lens or
prifm, or through any other medium of unequal thick-
nefs, are refrafted ; but not in an eqml manier, the
blue, violet, &c. being more rcfrafted than the red.

] G L A

2. Hence it happens, th it the rays of light, when
refraded by a common lens, do not all unite ii
cus, but in reality form as many different foci as there
are colours ; and hence arife the prifmatic colours, or
iriles, which appear towards the borders of the image
formed by the common convex lenles, and which ren
der the vifion extremely indiftind.

3. The iudillindr.els of vifion produced by this caufe,
which is fcnfible in telcfcopes of a fmall aperture, in-
creafes in fo great a proportion, viz. as the cubes of the
diameters, that it feemed impoliible to increafe the
power of dioptric telcfcopes gre;itly, without extending

pol-

them to a very hiconvenient length, unlefs this confii
fion of colours could be correded,

4. It was known that different tranfparent bodi<
fcffed different degrees of refradive power ; and
Mr Dollond difcovcred the contrary, it was (appofed,
that the rsfradions of the coloured rays were always in
a determined ratio to one another. On this fuppoiition
it feemed impoffible to corred the faults of refracUng
telefcopes : for it was fuppofed, that if the difperfion of
light produced by a convex lens were counteraded by
another lens or medium of a concave form, the refrac-
tion would be totally deft roved •, and this indeed ivoulJ
be the cafe, if the two mediums were made of the fame
matter ; and from fome experiments made by Sir Ifaac
Newton, tliis uas fuppofed to be adually the cafe in all
fubftpnces whatever.

5. From confidering that the eyes of animals are
formed of mediums of different colours, it occurred firif
to Mr David Gregory, the celebrated profeffor of aftro-
nomy at Oxford, and then to Mr Euler, that, by a
combination of mediums which had different refradive
powers, it might be poffible to remedy the imperfec-
tions of dioptric telefcopes. It does not, however, ap-
pear, that either of thefe gentlemen underttood the true
principle on vvhicli thefe phenomena depend. Mr Euler
executed his idea by forming a compound objed lens
from two glafs lenfes with water interpofeJ, but his at-
tempt was not attended with fuccefs. Mr Dollond, hov.-
ever, was led by fome arguments adduced by Mr KUn-
genftierna of Siveden, to repeat oae of Sir Ifaac Newtftn's
experiments, acd which had induced even that great phi-
lolbpher himfelf to fu;ipo!e that the improvement after-
wards executed by Mr Dollond was impoffible. This
experiment was made by Sir Ifaac Newton, by placing
a glafs prifm within a prifmatic veffe' filled with water,
in fu'.-h a manner that the rays of light which were re-
fraded by the glafs pri&ti (liould pafs through and be
refraded in a contrary diredion by the water prifm.
In this manner the rcfridion of the light u-as entirely
dellroyed. But when Mr Dollond repeated the ex-
periment, he found, that, contrary to his o\vn expeda-
tions, when the angles of the two prifms were fo pro-
portioned that they counteraded each other's mean rc-
fradion, then colours appeared ; and on the other
hand, when they were fo proportioned that the difper-
fion of the coloured rays was counteracted, the mean re-
fradion iHU i'u'sli.ted ; which evidently proved, that the
mean refradive and difperfive po vers of glafs and wa-
ter %vere not proportional to one another.

6. To apply this to the propofed improvement, Mr
Dol'ond examined fcveral kinds of glafs. Crown glnfs
was found to poffefs the fmalkft difperfive power in
proportion to its refraflion; while flint glafs poffcffed
J D 2 the

G L A [76

Gla's. the greateft (iifperfive po'.ver in proportion to its re-
■■"> fraclioHj which was alfo very great. On comparing

thefe two exaflly together, he found, that a wedge of
white flint glafs whofe angle was about 25 degrees, and
another of crown glafs whofe angle was 29 degrees,
refracled very nearly alike. He fovmd alfo, that, Avhen
the wedges were ground to fuch angles, the refrac-
tion produced by the flint glafs was to that produced
by the crown glafs nearly as two or three ; the refract-
ed light was then free from colour. On meafuring the
general refracling powers of thefe two glafles, he found,
that in flint glafs, the fine of incidence of the rays was
to the fine of mean refrafiion as I to 1.583 ; and that
in crown glafs, the fine of incidence was to the fine of
mean refraftion as I to 1.53.

The methods of determining the different refradive
powers of glafs are given under the article Optics.
Here we (hall only obfer\'e, that two kinds of glafs are
iieceffary for the conftruiflion of achromatic telefcopes ;
one of which fliall poffefs as fmall, and the other as
great, difpedue powers, relative to their mean refrafting
powers, as can be produced. The difference of glaffes
in this refpeci: depends on the quality of the ingre-
dients employed in their compolition. Crown glafs,
v.hich is compofed of fand melted by means of the
afhes of fea weeds, barilla, or kelp, both' which fluxes
are known to confiit of vegetable earth, alkali, and
neutral fait, is found to give the fmalleft difperfive
power. Plate glafs, which confifts of fand m.elted by
means of fixed vegetable alkali, with little or no vege-
table earth, gives a greater difperfive power ; but both
thefe give much lefs than flint glafs, which confifls of
fand melted by means of minium and fixed alkali. It
appears, therefore, that the difperfion of the rays is
greatclt when minium, or probably other metallic cal-
ces, are made ufe of; and that alkalies give a greater
poiver of difperfion than vegetable or other earths. Mr
Zieher of Peterfljurgh, however, informs us, that he
has made a kind of glafs, much fuperior in this refpect
to flint glafs ; but it does not as yet appear whether
it be more fit for optical purpofes than that commonly
made ufe of. There feems no diificulty in augmenting
the difperfive power, as that is found to depend on
the quantity of minium or other flux : but thus we un-
fortunately increafe alfo the capital fault to which
flint glafs and all compofitions of that kind are fubjeft ;
namely, the being fubjeft to veins or fmall threads
running through it. By thefe, even when fo fmall as
to be imperceptible to the naked eye, the rays which
fiUl on them are diverted from their proper direction,
and thereby render the images confufed. This is ow-
ing to the greater denfity of the veins, as appears by
their image being received on white paper, when the
glafs is held betiveen the paper and the fun or a candle
at a proper diflance. The rays of light being then
made to converge by the fuperior denfity of the veins,
their images will appear as bright lines bordered with
obfcure edges on the paper. Flint glafs is fo much
fubjeft to this kind of imperfection, that it is with dif-
ficulty the opticians can pick out pieces of the fize
commonly ufed from a large quantity of the glafs. It
is farther to he regretted, that the minium which pro-
duces the greateft difperfive power, is likewife the
very fubilance which renders flint ghifs much more
fubjecl to thefe fanperfedlions than any other. Th&

4 ] G L A

reafon is, that the fand and earthy matters mix uni- GUf-,
formly in fufion ; and having not only a confiderable '^~
degree of affinity towards each other, but alfo being
not much different from each other, they are not apt to
feparate. On the other hand, \vhen fuch a heavy
fubrtance as minium is added to tliefe earthy fubftances,
though it has a pretty ilrong tendency to unite with the
earthy fubftances, it has none with the fixed alkali, which
is another ingredient in this glais. Hence feme parts of
the glafs will contain more metallic matter than the reft ;
particularly that near the bottom of the pot, which is fo
tull of large veins as to be applied only to the making
of wares of little value. The veins in this cafe are
formed by the defcent of the minium at the bottom,
which in its paffage forms threads or veins by dragging
other parts of the glafs along with them.

The correftion of this fault appears therefore to be
very diflicult. M. Macquer informs us, that he had
in vain tried to remove it by very long fufion and a
fierce fire •, which indeed others have found by expe-
rience not to correif, but to augment the evil. Mr
Keir is of opinion that fome new compofition muft be
difcovered, which, along with a fuflicient refractive
power, ftiould poffefs a greater uniformity of textuie ;
but he is likewife of opinion, that fcarce any alteration
in this refpeft could be made without injuring the colour
of the glals. For optical purpofes, however, our author
does not think that an alteration in the colour of the
ingredients would be very detrimental. " I am con .
vinced (fays he), that glaffes fenlibly tinged with co-
lour, might tranfinit as much or more light than the
befl: flint glafs. For the colourlefs appearance ot flint
glafs is an optical deception. The minium gives it a
confiderable tinge of yellow, and the alkali inclines it to
a bluifli caft, befides the colour arifing from a greater
or lefs impurity of the materials ; fo that the glafs
ivould aflually be very fenfibly coloured, unlefs by the
addition of manganefe, wliich is kno\vn to give a pur-
plifli red. Thus the other tinges are counteraded, but
not effaced ordeftroyed as has been frequently imagined.
By the mixture of the three principal colours, red,
yellow, and blue, more or lefs exactly counterpoifed, a
certain dark Ihade is introduced, in which, as not any
one of the colours predominates, no coloured tinge ap-
pears, but the effect is merely a diminution of the tranf-
parency of the glafs, which^ however, is too Imall for
ordinary obfervation." Mr Keir is even of opinion,
that a certain tinge of yellow would in many cafes be
of fervice, becaule it would exclude fome of the blue
rays, which being moll refrangible are molt injurious to
the diltinftnefs of vihon.

Very confiderable diff.culties, however, muft arife
in attempting improvements of this kind ; as the expe-
riments mult all be tried on a very large fcale. This
is not only attended with a very heavy* expence in itfelf
on account of the quantity of materials employed, but
from the heavy duty of excile which is rigorouflv ex-
acted whether the glafs be manufactured into faleable
articles or not. It is obferved in the manufacture of
every kind of glafs, that the glafs in the middle of the
area or tranfverfe feilion of a pol is much purer and
freer from veins and other imperfections than the pait
which is near the fides, and that the glafs at the bot-
tom is the worft of all. Confequently it is chiefly iu
large pots, fuch as are ufed in nunufaclures, that there

G L A

[ 7% ]

G L A

Ob'!, is a probability of fuccefs. Very fine nnd beautirul
Clafton- glaflfes, called [>ajle and artificial ^cnu, mny be made i'.i

. - " fraallcr pots cl crucibles J but this glafs is fullered to

cool and fubCde in the veffel, by which means the con-
tiguous parts are more uniform in their texture than
can be expeiflcd in a piece of glafs taken out of the pot
while hot in the common way, by making it adhere
and twill round an irod rod or pipe. But although
the method of allowing the glafs to cool in the pets is
very advantageous for the purpofes of the jeweller, it is
by no means applicable to thofe of the optician. Glafs
cooled in that gradual manner, fuffers fome degree of
cryilallization or peculiar arrangement of its parts ; the
confequence of which is that the rays of light under-
go certs-in reirnclions ir.dependent on the form of the
glafs, which greatly afieft the diiliuftuefs of vifion in
tclefcopes.

Ali/Jical Glasse:. See Harmonica.

Looking Glass. See LooKina GJnfs, Mirror, and
Foliating.

Burning Glass. See Burning Glafs.

IVectker Class. See B.\romet£r.

Cupping Glass. See Surgery.

Hour Glass. See Hour Glafs.

IVa'.ch Glass. See Watch.

Class IVort. See Salsoi-a, Botany Index.

GLASTONBURY, a town of Somerfetlhire in
Engknd ; feated in \V^ Long. 2. 46. N. Lat. 51. 15.
—It is noted for a famous abbey, fome magnificent
ruins of which ftill remain. The curious ftrufliue call-
ed rlie AbboCs kitchen is llill jnetty entire. The monks
pretend that it was the refidence of Jofeph of Arima-
thea, and of St Patrick. The king of th,e Weft
Saxons eretled a church here, which he and the fuc-
ceeding kings enriched to fuch a degree, that the abbot
lived like a prince, had the t'tle of lord, and fat
among the barons in parliament ; and no perfon, not
eve-n a bi.liop or prince, durft fet foot on the ille of
Avalon, in which the abbey Hands, without his leave.
The revenue of the abbev was above 40,000!. per ann.
befides feven parks well flocked «ith deer. Tlie laft ab-
bot (Richard Whiting), who had ico monks, and 300
domeilics, was hanged in his pontificals, with two of
his monks, on the Tor, a high hill in the neighbour-
hood, for refufing to take the oath of fupremacy to
Henry Vin. and furrender his abbey when required.
Edgar and many other Sa.von kirigs were buried here ;
and, as fome will have it, Arthur the Britifh king.
Every cottage here has part of a pillar, a door, or a
window of this fabric ; of which there ftill remain the
ruins of the choir, the middle tower and the chapels.
The walls that remain of the abbey are overgrown with
ivy, and the afpeft of the whole is both melancholy
and venerable. Here are two parifti churches. This
town, while under the proteflion of its abbots, was a
parliamentary borough, but it loft that and its piivilege
of a corporation ; the latter of which was, however, re-
ftored by Queen Anne, who granted it a ne v charter for
a mayor and burgtffes. 'J he only manufactory here is
ftcckings. At a little diflance from the old church,
and facing the monk's churchyard, are two remarkable
pyramids, with infcriptions, that are in charadlers un-
intelligible, and an image in bifliop's veftments. The
ftory of the Glaflonbuiy thorn, and of its budding upon
Qiriftmas day, is well known. This is not corre^ly

true ; but if the winter is mild, it always buds about
the latter end of December, but later if the weather is
levere. |_

GLATZ, a ftrong town of Bohemia, capital of a
county of the fame name, feated on the river NeiiTe ;
and well fortified with a cadle. The county was ced-
ed to the king of PrulTia by the queen of Hungary
in 1742 ; and is about 45 miles in leivjth, and 25 in
breadth. It has mines of pit coal, filver, and iron 5
good quarries, plenty of cattle, and fine fprings of mi-
neral water. The town is fituated in E. Long. 15. 16.
N. Lat. 50. 2;.

GLAUBER, John RiioDOLPHus, a celebrated Ger-
man chemirt, who flourilhed about the year i 646. He
wrote a great number of different treatifes on chemi-
ftry, fome of which have been tranllated into Latin and
French. All his works have been collected into one
volume, entitled Glauberus concentralus, which was
tranllated into Engliih, and printed at London, in folio,
in 1689.

Glauber's Salts, or Sulphate of Soda. See Chemi-
stry Index.

' GLAUCOIVIA, in Medicine and Surge^ij, the name
of a difeafe in the eye, wherein the cryftalline humour
is turned of a bluiih or greenilh colour, and its traiif-
parency hereby diminiilied. — The word comes from
yA«ux«f, caf.us, " fea green, £ky coloured, or grayiih."

Thofe in whom this diforder is forming, difcovcr it
hence, that all obje^ls appear to them as through a cloud
or mift ; when entirely formed, the vilual rays are all
intercepted, and nothing isTeen at all.

It is reckoned incurable, when inveterate, and in
aged perfons : and even under other circuraflanccs, is
very difficult of cure, externals proving of little fervice.

The internals beft fuited to it, are thofe ufed in the
gutta ferena. Jul. Ctefar Claudinus, Conful. 74. gives
a remedy for the glaucoma.

The glaucoma is ufually diftinguilhed from the cata-
ract or fufiufion, in this, that in the cataraft the white-
nefs appears in the pupil, very near the corner •, but it
fliows deeper in the glaucoma. See S'-'RGERY Index.

GLAUCUS, a marine god, or deity of the fea.
There are a great many fabulous accounts of this diW-
nity : but the poetical hiftory of him is, that before
his deification, he' was a fiftierman of the town of An-
thedon, who ha\nng one day taken a confiderable num-
ber of fidies, which he laid upon the bank, on a fudden
perceived, that thefe filhes, having touched a kind of
herb that grew on the (bore, received new ftrengih, and
leaped again into the fea : upon the fight of which ex-
traordinary accident, he was tempted to tafte of the
herb himfelf, and prefently leaped into the fea after
them, where he was metamorphofid into a Triton, and
became one of the fea god?.

GLAUX, a genus of plants belonging to the pen-
tandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking under
the 17th order, Calycanthemer. See Botany Index.

GLAZIER, an artificer who works in glafs. — The
principal part of a glazier's bufinefs confids in fitting
panes of glafs to the failies and window frames of houfcs,
piftures, &c. and in cleaning the fame.

GLAZING, the crufting over earthen ware with a
vitreous fubltancc, the bafis of which is lead. See
Glass of Lead.

The workers of comiiion earthen ware, however, arc

G L A

[ 1^6 ]

Cx L A

not at the trlDuble of thus previoufly making a pure
' glal's of lead. 'J'heir ufual conipoikicn ior glazing their
\\?.K is formed of white fand 40 pounds, of red lead 20
founds, of pearl aflies 20 pounds, and of common fait
I 2 pounds. Powdei the fand by grinding it, and then
add it to the clhcr jng edients and gri;id them to-
gether : after which calcine them for fome time witli a
moderate heat, and when the mixture is cold, pound it
to powder ; and when wanted for ufe temper it with
water. The proportion of theie ingredients may be oc-
cafional'y varied. The ware after being turned on the
wheel and dried in the open air, is covered over with the
above composition by means of a brulh ; and ivhen let
in the furnace the violent heat focn reduces it to a per-
fcft glar^, covering the whole internal and external fur-
face of the veflel.

We may obferve, however, in general, that lead ought
to be ex-cluded from the compofition of glazings, .-.nd
other fluxes fubftituted in its flead. A trr.nfparcnt
glazing may be prepared without lead, by calcining 40
pounds of white fand, 25 pounds of pearl allies, and 15
pounds of common fait ; and proceeding as before : and
a more perfeft tranfparent glazing may be made of
fand 40 pounds, of wood allies perfectly burnt 50
pounds, of pearl allies 10 pounds, and of common fait
1 2 pounds. The following receipts are taken for the
raoft part from Kunckel, who fays, that they are the
true glazings ufcd at Delft and other Dutch manu-
faflories.

B/ack is made of eight parts of red lead, iron filings
three, copper alhes three, and zaffer two meafures.
This when melted \vill make a brown black ; and if you
want it blacker, add more zaffer to it.

Blue is thus prepared : Take lead allies or red lead
one pound, clear land or powdered flints two pounds,
common fait two pounds, white calcined tartar one
pound, Venice or other glafs half a pound, zaffer half
a pound ; mix them well together and melt them for
feveral times, quenching them always in cold water.
If you would have it fine and good, it will be pro-
per to put the mixture into a glafs furnace for a day
or two.

Another blue glazing may be formed of one pound
of tartar, a quarter of a pound of red lead, half an
ounce of zaffer, and a quarter of a pound of powdered
flints, which are to be fufed and managed as in the laft
receipt. Or, take two pounds of calcined lead and tin,
add five pounds of common fait, five pounds of pow-
dered flints, and of zaffer, tartar, and Venetian glafs,
each one pound. Calcine and ful'e the mixture as be-
fore. Or, again, take of red lead one part, of fand
three parts, and of zaffer one part. For a violent blue
glazing, take four ounces of tartar, two ounces of red
lead, five ounces of powdered flints, and half a drachm
of manganefe.

Brown is made of red lead and flints of each 14
parts, and of manganefe two parts fufed ; or of red
lead 12 parts, and manganefe one part fufed. A brown
glazing, to be laid on a while ground, may be made
of manganefe two parts, and of red lead and white
glafs of each one part, twice fufed.

F/eJJ} coloured is made of 1 2 parts of lead aflies, and
one of white glafs.

Gold coloured. Take of litharge three parts, of fand
or calcined flint one part j , pound and mix thefe very

well together, then run them into a yellow glafs with '
a flrong fire. Po'uid thjs glafs, and grind it into a ~
fubtile powder, which moUten mth a well faturated
foluiion of filver ; make it into a parte, which put in-
to a crucible, and cover it vvith a cover. G've at firfl
a gentle degree of Sire ; then kicieaie it, and continlie
it till you have a glai's, which will be green. Pound
this glsfs again, and grind it to a fine powder ; moiif^u
t!;is powder with fome beer, fo that by means of a
hair pencil ycu may apply it upon the veffels or anv
piece of earthen ware. The veffcls that are painted or
covered over with this glazing muft be firfl well heated,
then put under a muffle ; and as foon as the glafs runs,
ycu mult fmoke them, by holding them over burnin ■
vegetnbies, and tgke out the veii'els. Mr Heinfius oi
Peterlhurgh, who fent this receipt to the Royal Society .
ufes the words afflare dcbcs fumum, ivh.ich is rendered
frnote them, in the Tranfaclions. Piiil. Tranf. N* 465.

Kunckel gives feveral preparations for a gold co-
loured yellow glazing. This may be produced by fuf-
ing a mixture of three parts of red lend, two parts of
antimony, and one part of falfron of Mars ; by again
melting the powdered mals, and repeating the opera-
tion four times, or by fuling four or five times a com-
pofition of red lead and antimony of each an ounce,
and of fcales of iron half an ounce ; or by calcining
and fuling together eight parts of red lead, fix parts of
flints, one part of yellow ochre, one part of antimony,
and one part of white glafs. A tranfparent gold-
coloured glazing may be obtained by twice fufing
red lead and white flints, of each 1 2 parts, and of
filings of iron one part. ,

Green may be prepared of eight parts of litharge or
red lead, eight parts of Venice glafs, four parts of
brafs duft or filings of copper ; or of ten parts of li-
tharge, twelve of flint or pebble, and one of ies iijhim
or copper afhes. — A fine green glazing may be pro-
duced by fufing one part of the Bohemian granate,
one part of filings of copper, one part of red lead, and
one part of Venetian gla!"^ ; or by fufing one part of
white glafs, the fame quantity of red lead, and alio of
filings of copper ; powdering the mafs, and adding
one part of Bohemian granate to two parts of this pow-
der. A fine green may be obtained by mixing and
grinding together any of the yellow glazings with
equal quantities of the blue glazings ; and all the fiiades
and teints of green will be had by varying the propor-
tion of the one to the other, and by the choice "of the
kind of yellow and blue.

Sea green is made of five pounds of lead aflies, one
pound of tin aflies, three pounds of flint, three quar-
ters of a pound of fait, half a pound of tartar, and half
a pound of copper dull.

Iron colour h prepared of 15 pa^ts of lead afhes or
red lead, 15 of white fand or flints, and five of cal-
cined copper. This mixture is to be calcined and
fufed.

Liver colour is prepared of 1 2 parts of litharge,
eight of fait, fix of pebble or flint, and one of manga-
nefe.

Purple brown confifts of lead aflies 1 5 parts, clean
fand or powdered flints 1 8 parts, manganele one part,
and white glafs 15 meafures, to which fome add one
meafure of zafltr.

AW

G L A [ 767 j

ReJ is made of antimony three pounds, utlwrge or
red lead three, and vuft of iron one : s;rind them to a
line powder. Or, take two pounds of antimony, three
of red lead, and one of calcined faffron of Mars, and
proceed as before.

IV/ii/r. The white glazing for common ware is
made of 40 pounds of clear land, 75 pounds of litharge
or lead athes, 26 of pot aflies, and ten pounds of fait :
thefe are three times melted into a cake, quenching
it each time in clear cold water. Or it may be made
of 50 pounds of clean fand, 70 of lead alhes, 30 of
wood aihes, and 1 2 of fait.

For a fine white : Take two pounds of lead and one
of tin ; calcine them to afhes : of this take two parts,
calcined fiint, white fand, or broken white glafs, one
part, and fait one part ; mix them well together and
melt them into a cake for ufe. The trouble of cal-
cining the tin and lead may be prevented by procuring
them in a proper ftate.

A very fine ivhitc glazing may be obtained by cal-
cining two parts of lead and one part of tin ; and
taking one part of this mafs, and of flints and common
fait of each one part, and fafing the mixture.

A white glazing may be alfo prepared by mixing
100 pounds of mafticot, 60 pounds of red lead, 20
pounds of calcined tin or putty, and 10 pounds of
common fait, and calcining and powdering the mix-
ture' feveral times.

Ye/hu) is prepared of red lead three pounds ; cal-
cined antimony and tin, of each tv>o pounds ; or, ac-
cording to (bme, of equal quantities of the three in-
gredients. Thefe muft be melted into a cake, then
ground fine •, and this operation repeated feveral times ;
or it may be made of 15 parts of lead ere, three parts
of litharge of filver, and J 5 parts of fand. — A fine
yellow glazing may be p. jcured by mixing five parts

G L E

of red lead, two parts of pondered brick, one part of
fand, one part of the white glazings, and two parts of
antiniony, calcining the mixture and then fufing'it.
Or, take four parts of white glafs, one part of anti-
mony, three parts of red lead, and one part of iron
fcales, and fufe the mixture ; or fafe 16 parts of flints,
one part of iron filings, and 24 parts of litharge. A
light yellow glazing may be produced with ten parts
of red lead, three parts of antimony, and three of
glafs, and two parts of calcined tin. See Gold colour,
above. — A citron yellov) is made of fix parts of red
lead, fcven parts of fine red brick duft, and two parts
of antimony. This mixture muft be calcined day and
night for the fpace of four days, in the a(h hole of a
glafs-houfe furnace, and at l?.ll urged to fufion.

For the glazing of Celft ware,' Porcelain, Stone-
ware, &c. fee the' articles Dbltt Ware, Porcelain,
and Pottery.

The Romans had a method of glazing their earthen
veirel<;, which in many refpefts appears to have been
fuperior to ouvs. The common brown glazing eafily
fcales off, cracks, and in a fliort time becomes dif-
agreeable to the eye. Eefides, it is very eafily de-
ftroyed by acids ; nor can veii'els glazed in this man-
ner be even employed to hold water, without part of
it cozing through their pores. Lead is alfo very de-
flruclive to the human body ; and if arid? are unwa-
rily put into veflcls ?lazed with lead, the liquors will
receive a very dangerous impregnation from the me-

tal. The Roman glazing, which is yet to be feen
upon urns dug up in feveral places, appears to have
been made of forae kind of varnilh ; and Pliny gives
us a hint that it was made of bitumen. He tells us '
that it never loft its beauty, and that at length it be-
came cuftomary to glaze over ftatues in this manner.
As this variiilh funk deep into the fubftance cf the
ware, it was not fubjeft to thofe cracks and flaws which
disfigure our veffels ; and as it was not liable to be
corroded by acids, it could not be fubjcct to any bi
the accidents which may enfue from the ufe of veflels
glazed with lead.

GLEAD, or Gladp;, a name ufcd in the northern
parts of the kingdom for the kite. Seg Falco, Orni-
thology Index.

G-LEAi\I is popularly ufed for a ray or beam of
light. Among falconers a hawk is faid to gleam when
flie cafts or throws up filth from the gorge.

GLEANING, the aft of gathering or picking up
the ears of corn left behind after the field has been
reaped and the crop carried home. By the culloms
of fome countries, particularly thofe of Melun and
Eftampes, all farmers and others arc forbid, either by
thcmfelves or fervants, to put any cattle into the fields,
or prevent the gleaning in ' any manner whatever for
the fpace of 24 hours after the carrying off the corn,
wider the penalty of confifcation.

GLEBE, among miners, fignifies a piece of earth
in which is contained fome mineral ore.

Glebe, in Law, the land belonging to a parilTi
church bcfides the tithes.

GLECHOMA, ground ivy, a genus of plants
belonging to the didynamia clafs, and in the natural
method ranking under the 4 2d order, Verliciilatu-. See
Botany Index.

GLHDITSIA, TRIPLE THORNED ACACIA, or Ho-
ney LociiJ}, a genus of plants belonging to the polyga-
mia clafs, and in the natural method ranking under the
33d order, Lomentacea-. See BoT.\NY Index.

GLEET, in Medicine, the flux of a thin limpid hu-
mour from the urethra. See MEDICINE Index.

GLENDALAGH, otherwife called ike Seven
Churches, anciently a celebrated town of Ireland,
fituated five miles north-wett of Rathdrum, in the
county of Wicklow, and proraice of Leinfter. The
name fignifies ■ "the valley of the two lakes." In
this valley, furrounded by high and almoft inaccef-
fible mountains, St Kevin or Cavan, called alfo .SV
Coer;igene, about the middle of the 6lh century, found-
ed a monaftery, which in a Ihort time from the fanc-
tity of its founder was much reforted to, and at
length became a bilhoprick and a religious city. St
Kevin died 3d June 618, aged 120; and on that
pay annually numbers cf perfons tlock to the Seven
Churches to celebrate the feftival of that venerated
faint. During the middle ages the city of Glen-
dalagh, called by Hovedon Epifco/jatns Bidagnienfts,
was held in great encem,'and received feveral valuable
donations and privileges, its epifcopal juriljiclion ex-
tending to the walls of Dublin. — About the middle
of the I 2th century, on fome account or other, it was
much negleftcd by the clergy ; and became, inlicad of
a holy city, a den of thieves, wherefore Cardinal P'a-
piro, in 12 14, united it to the fee of Dublin, which u-
nion was confirmed bv King John, The O'TooIs, chiefs

of.

G L I

I 768 ]

G L O

Gliffon.

of Firthual, however, by the afl'irtance of the Pops,
continued long after this period to eleft bifliops and
J abbots to Glendalagh, though they had neither reve-
nues or authority, beyond the dilkift of Tuathal,
which was the weftern part of the county of Wicklow j
in confequence of which the city was fuiiered to decay,
and had become nearly a defert, in 1497, when Den-
nis White, the laft titular bilhop, furrendered his right
in the cathedral church of St Patrick, Dublin. From
the ruins of this ancient city ftill remaining, it ap-
pears to have been a place of confequence, and to have
contained feven churches and religious houfes'j fmall
indeed but built in a neat elegant ftyle, in imitation
X)f the Greek architefture : the cathedral, the walls of
\vhich are yet (landing, was dedicated to St Peter and
St Paul. South of the cathedral (lands a fmall church
•roofed with ftone, nearly entire ; and in feveral parts
of the valley are a number of ftone croffes, fome of
which are curioufly carved, but without any infcrip-
tions. In the north-weft corner of the cemetery be-
longing to the cathedral ftands a round tower, 95
feet high, and 1 5 in diameter ; and in the cemetery of
a fmall church, on the fouth fide of the river, near
the great lake, called the Rfiefiart church, are forae
tombs, with Iriih infcriptions, belonging to the
O'TooIs. In a perpendicular projefting rock on the
iouth fide of the great lake, 30 yards above the fur-
face of the water, is the celebrated bed of St Kevin,
hewn out of the rock, exceedingly difhcult of accels and
terrible of profpcd. Amongft the rv.ins have been dif-
ccvered a number of llones, curiouP.y carved, and con-
taining infcriptions in the Latin, Greek, and Irifh
languages. As this city was in a valley, furrounded
on all fides, except the eaft, by high, barren, and in-
acceflible mountains, the artificial roads leading there-
to are by no means the leaft curious part of the re-
mains ; the principal is that leading into the county
of Kildare through Glendafon. This road for near
two miles is yet perfeft, compofed of ftones placed on
their edges, making a fiitn and durable pavement, a-
bout 10 feet broad. At a fmall diflance from St Ke-
-v-in's bed, on the fame fide of the mountain, are to be
ieen the ruins of a fmall ftone building called Sainl Ke-
vin's cell.

GLENOID ES, the name of two cavities, or fmall
depreflioiis, in the inferior part of the firft vertebra of
the neck.

GLIMMER, 01 Glist. See Mica, Mineralo-
gy Index.

GLINUS, in Botany, a genus of plants belonging
to the decandria clafs ; and in the natural method rank-
ing under the 22d clafs, Caryophyllecr. See Botany
Index.

GLIRES, the name of Linnaeus's fourth order of
mammalia. See Mamm.\lia Index.

GLISSON, Francis, a learned Engli(h phyfician
in the l 7lh century, xvas educated at Cambridge, and
was made regius profeffor of that univerfity. In 1634
he was admitted a fellow of the College of Phyficians in
London. During the civil wars, he praflifed phyfic
at Colchtftcr, and afterwards fettled in London. He
greatly improved phyfic by his anatomical diffcftions
find obfervations, and made feveral new difcovcries of
Angular ufe towards rdablifliing a rational praflice. He
wrote, 1 . De rachitide, &ic i. Dc/ymphaduHis nuper

reftertis : with the Anatomica prolegoticnit, et Ar.a'.imia Gilfi
hefialis. 3. De naturie fuhjianlia energi'.ica; feu de via H

vitie natune, cjiifque tribus primisfacultatihus, &c. quar- °"'2
to. ^.TraSatus deventnculoetinle/iinis,ii.c. The world
is obliged to him for the capfula communis, or vagina
portiv.

GLISTER, in Surgery. See CLYSTER.

GLOBBA, a genus of plants belonging to the mo-
nandria clafs. See BoTANy Index.

GLOBE, in Geometry, a round or fpherical body,
more ufually called a Spherei See SPHERE.

Globe is more particularly ufed for an artificial
fphere of metal, plafter, paper, or other matter ; on
whofe convex furface is drawn ,a map, or reprefenta-
tion either of the earth or heavens, v\-ith the feveral
circles conceived thereon. See Geography.

Globes are of two kinds, terrejlnal a.nd ce/ejiial ; each
of very confiderable ufe, the One in aftronomy, and the
other in geography, for performing many of the opera-
tions thereof in an ealy obvious manner, lo as to be
conceived without any knowledge of the mathematical
grounds of thofe arts.

The fandaraental parts, common to both globes, are
an axis, reprefenting that of the world; and a ff herical
fhell, or cover, which makes the body of the globe, on
the external furface of which the reprefentation is
drawn. See Geography Index.

Globes, we have obfcrved, are made of different ma-
terials, viz. filver, brafs, paper, plafter. See. Thofe
commonly ufed are of plafter and paper. For the con-
ftruclion of globes, fee Geography Indett.

For the ufes, &c. of the globes, fee Geogr.iphy
and Astronomy.

Globe Animal. See Animalcule.

Globe Fiji. See Ostraciox, Ichthyology In- *
dex.

GLOBULARIA, globular blue daisy ; a ge-
nus of plants, belonging to the tetrandria clafs ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 48th order,
Aggregalee. See Botany Index.

GLOBULE, a diminutive of globe, frequently
ufed by phyficians in fpeaking of the red particles of
the blood. See BlooD.

GLOCESTER, the capital of Glocefterlhire in
England, 10 1 miles from London. It is an ancient
city ; and by Antoninus is called Clevum, or Glevum,
which Camden thinks was formed from the Britilh
Caer-Gloive, fignifying " a fair city." It was one of thf^
28 cities built by the Britons before the arrival of
the Romans, who made it one of their colonies, and
in the eighth century it was efteemed one of the
nobleft cities in the kingdom. It has fuftered con-
fiderably by fire at different periods. It ftands upon
a bill ; and from the middle of the city, where the four
principal ftrcets meet, there is a defccnt every way,
w hit h makes it not only clean and healthy, but adds to
the beauty of the place. Forging of iron leems to have
been its manufaijlure fo early as the time of William
the Conqueror. King Henry VIII. inaJe it the fee of
a bifhop, with a dean and fix prebends. Its caftle
wliich Avas ercfted in the time of William the Conquer-
or, is very much decayed ; part of it is leafed out by
the crown ; asd the reft ferves for a prifon, one of the
beft in England. In its cathedral, which is an ancient
but magnificent fabric, and has a tower reckoned

a L o

Glocefter. one of the nioil carious pieces of architci^ure in Eng-
^""^"""^ land, are tlie tombs of Robert duke of Normandy,
fon to William die Conqueror, and of Edward II. ar J
there is a whifpering p'.aCe like to that of St Paul's
at London. In the chapter hoiife lies Strongbow
xvho conquered Ireland. There are 1 2 chapels in it,
with the arms a!id monuments of many great pcr-
fons. King John made it a borough to be go-
verned by two bailii?!. Henry III. who was crowned
here, made it a corporation. By its prefent charter
from Charles I. it is governed by a lleward, who is ge-
nerally a nobleman-, a mayor ; a recorder; i 2 aldermen,
out of whom the mayor is chofen ; a town clerk ; two
(lieriffs, chofen yearly out of 26 common councilmen ;
a fword-bearer ; and four ferjeants at mace. Here are
1 2 incorporated trading companies, whole mailers at-
tend the mayor on all public occaiions, &.c. Befides
the cathedral, there are five parilli churches in this
city ; which is likewife well provided with hofpitals,
particularly an infirmary upon the plan of thofe at
London, Winchefler, Bath, &c. Here is a good ftone
bridge over the river Severn, with a quay, wharf, and
cuftomhoufe ; but molt of its buGnels is engrofled by
Brillol. King Edward I. held a parliament here in
1272, wherein fome good laws we.-e made, now called
the Srati/les of G'.oceJIer ; and he erected a gate on the
fouth fide of the abbey. Hill called by his name, though
almoft dem.oiilhed in the civil wars. King Richard II.
-ilfo held a parliament here : and King Richard III. in
co.ifideration of his having (before his accellion to the
crown) borne the title of Duie of Glocefter, nAAed the
two adjacent hundreds of Dudilon and King's Barton
to it, gave it his fword and cap of maintenance, and
made it a county of itfelf by the name of the county
of the cirj of Giocefier. But after the Restoration the
hundreds were taken away by aft of parliament, and
the walls pulled down ; becaufe the city fliut the gates
againft Charles I. when he befieged it in 1643-, by
which, though the fiege was raifed by the earl of Ef-
fex, it had fuffered 20,oocl. damage, having 241
houfes deltroyed, which reduced it fo much that it
has fcarce recovered its fonner fize and grandeur. Be-
fore that time it had 1 1 pariiti churches, but fix of
them were then demoliilied. Here are abundance of
erodes, and ftatues of the Englifli kings, lome of whom
kept their Chrillmas here ; fcveral ma''ket houfes fup-
ported with pillars ; and large remains of monafleries,
which were once fo numerous, that it gave occalion to
the monkilh proverb, jis fitre as Goti is in Glocejhr.
Here is a barley market ; and a hall for the affizes, Bai-
led the Booth Hall. Its chief manufaflure is pins. Un-
der the bridge is a water engine to fupply the town,
and it is ferved with it alfo from Robin Hood's well,
to which is a fine walk from the city. Camden fays,
that the famous Roman way, called Ermin Street,
which begins at St David's in Pembrokefliire, and
reaches to Southampton, pafTes through this city. Sud-
mead in the neighbourhood is noted for horfe races.
Here is a charity fchool for above 80 children, of
whom above 70 are alio clothed ; and a well endow-
ed blue coat Ichool. The city fends two menibers to
parliament.

Glocester is alio the name of two counties and
of feveral towns in America ; fuch as the county of
Gloceflcr in New Jerfey, bounded on the north by

Vol. IX. Part II.

[ 7^9 - ]

G L O

Burlington, on the fouth by Salem and Cumberland, Glocofter-
on the ealt by the Atlantic ocean, and on the weft by ^_^''' '
the river Delaware. It contains 13,172 inhabitants,
befides 191 llaves. Glocefter in Virginia is a well culti-
vated and fruitful county, about ^^ miles long and 30
bro?d, with a population of 13,498 fouls, a-iong whom
are iiicluded 706^ flaves.

GLOCESTERSHIRE, a county of England,
is bounded on the well by Monmouthlhire and Here-
fordlhire, on the north by Worcefterftire, on the eaft
by O.^fordlhire and Vv'arwicklhire, and on the fouth
by Wihihire, and part of Somerfctlhirc. It is fixty
miles in length, twenty-fix in breadth, and one hun-
dred and fixty in circumference; containing i, 100,000
acres, 26,760 houfes, 162,560 inhabitants, 290 pa-
rilhcs, 1 40 are impropriations, 1229 villages, 2 cities,
and 28 market towns. It fends only 8 members to
parliament, 6 for three towns, viz. Glocefter, Tewkef-
bury, and Cirencefter ; and two for the county. Its
manufactures are woollen cloths of various kind?, men's
hats, leather, pens, paper, bar iron, edge tools, nails,
wire, tinned plates, brais, &c. : and of the principal ar-
ticles of commerce of the county, it exports cheefe
8300 tons; bacon, grain, cyder, 5000I. worth ; perry,
filh, 4000I. worth, Sec. it lies in the diocefe that
takes its name from the capital, and in the Oxford
Circuit. The air of the county is very whcleiome, but
the face of it is very different in different parts : for
the eaftern part is hilly, and is called Cottefwold ; the
weftem ivoody, and called the Forefl of Dean ; and the
reft is a fruitful valley, through \vhich runs the river
Severn. This river is in fome places between two and
three miles broad ; and its courfe through the country,
including its windings, is not lefs than feventy miles.
The tide of flood, called the Boar, rifes very high, and
is very impetuous. It is remarkable, that the greatell
tides are one year at the full moon, and the other at
the new ; one year the night tides, and the next the
day. This river affords a noble conveyance for goods
and merchandife of all forts to and from the county ;
hut it is watered by feveral others, as the Wye, the
Avon, the Ifis, the Leyden, the Frome, the Stroud,
aiid Winditilli, befides leiTer lireams, all abounding
with fiih, the Severn in particular with falmon, con-
ger eels, and lamprevs. The foil is in general very
fertile, though pretty much diverlified, yielding plen-
ty of corn, palUire, fruit, and wood. In the hilly
part of the county, or Cottefwold, the air is Iharper
than in the lowlands ; and the foil, thou.^h not fo fit
for grain, produces excellent pallure for Iheep ; fo that
of the four hundred thoufand that are computed to be
kept in the county, the greater part are fed here. Of
thcfe flieep the wool is exceeding fine ; and hence it i?
that this fhire is fo eminent for its manufacture of
cloth, of which fifty thoufand pieces are faid to have
been made yearly, before the practice of clandillinely
exporting Eiiglilh wool became fo common. In the
vale, or lower part of the covmty, through which the
Severn pafTes, the air and foil are very different from
thofe of the Cottefwold : for the former is mucli warmer,
and the latter richer, yielding the moll luxuriant paf-
tures ; in confequence of which, numerous herds of
black cattle are kept, ai\d great quantities of that ex-
cellent cheefe, for which it is fo much celebrated, made
in it. The remaining part of the county, called the
5 E Forfji

G L O

[ 77° 1

G L 6

Toreft of Dean, was formerly almoil entirely overrun
with ivood, and extended 20 miles in length, and lo in
breadth. It was tlien a neft of robbers, efpecially to-
wards the Severn ; but now it contains many towns
and villages, conllfting chiefly of miners, employed in
the coal pits, or in digging for or forging iron ore,
with both which the foreft abounds. Thefe miners
have their particular laws, cuftoms, courts, and judges :
and the king, as in all royal forefts, has a fwain-mote
for the prefervation of the vert and venifon. This fo-
reft was anciently, and is ftill noted for its oaks, which
thrive here furprifmgly ; but as there is a prodigious
confumption of wood in the forges, it is continually
dvnndling away. A navigable canal is made from

great re- Glory,
i oftener """"v—

jd to Framilode, for

:ig a junct

between the

Severn and Thames. Its chalybeate fprings are, St
Anthony's well, in Abbenhall pariih ; at Barrow and
Maredon, in Bodington pariih j at Alh-church, near
Tewkefoury -, at Durableton, near Winchcomb ; at
Eafington, near Durlley ; and at Cheltenham. Its an-
cient fortifications, attributed to the Romans, Saxons,
or Danes, are Abfton and Wick, and at Dointon,
Dixton, Addlefthorp, Knole, Over Upton, Hanham
Bodington, and Bourton on the Water.

GLOCHIDON, a genus o/ plants, belonging to
the moncEcia clafs. See Botany I/idex.

GLOGAW, a ftrong town of Germany, in Silefia,
and capital of a duchy of the fame name. It is not
very large, but is well fortified on the fide of Poland.
It has a handfome caftle, with a tower, in which feve-
ral counfellors were condemned by Duke John, in 1498,
to perilh with hunger. Befides the Papifts, there are
a great number of Proteftants and Jews. It was taken
by aJTault, by the king of Prulfia, in 1 741, and the
garrifon made prifoners. After the peace in 1742, the
king of PrufFia fettled the fupreme court of juftice
liere, it being, next to Brellaw, the moft populous
place in Silefia. It is feated on the river Oder, in
E. Long. ij. 13. N. Lat. 51. 40.

Glogaw the Lkss, a town of Silefia, in the duchy
of Opelen, now in the poflelTion of the king of Pruflia.
It is t«'o miles fouth-eaft of great Glogaw, and 45
north-weft of Breflaw. E. Lon. 16. 15. N. Lat. 51.
38.

GLOPvIA Patri, among ecclefiaflical writers. See

DOXOLOGY.

GLORIOSA, SUPERB LILY, a genus of plants, be-
longing to the hexandria clafs, and in the natural me-
thod ranking under the nth order, Sartnentofee. See
Botany Index.

GLORY, renown or celebrity. The love of re-
nown, or defire of fame and reputation, appears to be
one of the principal fprings of aclion in human fociety.
Glory, therefore, is not to be contemned, as fome of
the ancient philofophers alTecled to teach : but it im-
ports us to regulate our purfuit after it by the didates
of reafon ; and if the pubhc approbation will not fol-
low us in that courfe, we muft leave her behind. —
We ought to have our judgments well inflrucled as
to what aftions are truly glorious ; and to remember,
that in every important enterprife, as Seneca obferves,
ReSle faBi fccijje merces eji ; officii frit£ius, if>Jiim offi-
cium ejl: "The reward of a thing well done, is to have
done it ; the fruit of a good office, is the office itfelf."
Th'ofe who by other methods fcatter their names into

many mouths, Ihoiv they rather hunt after
put.ilion than a good one, and their reward
infamy than fame.

Men generally, and almoft inflinclively, affix glory
only to fuch a6lions as have been produced by an in-
nate defire for public good ; and we meafure it by that
degree of influence which any thing done has upon the
common happinefs.

If the atlions of the hero conduft fooneft to glory
and uith the greateft fplendour, and if the victorious
general is lo great after a fignal engagement ; it is be-
caufe the fervice he has done is for the moment, and
for all ; and becaufe we think without retlecling, that
he has faved our habitsjtions, our wealth, and our chil-
dren, and every thing that attaches us to life. If the
man of fcience, who in his ftudy has difcovered and
calculated the motions of the heavenly bodies, who in
his alembics has unveiled fome of the fecrets of nature,
or who has exhibited to mankind a new art, rifes to
fame with lefs noife ; it is becaufe the utility which
he procures is more ^v^dely diffufed, and is often of
lefs fervice to the prefent than to fucceeding genera-
tions.

The confequences, therefore, of thefe two advan-
tages are as oppofite as the caufes are different j and
while the benefits procmred by the warrior appear to
have no more influence, and while his glory becomes
obfcure, that of a celebrated wiiter or inventor ftill in-
creafes, and is more and more enlarged. His works
every day bring back his name to that age which ul'es
them, and thus ftill add to his celebrity and fame.

This pofthumous fame indeed has been decried by
fome writers. In particular, the author of the Religion
of Nature delineated has treated it as highly irrational
and abfurd. " In reality (fays he) the man is not
known ever the more to pofterity, becaufe his name is
tranfmitted to them ; He doth not live, becaule his
name does. When it is laid, Julius Ct«far fubdued
Gaul, conquered Pompey, &c. it is the fame thing as
to fay, the conqueror of Pompey was Julius Cgefar ;
i. e. Ciefar and the conqueror of Pompey is the fame
thing ; Caefar is as much known by one defignation as
by the other. The amount then is only this, that the
conqueror of Pompey conquered Pompey'; or fome-
body conquered Pompey ; or rather, fince Pompey is
as little known now as Ciefar, fomebody conquered
fomebody. Such a poor bulinefs is this boafted immor-
tality ! and fuch is the thing called glory among us !
To difcerning men tills fame ii mere air, and what tliey
defpife if not ihun."

But furely it were to confider too curioufly (as Ho-
ratio fays to Hamlet) to confider thus. For (as the
elegant author of Fitzolhorne's Letters olifervcs) al-
though fame with pofterity ffiould be, in the ftrift ana-
lyfis of it, no other than what is here defcribed, a mere
unlnterefting propofition, amounting to nothing more
than that lomebody afted meritorioully ; yet it would
not neceflarily follow, that true philofophy would ba-
niili the defire of it from the human breaft : for this paf-
fion may be (as moft certainly it is) wifely implanted
in our fpecies, notwithftanding the corrcfponding ob-
jecT ftiould in reality be very different from what it ap-
pears in imagination. Do not many of our moft refin-
ed and even contemplative pleafures owe their exiftence
to our miftakes ? It is but extending fome of our fenfes

to

G L O

r 1

to a higher degree of acutenefs than tvc no\v poflefs
them, to make the faireft views of nature, or the iiobleft
yproduftions of art, appear horrid and deformed. To fee
things as they truly and in themfelves are, would not
always, perhaps, be of advantage to us in the intellec-
tual world, any more than in the natural. But, after
all, who ihall certainly afilire us, that the plcafure of
virtuous fame dies with its pofleiTor, and reaches not to
a farther fcene of exiftence ? There is nothing, it fliould
feem, either abfurd or unphiloiophical in fuppofing it
poflible at leaft, that the pvaifes of the good and the ju-
dicious, the fweeteil mufic to an honeft ear in this world,
may be echoed back to the manfions of the next ; that
the poet's defcription of Fame may be literally true,
and though {he walks upon earth, (lie may yet lift her
head into heaven.

To be convinced of the great advantage of cherilh-
ing this high regard to pofterity, this noble defire of
an after lite in the breath of others, one need onlv
look back upon the hiftory of the ancient Greeks
and Romans. For what other principle was It which
produced that exalted ftrain of virtue in thofe days,
that may well ferve, in too many refpects, as a model
to thefe ? Was it not the confenttens laus bonorum, the
incorrupta vox bene judicantium (as Tully calls it),
" the concurrent approbation of the good, the uncor-
rupted applaufe of the wife," that animated their moll:
generous purfuits ?

In fhort, can it be reafonable to extinguifh a paflion
which nature has univerfally lighted up in the human
breaft, and which we conftantly find to burn with moft
ftrength and brightnefs in the nobleft and beft formed
bofoms ? Accordingly revelation is fo far from endea-
vouring to eradicate the feed vihich nature has thus
deeply planted, that (lie rather feems, on the contrary,
to cherilh and forward its growth. To be excilled
ivith honour, and to be had in evcrliijling remembrance,
are in the number of thofe encouragements which the
Jewi(h difpenlation oftered to the virtuous ; and the
perfon from whom the facred Author of the Chriliian
fyftem received his birth, is herfelf reprefented as re-
joicing that all generations fhould call her blejjed.

GLOSS, a comment on the text of any author, to
explain his fenfe more fully and at large, whether in
«he fame language or any other. See the article
Commentary. — The word, according to fome, comes
from the Greek yXuTTx., " tongue ;" the ofl'.ce of a g/ofs
being to explain the text, as that of the tongue is to
difover the mind.

Gloss is likewife ufed for a literal tralillation, or an
interpretation of an author in another language word
for word.

Gloss is alfo ufed in matters of commerce, &c. for
the luftre of a filk, (hiff, or the like.

GLOSSARY, a fort of diaionary, explaining the
obfcure and antiquated terms in fome old author ;
fuch are Du Cange's Latin and Greek Glolfaries,
Spelman's ClolTary, and Rennet's GlolTary at the end
of his Parochial Antiquities.

GLOSSOPETRA, or glottopi:tr.\, in Naiurol
HiJ!(jry, a kird of extraneous fofTil, fomevvhat in form
of a ierptnt's tongue ; frequently found in the illand
of Malta r^nd other places.

The vulgar notion is, that they are the tongues of
fcrpents petrified ; and hence their name, which is a

71 ] G L O

compound of yXarrx, " tongue" and s-sr^*, " ftone."CIo(l'opetr%
Hence alio their traditionary virtue in curing the bites 'I
of ferpents. The general opinion of naturalifts is, "^^' ,
that they are the teeth of (illies, left at land by the
waters of the deluge, and fince jietiified.

'i'he feveral fizcs of the teeth of the fame fpecies,
and thofe of the feveral different fpecies of (harks, af-
ford a vail variety of thefe folTil fubllances. 'I'heiv
ufual colours are blick, bluilh, whitilh, yellowi(h, or
brown ; and in fhape they ufually approach to a trian-
gular figure. Some of them are (imple ; others are
triculpidate, having a (mall point on each fide of the
large one : many of them are quite flraight ; but they
are frequently found crooked, and bent in all direc-
tions ; many of them are ferrated on their edges, and
others have them plain ; fome are undulated on their
edges, and (lightly ferrated on thefe undulations. They
dilfer alfo in fize as much as in figure ; the larger be-
ing four or five inches long, and the fmaller lefs than
a quarter of an inch.

They are molt ufually found with us in the (Irata of
blue clay, though fometimes alfo in other (libflanccs,
and are frequent in the clay pits of Richmond and
other places. They are very frequent alfo in Ger-
many, but nowhere fo plentiful as in the ifland of
Malta.

The Germans attribute many virtues to thefe follil
teeth ; they call them cordials, fudorifics, and alexi-
pharmics : and the people of Malta, where they are
extremely plentiful, hang them about their children's
necks to promote dentition. They may polTibly be of
as much ("ervice this way as an anodyne necklace ; and
If fufpended in fuch a manner that the child can get
them to its mouth, may, by their hardnefs and fmooth-
nefs, be of the fame ufe as a piece of coral.

GLOTTIS, in Anatomy, the narrow fiit at the
upper part of the afpera arteria, which is covered by
the epiglottis vvhen we hold our breath and when we
fwallow. The glottis, by its dilatation and contrac-
tion, modulates the voice. See Anatomy, N° 183.

GLOVE, a covering for the hand and wri(l.

Gloves, with refpect to commerce, are diftinguifiied
into leathern gloves, filk gloves, thread gloves, cotton
gloves, worfl^d gloves, &c. Leathern gloves are made
of chamois, kid, lamb, doe, elk, buff, &c. Gloyes
now pay a duty to the king, which increafes according
to their value.

To throw the glove, was a praftice or ceremony
very ufual among our forefathers \ being the challenge
whereby another ivas defied to (ingle combat. It is
ftill retained at the coronation of our kings ; when
the king's champion calls his glove in Wcftminiler
hall. See Chami'IOK.

Favyn fupjiofes the cuftom to have arifen from the
eaftern nations, who in all their fales and deliveries of
lands, goods, &c. ufed to give the purchafer their
glove by way of livery or invefliture. To this cfteft
he quotes Ruth iv. 7. where the Chaldee paraphrafe
calls glove what the common vcrfion renders by Jhot.
He adds, that the Rabbins interpret by glove that
paffage in the cviiith Pfalm, In Iitumeam cxtcndam cal-
ceamenlum meiim, " Over Edom ivill 1 call out my Ihoe."
Accordingly, among us, he who took up the glove,
declared thereby his acceptance of the chaUenge -. and
as a part of the ceremony, continues Favyn, took the
' 5 E 2 glove

G L O

[ 772 ]

G L O

Giover. alove oiF his own right hand, and cart it upon the
^ ground, to be taken up by the challenger. This had
the force of a mutual engagement on each fide, to meet
at the .time and place which lliould be appointed by the
king, parliament, or judges. The fame author alTerts,
that the cuflom which Hill o'-iiains of blefiing g/o-i'ss
in the coronation of the kings of France, is a remain
of the ?aftern praftice of giving polTeflion with the
glove, lib. .xvi. p. 1017, &c.

Anciently it was prohibited the judges to wear
gloves on the bench. And at prefent in the Harries of
molT: princes, it is not fafe going in without pulling off
the gloves.

GLOVER, RlCHAKD, the author of Leonidas and
feveral other eileemed works, was the fan of Richard
Glover, a Hamburgh merchant in London, and was
bom in St Martin's lane in the year 1712. He very
early Qiowed a flrong proper.fity to and genius for
poetry ; and while at fchool, he wrote, amongll other
pieces, a poem to the memory of Sir Ifaac Newton,
prefixed to the view of that incomparable author's
philofophy, publilhed in 410, in 1 7 28, by his intimate
^ friend Dr Pemberton. Bat though poflelTed of talents

whjch ^vere calculated to excel in the !i' erary world, he
ivas conte!it to devote his attention to commerce, and
ut a proper period commenced a Hamburgh merchant.
He llill, however, cultivated literature, and alTociatcd
with thofe who were eminent in fcience. One of his
carliefl friends was i^.Iatthew Green, the ingenious bat
obfcuie author of fome admirable poems, which in
1737, after his death, were collccled and publiflied by
Mr Glover. In 1737, Mr Glover married Mifs Nunn,
with v.hom he received a handfome fortune ; and in
the fame month publiflied Leonidas, a poeci in 410,
%vhich in this and the next year pailed through three
editions. This poem was inicribed to Lord Cobham ;
and on its firll appearance was received by the world
with great approbation, though it has fiiice been un-
accountably neglecled. Lord Lytteltcn,* in a popular
publication called Common Senfe, and in a poem ad-
dreffed to the author, praifed it in the warm?ft terms ;
and Dr Pemberton publilhed, Obfervations on Poetry,
efpecially epic, occaSoned by the late poem upon Leoni-
das, 1738, I 2mo, merely with a view to point out its
beauties. In 1739, Mr Glover publilhed "London,
or the Progrcfs of Commevce," 410 ; and a ballad en-
titled, Hofier's Ghoft. Both thefe pieces feem to have
been written with a vie%v to incite the public to refent
li;e mi(hehaviour of the Spaniards ; and the latter had
a very confiderable elfeCl. The political diflenfions at
this period raged with great violence, and more efpe-
cially in the ^metropolis 5 and at different meetings of
the livery on thofe occafions, iVIr Glover was always
called to the chair, and acquitted himfelf in a very able
manner, his conduct being patriotic and his fpeeches
maucrly. His talents for public fpeaking, his know-
ledge of political affairs, and his information concern-
ing trade and commerce, foon afterwards pointed him
out to the merchants of London as a proper pcrfon to
conduA their application to parliament on the fubjedl
of the negled of their trade. He accepted the ollicc ;
and in fumming up the evidence gave very llriking
proofs of his oratorical powers. This fpecch was pro-
nounced Jan. 27. 1742.

In the year 1744 died the duchcfs of Madborough,

and by her will left to Mr Glover and Mr Mullet 5C0I.
each, to write the Hiltory of the Duke of Marlbo- ^
rough's Life. This bcqyeil, however, never touk place.
It is fuppofed that Mr Glover very early renounced his
ihare of it ; and Mallet, though he continued to talk
of performing the talk almoil as long as he lived, is
-low known never to have made the lealt progrefs in it. -
About this period Mr Glover withdrew a good deal
from public notice, and lived a life of retirement. He
had been unfuccefsful in his bufinefs ; and with a very
Liudable delicacy had preferred an obfcure retreat to
popular obfervation, unul his affairs fliould put on a
more profperous appearance. He had been honoured
with the attention of Frederick prince of Wales, who
once prefented him with a coaipkte fet of the claffics,
elegantly bound j and, on his abfenting himfelf for
fome time on account of the embarraffinent in his cir-
cumfiances, fent him, it is fald, 503!. The prince
died in IVIarch 1731 ; and in May following Mr Glo-
ver was once more drawn from his retreat by the im-
portunity of his friends, and flood candidate for the
place of chamberlain of London. It unfortunately
happened that,he did not declare himfelf until molt of
the livery had engaged their votes ; by wliich means
he loft his elcSion.

In 1 753, Mr Glover produced at Dmfy Lane his tra-
gedy of Boadicea ; which was acled nine nights, in the
month of December. It had the advantage of the
performance of Mr Garrick, Mr Moffop, Mrs Gibber,
and Mrs Pritchard. From the prologue it ieems to
have been patronized by tise author's friends in the
city ; and Dr Pemberton wrote a pamphlet to recom-
mend it. — In 1761, Mr Glover publitlted Medea, a
tragedy written on the Greek model ; but it was not
afted until 1767, when it appeared for the firil: time
on the ftage at Drury Lane for Mrs Yates's benefit.
At the acceiTion of his prefent majelly, he appears to
have furmounted the difhcullies of his fituation. In
the parliament which ivas then called, he was chofen
member for Weymouth, and continued to fit as fuch
until the diffolution of it. He, aoout this time, in-
terefted himfelf about India affairs, at one of Mr Sul-
livan's eleftions •, and in a fpcech introduced the fable
of the man, horfc, and bear-, and drew this conclulion,
that, whenever merchants made ufe of armed forces to
maintain their trade, it would end in their deftruclion.

In 1770, the poem of Leonidas requiring a new
edition, it was republilhed in two volumes i2mo, cor-
reSed throughout, and extended from nine books to
twelve. It had alfo fevieral new charailers added, be-
fides placing the old ones in new fituations. The im-
provements made in it were very confiderable; but we
believe the public curiofity, at this period, was not fuf-
ficicntly alive to recompenfe the pains beftowed on this
once popular performance. The calamities arifing from
the wounds given to public credit, in June 1772, by
the failure of the bank of Douglas, Heron, and Co. in
Scotland, ocrafioned Mr Glover's taking a very atlive
part in the fettling thofe complicated concerns, and
in (lopping the dillrefs then fo univerfally felt. In Fe-
bruary 1774, he called the annuitants of that banking-
houfc together, at the King's Arms tavern, and laid
propofals before them for the fccurity of their de-
mands, with which they were fully fatisfied. He alfo
tir.'dcrtook to manage the intereRs of the merchants

and

G L 'U

Glo-v- and traders of London concerned in tlie tr;»da to Ger
worm many and HoUind, and of the dealers in foreign linens,
„i^^ in their application to parlinmcnt in May 1774. Both
__^^___ the fpecches made on thefe occafions were publiftied in
a pamphlet in that year. In the fucceeding year
he eiigaged on behalf of the Weft India merchants
in their application to parliament, and examined
the witnefle* and fummed up the evidence in the
fame mafterly manner he had done on former occa-
fions. For the alliitance he afforded the merchants in
this bufmefs, he was complimented by them with a
fervice of plate, of the value of 330!. The fpeech
which he delivered in the houfe was in the fame year
printed. This, we believe, was the laft opportunity he
had of difplaying his cratorical talents in public. Ha-
ving- now arrived at a period of life which demanded a
rt'cefs from bulinef";, Mr Glove- retired to eafe and in-
dependence, and vrore out the remainder of his days
■with dignity and with honour. It is probable that
he flill continued his attention to his mufe, as we are
informed that, befides an epic poem of coniiderable
length, he has left fome tragedies and comedies behind
him in manufcript. After experiencing for iome time
the infirmities of age, he departed this life 25th No-
vember 1785; leaving behind him a moil elHmable
character as a man, a citizen, and a writer.

GLOW-WORM. See Lamtyris, Extomology/Wcv.

GLUCIN A, in Chemijlrij, an earthy fubftance which
was dilcovered by Vauquelin in 1798, in analyzhig the
emerald of whicn it forms a component part. For an
account of its properties and combinations. See Che-
mistry, N° 1 1 65.

GLUCKSTADT, a flrong and confiderable town
o; Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and duchy
of Hollfein, with a lirorig caftle, and fubjecl to Den-
mark. It is feated on the river Elbe, near its mouth.
E. Long. 9. 15. N. Lat. 52 53.

GLUE, among artificer's, a tenacious vifcid matter,
which ferves as a cement to bind or connect things to-
gether.

Glues are of different kinds, according to the vari-
ous ufes they are defigned for, as the common glue,
glove glue, and parchment glue j whereof the two lait
are more properly called _/f2;f.

Hamel du Monceau has written one of the bell works
on the fubjecl.of glue. According to this author, glue
%vas at firit principally prepared from the membranous,
tendinous, and cartilaginous parts of animals, and after
being dried, they were melted into tablets. It is cer-
tain, however, that every animal fabltance containing
jelly, may be ufed in the manufafture of glue \ and,
according to Du Hamel himfelf, a ftrong, but black-
coloured glue may be obtained from bones and hartC-
hom, after they are diiTolved in Papin's digefter. Of
the truth of this fact Papin hlmfelf likewife allures us,
for he prepared a jelly from bones, and even from ivo-
ry, by which he glued together fome pieces of broken
glafs ; and fubfequent experiments made by other che-
r.iiits, have confirmed his aSTertion.

To the information contained on this fubjefl in the
works of Papin, Spielman has added many valuable re-
marks. He not only extracted glue from bones, but
alfo from all the folid parts of animals, by boiling alone,
».'> ^vell as from the teeth of the fea horfe, the wild
boar, the v.-ood-loufe, and the viper.

773 ] G L U

r I'he glue manufactured in Europe is of diiTcrent

kinds ; but that which is made in England is ellctmed *"
the belt. Its colour is of a brownilh rea. The Flan-
ders glue is conlidercd as of an inferior quality to that
made in England, while the glue manufaclure4 '"
France is not fo good as either. The realon afligiied
for this difference of quality is, that bones and finews
are made ufe of by the Flemiili and French in the ma-
nufacture of this article, while the Englilh employ fkins,.
^vhich yield a much llronger glue. Dr Lewis informs
us that the Engliih fteep and vvalh the cuttings of the
hides in water, then boil them in frelh water till the
liquor becomes of a proper confillcnce, after which
they itrain it throiigh baikets, allow it to fettle, then
expofe it to further evaporation, and pour it into flat
moulds, where it unites. VVHien thoroughly cooled, it
is converted into folid cakes, which are cut into pieces,
and dried on a kind of net.

Grenet for many years turned his attention to the
manufacturing of glue. Having made a number of ex-
periments on every fubftance formerly employed for
this purpofe, he found that bones afford the molt abun-
dant quantity of glue, and yield it with facility. Ha-
ving deprived them of the fat they contain, he procu-
red a jelly by fimply boiling them, which, when dried,
and thus changed into glue, he found fnperior to that
which was prepared in France, and nearly equal to the
belt glue of commerce.

From the experiments of ?armentier, it appears that
fix pounds of button-makers rafplngs yielded a pound of
excellent glue, not inferior to that which is manufac-
tured in England. The glue which he obtained froni
the filings of ivory was equally as good, but more
highly coloured. The filings of horn yielded none of
this fubllance.

To obtain glue as colourlefs as pofflble, a very fmall
quantity of water ibould be employed for extracting
the jelly, by which means it may be concentrated with-
out long evaporation, as expolure to heat has always a
greater or lefs induence on the colour in proportion to
the time. The whitenefs and tranfparency of the Flan-
ders glue are faid to originate from an adherence to this
plan.

In their confidence, colour, tafte, fmell, and folubi-
lity, glues are found to differ from each other. Some
glues will dilTolve by agitation in cold water, whila
others are only foluble at the point of ebu'lition. It is
generally ?dmitted that the belt glue is tranfparent, of
a brownilh yellow colour, and having neither tatle nor
fmell. It is perfcttly foluble in water, forming a vif-
coiis fluid, which, when dry, prefcrves its tenacity and
tranfparency in every p.irt, and has mote loliJity, co-
lour, and vifcidity, in proportion to the age and
itrength of the animal from which it is produced.

For the following account of the manufacture of glue
we are indebted, to MrJohnClennel of Newcaftle. "The
improvement (he obferves) of any manufacture depends
upon its eafy accefs to men of fcience, and a prudential
theorift can never be better employed than in attempting,
to reduce to regularity or to fyftcm the manufactures that
may fall under his attention. In conformity to the Crft
principle, I made fome notes whillt viuiing a glue ma-
nufactory a few years ago in Southwark, and t'lofe, in-
terwoven with .the remarks on that fiibjcCl of fome che-
niills ef'the firft icfpeClability, I take the liberty of-

leudia?

G L U [7;

clue, fending you : at the fame time I mull beg of you, or
* your correfpondents, that where it may be correcltd in

anv manner, it may be done, and I ihall feel myfelf
obliged by the attention.

" Glue is an infpiffated jelly, made of the parings of
hides or horns of any iiind, the pelts obtained from fur-
riers, and the hoofs and ears of horfes, oxen, calves,
fheep, &c. quantities of all which are imported in ad-
dition to the home fupply, by m.any of the great manu-
faflurers of this article : thefe are firft digelfed in lime
water, to cleanfe them as far as it can from tlie greafe
or dirt they may have contrafled ; they are then lleep-
ed in clean water, taking care to llir them Tvell from
time to time ; afterwards they are laid in a heap, and
the fuperabundant water preiled out ; tlien they are
boiled in a large brafs caldron with clean water, £kim-
min:^ off the dirt as it rifes, and further cleanfed by put-
ting in, after the whole is diilolved, a little melted
alum or lime finely powdered, which, by the ir deterfive
properties, ttill further purge it : the ikimming is con-
tinued for fome time, when the mafs is ftrained through
balkets,- and fuffered to fettle, that the remaining im-
purities, if any, may fublide •, it is then poured gently
Into the kettle again, and further evaporated by boiling
a iecond time, and ikimming, until it becomes of a clear
but darkilh brown colour : ivhen it is thought to be
ftrong enough (which is known either by the length of
time a certain quantity of water and materials have
boiled, or by its appearance during ebullition), it is
poured into frames or moulds of about fix feet long,
one broad, and tivo deep, where it hardens gradually
as the heat decreafes : out of thefe troughs or receivers
it is cut, when cold, by a fpade, into fquare pieces or
cakes, and each of th"re placed within a fort of wood-
en box, open in three divifions to the back ; in this the
glue, as yet foft, is taken to a table by women, where
tliey divide it into three pieces ( a ) with an inftrument
not unlike a boiv, having a brafs wire for its ftring ;
with this they ftand behind the box and cut by its
openings, from front to back : the pieces thus cut are
taken out into the open air, and dried on a kind of
coarfe net work, fattened in moveable iheds of about
lour feet fquare, which are placed in rows in the glue-
maker's field (every one of which contains four or five
rows of net work) ; when perfedlly dry and hard, it is
fit for fale.

" 1'hat is thought the beft glue which fwells confi-
derably without melting, by three or four days immer-
fion in cold water, and recovers its former dimenfions
and properties bv drying. Glue that has got froft, or
that looks thick and black, may be melted over again
and refined, with a fuilicient quantity added of frelh to
overcome any injury it may have fuftained ; but it is
generally put into the kettle after what is in it has
been purged in the fecond boiling. To know good
from i.'ail glue, it is neceflary for the purchafer to l.old
it bci'.veen his eye and the light, and if it appears of a
ftrong dark brown colour, i>nd free from cloudy or
black fpots, the article is good."

A glue tliat is colourlefs and of fuperior quality, is

4 ] G L U

obtained from the fkins of eels, and known by tlie name
of //zf. It is even procured from vellum, parchment, ^
and fome of the white fpecies of leather ; but for com-
mon purpofes this is by far too expenfive, and is only
made ufe of in thofe cafes of delicate workman Ihip
where glue would be too grofs. The Ikins of the rab-
bit, hare, and cat, are made ufe of in the manufac-
turing of fize, by thofe who are employed in gildino^
gold, polilhing, and painting, in various colours.

From the experiments of Mr Hatchett it appears,
that membrane yields different quantities of gelatine, the
lolutions of which evaporated to ilrynels, afforded him
an opportunity of obf^i ving the different degrees of vif-
cidity and tenacity of mucilage, fize, and glue. He alfo
found that the more vilcid glues are obtained witll
greater dithculty than fuch as are lefs fo. When a
cake of glue has been fleeped three or four days in cold
ivater, it is confidered of the bell quality, if it fwell
much without being diffolved, and if, when taken out,
it recovers its original figure and hardnefs by dry-
ing-

On comparing the Ikins of different animals, Mr
Hatchett found, that fuch as were moft flexible more
readily yielded their gelatine, and that produced from
the ikin of the rhinoceros was by far the moll viftid of
any. The true ikin of any animal was moft affeded
by long boiling ; but the hide of the rhinoceros was
tlie moft infoluble.

He found that hair was not fo much affefted as Ikin;
but the cartilages of tiie joints, when boiled long in
water, were as perfeftly foluble as the cutis, which is
not the cafe with the other cartilages, as they afford
little or no gelatine. The horns of the ox, ram, and
goat, are very different from thofe of the flag ; and
the fmall quantity of gelatine they are found to contain,
is produced more gradually, and with greater diffi-
culty.

According to Hatchett, the effefts of diluted nitric
acid on the fubftances commonly eniployed in the ma-
nufafturing of glue, were exailly analogous to thofe of
boiling water, and were always moft poiverful on thofe
fubftances v.hich contained the greatell quantity of ge-
latine. Almoft all animal fubftances are convertible
either into glue or foap, with this additional advantage,
that thofe parts of them wiich v, ouid not be employed
in making the one, are the moft proper in the manu-
failure of the other.

Another fine fpecies of glue, knovm by the name of
iftnglafs, is the produce of certain fifti, very common
in the Ruflian feas, found on entering the rivers Wol-
ga, Lyak, Don, anJ DLinube. In Mofrovy it is pre-
pared ai\)[\c liurgcQii and the Jlorled, which yield the
moft beautiful iliui^lafs. The fiih from frefti water are
efteemed the beft, as they afford an ifingials more fle-v;-
ible and traufpirent th i :niy other.

When the bladder is extracled, it is waftied in water
to free it from tht blood, if any adheres to it, but not
otherwife. It is then cut longitudinally, and the outer
membrane taken off, the colour of which is brown,
while the other membrane is fo fine and white as to be

^vith

(a) V^.^n the women, by miftake, cut only two, that which is doaoL
Into the kittle again.

is called a bijhup, and thrown

G L IT [7

G'.xme with diiEciilty feparated from the filh. Tliey are I'orni-
II ed into rolls of the fize of the finger, with the fine
^ Glut tony ^ membrane in the middle, and hung in the air to dry
by degrees. Good ifinglafs is white, perfedly dry,
femitranfparent, and without fraell. It is foluble in
water with a gentle heat, but is eafily dillblved in al-
cohol, in which it differs eiTentially from common glue.
That which is made from different parts of lea wolves,
fea cows, fharks, and whales, is employed in the clari-
fying of different wines and other liquors. Ilinglafs Is
of all lliadcs of colour, from pure tranfparency to black ;
but fiich as are large and yelloiv are reckoned the
worft. They are opaque, and their fmell is difagree-
able.

From 503 grains of ilinglafs Mr Hatchett obtained
j6 grains of coal, from which l\ grain of earthy re3-
duum were obtained by reducing it to afhes. Of C')n-
fequence there were only 54.5 grains of pure coal, and
the remaining 1 .5 he found to be phofphate of foda,
with an extremely fmall proportion of pholphate of
lime.

GLUME (g/itma), among botanifts, a fpecies of ca-
lyx, conilfllng of two or three membranous valves,
which are often pellucid at the edges. This kind of
calyx belongs to the graSes.

GLUT, among falconers, the (limy fiibftance that
lies in a hawk's paunch.

GLUTA, a genus of plants belonging to the gy-
nandiia clafs. See Botany Index.

GLUTiEUS, a name common to three mufcles
whofe odiice It is to extend the thigh. See An'atomy,
Table of the Mufcles.

GLUTTON. See Mustela, Mammalia InJex.

GLUTTONY, a voracity of appetite, or a propen-
Cty to gonnandizing.

There is a morbid fort of gluttony, csWeA fames ca-
nina, " dog-hke appetite," which fometimes occurs,
and renders the perfon feized with It an objed of pity
and of cure as in other difeafes : (fee Bulimy). — But
profeifed habitual . gluttons may be reckoned amongft
■ the monflers of nature, and deemed in a manner punilh-
able for endeavouring to bring a dearth or famine into
the places where they live. For which reafon, people
think King James L was in the right, when a man be-
ing prefented to him that could eat a whole (heep at
one meal, he alked " What he could do more than an-
other man r" and being anfivered " He could not do fo
much, fald " Hang him then ; for it is unfit a man
ihould live that eats fo much as 20 men, and cannot do
fo much as one."

The emperor Clodius Albinus would devour more
apples at once than a bushel would hold. He would
eat 500 figs to his breakfalt, 100 [leaches, 10 melons,
20 pound weight of grapes, 100 gnat-fnappers, and
40 D oyfters. " Fye upon him (faith Lipfius) ; God
keep fuch a curfc from the earth."

One of our Danlfli kings named Hardihnute was fo
great a glutton, that a hiflorian calls him Eacca de Por-
co, " Swine's mouth." His tables were covered four
times a-day with the molt coflly viands that either the
air, fea, or land, could furnifh ; and as he lived he
died ; for, revelling and caroufing at a wedding ban-
ffuct at Lambeth, he fell down dead. His death was
fo welcome to his fubjecls, that they celebrated the day
with fporls and paftlmes, calling it Hod tide, which

75 ] G M E

iignifics fcorn and contempt. With this king ended Glycin.
the reign of the Danes in England. 11^.

One Phagon, under the reign of the emperor Au- . "'"''"
rellanus, at one meal, ate a n-hole boar, ico loaves of
bread, a flieep, a pig, and drank above three gallons of
wine.

We are told by Fuller *, that one Nicholas Wood, ' IVeriH,
of Harrlfon In Kent, ate a whole iheep of i6s. price P-^"^*
at one meal, raw ; at another time 30 dozen of pi-
geons. At Sir William Sidley's in the fame county,
he ate as much vicluals as would have fufficed 30 men.
At Lord Wottoii's raanfion houfe in Kent, he devour-
ed at one dinner 84 rabbits ; which, by computation,
at half a rabbit a man, would have ferved 1 63 men.
He ate to his breakfalt 1 8 yards of black pudding. He
devoured a ivhole hog at one fitting down ; and after
it, being accommodated with fruit, he ate three pecks
of damullns.

A counfellor at law, whofe name was Mallet, well
knon-n in the reign of Charles L ate at one time au
ordinary provided in Weftminfter for 30 men at 1 2d.
a-plece. His practice not being fufficient to fupply
him with better fort of meat, he fed generally on of-
fals, ox livers, hearts, &c. He lived to almolt 60
years of age, and for the feven lalt years of his life ate
as moderately as other men. A narrative of his life
was publilhed.

GLYCINE, KKOEBED-ROOTED LIQUORICE-VETCH ;

a genus of plants belonging to the diadelphia clafs ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 3zd or-
der, Pnpilionaceie. See Botany Index.

GLYCIRRHIZA, liq.uorice; a genus of plants
belonging to the diadelphia clafs ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 32d order, Papilionacea.
See Botany and Materia Medica Index.

GLYNN, a county in the lower dillriiit of Georgia,
In America, bounded on the ealt by the ocean, on the
north by the river Alatamalia, by which It Is feparated
from Liberty county, and on the foulh by Camden.
It contains 413 people, of which 215 are (laves. The
chief town is Brunfwick.

GLYPH, in Sculpture and ArcliheBure, denotes
any canal or cavity ufed as an ornament.

GMELIN, John George, M. D. public lefturer
on botany and phyfic at Tubingen, member of the.
Royal Society of Gottlngen, and of the Academy of
Sciences at Stockholm, was born on the i2thof Au-
gull 1709, at Tubingen, where his father was an apo-
thecary. Such was his diligence while at fchool, that
he was qualified to attend the academical lectures at
the age of 1 4, and was created dodtor of medicine
when only 19. He paid a vifit about this time to the
metropolis of the RulTian em.pire, that he might have
the pleafure of feeing fome of his former teachers.
There he became acquainted with Blumentroft, direc-
tor of the academy, who introduced him to the meet-
ings of the members, and procured for him an annual
penfion. At Peterlhurgh he was fo much cllcemed,
that when he intimated a wifli in 1729 to return to
Tubingen,' he was honoured with a place among the
regular members of the academy, and chofen profeflbv
of chemiltry and natural hiftory in the year 1731. In
order to carry into execution a plan which had been
formed by Peter the Great, for exploring a paffage to
China and Japan along the coaft of tUe Ruflian empire,
Gmdla

M E [ 7

ng with two others, as properly

G

G.riclin was felefted

qualitied for that undertaking, and likewiie to afcertaiii
the boundaries of Siberia. The department of natural
hillory was alligned to our author. He had with him
and his companions, fix ftudents, two draftfraen, two
hunters, two miners, four land- furveyors, and 12 fol-
diers, with a ferjeant and drummer. They began their
journey on the 19th of Auguft 1733 5 and in 1736,
Steller and a painter joined their fociety, in order to
aflifl Gmelin in his arduous labours.

By exploring Kamtfchatka, they hoped to accom-
plilh their milTion in a fatisfaftory manner, for which
purpofe Steller proceeded to this place, and the reft of
the fociety continued their travels through Siberia. In
February 1 743 Gmelin returned to Peterihurgh in fafe-^
ty after a dangerous journey which lafted nine years
■ and a half, but proved of the utmoft importance to va-
rious branches of fcience. He refumed the offices uhich
he had filled before ; and having paid a vi'.it in 1747 to
his native country, he was chofen profetTor, while ab-
fent, in the room ot Bachmeifter deceafed. He was
leized with a violent fever in May 1 7 i' v wliich put a
period to his valuable life, in the 45th year of his age.
He was undoubtedly one of the moll eminent botanills
of the laft century, and has rendered his name immor-
tal by his F/ora Stbirica, feu Jilfloria plantarum SIberite,
in four parts, large quarto. He determined the boun-
daries between Europe and Afia, which every celebra-
ted geographer has adopted fmce his day. Through
all his works the traces of great modcfty, a facred re-
gard to truth, and the moll extenfive knowledge of na-
ture, are remarkably confpicuous.

Gmelix, Dr Samuel, was bom in 1743 at Tubin-
gen, where he alfo lludied, and became doclor in me-
dicine in 1763. He was afterwards admitted a mem-
ber of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St Peterf-
burg. He commenced his travels in June 1768 ; and
having Iraverltd the provinces of IVIofcoiv, Voronetz,
New- RulTia, Azof, Calan, and Allracan, he vifited,
in 1770 and 1771, the different harbours of the Caf-
pian, and examined with peculiar attention thofe parts
of the Perfian provinces ivhich border upon that fea, of
which he has given a circumiiantial account in the three
volumes of his travels already pubiiihed. Aftuated by
a zeal for extending his obfervations, he attempted to
pafs through the weftern provinces of Periia, which
are in a perpetual ftate of warfare, and infelled by nu-
merous banditti. Upon this expedition, he quitted, in
April 1772, Einzillee, a fmall trading place in Ghi-
lan, upon the fouthern Ihore of the Cafpian ; and, on
account of many difficulties and dangers, did not, un-
til December 2. 1773, reach Sallian, a town fituated
upon the mouth of the river Koor. Thence he pro-
ceeded to Baku and Kuba, in the province of Shirvan,
where he met with a friendly reception from Ali Feth
Khan, the fovereign of that diftrift. After he had
been joined by 20 Uralian CofTacks, and ^vhen lie was
.only four days journey from the Ruffian fortrefs Kiilar, he
and his companions were, on the 5ih of February 1774,
arretted by order of Ufmtii Kh;m, a petty Tartar prince,
through whole territories he was obliged to pafs. Uf-
niei urged as a pretence for this arreft, that 30 years
ago feveral families had efcaped from his dominions,
and had found an afylum in the Ruflian territories ;
.adding, that Graelin fliould riot be releafcd until ihtfe

76 J G N O

families were reftored. The profeffor was removed. Gnu 1
from prifon to prifon ; and at length, wearied out with !l

continued perfecutions, be' expired, July 27th, at Ach- . ^°"'
met-Kent, a village of Mount Caucafus. His death
was occaijoned partly by vexation for tiie lofs of feverai
papers and colledions, and partly by diforders cor.trac'l-
ed from the fatigues of his long journey. Some of his
papers had" been fcnt to Kiilar during his imprifon-
ment, and the others were not without great difficulty
refcued from the hands of the barbarian who had
detained him in captivity. The arrangement of thsfe
papers, which will form a fourth volume of his travels,
was at firll configned to the care of Guildenlbiedt, but
upon his de\th has been transferred to the learned
Pallas.

GMELINA, a genus of plants belonging to the di-
dynamia clafs ; and in the natiu-al method ranking un-
der the 40th order, Perfonatce. See BoT.\NY Index.

GNAPHALIUM, cudweed, goldy-locks, k-
TERNAL KLOU'ER, &.C. 5 a genus of plants belonging
to the lyngeneCa clafs ; and in the natural method rank-
ing under the 49th order, CompofiUe. See BotaX-iT
Index.

GNAT^ See Cui.ex, Ektomology Index.

GNESNA, a large and ftrong town of Great Po-
land, of which it is capital, and in the palatinate of
Calilh, with an archbiihop's fee, whole prelate is pri-
mate of Poland, and viceroy during the vacancy of the
throne. It was the firll town built in the kingdom,
and formerly more confiderable than at prefent. E.
Long. 18. 20. N. Lat. 52. 28.

GNETUM, a genus of plants belonging to the mo-
ncEcia clafs. See Botany Index.

GNIDIA, a genus of plants belonging to the oc-
tandria clafs. See Botany Index.

GNOMES, GxoMi, certain imaginary beings, who,
according to the cabbalills, inhabit the inner parts of
the earth. They are fuppofed fmall in ftature, and the
guardians of quarries, mines, &c. See Fairy.

GNOMON, in Dialling, the ftyle, pin, or cock of
a dial, which by its (liadow ihows the hour of the day.
The gnomon of every dial reprefents the axis of the
earth : (See Dial and Dialling.) — The word is
Greek, ^fiafnti, which literally implies fomething that
makes a thing known •, by reafon that the ftyle or pin
indicates or makes the hour known.

Gnomon, in AJlronomy, a ftyle erefted perpendicu-
lar to the horizon, in order to find the altitude of the
fun. See Astronomy.

By means of a gnomon, the fun's meridian altitude,
and confequently the latitude of the place, may be
found more exadly than with the fmaller quadrants.
See (Quadrant.

By the fame inftrument the height of any objeft
may be found : for as the dlllance of the obferver's eye
from the gnomon, is to the height of the ftyle ; fo is
the diliance of the obferver's eye from the objeft, to its
height.

For the ufts and application of gnomons, fee Geo-
graphy.

Gkomon of a Globe ; the inde.x of the hour circle.

GNOMONICS, the art of dialling. See Dial-
ling.

GN9STICS, ancient heretics, famous from the firft
rife of Chriftianity, principally in the eaft.

G N O

r 777 1

G N O

It appears from feveral paffages of tlie facred writ-
ings, uarticiilarly i Jolin ii, 1 8. I Tim. vi. 20. and
Col. ii. 8. that many perfons were infefttd with the
Gnoftic herefy in the firft century j though the feft did
not render itfelf confpicuous, either for number or re-
putation, hefore the time of Adrian, when fome wri-
ters erroneoufly date its rife.

Th.e name is formed of the Latin gnoflicus, and that
of the Greek -pvriKt^, " knowing," of yuaa-KU, " I
know ;" and was adopted by thofe of this feci, as if
they ivere the only perfons ^vho had the true know-
ledge of Chriilianity. Accordingly, they looked on
all other ChrilHans as fimple, ignorant, and barbarous
perfons, who explained and interpreted the facred
xvritings in a too low, literal, and unedifying fignifica^
tion. *

At firft the Gnoftics were only the philofophers and
wits of thofe times, who formed for themfelves a pe-
culiar fyrtem of theology, agreeable to the philofophy
of Pythagoras and Plato ; to which they accommodat-
ed all their interpretatioss of Scripture. But

GXOSTICS afterwards became a general name, com-
prehending divers fefts and parties of heretics, who rofe
in the firft centuries, and who, though they differed
among themfelves as to circumftances, yet all agreed in
fome common principles. They were fsch as corrupt-
ed the doctrine of the gofpel by a profane mixture of
the tenets of the oriental philofophy, concerning the
origin of evil and the creation of the world, with its
divine truths. Such were the Valentiaians, Simonians,
Carpocratians, Nicolaitans, &c.

Gnostics was fometimes alfo more particularly at-
tributed to the fucceflbrs of the firft Nicolaitans and
Carpocratians, in the fecond century, upon their lay-
ing afide the names of the firft authors. Such as would
be thoroughly acquainted with all their doctrines, re-
veries, and vifions, may confult St Irenoeus, Tertullian,
Clemens Alexandrinus, Origen, and St Epiphanius ;
particularly the firft of thefe writers, who relates their
fentiments at large, and confutes them at the fame time:
indeed, he dwells m'-,re exprefsly on the Vaientinians
than any other fort of Gnoftics ; but he fhows the ge-
neral principles whereon all their niiftaken opinions
were founded, and the method they followed in ex-
plaining fcripture. He accufes them of introducing
into religion certain vain and ridiculous genealogies,
i. e. a kind of divine proceflions or emanations, which
had no other foundation but in their own v.ild imagi-
nations.

In effeft, the Groftics confefled, that thefe aeons or
emanations were nowhere exprefsly delivered in the fa-
cred writings ; but infifted at the fame time, that Jefus
Chrift had intimated them in parables to fuch as could
underftand him. They built their theology not only
on the gofpels and the epiftles of St Paul, but alfo on
the law of Mofes and the prophets. Thefe laft laws
were peculiarly ferviceable to them, on account of the
allegories and allunons with which they abound, uhich
are callable of different interpretations : Though their
doctrine, concerning the creation of the world by one
or more inferior beings cf an evil or impcr/ecl nature,
led them to deny the divine authoritv of the books of
the Old Tcftament, which contradicled this idle fic-
tion, and filled them with an abhorrence of Mofcs and
the religion he taught y alleging, that lie was adluated

Vol. IX. Part II.

by the malignant author of this u-orld, who tOnfulted Gr.orti,;.
his own glory and authority, and not the real advau- ^— ~.— '
tagc of men. Their perfualion that evil refidrd in mat-
ter, as its centre and fource, made them treat th: body
with contempt, difcouragc marriage, and reject tlie
do6irine of the refurreclion of the body and its re-uniou
with the. i«imortal fpirit. Their notion, that malevo-
lent genii prefided in nature, and occafioned difcafes
and calamities, wars, and defolations, induced them to
apply themfelves to the ftudy of magic, in order to wea-
ken the powers or fufptnd the inlluencfi of their malig-
nant agents.

The Gnoftics confidcred Jefus Chrift as the Son of
God, and confequently inferior to the Father, who
Came into the world for the refcue and happineJ's of mi-
ferable mortals, oppreifed by matter and evil beingi ;
but they rejected our Lord's humanity, on the prin-
ciple that every thing corporeal is eflentially and in-
trinfically evil ; and therefore the greateft part of
them denied the reality of his fuSerings. They
fet a great value on the beginning of the gofpel of St
John, where they fancied they faw a great deal of their
feons, or emanations, under the Word, the Life, the
Light, &c. They divided all nature into three kinds
of beings, viz. hy/ic, or material ; pfijchic, or animal j
and fijieiimatic, or fpiritual. On the like principle they
alfo diftinguilhed three forts of men ; rfwtcrial, animal,
i.v,A fpiritual. The firft, who were material and inca-
pable of knowledge, inevitably periftied, both foul and
body ; the third, fuch as the Gnoftics themfelves pre-
tended to be, were all certainly faved ; the pfychic, or
animal, who were the middle between the other two,
were capable either of being faved or damned, accord-
ing to thtir good or evil aclions.

With regard to their mural doftrines and conduft,
they were much divided. The greateft part of the feci
adopted very auftere rules of life, recommended rigo-
rous abftinence, and prcfcribed fevere bodily mortifica-
tions, with a view of purifying and exalting the mind.
Ho'.vever, fome maintained, that there was no moral
ditTerence in human actions ; and thus, confounding
right with wrong, they gave a loofe rein to all the pa(^
fions, and aflerted the innocence of following blindly
all their motions, and of living by their tumultuous
dictates. They fupported their opinions and pra6tice
by various authorities : fome referred to fidtitious and
apocryphal writings of Adam, Abraham, Zoroaftcr,
Chrift, and his apqftlcs ; others boafted, that they had
deduced their fentiments from fccret dodlrines of Chrift,
concealed from the vulgar ; others affirmed, that they
arrived at fuperior degrees of ivifdom by an innate vi-
gour of mind -, and others afferted, that lliey were in-
ftnii^cd in thefe myftcrious parts of theological fcience
by Theudas, a difciple of St Paul, and by Matthia?,
one of the friends of our Lord. The tenets of the
ancient Gnoftics were revived in Spain, in the fourtli
century, by a fe<ft called the Prifcillianljis.

The appellation Gnoftic fometiraes alfo occurs in a ^

good fenfe, in the ancient ecclefiaftical writers, and
particularly Clemens Alexav.drinus, who, in the perfon
of his Gnoftic, defcribcs the characters and qu ilitics of
a perfeft Chriftian. Tltis point h labours iu the fe-
venth book of his Stromata, where be ftiows liut none
■but the Gnoftic, or learned perfon, has any true reli-
gion. He affirms, that were it poffible for the know-
5 F ledge

G O A , .r 77

r,mi, ledge of God to be feparatcd from eternal ralvatlon, the
^°''- Gnoftic would make no fcruple to choofe the k.no\v-
"""^' ledge ; and that if God would piomife him impunity

in doing of any thing he has "once fpoken againll, or of-
fer him heaven on thofe terms, he would never alter a
whit of his meafures. In this fenfe the father ufes
Gnolfics, in oppofition to the heretics of the fame
name ■, affirming, that the true Gnoftic is grown old in
the ftudy of the holy fcriptures ; and that he preferves
the orthodox doftrine of the apolUes and of the church ;
whereas the falfe Gnoftic abandons all the apoftolical
traditions, as imagining himfelf wifer than the apollles.
At length the name Gnoftic, which originally was the
mod glorious, became infamous, by the idle opinions
and diiTolute lives of the perfons who bore it.

GNU, or Gnol'. See Capra, Mammalia Index.

GOA, a large and ftrong town of Afia, in the pe-
ninfula on this fide the Ganges, and on the Malabar
coaif. It was taken by the Portuguefe in 1508, and
is the chief town of all their fettlements on this fide
the Cape of Good Hope. It llands in an ifland of the
fame name, about 12 miles in length, and fix in breadth;
and the city is built on the north fide of it, having the
conveniency of a fine falt-^vater river, capable of re-
ceiving Ihips of the greateft burden, where they lie
within a mile of the town. The banks of the river
are beautified with a great number of handfome ftruc-
tures; fuch as churches, caftles, and gentlemen's houfes.
The air within the town is unwhofefome, for which
reafon it is not fo well inhabited now as it was for-
merly. The viceroy's palace is a noble building ; and
Hands at a fmall diftance from the river, over one of

gates of the city, which leads to a fpaclous flreet.

th, ^

terminated by a beautiful church. This city
a great number of handfome churches, convents, and
cloifters, with a ftately large hofpital •, all well endow-
ed, and kept in good repair. The market place takes
up an acre of ground ; and in the fhops about it may
be had the produce of Europe, China, Bengal, and
other countries of Icfs note. Every church has a fet
of bells, iome of which are continually ringing.
There are a great many Indian converts ; but they
generally retain fome of their old culloms, parti-
cularly they cannot be brought to eat beef.' The
clergy are very numerous and illiterate j but the
churches are finely embellithed, and have great num-
bers of images. In one of thefe churches, dedicated to
Ron Jefus, is the chapel of St Franclfco de Xaviere,
whofe tomb it contains : this chapel is a moft fuperb
and magnificent place ; the tomb of the faint is entire-
ly of fine black marble brought from Lilbon ; on the
four fides of it the principal affions of the life of the
i lint are mod elegantly carved in baflb relievo ; thefe
reprefent his converting the different nations to the
Catholic faith ; the figures are done to the life, and
.Tiolf admirably executed : it extends to the top in a
})vramidical form, which terminates with a coronet of
mother-of-pearl. On the fides of this chapel are ex-
i client paintings, done by Italian mafter? ; the fubjecls
chieily from Scripture. This tomb and the chapel ap-
pertaining to it, muft have coll an immenfe fum of mo-
ney ; the Portuguefe juflly efteem it the greateft rarity
in the place. The houfes are large, and make a fine
fhow : but within they arc but poorly furnifiied. The
iijhabitants aie couteuud >Yitl) grcen^, fruits, aad

8 ] GOD

roots ; ^vhich, with a little bread, rice, and filh, is
their principal diet, though they have hogs and fowls
in plenty. The river's mouth is defended by feveral ,
forts and batteries, well 'planted with large cannon on
both fides j and there are feveral other forts in different
places.

Goa is the refidence of a captain general, who lives
in great fplendour. He ic alfo com.mander in chief of
all the Portuguefe forces in the Ealf Indies. They
have here two regiments of European infantry, three
legions of fepoys, three troops of native light horfe,
and a militia ; in all about five thoufand men. Goa
is at prefent on the decline, and in little or no ellima-
tion ^vith the country powers ; indeed their bigotry
and luperltitious attachment to their faitli is fo gene-
ral, that the inhabitants, formerly populous, are now-
reduced to a few thinly inhabited villages ; the chief
part of whom have been baptized ; for they will not
fufter any IVIuffulman or Gentoo to live within the
precinfts of the city : and thefe few are unable to car-
ry on the hulhandry or manufadures of the country.
The court of Portugal is obliged to fend out annually
a very large fum of money, to defray the current e\-
pences of the government ; which money is generallv
Iwallowed up by the convents and foldiery.

There was formerly an inquifition at this place, but
it is now aboliftied ; the building ftill remains, and by
its black outfide appears a fit emblem of the cruel and
bloody tranladtions that paiTed within its walls 1 Pro-
vifions are to be had at this place in great plenty and
perfedion. E. Long. 74. o. N. Lat. 15. 31.

GOAL. See Gaol.

GOAT. See Capr.\, Mammalia Index.

Goat's Beard. See 'J'ragofogok, Botany Index:

GojT-Sucker. See Caprimulgus, Ornithology
Index.

GOBELIN, Giles, a celebrated French dyer. In the
reign of Francis I. dilcovered a method of dyeing a
beautiful fcarlet, and his name has been given ever fince
to the fineil French fcarlets. His houfe, in tlie fuburb
of St Marcel at Paris, and the river he made ufe of,
are ftill called tie Gobelins. An academy for drawing-,
and a manufactory of fine tapeftries, were erefted iu
this quarter in 1 666 j for vrhlch reafon the tapeftries
are called llie Gobelins.

GOBIUS, a genus of filhes belonging to the order
of thoracici. See ICHTHYOLOGY Index.

GOBLET, or GoBELET, a kind of drinking cup,
or bowl, ordinarily of a round figure, and without ei-
ther foot or handle. The word is French, gobeU-t ;
which Salmafius, and others, derive from the barba-
rous Latin cuf>a. Budeifs deduces it from the Greek
xt/jriAAM, a fort of cup.

GOD, one of the many names of the Supreme
Being. See Christianity, Metaphysics, Morai
Philosophy, and Theology.

God is alfo ufed in fpeaking of the falfe deities of
the heathens, many of which were only creatures to
which divine honours and worfliip were fupcrftitiouily
paid.

The Greeks and Latins, it is obfervable, did not
mean by the name God, an all-perfeft being, whereof
eternity, infinity, omniprefence, &c. were eflential at-
tributes; v.'tli them, the word only implied an excel-
lent and lui":rior nature j and accordingly they gav«

the ..

GOD [7

n 1 ilie appellation 5-o</r to all beings of a rank or clafs
' higher and more perfefl than that of men; and efpe-
^Go> Jan .^ p|^i]y jQ thofe who were inferior agents in the divine
aJminillration, all fubjefl to the one Siipreme. Thus
men themfelves, according to their fyllem, might be-
come gods after death •, inafmuch as their fouls might
attain to a degree of excellence fuperior to what they
»vere capable of in life.

The firil divines, Father Boflii obferves, were the
poets : the two funilions, though now feparated, were
originally combined; or, rather, were one and the fame
thing.

Now the great variety of attributes in God, that is,
the number of relations, capacities, and circumftances,
wherein they had occafion to confider him, put thefe
poets, &c. under a neceflity of making a partition, and
of feparating the divine' attributes into feveral perfons •,
becaufe the weaknefs of the human mind could not
conceive fo much power and aftion in the fimplicity
of one fingle divine nature. Thus the omnipotence of
God came to be reprefented under the perfon and
appellation of Jupiter ; the wifdom of God, under
that of Minerva ; the jullice of God, under that of
Juno.

The firfl idols or falfe gods that are faid to have been
adored, were the ftars, fun, moon, Stc. on account of
the light, heat, and other benefits, which we derive
from them. Afterwards the earth came to be deified,
for fumifliing fruits neceffary for the fubfillence of men
and animals ; then fire and water became objecls of di-
vine worlhip, for their ufefulnefs to human life. In
procefs of time, and by degrees, gods became multi-
plied to infinity : and there was fcarce any thing but the
weaknefs or caprice of fome devotee or other elevated
into the rank of deity •, things ufelefs or even deftruc-
tive not excepted. See JMythoi.ogy.

GODALMING, a town of England, in the coun-
ty of Surrey, iituated on the river Wye, 35 miles from
London. Here is a manufactory of mixed and blue
kerfeys, and of ftockings ; the place is alfo famous for
liquorice, and (lore of peat that burns bttter than pit-
coal : in 1739, the fmall-pox carried off above 500 per-
fons here in three months, which was more than a third
of the inhabitants.

GODDARD, Jonathan, an eminent phyfician and
chemiil, and one of the firft promoters of the Royal
Society, was born about the year 1617. He was eleft-
ed a fellow of the college of phyficians in 1646, and
appointed reader of the anatomical le6lure in that col-
lege in 1647. -^s ^s ^°°'^ P^^' againft Charles I. ac-
cepted the wardenlhip of Merton-college, Oxford, from
Oliver Cromwell when chancellor, and fat fole repre-
fentative of that univerfity in Cromwell's parliament,
he was removed from his wardenlhip in a manner dif-
graceful to him by Charles II. He was however then
profefTor of phytic at Grelham college, to which lie re-
tired, and continued to attend thofe meetings that gave
birth to the Royal Society ; upon the firll eilablilhment
of which he was nominated one of the council. Being
fully perfuaded that the preparation of medicines was
no lefs the phyfician's duty than tlie prfTcribing them,
he conflantly prepared his own; and in 1668 publi(hed
a treatife recommending his example to general prac-
tice. He died of an apopleflic fit in 1674; and his
memory was prefcrved by the drops that bore his name.

79 ] GOD

olhcrwlfe called Giill.e AngUcame, the fecret of which
he fold to Charles 11. for 5000I. and which Dr Liller
affures us was only the volatile fpirit of raw filk refli-
fied with oil of cinnamon or fome other elTential oil. i.
But he claims more particular regard, if what Biihop
Seth Ward fays be true, that he was the firft Englifti-
man who made that nobk aftronomical inftrument, thfe
telefrope.

CiODDESS, a heathen deity of the female fex.

The ancients had ahnoil as many goddeffes as gods :
fuch were, Juno the goddcfs of air, Diana the goddefs
of woods, &.C. and under this charai5ler were reprefented
the virtues, graces, and principal advantages of life ',
truth, jullice, piety, liberty, fortune, vidory, &c.

It was the peculiar privilege of the goddeffes to bo
reprefented naked on medals ; for it was fuppoft-d that
the imagination muft be a^ved and rellrained by the
confideriition of the divine charaifter.

GODFATHERS and Godmothers, perfons who.
at the baptifm of infants, anfwer for their future con-
duol, and folemnly promife that they will renounce the
devii and all his works, and follow^ life of piety and
virtue ; and by this means lay themfelves under an in-
difpenfable obligation to iiulruil them, and watch over
their condufl.

This cuftom is of great antiquity in tke Chriftian
church ; and was probably inilituted to prevent chil-
dren being brought up in idolatry, in cafe their parents
died before they arrived at years of difcretion.

The number of godfathers and godmothers is re-
duced to two, in the church of Rome ; and three, in
the church of England : but formerly they had as
many as they pleafed.

GODFREY of Boinllon, prince of Lorrain, a
moll celebrated crufader, and viftorious general. He
was chofen general of the expedition which the Chri-
llians undertook for the recovery of the Holy Land,
and fold his dukedom to prepare for the war. He
took Jerufalera from the Turks in 1099 ; but his pie-
ty, as hiflorians relate, would not permit him to wear
a diadem of gold in the city where his Saviour had
been crowned with thorns. The fultan of Egypt after-
wards fent a terrible army againft him ; which he de-
feated, with the flaughter of about 1 00,000 of the ene-
my. He died in 1160.

GODMANCHESTER, a town of Huntingdon-
(liire 16 miles from Cambridge, and 57 from London.
It has a bridge on the Oufe, oppofite to Huntingdon ;
was formerly a Roman city, by the name of Durofi-
ponte, where many Roman coins have been often dug
up ; and according to old writers, in the time of the
Saxons it was the fee of a biihop, and had a callle built
by one Gorman a Daniih king, from which the town
was called Gormanclujler. It is reckoned one of the
largeft villages in England, and is feated in a fertile
foil, abounding with corn. It is faid that no town in
England kept more ploughs at work than this has done.
The inhabitants boaft they formerly received our kings
a^ they made a progrefs this way, with nine fco-
ploughs at a time, finely adorned with their trappings
&c. James I. made it a corporation by the<name of
tivc) bailiffs, I 2 affulants, and the commonalty of the
borough of Godmanchcfter. Here is a fchool, called
the Free Grammar-School of Q^ueen Elizabeth. On
the weft fide of the town is a noble though ancient feat
? F 2 ^ ^f

GOG [7

of tile earl ot Sanduich. Near this pl.ice, in the Lon-
don road between Huntingdon and Caxtoit, is a tree
_, well knosvn to travellers by the name of Beaear's
Bun..

GODSTOW, a place north-weft of Oxford, in a
fort of illand foiraed by the divided ftreams of the Ifis
after being joined by the Evenlode. It is noted for'
catching of iilh and dreiTiiig them ; but more fo for
the ruins of that nunnery which fair Rofamond quit-
ted for the embraces of Henry H. The people (liow
a great hole in the earth here, where they fay is a fub-
terraneous pafl"..ge, which goes under the river to
\Voodftock, by which flie ufed to pafs and repafs.
Little more remains at prefent than ragged walls, fcat-
tered over a confiderable extent of ground. An arched
gateway, and another venerable ruin, part of the tower
of the conventual church, are ftill ftanding. Near the
altar in this church fair Rofamond was buried,, but the
body ivas afterwards removed by order of a bifliop of
Lincoln, the vifitor. The only entire part is fmall,
formerly a private chapel. Not many years fince a ftone
cofRn, faid to have been Rofamond's, who, perhaps,
was removed from the church to this place, was to be
ften here. The building has been put to various ufes,
and at prefent fervcs occafionally for a ftable.

GODWIN, Francis, fucceffively bidiop of Lan-
daff and Hereford, was born in 1567. He was emi-
nent for his leaniing and abilities •, being a good mathe-
matician, an excellent philofopher, a pure Latinill, and
«n accurate hiftorian. He undcrftood the true theory of
the moon's motion a century before it was generally
known. He firft ftarted tliofe hints afterwards purfued
by Bilhop Wilkins, in his " Secret and fv^■ift meffen-
ger ;" and publidied " A catalogue of the lives of En-
>;li(h biiliops." He has neverthekfs been accufed as a
great fimoniac, for omitting no opportunity of difpofmg
ot" preferments in order to provide for his children. He
died in 1648.

Godwin or Goodwin Sands. See GooDiris Sands.

GODWIT. See Scoi.oPAX, Ornithology Index.

GOES, or Ter Goes, a ftrong and confiderable
town of the United Provinces, in Zealand, and capital
of the illand of South Beverland. It communicates
with the fea by a. canal ; and is i o miles eaft of Mid-
dleburgh, and 30 north of Ghent. E. Long. 3. 50.
N. Eat. 51.33.

GOG and Magog, two names generally joined to-
gether in fcripture, Ezek. xxxviii. 2, 3, &c. xxxix.
I, 2, &c. Rev. XX. 8.) Mofes fpeaks of Magog the
Ion of Japhet, but fays nothing of Gog, (Gen. x. 2.
1 Chr. i. 5.). Gog was prince of Magog, according
to Ezekiel. Magog fignifies the country or people,
and Gog the king of that country. The generality of
the ancients made Magog the father of the Scythians
and Tartars ; and feveral interpreters difcovered many
footftep* of their name in the provinces of Great Tar-
tary. Others have been of opinion that the Perfians
were the defcendants of Magog ; and fome have ima-
gined that the Goths were defcended from Gog and
Magog ; and that the wars dcfcribed by Ezekiel, and
undertaken by Gog againft the faints, are no other
than thofe which the Goths carried on in the fifth age
againft the Roman empire.

Eochart has placed Gog in the neighbourhood of
CaufaAis. He derives the nara« of this celebrated

80 ] G O L

mountain from the Hebrew Gsf chafan " the fortrefs of Oojg'les
Gog." He maintains that Prometheus, faid to be . II
chained to Caucafus by Jupiter, is Gog, and no other. .^°''^°"_ ^
There is a province in Iberia called the Gogarene.

Lailly, the generality believe, that Gog ;.nd Ma-
gog, mentioned in Ez--kicl and the Revelation, are to
be taken in an allegorical fenfe, for fuch princes as were
enemies to the church and faints. Thus many by Gog
in Ezekiel underlland Antiochus Epiplianes, the per-
fecutor of the Jews who were firm to their religion •,
and by the perfon of the fame name in the Revela-
tions, they fuppofe Antic hrilt to be meant, the great
enemy of the church and faithful. Some have endea-
voured to prove that Gog, fpoken of in Ezekiel, and
Cambyfcs king of Perfia, were one and the fame perfon ;
and that Gog and Magog in the Revelation denote all
the enemies of the church, who (hould be perfecutors of
it to the confummation of ages.

GOGGLES, in Siirgenj, are inftruments ufcd for
curing fquinting, or that dillortion of the eyes which
occafions this diforder. They are Ihort conical tubes,
compofed of ivory flained black, with a thin plate of
the fame ivory fixed in the tubes near their anterior
extremities. Through the centre of each of thefe
plates is a fmall circular hole, about the fize of the pu-
pil of the eye, for the tranfmilFion of the rays of light.
Thefe goggles muft be continually worn in the day-
time, till the mufcles of the eye are brought to act re-
gularly and uniformly, fo as to direft the pupil flraight
forwards ; and by thefe means the cure will be fooner
or later eifefled.

GOGMAGOG hills, are hills fo called, three miles
from Cambridge, remarkable for the intrenchments and
other works call up here : whence fome fuppofe it
was a Roman camp ; and others, that it was the work
of the Danes.

GOGUET, Antony-Yves, a French writer, and
author of a celebrated ^vork, intitled, VOrigine des
Loix, dcs Arts, des Sciences, iS" de leur Progres die's,
I'es anciens P^uples, 1758, 3 vols 4to. His father
was an advocate, and he was born at Paris in 1716.
He was very unpromifing as to abilities, and reckoned,
even dull, in his early years ; but his underftanding de-
veloping itfelf, he applied to letters, and at length pro-
duced the above work. The reputation he gained by
it was great ; but he enjoyed it a very lliort time ; dy-
ing the fame year of the fmall-pox, which diforder, it
feLms, he always dreaded. It is remarkable, that Con- -
rad Fugere, to whom he left his library and his MSS.
was fo deeply aifefted with the death of his friend, as
to die himfelf three days after him. The above work
has been tranflated into Englifli, and publifhed in 3
vols 8vo.

GOITO, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Mantua,
taken by the Germans in 1701, and by the prince of
HeiTe in 1706. It is feated on the river Mincio, be-
tween the lake of Mantua and that of Garda, 10
miles north-weft of Mantua. E. Long. 11. o. N. Lat.
45. 16. _

GOLCONDA, a kingdom of ACa, in the penin-
fula on this fide the Ganges. It is bounded on the
north by that of Orixa, on the weft by that of Ba-
lagate, on the foulh by Bifnagar, and on the eaft
by the gulf of Bengal. It abounds in corn, rice,
and cattle j but that which renders it moil remark-
able

G O L

[ 781 ]

G O L

able are the diamond-mines, they being the moft con-
"" fiJerable in the world : they are ufually purchafed of
tlie black, merchants, ivho buy parcels of ground to
fenrch for thefe precious (tones in. They fometimes
fail in meeting with any, and in others they find im-
menfe riches. They have alfo mines of fait, fine iron for
fword-blades, and curious callicoes and chintzes. It
is fubjeft to the Great Mogul ; and has a town of the
fame name, feated at the foot of a mountain, being
one of the largeft in the Eall Indies. It is about fix
miles in circumference ; and was formerly the refidence
of the kings, till it was conquered by the Great Mogul.
It is now much frequented by the European merchants.
E. Long. 70. 10. N. Lat. 16. 30.

GOLD, the moft valuable of all the metals, is of a
bright yellow colour when pure, but becomes more or
lefs white in proportion as it is alloyed with other me-
tals. It is the heavieft of all known bodies, platina
only excepted. See Chemistry and Mineralogv

Method of Recovering Gold from Gilt IVorks. The
folubility of gold, and the indilTolubility of filver, in a.
qua regia, affords a principle on which gold may be fe-
parated from the furface of filver ; and, on this foun-
dation, different proceiTes have been contrived, of which
the two follo'.s-ing appear to be the bell. — Some pow-
dered fal ammoniac, moiflened with aquafortis into the
confiftence of a paile, is fpread upon the gilt fdver,
and the piece heated till the matter fmokes and be-
comes nearly dry : being then thrown into water, it is
rubbed with a fcratch brufh compofed of fine brafs n-ire
bound together ; by which the gold eafily comes off.
The other way is, by putting the gilt filver into com-
mon aqua regia, kept fo hot as nearly to boiJ, and
turning the metal frequently till it becomes all over
black ; it is then to be walhed with a little water, and
rubbed with the fcratch bruih, to get off what gold the
aqua regia may have left. This lall method appears
preferable to the other ; as the fame aqua regia may be
made to ferve repeatedly till it beco.Ties faturated with
the gold, after which the gold may be recovered pure
by precipitation with fulphate of iron.

For feparating gold from gilt copper, fome direft a
folution of borax to be applied on the gilt parts, but
nowhere elfe, vvith a pencil, ana a little powdered ful-
phur to be fprinkled on the places thus moiftened ; the
principal ufe of the Iblution of borax feems to be to
make the fulphur adhere ; the piece beihg then made
red hot, and quenched in water, the gold is faid to be
fo far loofened, as to be wiped off with a bruih. O-
thers mix the fulphvir with nitre and tartar, and form
the mixture with vinegar into a parte, which is fpread
upon the gilt parts.

Schlutter recommends mechanical means, as being
generally the leaft cxpenfive, for feparating gold from
the furface both of filver and copper. If the gilt veffcl
js round, the gold is conveniently got off by turning
it in a lathe, and applying a proper tool, a Ikin being
placed underneath for receiving the fliavings : he fays
it is eafy to coUefl into two ounces of fluvings all the
gold of a gilt velTel weighing thrice as many pounds.
Where the figure of the piece does not admit of this
metliod, it is to be properly fixed, and fcrapers ap-
plied of different kinds according to its fize and fi-
gure J fc-ne large, and fumiflicd with two handles,

one at each end ; others fmall and narrow, for pene-
trating into depreffed parts. If the gold cannot be *■
got off by cither of thefe ways, the file mufl be had
recourfe to, which takes off more of the metal un-
derneath than the turning tool or the fcraper, parti-
cularly than the former. The gold fcrapings or fihngs
may be purified from the filver or copper they con-
tain, by the methods defcribed under the article Me-
tallurgy.

The editors of the Encyclopedie give a method of re-
covering the gold from wood that has been gilt on a
water-fize : this account is extrafted from a memoir on
the fame fubjeft, prefented to the Academy of Sciences
by M. de Montamy. The gilt wood is lleeped for a
quarter of an hour in a quantity of water futhcient to
cover it, made very hot : the fize being thus foftened,
the wood is taken out, and fcrubbed piece by piece,
in a httle warm water, witli (hort ftiff brillle brulhes of
different fizes, fome fmall for penetrating into the car-
vings, and others large for the greater difpatch in Hat
pieces. Tiie whole mixture of water, fize, gold, &.c.
is to be boiled to drynefs, the dry matter made red hot
in a crucible to bum off the fize, and the remainder
ground with mercury, either in a mortar, or, where
the quantity is large, in a mill.

GoLD-CoaJl. See Guinea.

CoLD-Wire, a cylindrical ingot of filver, fuperficially
gilt or covered with gold at the fire, and afterwards
dravvn fucceflively through a great number of little
round holes, of a v.ire-dravving iron, each lefs thpn the
other, till it be fometimes no bigger than a hair of the
head. See WiRE-Draiving.

It may be obferved that, before the wire be reduced
to this exceflive finenefs, it is drawn through above
140 different holes ; and that each time they draw it,
it is rubbsd afrelh over %\-ith new wax, both to facili-
tate its paffage, and to prevent the lUver's appearing
throiv h it.

GoLD-Wire failed, is the former wire flatted be-
tween two rollers of polilhed fteel, to fit it -to be fpun
on a flick, or to be ufed fiat, as it is, ^vithout fpin-
ning, in certain fluffs, laces, embroideries, &c. See
Stuff, &c.

GoLD-Thread, or Spun-gold, is flatted gold, wrapped
or laid over a thread of filk, by twilling it with wheel
and iron bobbins.

To difpofe the wire to be fpun on filk, they pafs it
between two rollers of a little mill : thefe rollers are of
nicely polilhed fteel, and about three inches in diame-
ter. They are fet very clofe to each other, and turn-
ed by means of a handle faftened to one of them, which
gives motion to the other. The gold wire in palling
between the two is rendered quite flat, but without lo-
fing any thing of its gilding ; and is rendered fo ex-
ceedingly thin and flexible, that it is eafily fpun on Clk-
thread, by means of a hand-wheel, and fo wound on a
fpool or bobbin. See WiRi-Dravjing.

Goi.D-Leaf, or Beaten Gold, is gold beaten with a
hammer into exceedli;g thin leaves, fo that it is com-
puted, that an ounce may be beaten into 1600
leaves, each three inches fquare, in which flate it takes
up more than 159,052 times its former llirface.

The preparation of gold leaf, according to Dr Lewis,
is as follows :

" The golj} is melted in a black-lead crucible, with .

G O L

[ 782 ]

G O L

fome borax, in a wind furnace, called by tTie workmen
a %Lnn{i hole : as foon as it appears in perfeft fulion, it
is poured out into an iron ingot mould, fix or eight
inches long, and three quarters of an inch u-ide, pre-
vioully oreafed, and heated, fo as to make the tallow
run and fmoke, hut not to take flame. The bar of
gold is made red hot, to burn off the unfluous matter,
and forged on an anvil into a long plate, which is fur-
ther extended, by being pafled repeatedly between
polilhed fteel rollers, till it becomes a ribbon as thin
as paper. Formerly the whole of "^his extenfion was
procured by means of the hammer, and fome of the
French workmen are ilill faid to follow the fame
practice : but the ufe of the flatting mill both abridges
the operation, and renders the pl.ate of more uniform
thicknefs. The ribbon is divided by compaffes, and
cut with flieers into equal pieces, which coiifequently
are of equal weights : thefe are forged on an anvil till
they are an inch fquare ; and afterwards well nealed,
to correct the rigidity which the metal has contrafted
in the hammering and flatting. Two ounces of gold,
or 960 grains, the quantity which the workmen ufual-
ly melt at a time, make 150 of thefe fquares, whence
each of them weighs fix grains and two fifths j and
as 902 grains of gold make a cubic inch, the thick-
nefs of the fquare plates is about the -66th part of an
inch.

'■• In order to the further extenfion of thefe pieces
into fine leaves, it is neceffary to interpofe fome fmooth
body between them and the hammer, for foftening its
blow, and defending them from the rudenefs of its
immediate action : as alfo to place between every two
of the pieces fome proper Intermedium, which, while
it prevents their uniting together, or injuring one
another, may fuffer them freely to extend. Both thefe
ends are anfwered by certain animal membranes.

" The goldbeaters ufe three kinds of membranes ;
for the outfide cover, common parchment made of
flieep fliin •, for interlaying with the gold, firll the
Imoothert and clofeft vellum, made of calf Ikin ; and
afterwards the much finer fkins of ox gut, ftript off
from the large ftraight gut lllpt open, curioufly pre-
pared on purpofe for this ufe, and hence called gold-
beater's Jkin. The preparation of thefe laft is a diftinft
bufinefs, pradlifed by only two or three perfons in the
kingdom, fome of the particulars of which I have not
fatisfaftorily learned. The general procefs is faid to
confift, in applying one upon another, by the fmooth
fides, in a moift ftate, in which they readily cohere
and unite infeparably ; ftretching them on a frame,
and carefully fctaping off the fat and rough matter, fo
as to leave only the fine exterior membrane of the gut ;
beating them between double leaves of paper, to force
out what unfluofity may remain in them ■■, moiftening
them once or twice with an infufion of warm fpices ;
and laftly, drying and preffing them. It Is faid, that
fome calcined gypfum, or plafter of Paris, is rubbed
with a hare's foot both on the vellum and the ox gut
Ikins, which fills up fuch minute holes as may happen
.in them, and prevents the gold leaf from flicking, as
it would do to the fimjile animal membrane. It is
ohfervable, that, notwithllanding the valf extent to
which the gold is beaten between th.cfc fkins, and the
great tenuity of the fliins themfclves, yet they fui^ain
continual repetitions of the procefs for fcveral months,

without extending or growing thinner. Our ivork-
men find, that, after 73 or 83 repetitions, the fkins, *•
though they contrail no flaw, will no longer permit
the gold to extend between them ; but that they may
be again rendered fit for ufe by impregnating them
with the virtue which they have loll, and that even
holes in them may be repaired by the dexterous appli-
cation of frelh pieces of fkin : a microfcoplcal exami-
nation of fome fkins that had been long ufed plainly
(bowed thefe repairs. The method of reftoring their
virtue is faid in the Encyclopedic to be, by interlaying
them with leaves of -paper moiftened with white wine
vinegar, beating them for a %vhole day, and after-
wards rubbing i»;m over as at firil with plafter of
Paris. The gold Is faid to extend between them more
eafily, after they have been ufed a little, than when
they are new.

" The beating of the gold is performed on a fmootlt
block of black marble, weighing from 200 to 600
pounds, the heavier the better ; about nine inchts
fquare on the upper furface, and fometlmes lefs, fitted
into the middle of a woaden frame, about two feet
fquare, fo as that the furface of the marble and the
frame form one continuous plane. Three of the fides
are fumllhed with a high ledge ; and the front, ^vhich
is open, has a leather flap fattened to it, which the
gold-beater takes before him as an apron, for preferv-
mg the fragments of gold that fall off. Three ham-
mers are employed, all of them with two round and
fomewhat convex faces, though commonly the work-
man ufes only one of the faces : the firlf , called the
cutch hammer, is about four inches In diameter, and
weighs 15 or 16 pounds, and fometlmes 20, though
few workmen can manage thofe of this laft fize : the
fecond, called the Jljoddering hammer, weighs about 1 2
pounds, and is about the fame diameter : the third,
called the gold hammer, ax f.iiijliing hammer, weighs 10
or }i pounds, and is nearly of the fame width. The
French ufe four hammers, differing both in fize and
Ihape from thofe of our workmen : they have only one
face, being in figure truncated cones. The firft has
very little convexity, Is near five inches in diameter,
and weighs 14 or 15 pounds : the fecond is more con-
vex than the firft, about an Inch narrower, and fcarcely
half its weight : the third, (fill more convex, is only
about two inches \vide, and four or five pounds in
weight : the fourth or finlftiing hammer is near as
hea\y as the firft, but narrower by an inch, and the
moft convex of all. As thefe hammers differ fo re-
markably from ours, I thought proper to infcrt them,
leaving the workmen to judge what advantage one fet
may have above the other.

" A hundred and fifty of tl^f pieces of gold are
interlaid with leaves of vellum, three or four inches
fquare, one vellum leaf being placed between every
two of the pieces, and about 20 more of the vellum
leaves on the outfides ; over thefe is drawn 3 parch-
ment cafe, open at both ends, and over this another in
a contraiy direftion, fo that the affcmhlage of gold
and vellum leaves is kept tight and clofe on all fiJes.
The whole is beaten^with the heavieft hammer, and
e%'ery now and then turned upfide do>vn, till the gold
is ftretched to the extent of the vellum ; the cafe being
from time to time opened for .litove'I-ig how the ex-
tenfion goes on, and the packet, at times, bent and

rolled

G O L [783

Gold, rollcvl as it were between the hands, for procuring fuf-

]

G O L

■' ficient freedom to the gold, or, as the workmen fay,
to n>ake the gold work. The pieces, taken out from
between the vellum leaves, are cut in four with a fteel
knife •■, and the 600 divifions, hence refulting, are in-
terlaid, in the fame manner, with pieces of the ox-gut
Jkiiis five inches fquare. The beating being repeated
with a lighter hammer till the golden plates have again
acquired the extent of the {kins, they are a fecond
time divided in four : the inftrument ufed for this di-
vifion is a piece of cane cut to an edge, the leaves be-
ing now fo light, that the moifture of the air or breath
condenfing on a metalline knite v.-ould occafion them
to flick to it. Thefe laft diviiions being fo nunierou?,
that the fkins necelTary for interpoiing between them
would make the packet too thick to be beaten at
once, they are parted into three parcels, which are
beaten feparately, with the fmalleft hammer, till they
are ftretched for the third time to the lize of the
&ins : they are now found to be reduced to the great-
ell thinnefs they will admit of ; and indeed many of
them, before this period, break or fail. The Freuch
workmen, according to the minute detail of this pro-
cefs given in the Encyclopedie, repeat the divifion and
the beating once more j but as the fquares of gold,
taken for the firll operation, have four times the area
of thofe ufed amorlg us, the number of leaves from an
equal area is the fame in both methods, viz. 16 from
a fquare inch. In the beating, however fimple the
procefs appears to be, a good deal of addrefs is requi-
fite, for applying the hammers fo as to extend the
metal uniformly from the middle to the fides : one im-
proper blow is apt not only to break the gold leaves,
but to cut the ikins.

" After the laft beating, the leaves are taken up by
the end of a cane inftrument, and, being blown flat on
a leather cuiliion, are cut to a fize, one by one, with a
fqasre frame of cane made of a proper Iharpnefs, or
with a frame of wood edged with cane : they are then
fitted into books of 25 leaves each, the paper of which
is well fmoothed, and rubbed with red bole to prevent
their flicking to it. The French, for fi.^ing the leaves,
ufe only the cane knife •, cutting them tirli flraight on
i^ne fide, fitting them into the book by the flraight
fide, and then paring off the fuperduous parts of the
gold about the edges of the book. The fize of the
French gold leaves is from fomewhat lefs than three
inches to three and three quarters fquare ; that of ours,
from three inches to three and three-eighths.

" The procefs of gold-beating is confiderably in-
fluenced by the weather. In wet weather, the {kins
grow fomewhat da j;j, and in this ftate make the ex-
tenfion of the gold more tedious : the French are faid
to dry and prefs them at every time of ufing ; with
care not to overdry them, which would render them
unfit for farther fervice. Our workmen complain
more of froft, which appears to affeft the metalline
leaves themfelves : in froft, a gold leaf cannot eafily
be blown flat, but breaks, wrinkles, or runs together.

" Gold leaf ought to be prepared from the fineft
gold ; as the ad.-nixture of other metals, though in too
fmall a proportion to affeft fenfibly the colour of the
leaf, would difpofe it to lofe of its beauty in the air.
And indeed there is little temptation to the workman
to ufe .any other ; the greater hardncfs of alloyed gold

occafioning as much to be loft in point of time and
labour, and in the greater number of leaves that break,
as can be gained by any quantity of alloy that would
not be at once difcoverable by the eye. All metals
render gold harder and more difficult of extenfion.
Even filver, which in this refpecl feems to alter its qua-
lity lefs than any other metal, produces with gold a
mixture fenfibly harder than either of them feparately,
and this hardnefs is in no art more felt than in the
goldbeater's. The French are faid to prepare what
is called the green gold leaf, from a compofition of one
part of copper and two of filver with eighty of gold.
But this is probably a miflake : for I'uch an admixture
gives no greennefs to gold: and 1 have been informed
by our workmen, that this kind of leaf is made from
the lame fine gold as the higheft gold-coloured fort,
the greenilh hue being only a fuperficial teint indu-
ced upon the gold in fome part of the procefs : this
greenifli leaf is little otherwife ufed than for the gild-
ing of certain books.

" But though the goldbeater cannot advantageoufly
diminilh the quantity of gold in the leaf by the ad-
mixture of any other fubftance with the gold, yet
means have been contrived, for fome particular pur-
pofes, of faving the precious metal, by producing a
kind of leaf called party-gold, whofe bafis is filver,
and which has only a fuperficial coat of gold upon one
fide ; a thick leaf of filver and a thinner one of gold,
laid flat on one another, heated and preffed together,
unite and cohere ; and being then beaten into fine
leaves, as in the foregoing procefs, the gold, though
its quantity is only about one fourth of that of the
filver, continues everywhere to cover it, the exten-
fion of ,the former keeping pace with that of the
latter.

But it Is obferved by Mr Nicholfon, that pure
gold is too ductile to be worked between the gold-
beaters Ikin. The neweft {kins will work the fineft
gold, and make the thinneft leaf, becaufe they are the
fmoothert. Old {kins, being raugh or foul, require
coarfer gold. The finer the gold, the more ductile ;
inlbniuch that pure gold, when driven out by the ham-
mer, is too foft to force itfelf over the irregularities,
but would pafs round them, and by that me.ins become
divided into narrow llips. The fineft gold for this pur-
pofe has three grains of alloy in the ounce, and the
coarfeft twelve grains. In general, the alloy is fix
grains, or one-eightieth part. That which is called
pale gold contains three pennyweights of filver In the
ounce. The alloy of leaf gold is filver, or copper, or
both, and the colour is produced of various tints ac-
cordingly. Two ounces and two pennyweights of
gold is delivered by the mafler to the workman, who,
if extraordinarily fliilful, returns two thoufand leaves,
or eighty books of gold, together with one ounce and
fix pennyweights of wafte cuttings, lltuce one book
weighs 4.8 grains ; and as the leaves meafure 3.3 inches
in the fide, the thicknefs of the leaf is one two hundred
and eighty-two thouf uidth part of an inch.

The yellow metal called Dutch gold is fine brafs.
It is faid to be made frorp copper plates, by cementi-,
tion with calamine, without fubfequent fufion. It 5
thicknefs, compared with that of leaf gold, proved
as 19 to 4, and under equal furfaces it Is confiderably
more than twice as heavy as the gold. "Jour. vol. i.

G O L

[ 784 J

G O L

It muft be obferved, however, that gold is beaten
J more or lefs, according to the kind or quality of the
work it is intended for ; that for the gold-unre-drawers
to gild their ingots withal, is left much thicker than
that for gilding tlie frames of pictures, ike. See
. Gilding.

Gold Brocade. See Brocade.
Tiilmiuaiing Gold. See CHEMISTRY Index.
Mofaic Gold, is gold applied in pannels on a proper
ground, diftributed into fquares, lozenges, and other
compartments ; part of which is fhadowed to raife or
heighten the reft. See Mosaic.

Gold F/ates for Enamelling are generally made of
ducat gold, whofe finenefs is from 23^ to 23I carats ;
and the fineft gold is the beft for this purpofe, unlefs
where fome parts of the gold are left bare and unpolith-
ed, as in watch-cafes, fnuff-boxes, &c. for which pur-
pofe a mixture of alloy is necelTary, and filver is pre-
ferred to copper, becaufe the latter difpofes the plates
to tarnilh and turn green. See Ena-melling.

S/iell-GoLD is that ufed by the gilders and illuminers,
and with which gold letters are written. It is made
by grinding gold leaves, or gold-beaters fragments,
with a little honey, and afterwards feparating the ho-
ney from the powdered gold by means of water. When
the honey is waftied a\vay, the gold may be put on
paper or kept in (hells ; whence its name, \\nien it
is ufed, it is diluted with gum-water or foap-fuds. —
The German gold-powder, prepared from the Dutch
gold-leaf in the fame manner, is generally ufed ; and
when it is well fcoured with varnlih, anfwers the end
in japanners gilding as well as the genuine.

Gold Si%e for burnilhed gilding is prepared of one
pound and a half of tobacco-pipe clay, half an ounce
of red chalk, a quarter of an ounce of black lead,
forty drops of fweet oil, and three drams of pure tal-
low; grind the clay, chalk, and black lead, feparately,
very fine in water ; then mix them together, add the
oil and tallow, and grind the mixture, to a due confift-
ence.

Gold fize of japanners may be made by pulverizing
gum animi and afphaltum, of each one ounce ; red lead,
litharge of gold, and umber, of each one ounce and a
half, mixing them with a pound of linfeed oil, and
boiling them, obferving to ftir them till the whole be
incorporated, and appears on growing cold of the con-
fiftence of tar : ftrain the mixture through a flannel,
and keep it flopped up in a bottle for ufe. WTien it
is ufed, it muft be ground with as much vermilion as
will give it an opake body, and diluted with oil of
turpentine, fo that it may be worked freely with the
pencil. A fimple preparation confifts of one pound
of linfeed oil and four ounces of gum animi ; powder
the gum, and mix it gradually with the boiling cil ;
let it continue to boil till it becomes of the confiftence
of tar ; ftrain it through a coarfe cloth ; keep and ufe
it as the other.

GoLD-Finch. See Fringii.la, Ornithology Index.
GoLD-Fif}'. See Cyprikus, Ichthyology Index.
GOLDEN, fomething that has a relation to gold,
or conufts of gold.

GoLDF.N-Ca/f, was a figure of a calf, which the

Ifraelites ca!l in that metal, and fet up 'in the wilder-

nefs to worlhip during Mofes's abfence in the mount ;

>p(J which that legiflator at his return burnt, grinded

3

to powder, and mixed with the water the people Were
to drink of; as related In Exod. xxxii. The com-
mentators have been divided on this article : the pui-
verizhig of gold, and rendering it potable, is a very
difficult operation in chemiftry. Many, therefore,
fuppofc it done by a miracle ; and the reft, who allow
of nothing fupematural in it, advance nothing but
conjefhires as to the manner of the procefs. Mofes
could not have done it by ftmple calcination, nor
amalgamation, nor antimony, nor calcination ; nor is
there one of thofe operations that quadrates ivith the
text.

M. Stahl has endeavoured to remove this difficulty.
The method Mofes made ufe of, according to this au-
thor, was by diiTolving the metal with hepar fulphuris ;
only, inftead of the vegetable alkali, he made ufe of
the Egyptian natron, which is common enough through-
out the eaft.

GoLDEN-Fleece, in the ancient mythology, was the
Ikin or fleece of the ram upon which Phryxus and
Hella are fuppofed to have fwam over the fea to Colchis;
and which being facrlficed to Jupiter, was hung upon
a tree in the grove of Mars, guarded by two brazen-
hoofed bulls, and a monftrous dragon that never flept ;
but wis taken and carried oS' by Jafon and the Argo-
nauts.

Many authors have endeavoured to ftiow that this
fable is an allegorical reprefentation of fome real hlf-
tory, particularly of the philofophers ftone. Others
have explained it by the profit of the wool trade to
Colchis, or the gold which they commonly gathered
there with fleeces In the rivers. See Argonauts.

Order of the Golden Fleece, is a military order infti-
tuted by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, In 1429,
It took Its denorriuiatlon from a reprefentation of the
golden fleece, borne by the knights on their collars,
which confilled of flints and fteels. The king of
Spain is now grand-mafter of the order, in quality of
duke of Burgundy : the number of knights is fixed
to thirty-one.

It is ufually faid to have been inflituted on occafion
of an iramenfe profit which that prince made by wool ;
though others will have a chemical myftery couched
under it, as under that famous one of the ancients,
which the adepts contend to be no other than the fe-
cret of the elixir, wrote on the fleece of a ftieep,

Oliver de la Marche writes, that he had fuggefted
to Philip I. archduke of Auflria, that the order was
inftituted by his grandfather Philip the Good duke
of Burgundy, with a view to that of Jafon ; and that
John Germain blftiop of Chalons, chancellor of the
order, upon this occation made bim change his opi-
nion, and alTured the young prince that the order had
been inftituted with a view to the fleece of Gideon.
William bifliop of Tournay, chancellor likewife of the
order, pretends that the duke of Burgundy had in
view both the golden lleece of Jafon and Jacob's
fleece ; i. e. the fpeckcJ ftieep belonging to this patri-
arch, according to agreement made with his fathef-In-
law Laban. Which fentiment gave birth to a great
work of this prelate, in two parts : in the firft, under
the fymbol of the fleece of Jafon, is reprefented the
virtue of magnanimity, which a knight ought to pof-
fefs ; and under the fymbol of the tleece of Jacob he
reprefents the virtue of juftice.

Paradin

G O L

L 785 ]

G O L

Paradiii is of the fame mind ; and tells us, that the
duke defigned to infinuate that the fabulous conqueft
^ which Jafon Is faid to have made of the golden fleece in
Colchis, was nothing elfe but the conqucfl of virtue,
which gains a vicftory ovei thofe horrible monflers *ice
and our evil inclinations.

GoLDF.N Number, in Chronology, a number (howing
what year of the moon's cycle any given year is. See
Chronology, N" 27 — 30.

Golden Rod, in Botany. See SOLIDAGO, BoTANY
Index.

Golden Rofe. The pope annually confecrates a
golden role on the fourth Sunday in Lent, which is
fcnt to princelTes, or to fome church, as a mark, of his
peculiar affetiion.

Golden Rule, in Arithmetic, a rule or praxis, of
great ufe and extent in the art of numbers ; where-
by we find a fourth proportional to three quantities
given.

The golden rule is alfo called the Rule of Three and
Rule of Proportion. See its nature and ufe under the
article Arithmetic, N" 13.

GOLDENGEN, a toun of Poland in the duchy
of Courland, with a handfome caftle, feated on the ri-
ver Weia, in E. Long. 22. 31. N. Lat. 56. 48.

GOLDOXI, Charles, a comic writer of confider-
able eminence, was born at Venice in the year 1707,
in which city his father afted in the capacity of phyfi-
cian. His attachment to the drama became conspi-
cuous even in childhood, which his father uas fond of
countenancing, creeling a theatre in his own houfe,
where young Goldoni and fome of his companions were
the aftors. It is faid that he even drew the outlines of
a comedy of his own invention when he was no more
than 8 years of age, — a moll extraordinary indication
of his future eminence. He uudled rhetoric at Perugia,
in the college of the Jefuits, and profecuted his philofo-
phical ftudies at Rimini. The ftage, however had too
many charms to allow him to pay much attention to
Arirtotle or Quintillan, and he eloped from Rimini with
a company of comedians when they removed to Chioz-
za. In vain did his father attempt to make him fall in
love with phyfic, or the ftudy of the law ; yet his ar-
dent imagination was fo forcibly ftruck with a particu-
lar church-ceremony, that he formed the refolution of
commencing capuchin, but the diiTipation of Venice
foon deftroyed this refolution. After the demife of his
father, he was prevailed upon by his furviving parent
to take up the profeflion of the law for immediate fup-
port, but fome unknown reafons induced him to quit
the ijar, after v\hlch he went to Milan, where he was
appointed fecretary to the Venetian refident.

At Milan he brought out his firft performance, un-
der the title of // Gondoiiere Venexiano. He removed
afterwards to Verona, where he joined himfelf to a
company of players ; and here too he entered into a
ilate of wedlock. He compofed a number of pieces for
the players to whom he attached himl'elf. While at
Venice, be formed the laudable refolution of reforming
the Italian ftage, which at that time was dlfgraced by
contemptible farce and low buffoonery. He made him-
felf acquainted with the true nature of comedy, and
kept within the limits of nature and decorum. Such
was the fertility of his genius, and fuch his indefati-
gable induftry, that he produced no fewer than fixtccn

Vol. IX. Part II.

comedies and 42 other theatrical pieces in the courfe of Go'dhiiith.
twelve months ! And what is moil aftoniflilng, fome of ''^~*'"~~'
thefe hally performances are deemed his mafterpleces.

His works in 10 vols. Svo. were firll printed in 1753,
and in 1761 his new pieces amounted to 59. About
this time he was in\'ited to Paris by the manager of the
Italian theatre in that city, to compole pieces for the
ftage, of which invitation he accepted. His firft at-
tempt was unfuccefsful, becaufe he had to contend with
the pantomime drollery, which was moll agreeable to
the depraved tafte of tlie times. When about to leave
Paris on the expiratlcm of his engagement, he was in-
troduced to the court, and appointed teacher of the
Italian language to the princelTes. He had lodgings
in Verfailles, but his penfion was not fufficicnt to keep
him from writing for the ftage. When 62 years old,
he ventured to compofe in a foreign language, his La
Bourru Bienfaifant, which ^vas received in the court
theatre with extraordinary applaufe. He was deprived
of his penfion in confequence of the revolution, and re-
duced to indigence. It ought to be confefled, how-
ever, that this verfatile nation was juft about to make
him amends when he expired in 1792, and In the Sjtii
year of his age. If the rapidity with which Goldoni
compofed was fuch as to prevent him from ranking
with authors of the firft clafs, it cannot be denied that
his talent for comedy was very great. Some have given
him the appellation of the Moliere of Italy, but thij
perhaps is too flattering a title. His whole w orks were
printed at Leghorn about the years 1788 and 1791,
in ^ I volumes 8vo.

GOLDSMITH, or, as fome choofe to exprefs it,
filverfmith, an artlft who makes veflels, utenfils, and
ornaments, in gold and filver.

The goldfmlth's work is either performed in the
mould, or beat out with the hammer or other engine.
All works that have raifed figures are caft in a mould,
and afterwards polilhed and finiftied ; plates or
difhes, of filver or gold, are beat out from thin flat
plates ; and tankards, and other veflels of that kind,
are formed of plates foldered together, and their
mouldings are beat, not caft. The builnefs of the
goldfmiths formerly required much more labour than
it does at prefent ; for they were obliged to hammer
the metal from the Ingot to the thinnefs they wanted ;
but there are now Invented flatting-mills, which reduce
metals to the thinnefs that is required, at a very fraall
expence. The goldfmith is to make his own moulds j
and for that reafon, ought to be a good dcfigner, and
have a tafte in fculpture : he ought alfo to know enough
of metallurgy to be able to afTay mixed metals, and to
mix the alloy.

The goldfmiths in London employ feveral hands
under them for the various articles of their trade ; fuch
are the jeweller, the fnuflF-box and toy -maker, the (U-
ver-tunier, the gilder, the burniftier, the chafer, the re-
finer, and the gold-beater.

Goldfmiths are fuperior tradefmen ; their wares
muft be afiayed by the wardens of the company of
this name in London, and marked •, and gold is to be
of a certain touch. No goldfmith may take above one
fliilling the ounce of gold, befides what he has for the
fafhioning, more than the buyer may be allowed for
it at the king's exchange ; and here any falfc metal
fliall be fcized and forfeited to the king. The cities
5 G of

G O L

[ 786 ]

G O L

GoM mUh. of York, Exeter, Brirtol, &c. are places appointed
"'~~' for the CiiTaying ^vrought plate of goldfrniths ; a'.fo a
duty is granted on filver plate of iixpence an ounce,
&c. Plate made by goldfrniths Ihall be of a particular
finenefs, on pain of forfeiting icl. and if any parcel
of plate Tent to the alTayers is difcovered to be of a
coarfer alloy than the refpcciive ftandards, it may be
Ijroken and defaced -, and the fees for aflayiiig are par-
ticularly limited.

Goldsmith, Oliver, a celebrated Engliib wtiter,
was born at Rofcommon in Ireland in the year 1 731.
His fatiier, wiio poifeiTed a fmall eilate in that county,
had nine fons, of ivhom Oliver was the third. He
^vas originally intended for the church ; and with that
view, after being well inllrutled in the clafTics, was,
with his brother the Rev. Henry Goldfniith, placed
in Trinity-college, Dublin^ about the latter end of the
year 1749. In this feminary of learning he conti-
nued a few years, when he took a bachelor's degree :
but his brother not being able to obtain any prefer-
ment after he left the college, Oliver, by the advice
of Dean Goldfraith of Coik, turned his thoughts to
the fludy of phyfic ; and, after attending fome courfes
of anatomy in Dublin, proceeded to Edinburgh in the
year 1751, where he ftudied the leveral branches of
medicine under the different profeflors in that univer-
fity. His beneficent dilpofition foon involved him in
unexpedied difficulties ;. and he was obliged precipi-
tately to lep.ve Scotland, in confequence of engaging
liimfelf to pay a confiderable fum of money for a
fel!ov\--iludent.

A few days after, about the beginning of the year
17^4, he arrived at Sunderland, near Newcaftle,
where he was arrefted at the fuit of a taylor in Edin-
burgh, to whom he had given fccurity for his friend.

By the good offices of Laughlan Maclane, Elq. and
Dr Sleigh, who were then in the college, he was
foon delivered out of the hands of the bailiii ; and
took Ills paffage on board a Dutch fliip to Rotterdam,
where, after a fliort ftay, he proceeded to Bruffels ;
Le then vifited great part of Flanders ; and after pal-
ling foine time at Stralhurg and Louvain, where he
obtained a degree of bachelor of phyfic, he accompa-
nied an Englilh gentleman to Berne and Geneva.

It is undoubtedly fafl, that Uiis ingenious unfortu-
nate man travelled on foot moll part of his tour. He
had left England with very little money j and being
of a philofophical turn, and at that time polTefling a
body capable of fuftaining every fatigue, and a heart
not ealjly terrified at danger, he became an enthufiaft
to the defign he had formed of leeing the manners of
different countries. He had fome knowledge of the .
French language and of mufic, and he played tolerably
well on the German tlute ; which, from an ainufe-
ment, became at fome times the means of fubllflence.
His learning produced him a hofpitable reception at
moft of the religious houfes •, and his mufic made him
welcome to the peafants of Flanders and other parts of
Germany. " Whenever I approached," he ufed to
fay, " a peafant's houfe towards night-fall, I played
one of my moft merry tunes ; and that procured jye
not only a lodging, but fubfiftence for the next day :
but in truth (his conftant exprcffion), I muft own,
whenever I attempted to entertain perfoiis of a higher
lank, they always thought my performance odious,

and never made me any return for my endeavours to '
pleafe them." -

On Mr Goldfmith's arrival at Geneva, he was re-
commended as a proper perfon for a travelling tutor
to a young man, who had been unexpeftedly left a

confiderable fum of money by his uncle Mr S ,

formerly an eminent pawnbroker near Holborn. This
youth, who had been articled to an attorney, oii re-
ceipt of his fortune determined to fee the world j
and, on his engaging witli his preceptor, made a
provifo that he iliould be permitted to govern him-
lelf ; and Goldfmith foon found his pupil underftood
the art of directing in money-concerns extremely well,
as avarice was his prevailing palTion. His queftions
vvce ulually how money might be laved, and whicii
was the leaft expenCve courle ot travelling ; whether any
tiling could be bought that would turn to account
when difpofed of again in London ? Such curiofities
on the way as could be feen for notiiing he \\as ready
enough to look at ; but if the fight of them ivas to
be paid for, he ufuaily alTerted that he had been told
they were not worth feeing. He never paid a bill
that he would not obferve how amazingly expeufive
travelling was ; and all this, though he was not yet
twenty-one. During Goldfmith's continuance in Swit-
zerland, he afliduoufly cultivated his poetical talent,
of which he had given fome llrikiiig proofs wliile at
the college of Edinburgh. It was here he fent the
firft feetch of his delightful poem called the Traveller,
to his brother the clergyman in Ireland, who, giving
up fame and fortune, had retired with an amiable wife
to happinefs and obfcunty, on an income of only 40I.
a-year.

From Geneva Mr Goldfmith and his pupil vifited
the fouth of France; where the young man, upon
fome dil'agreeraent with his preceptor, paid him tiie
fmall part of his falary which was due, and embarked
at Marieilles for England. Our wanderer was left once
more upon the world at large, and palled through a
variety of difficulties in travelling the greateft part cf
France. At length his curiofity being fatiated, he
bent his courfe towards England, and arrived at Dover
the beghming of the winter 1758. WHien he came td
London, his Hock of carti did not amount to two livres.
An entire ftranger in this metropolis, his mind was
filled with the moft gloomy re.Hei^ions on his embar-
rafled fituation. With fome difficulty he difcovered
tiiat part of the town in which his old acquaintance
Dr Sleigh refided. This gentleman received him with
the warmeft affeflion, and liberally invited him to
(liare his purle till fome eftablilhment could be procu-
red for him. Goldfmith, unwilling to be a burden to
his friend, a fliort time after eagerly embraced an of-
fer which was made him to atlilf the late Rev. Dr
Milner in inftrucling the young gentlemen at the aca-
demy at Peckham ; and acquitted himfelf greatly to
the Doftor's fatisfaiflion for a fliort time : but having
obtained fome reputation by the criticifms he had
written in the Monthly Review, Mr Griffith, the pro-
prietor, engaged him in the compilation of it ; and,
refolving to purfue the profeffion of writing, he return-
ed to London, as the mart where abilities of every kind
were fure of meeting dillinifion and reward. As his
finances were by no means in a good Hate, he deter-
mined to adopt a plan of the firidell eccnomy : and

took

G O L

took lodgings in an obfcure court in the Old Bailry,
where ne wrote feveral ingenious little pieces. The
late Mr Newberry, who at that time gave great en-
couragement to men of literary abilities, became a
kind of patron to our young author ; and introduced
him as one of the writers in the Public Ledger, in
which his Citizen of the World originally appeared,
under the title of Chinefe LelUrs.

Fortune now feemed to take feme notice of a man
(he had long neglefted. The fimplicity of his charac-
ter, the integrity of his heart, and the merit of his
produiilions, made his company very acceptable to a
number of refpectable families ; and he emerped from
his iliabby apartments in the Old Bailey to tl:e politer
air of the Temple, where he took handfome chambers,
and lived in a genteel ftyle. The publication of his
Traveller, and his Vicar of Wakefield, was followed by
the performance of his comedy of the Good-natured
Man at Covent Garden theatre, and placed him in the
firft rank of th? poets of the prefent age.

Among many other perfons of difiindion who were
defirous to know him was the duke of Northumber-
land ; and the circumftance that attended his intro-
diiclion to that nobleman is worthy of being related,
in order to fliow a ftriking trait of his charafter. " I
was in\'ited," faid the Doflor (as he was then univer-
fally called) by my friend Mr Piercy, to wait uron
the duke, in confequence of the fatlsfaclion he had
received from the perufal of one of my produftions.
I dreffed myfelf in the bed manner I could ; and,
after ftudying fome compliments I thought neceffary
on fuch an occafion, proceeded to Northumberland-
houfe, and acquainted the fervants that I had parti-
cular bufinefs with his Grace. They fliowed me into
an antichamber ; where, after waiting fome time, a
gentleman very genteelly dreffed made his appearance.
Taking him for the duke, I delivered all the fine
things I had'compofed in order to compliment him on
the honour he had done me ; when, to my great aflo-
nifliment, he told me I had miftaken him for his mailer,
who would fee me immediately. At that inftant the
duke came into my apartment ; and I was fo confufed
on the occafion, that I wanted words barely fufficient
to e\prefs the fenfe I entertained of the duke's polite-
nefs, and went away extremely chagrined at the blun-
der I had committed."

Another feature of his charafter we cannot help
laying before the reader. Previous to the publication
of his Deferted Village, the bookfeller had given him
a note for one hundred guineas for the copy, which
the Doftor mentioned a few hours after to one of his
friends : w-ho obferved, it ^vas a very great fum for fo
ihort a performance. " In truth," replied Goldf-^uth,
" I think fo too ; I have not been eafy fince I received
it ; therefore I will go back and return him his note ;"
which he abfolutely did ; and left it entirely to the
bookfeller tc pay him according to the profits produced
by the fale of the piece, which turned out very confi-
derable.

During the laft rehearfal of his comedy intitled She
ftoops to Conquer, which Mr Coleman had no opinion
would fucceed, on the Doclor's objocling to the rejietl-
tion of one of Tonv Lumkin's fpeechcs, being appre-
henfive it mi^ht injure the play, the manager with
great kcennefs replied, " Pflia, my dear Dodor, do not

787 ] GO L

•, be fearful of fquibs, when we have been fitting awnollOnMrrni;
thcfe two hours upon a barrel of gunpowder." The """
piece, however, contrary to Mr Coleman's expeclation,
was received with uncommon applaufe by th.c audience-,
and Goldfmith's pride was fo hurt by the feverity of
the above obfervation, that it entirely put an end to his
friendlliip for the gentleman ttiat made it.

Notvithilanding the great fuccefs of his pieces, by
fome of which it is afferted, upon good authority, he
cleared 1800I. in one year, his clrciimllanccs were by
no means in a profperous fituption ; which was partly
owing to the liberality of his difpolition, and partly
to an unfortunate habit he had contvaftcd of gaming •,
the arts of which he knew very little of, and conle-
quently became the prey of thofe who were unprinci-
pled enough to take advantage of his fimplicity.

Juft before his death he had formed a delign for ex-
ecuting an Univerfal Diftionary of Arts and Sciences,
the profpeflus of which he actually publiihed. In
this work feveral of his literaiy friends (particularly
Sir .Tofliua Reynolds, Dr Johnfi)n, Mr Beauclerc, and
Mt Garrick), had undertaken to funiifli him with ar-
ticles upon different fubjefls. He had entertained tlie
moft fanguine expeflations from the fuccefs of it. The
undertaking, however, did not meet with that encou-
ragement from the bookfellers which he had imagined
it would undoubtedly receive ; and he ufed to lament
this circumftance almoft to the laft hour of his ex-
illence.

He had been for fome years affliftcd, at different
times, with a violent ftrangury, which contributed not
a little to embitter the latter part of his life ; and which,
united with the vexations which he fuffered upon other
occafions, brought on a kind of habitual defpondency.
In this unhappy condition he was attacked by a nervous
fever, which, being improperly treated, terminated ia
his diffolutlon on the 4th of April 1774.

As to his charafter, it is ftrongly illuftrated by Mr
Pope's line.

In wit a man, fimplicity a child.

The learned leifure he loved to enjoy was too often
interrupted by diftreffes which arofe from the liberality
of his temper, and which fometlmcs threw him into
loud fits of paffion : but this impetuofity was correfl-
ed upon a moment's reflcflion -, and his fervants have
been knoivn, upon thefe occafions, purpofely to throw
themfelves in his way, that they might profit by it im-
mediately after ; for he who had the good fortune to
be reproved, was certain of being rewarded for it.
The univerfal efteem in which his poems were held,
and the repeated pleafure tliey give in the perufal, is a
firlking tell of their merit. He was a ftudious and cor-
reft obferver of nature ; liap-iy in the feleftion of his
images, in the choice of his fubjefts, and in the har-
mony of his verfificalion ; and, though his embarraffed
fituation nrevented him from putting the laft hand to
many of his produifllons, his Hermit, his Traveller,
and his Deferted Village, bid fair to claim a place
among the moft finiflicd pieces in the Englilh lan-
guage.

Befidcs the works already mentioned, he wrote, r,

Hlllory of the earth and animated nature, 6 vols 8vo.

2. Hiftory of England, 4 vols 8vo. 3. Hiftory of

Rome, 2 vols. 4. Abridgments of the two laft, for

; G : ■ die

G O L [7;

the ufe of fchools. 5. A view of experimental pliilofo-
^ phy, 3 vols 8vo ; a pofthumous work, not efteemed.
6. MiTcellanJes, &c.

GOLF, the name of a certain game among the
Scots, and faid to be peculiar to their country. —
Among them it has been very ancient ; for there are
itatutea prohibiting it as early as the year 1457, left it
Ihould interfere with the fport of archery. It is com-
monly played on rugged broken ground, covered with
Inort grafs, in the neighbourhood of the fea fhore. A
field of this fort is in Scotland called /inks. The gime
is generally played in parties of one or two on each
fide. Each party has an exceeding hard ball, fome-
what larger than a hen's egg. This they ftrike with a
(lender and clallic club, of about four feet long, crook-
ed in the head, and ha%ang lead run into it, to make it
heavy. The ball being ftruck with this club, will Hy
to the diftance of 200 yards, and the game is gained
by the party who puts his ball into the hole with the
feweft ftrokes. But the game does not depend folely
upon the ftriking of the longeft ball, but alfo upon mea-
furing the ftrength of the ftroke, and applying it in
fuch direction as to lay the ball in fmooth ground,
v.hence it may be eaiily moved at the next llroke. To
encourage this amufement, the city of Edinburgh,
A. D. 1744, gave to the company of golfers a lilver
club, to be played for annually by the company, the
viftor to append a gold or filver piece to the prize.
It has been played for every year fince, except the
years 1746 and 1747. For their better accommoda-
tion, 22 members of the company fublcribed 30I. each
in the year 1 768, for building a houfe, where their
meetings might be held. The fpot chofen for this pur-
pcfe was the fouth-weft comer of Leith Links, where
an area was taken in feu from the magiftrates of E-
dinburgh, and a commodious houfe and tavern built
upon it.

GOLIUS, James, a celebrated profeflbr of Arabic
and the mathematics at Leyden, was defcended from a
very honourable family, and born at the Hague in the
year i ^()6. He was put to the univerfity of Leyden,
where he ftudied under Erpinius ; and having made
hirafelf mafter of all the learned languages, applied
himfelf to the mathematics, phyfic, and divinity. He
afterwards travelled into Africa and Afia ; and became
greatly efteemed by the king of Morocco, and the ful-
tan of the Turks. He at length returned to Leyden,
loaded with manufcripts •, and in 1674, fucceeded Er-
pinius in the Arabic chair. As he had been an eye-
witnefs of the wretched ftate of Chriftianity in the Ma-
hometan countries, he was filled \vith the compaflion
of a fe)low-chrilHan ; and none ever folicited for a
place of honour and profit with greater eagernefs, than
he for procuring a new edition of the New Teftament,
in the original language, with a tranflation into the
vulgar Greek, by an Archimandrite j and as there are
fome of thefe Chriftians who ufe the Arabic tongue in
divine fervice, he alfo took care to have difperfed a-
mon? them an Arabic tranflation of the ConfelTion of
the Proieftants, together with the Cattchifm and Li-
turgy. In 1626, he was alfo chofen profeflbr of ma-
theiraticsj and difcharged the funtlions of both pro-
felTurfhips with the greateft applaufe during 40 years.
He was likewife appointed interpreter in ordinary to the
ftates for the Arabic, Turkiih, Perfian, and oiher eaft-

18 ] G O L

ern languages, for which he had an annual penfion, Colt?
and a prcfent of a gold chain, with a very beautiful ^~~v-
medal, which he wore as a badge of his othce. He
publilhed, l. The life of Tamerlane, written in Ara-
bic. 2. The hiftory of the Saracens, written by El-
macin. 3. Alferganus's Elements of Aftronomy, with
a new verfion, and learned commentaries. 4. An e.x-
cellent Arabic lexicon, 5. A Perfian Dictionary. He
died in 1667.

GOLTZIUS, Hekry, a famous engraver and pain-
ter, born in I J58, at Mulbreck in the duchy of Juliers.
He was taught the art of engraving by Theodore Cue-
renhert ; and fucceeded very wonderfully in it, not-
withftanding the difadvantage of a lame hand, which
was occafioned by his falling into the fire whilft young.
He was firft employed by his mafter, and afterwards he
worked for Philip Galle. Domeftic troubles and ill
health occafioned him to travel. He went through
Germany into Italy ; and pafled under a feigned name,
that his ftudies might not be interrupted. He vifited
Bologna, Florence, Naples, and Venice, conftantly
applying himfelf to drawing from the antique ftatues,
and the works of the great mafters. At Rome he >re-
fided the longeft ; and there he produced feveral excel-
lent engravings from Polidoro Raphael, and other emi-
nent painters. On his return to his native country he
eftablilhed himfelf at Haerlem, where he engraved ma-
ny of the drawings which he had made during his abode
in Italy. He died at Haerlem in 1 61 7, aged 59. He
is faid to have been 40 years old before he began to
paint : yet his piftures are fpoken of with great com-
mendation ; but as he did not produce any great num-
ber of them, they are rarely to be met with. As an
engraver, he deferves the highell commendation. No
man ever furpafled, and few have equalled, him in the
command of the graver and freedom of execution. He
copied the flyle of Albert Durer, Lucas of Leyden,
and other old mafters, with aftonllhing exaftnefs. Some-
times his engravings are neat in the extreme ; at other
times they are performed in a bold open manner, with-
out the leaft reftraint. He alfo engraved feveral of his
own defigns on wood, in that manner which is dillin-
guilhed by the appellation of cliiaro-fciiro. Of his
prints, which are very numerous, it may here fuftice to
fpecify two or three of the moft celebrated : i. Six
large upright plates, known by the name of his mafter.
pieces. Thefe, it js faid, he engraved to convince the
public that he was perfedly capable of imitating the
ftyles of Albert Durer, Lucas Van Leyden, and other
mafters, ^vhofe works were then held in higher eftima-
tion than his own ; for he had adopted a nevv manner,
which he purfued becaufe he thought it fuperior, and
not becaule he was incapable of following the others.
It is reported that with one of thtm, the Circumcifion,
which he fmoked to give it the more plaufible air of
antiquity, he aiflually deceived fome of the moft capi-
tal connoiiTeurs of the day •, by one of whom it was
bought for an original engraving of Albert Durer.
The fubjefls of thefe plates are. The Annunciation of
the Virgin ; the Meeting of the Virgin with Elizabeth,
called the Vilitation •, the Nativity of Chrift ; the Cir-
cumcifion of Chrill ; the Adoration of the Wife Men ;
the Holy Family. 2. The Judgment of Midas, a large
plate lengthwife. 3. The Venetian Ball, a large plate
lengthwile, from Theodore Bernard. 4. The Boy and

Dog,

G O M

, Dog, a middling fized upright plate, from a defign of
his own J an admirable print. 5. The Necroinancer,
a middling-fized upright oval print, in chiaro-fcurq,
6. Night in her Chariot, the fame.

GOMBAULD, John Ogier DE, one of the heft
French poets in the 1 7lh century, and one of the firft
members of the French aradcmy, was horn at St Juft
de Luflac. He acquired the efteem of Mary de Medi-
cjs, and of the wits of his time. He was a Proteftaiit,
and died in a very advanced age. He wrote many
works in verfe and profe. His epigrams, and lome of
his fonnets, are particularly eftecmed.

GOMSROON, by the natives called Bander Abqjfi,
a city of Penia, fituated in N. Lat. 27. 40. E. Long.
55. 30. The nanie oi Combroor:, or Cumerong, Cap-
tain Hamilton tel!s us, it had from the Portuguefe ;
became it was remarkable for the number of prawns
and Ihrimps caught on its coails, by them called came-
rong. This city owes its wealth and grandeur to the
demolition of Orraus, and the downfal of the Portu-
guele empire in the Eaft Indies. It is noiv juftly ac-.
counted one of the greateit marts in the Eaft, was
built by the great Shah Aba?, and from him, as fome
think, obtained the name of Bander Ahaffi, which fig-
nifies the court of Abas. It ftands on a bay about
nine leagues to the northward of the eall end of the
illand of Ki(hmilh, and three leagues from the famous
Ormus. The Englilh began to fettle here about the
year 1 63 1, when, in confideration of their fervices
againft the Portuguefe, Shah Abas granted them half
the cuftoms of that port. This was confirmed by a
phirmaund, and duly regarded, till the Engliih began
to neglect; the fervices thev had ftipulated. WTiether
the company has any emolument from the cuftoms at
prefent, is what we cannot pretend to afcertain. The
town is large, but its fituation bad ; wanting almoit
every thing that contributes to the happinefs and even
fupport of life. To^vards the hnd it is encompafled
by a fort of \val! ; and towards the fea are feveral fmall
forts, with a platform, and a caftle or citadel, mounted
with cannon to fecure it and the road from the at-
tempts of an enemy by fea. The houfes in moft of
the ftreets are fo out of repair, fome half down, others
in a heap of rubbiih, that a ftranger would imagine
the town had been facked and ravaged by a barbarous
people ; not a veftige of the wealth really contained
in the place appearing in view. The bazars and (hops
round them are kept, for the moft part, by Banians,
whofe houfes are generally in good order. Moll of
the houfes are built with earth and lime, but fome of
the beft with ftone. Many of them have a fort of
ventilators at top, which contributes greatly to the
health of the inhabitants in the hot fealons of the
year. The raoft fickly months here are April, May,
September, and October. With tiih and mutton the
inhabitants are well fupplied. Rice is imported from
India ; and wheat is fo plenty, that the poor fubfift
chiefly on bread and dates. The country hereabouts
abounds in the moft delicious fruits, as apricots, peach-
es, pomegranates, pears, mangoes, grapes, quavas,
plums, fweet quinces, and water melons. The apricots,
however, are fmall, and extremely dangerous if eaten
to excefs.

Thofe conveniences are more than overbalanced by
the fcarcity of frelTi water, v/ith ivliich the inhabitants

[ 789 ]

G O M

are fupplied from Afleen, a place feven miles dIftant,C<jmSron'i
there not being a fpring or well in the town. Perfons Gomfia
of condition keep a camel conftantly erpployed in '
bringing frelh and wholefome water. Captain Hamil-
ton gives it as his opinion, that one caufe of the un-
wholefomenefs of this city is the refleilion of the rays
of light from a high mountain to the. north of it.
He fays, that when the beams are reflected from this
mountain, they almoft fire the air, and, for two or
three months in the year, render the fituation intole-
rable. For this reafon the people of condition retire
into the country, to pafs the heats of June, July, and
Auguft. The very fea, during this feafon, is affected,
infomuch that the ftench is no lefs difagreeable than
that of putrid carcafes ; and this is increaled by the
quantities of fliell-filh left on the ihore, from which an
e.xhalation arifes that tarnilhes gold and filver, and is
lels tolerable than the bilge-water of a tight Ihip. At
AlTeen the Englilh faftory have a country houfe and
gardens, to which, they retire occafionally. Here they
have whole groves of Seville orange trees, which^
though not natural to the country, thrive very well,
and are always verdant, bearing ripe and green fruit,
with bloffoms, all at the fame time. They have like-
wife tanks and ponds of fine frefli water, with every
thing eL^e that can moderate the heat of the climate,
and render life agreeable and elegant. -About 10 miles
from AfTeen is a place called Minoa, where are cold
and hot natural baths, reckoned infallible in the cure
of all fcrophulous diforders, rheumatifnis, and other dif-
eafes, by bathing.

Gombroon is extremely populous, on account ofl^the
commerce carried on by the Dutch and Englilh fafto-
ries, as well as the natives, 'i'he Englilh factory is clofc
by the fea, at fome diftance from the Dutch, which is
a commodious and fine new building. A great part of
the company's profits arifes from freights. As the na-
tives have not one good ihip of their own, and are ex-
tremely ignorant of navigation, they freight their goods
for Surat, and other Indian marts, in Englilh and
Dutch bottoms, at an exorbitant rate. The commodi-
ties of the Gombroon market are, fine wines of differ-
ent khids, raifms, almonds, kilh-milhes, prunellas, date?,
piftachio-nuts, ginger, filks, carpets, leather, tutty,
galbanum, ammoniac, affafoetida, tragacanth, with
other gums, and a variety of (hop medicines. Thefe
are in a great meafure the produce of Carmania, which
they bring to Gombroon in caravans. The Englilh
company had oikc a fmall factory in the province ot
Carmania, chiefly for the fake of a fine wool produced
there, and ufed by the hatters. The faid company had
once a projeft of carrying a breed of the Perlian goats
to St Helena ; but whether it was executed, or what
fuccels it met with, we cannot fay. Although the
company pay no cuftoms, yet they ufually make a pre-
fent to the (liabander, to avoid the trouble he has it in
his power to give them. All private traders with the
company's paScs, enjoy the fame privileges, on paying
two per cent, to the company, one to the agent, and
one to the broker. All private trade, either by Euro-
pean or country (hips, has long been engroffcd by the
company's fervants.

GOMERA, one of the Canary iflands, lying be-
tween Ferro and Tencriffe. It has one good town of
the fame name, \vith an excellent harbour, where the

Spanilli

G O

fleet often take i

N [ 79

refrediinent?. Tliey ha\e

corn lufficient to fupply tlie inhabitants, \vith one fu-
gar -work, and great plenty of wine and fruits. It is
labjeft to the Spaniards, who conquered it in J44J.
W. Loner. 1-. 10. N. Lat. 28. O.

GOIVfOPvRAH, in Ancient Geography, one of the
cicies of the plain or of the vale of Siddim in .Tudaa,
dellroyed together with Sodom by fire from heaven, on
account of the v>-ickednefs of the people. To deter-
mine its particular fituation at prefent, is impoflible.

GOMOZIA, a genus of plants belonging to the te-
trandria cTafs. See Botany Index.

GOMPHOSIS, in Jnaionnj, that kind of articula-
tion by which the teeth are fixed in the jaw-bone.
See A:.'.\To:.iY, N° 2.

GOMPHRiENA, globe amaranth •, a genus of
plants belonging to the peiitandria clafs ; and in the na-
tural method ranking under the 54th order, MifcellaneLC.
See Botany Index.

GONAOUA, the name of a nation inhabiting
ribout the Cape, and fuppofed by Dr Sparrman to
be a mixture of Hottentots and Caffres. See Hotten-
tots.

GONDAR, the capital of Abyffinia ; fituated, ac-
cording to Mr Bruce's obfcrvations, in latitude 12. 34.
north, and longitude 37. 33. eaft from Greenwich.
It lies upon the top of a hill of confiderable height,
and conlifls of about 1 0,030 families in times of peace.
The houfes are chiefly of clay, with roofs thatched in
the form of cones. At the weft end of the town is the
king's palace \ formerly, as I\Ir Bruce informs us, a
rtruclure of confiderable confequence, being a large
n-juare building four ftories high, flanked with fquare
towers, and affording from the top of it a magnificent
view of all the country fouthivard to the lake Tzana.
It was built in the time of Facilidas, by mafons from
India, and by fuch Abyfllnians as had been inftrufted
in architefture by the Jefuits before their expuliion.
Great part of it is no%v in ruins, having been burnt
at different times ; but there is ftill ample lodging in
the two loweft floors, the audience chamber being above
120 feet long. By the fide of this ftruclure there have
been built by different kings apartments of clay only,
in the fadiion of their own country. The palace, with
all its contiguous buildings, is furrounded by a double
Itone wall thirty feet high and a mile and a half in
cncuinference, with battlements upon the outer wall,
and a parapet roof between the outer and inner, by
which you can go along the whole and look into the
ftreet. The hill on which the town is built rifes
in the middle of a deep valley, through which run two
rivers : one of which, the Kakha, coming from the
Mountain of the Sun, flanks all the fouth of the
town 5 while the other, called the Angrab, falling from
the mountain Woggora, encompaffcs it on the north
and north-e:ift ; and both rivers unite at the bottom of
the bill about a quarter of a mile fouth of the town.
Upon the bank oppofite to Gondar, on the other fide
of the river, is a large to'vn of Mahometans ; a great
part of wliom are employed in taking care of the
king's and nobility's equipage, both when they take
the field and when they return from it. -They are
formed into a body under proptr otFicers -, but never
fight on either fide, being entirely confined to the
/occupation juft mentioned, 111 which by their care and

D ] G O N

dexterity in pitching and flriking the tentf, and in Gom'
leading and conducing the baggage-waggonsj they Ij
E?B of great fervice. — The valley of Gondar is de- ,,. '
fcribed as having three outlets j one fouth, to Dem- ^— v-
bea, Maitflia, and the Agows ; another on the nortli-
well, towards Sennaar, from which it is diltant 1 80
miles, over the Mountain of the Sun ; and the third
north, leading to Woggora, over the high moun-
tain Lamalmon, and fo on through Tigre to the Red
fea.

GONDI, John Francis Paul, Cardinal de Retz,
was the fon of Philip Lmanuel de Gondi, Count de
Joigny, lieutenant-general, &c. and was born in 1613.
From a doftor of the Sorbonne, he firft became co-
adjutor to his uncle John Francis de Gondi, whom he
fucceeded in 1654 as archbiihop of Paris; and was
finally made a cardinal. This extraordinary perfou
has drawn his own character in his memoirs with im-
partiality. He was a man who, from the greateft
degree of debauchery, and llill languifning u:ider its
confequences, made himfelf adored hy the people as a
preacher. At the age of 23, he was at the head of
a confpiracy againft the life of Cardinal Richelieu ; he
precipitated the parliament into cabals, and the people
into fedition : he was (fays M. Voltaire) the firft bi-
ihop who carried on a civil war without the mafk of
religion. However, his intrigues and fcheraes turned
out fo ill, that he was obliged to quit France ; and he
lived the life of a vagrant exile for five or fix years,
till the death of his great enemy Cardinal Mazarin,
when he returned on certain (lipulated conditions.
After affiHing in the conclave at Rome, which chofe
Clement IX. he retired fiom the world, and ended
his life like a philofopher in 1679 ; which made Vol-
taire fay, that in his youth he lived like Catiline, and
like Atticus in his old age. He wrote his Memoirs
in his retirement ; the beft edition of which is that of
Amfterdam, 4 vols i 2mo, 17 1 9.

GONDOLA, a flat boat, very long and narrow,
chiefly ufed at Venice to row on the canals. The
word is Italian, gondola. Du Cange derives it from
the vulgar Greek KtvUiXtti, " a bark," or " little Ihip;"
Lancelot deduces it from yo»Jt;, a term in Athenaeus for
a fort of vafe.

The middle-fized gondolas are upwards of thirty
feet long and four broad : they always terminate at
each end in a very fliarp point, which is raifed perpen-
dicularly to the full height of a man.

The addrefs of the Venetian gondoliers, in paffing
along their narrow canals, is very remarkable : there
are ufually two to each gondola, and they row by pufti-
ing before them. The fore-man refts his oar on the
left fide of the gondola : the hind-man is placed on the
ftern, that he may fee the head over the tilt or co-
vering of the gondola, and refts his oar, which is very-
lone, on the right fide of the gondola.

Gondola is alfo the name of a paffage-boat of fix
or eight ■ ars, ufed in other parts of the coaft of Italy.

GONIOMETRY, a method of meafuring angles,
fo called by M. de Lagny, who gave feveral papers, on
this method, in the Memoiis of the Royal Academy an.
1724, 1725, 1729. M. de Lagny's method of gonio-
metry conufts in meafuring the angles with a pair of
compades, and that without any fcale whatever, except
an undivided feraicircle. Thus, having any angle

drawn

.GoncrK:

< 11
Good.

GOO [79

diawn upon paper, to be ir.eafured ; proiiucc one of the
,;^Jes of the angle backwards behind the angular ponit ;
. then with a pair of fine compaffes defcribe a prelty
large iemiclrclc from ihe angular point as a centre, cut-
ting the fides of the propofcd angle, which will inter-
cept a part of tlic ftmitircle. Take then this inttrcspted
part very cxacUy between the points of the co^npalTcs,
and turn them fuccefhvcly over opon tlie arc of the fe-
micircle, to End how often it is contained in it, after
which there is ccmmonly fome remainder : then take
tliis remainder in the compafTts, and in like manner
End how often it is contained in the laft of the integral
parts of the firrt arc, with again lorae remainder : find
in like manner how often this lali remainder is contained
in the former ; and fo on continually, till the remainder
become too fniall to be taken and applied as a meafure.
Jjv this means he obtains a feries of quotients, or frac-
tional part?, one of another, which being properly re-
cuced into one fraclion, give the ratio of the firft arc to
the femicircle, or of the propofed angle to two right
angles, or 180 degrees, and confequently that angle it-
felf in degrees and minutes. Huttoti's Math. Dicf.

GOXORRK^A, an eJlux of white, greenilh, or
diilerently-coloured matter, from the urethra ; molt
commonly o«nng to venereal infeflion. See Medicine
and Surgery Index.

GOIsZAGA, Ll'cretia, was one of the mod il-
luftrious ladies of the 16th century ; and much cele-
brated for her wit, her learning, and her delicate ftyle.
Hortenfio Lando wrote a beautiFal panegyric upon
her, and dedicated to her his dialogue of moderating
the pafuons. Her beautiful letters have been colleded
with the greateil care. We learn from thefe, that her
marriage with .John Paul Manfrone was unhappy. —
She was married when fhe was not 14 years of age,
and his conduct afterwards gave her infinite uneafi-
nefs. He engaged in a confpiracy agaiiift the duke
of Ferrara ; was detefled and imprifoned by him ;
but, though condemned by the judges, not put to
death. She did all in her power to obtain his en-
largement, but in vain ; for he died in prifon, having
fhown fuch impatience under his m.isfortunes, as made
it imagined he had loll his fenfes. She never would
liilen afterwards to any propofals of marriage, though
feveral were made to her. All that came from her
pen was fo much efteemed, that a coUeftion was made
even of the notes fne v>-rit to her fervants ; feveral
of which are to be met with in the edition of het
letters.

GOOD, in general, whatever is apt to increafe
pleafure, to dJminiih pain in us ; or, which amounts to
the fame, whatever is able to procure or preferve to us
the pofTeffion of agreeable fenfations, and remove thofc
of an oppufite nature.

Moral Good, denotes the right conduft of the fe-
veral ienfes and pafTions, or their juft proportion and
accommodation to their refpeftive objects and relations.
See Morals.

Good ^bearing (bonus gcjl 11 r), Cgnlfies an exaft car-
riage or behaviour of a fubject towards the king and
the people, whereunto forae perfons upon their inilhe-
haviour are bound : and he that is bound to this, is
faid to be more ftrift!y bound than to the peace : be-
caufe where the peace is not broken, the furcty de iono

I ] GOO

gif/u may be forfeited by the number of a man's co!n-poo<lllo]
pany, or by their weapons. "'""

Good Behaviour, in Law, an exaft carriage and be-
haviour to the king and his people.

A juflice of the peace may, at the requeft of ano-
ther, or where he himfelf iecs caufe, demand fmety
for the good '>-;havionr ; and to that end the juflice
may iflue out his warrant againft any perfons whatfo-
ever, under the degree of nobility ; but when it is a
nobleman, complaint Is to be made in the court of
chancery, or king's bench, where fuch nobleman may
be bound to keep the peace. Infants and feme-coverts,
who ought to find furety by their friends, may be bound
over to their good behaviour ; as alfo lunatics, that
have fometimes lucid intervals, and all others who break
the peace, or being fufpecled to do it by affrays, af-
f;iuits, battery, wounding, fighting, quarrelling, threat-
ening, &c. A perfon may be likewife bound to his
good behaviour for a fcandalous way of living, keeping
bawdy-houfes, gaming houfes, &c. and fo may com-
mon drunkards, whoremongers, common whores, cheats,
libellers, &c. He who demands furety for the peace,
on any violence offered, muft take an oath before the
jailice, that he goes in fear of his life, or fome bodily
hann, &c. and that it is not out of malice, but from a.
regard to his own fafety.

Good Breeding. See Good Mannf.rs.

Good Friday, a faft of the Chriliian church, in me-
mory of the fufferings and death of Jefus Chrift. It is
obferved on the Friday in holy or pajfion weel: ; and it '
is called, by way of eminence, good, bccaufe of the
blelTed tffeils of our Saviour's fufferings, which were
a propitiatoiy or expiating facrifice for the fins of the
world. The commemoration of our Saviour's fufferings
has been kept from the very firft ages of Chrillianity,
and was always obfened as a day of the ftrifteft fafling
and humiliation. Among the Saxons it was called
Long-Friday; but for what reafon, except on account
of the long fallings and offices then ufed, is uncertain.
On Good Friday the pope fits on a plain form : and,
after fervice is ended, when the cardinals wait on him
back to his chamber, they are obliged to keep a deep
filence, as a teftimony of their forrow\ In the night
of Good-Friday, the Greeks perform the obfequies of our
Saviour round a great crucifix, laid on a bed of flatc,
adorned with flowers •, thefe the bilhops dillribute a-
niong the affi Hants when the office is ended. The
Armenians, on this day, fet open a holy fepulclire, in
imitation of that of Mount Calvary.

Good Hope, or Cape ofGoodtiope, a promontory of
Africa, where the Dutch have built a good town and fort.
It is fituated in the country of the Hottentots ; for an
account of whom, and of the country at large, with its
firll dilcover)-, fee the article HoTTtXTOTS.

The Cape of Good Hope has been generally efteem-
ed the moll foutherly point of Africa, though it is not
truly fo. In PhiUips's Voyage to Botany Bay *, we are* P. 3S.
told, that the land which projects farthell to the fouth
is a point to the eaft of it, called by the Engliih Cape
LaguUtis ; a name corrupted from the original Pottu-
guefe das /Igiilhas, which, as well as the French ap-
pellation dts /Jigiiillcs, is delcriptive of its form, and
would rightly be tranllated Needle cape.

On approaching the cape, a very remarkable emi-
nence

GOO

79:

GOO

cc! Hope ner.ce may in clear weather be difcovered at a confider-
""^ able diftance ; and is called the Table-mounlain from its

appearance, as it terminates in a flat horizontal furface,
from which the face of the rock defcends almolt per-
pendicularly. In the mild or fummer feafon, which
commences in September, and continues till March,
the Table Land or Mountain, is fometimes fuddenly
capped ^\■ith a white cloud, by fome called the fpreading
of the Table-cloth. When this cloud feeras to roll
down the deep face of the mountain, it is a fure indi-
cation of an approaching gale of uind from the fouth-
eaft ; which generally blows with great violence, and
fometimes continues a day or more, but in common is
of (hort duration. On the firit appearance of this
cloud, the (hips in Table Bay begin to prepare for it,
by ftriking yards and top-mafts, and making every
thing as fnug as poflible — A little to the weilward of
the Table Land, divided by a fmall valley, (lands on
the right hand fide of Table Bay a round hill, calU
ed the Sugar Loaf ; and by many the Lioti's Head, as
there is a continuance from it contiguous to the fea,
called the Liuti's Rump ; and when ycu take a general
view of the whole, it very much relembles that animal
with his head ere£l. The Sugar Loaf or Lion's Head,
and the Lion's Rump, have each a flag ftaflF on them,
by which the approach of (hips is made known to the
governor, particularizing their number, nation, and the
quarter from which they come. To the eaftward, fe-
parated by a fmall chafm from the Table Land, Hands
Charles's Mount, well kno^^•n by the appellation of the
DeviTs To'uer, or De-vil'^s Head ; and fo called from
the violent gufts of wind fuppofed to ilTue from it
when it partakes of the cap that covers the Table
Land, though thefe gulls are nothing more than a de-
gree of force the wind acquires in coming through the
chafm. When this phenomenon appears in the morn-
ing, which is by no means fo frequent as in the even-
ing, the failors have a faying, as the Devil's Tower is
almolt contiguous to the Table Land, that the old
gentleman is going to breakfaft ; if in the middle of
the day, that he is going to dinner; and if in the even-
ing, that the cloth is Ipread for fupper. Table-moun-
tain rifes about 3567 feet above the level of the fea ;
the Devil's Tower, about 3368 ; and the Lion's Head,
2764. In the neighbourhood of the latter lies Con/lantia,
a dillrirt confiding of two farms, wherein the famous
wines of that name are produced.

'I he above defcribed high lands form a kind of am-
phitheatre about the Table-valley, where the Cape-
town ftands. This is fituated at the bottom of the
middle height, or Table-mountain; and almoft in the
centre of the Table Bay, fo called from that moun-
tain. — This bay, it is obferved in Phillips's Voyage,
*' cannot properly be called a port, being by no means
a ftation of iecurity ; it is expofed to all the vio-
lence of the winds which fet into it from the fea ;
and is far from fufficiently fccured from thofe which
blow from the land. The gufts which defcend from
the furamit of Table-mountain are fuflicient to force
(hips from their anchors, and even violently to annoy
perfons on the flioje, by deftroying any tents or other
temporary edifices, which may be erefted, and railing
clouds of fine du(l, which produce very troublefome
efFeds. A gale of this kind, from the foath-eall, blew
fer thi-ce days fucceflively when Captain Cook lay here

in his firft voyage ; at which time, he informs us, the Good Hop-
Relolution was the only ihip in the harbour that had '~~~v~--'
not dragged her anchor. The ftorms from the lea
are ftill more formidable ; fo much fo, that ihips
have frequently been driven by them from their anchor-
age, and wrecked at the head of the bay. But thefe
accidents happen chiefly in the quaade moujjon, or win-
ter months, from May 1 4th to the fame day of Augulf ;
during which time few fhips venture to anchor here.
Our fleet arriving later, lay perfedly unmolefled as
long as it was neceflary for it to remain in this ftation.
— Falfe Bay, on the fouth-eait fide of the Cape, is more
fecure than Table Bay during the prevalence of the
north-weft winds, but ftill lefs fo in ftrong gales from
the fouth-eaft. It is, however, lefs frequented, being
24 miles of very heavy road diftant from Cape Town,
w hence almolt all neceflaries muft be procured. The
mort iheltered part of Falfe Bay is a recefs on the weft
fide, called Simon's Bayp

Mr White, in his Journal of a Voyage to New South
Wales, thus defcribes Cape Town'. From the ftup-
ping, he obferves*, the town appears pleafantly fituated, ^ -^ g
but at the fame time fmall; a deception that arifes from
its being built in a valley with fuch ftupendous moun-
tains diredlly behind it. On landing, howe\er, you
are furprifed, and agreeably difappointcd, to find it not
only extenfive, but well built, and in a good ftyle ;
the ftreets fpacious, and interfering each other at right
angles with great precifion. This e.\actnefs in the for-
mation of the ftreets, when viewed from the Table
Land, is obferved to be very great. The houfes in ge-
neral are built of (lone, cemented together with a glu-
tinous kind of earth which ferves as mortar, and after-
wards neatly plaftered and whitewafhed with lime. As
to their height they do not in common exceed two (To-
ries, on account of the violence of the wind, which at
fome feafons of the year blows with great Itrength and
fury. For the fame reafon thatch has been ufually pre-
ferred to tiles or fliingles ; but the bad efFefts that have
proceeded from this mode when fires happen, has induced
the inhabitants in all their new buildings to give the pre-
ference to flates and tiles. The lower parts of the houies,
according to the cuftom of the Dutch nation, are not
only uncommonly neat and clean in appearance, but they
are really fo ; and the furniture is rather rich than ele-
gant But this is by no means the cafe with the bed-
rooms or upper apartments ; which are very barely and
ill furniftied. The ftreets are rough, uneven, and un-
paved. But many of the houfes have a fpace flagged
before the door ; and others have trees planted before
them, which form a pleafant fliade, and give an agree-
able air to the ftreets.

The only landing-place is at the eaft end of the town,
where there is a wooden quay running forae paces into
the fea, with feveral cranes on it for the convenience of
lotiding and unloading the fcoots that come alongfide.
To this place excellent water is conveyed by pipes, which
makes the watering of Ihips both eafy and expeditious.
Clofe to the quay, on the left hand, ftands the caftle
and principal fortrefs ; a ftrong e.^tenfive work, having
excellent accommodations for the troops, and for many
of the civil officers belonging to the company. Within
the gates, the company have their principal ftores j
which are fpacious as well as convenient. This fort
covers a nd defends the eaft part of the town and har-

boiir

GOO

Coci Ho le. hour, as AmfterJam fort doe^ the weft part.

[ 793 ]

GOO

The lat-
hich has been built fince Commodore Johnfton's
expedition, and whereon both French and Dutch
judgment have been united to render it efFeftual and
ilrong, is admirably planned and calculated to annoy
and harafs (hips coming into the bay. Some fmaller
detached fortifications extend along the coull, both to
the call and weft, and make landing, which was not
the cafe before the late war, hazardous and ditlicult.
In a word. Cape Totm is at this time fortified with
ftrengtb, regularity, and judgment.

The governor's houfe is.«ielightfully fituated, nearly
in the centre of an extenfive garden, the property of
the Dutch Eall India company, ufefuUy planted, and
at the fame time elegantly laid out. The governor's
family make what ufe they pleale of the produce of
the garden, which is various and abundant ; but the
origin il iritchtion of the company in appropriating fo
extenfive a piece of ground to this purpofe was, that
their hofpital, which is generally pretty full when their
ftjips arrive after long voyages, may be well fupplied
with fruits aud vegetables, and likcwife that their ihips
may receive a limilar fupply. This garden is as public
as St James's park ; and for its handfome, plealant,
and well-!haded walks, is much frequented by perfons
of every defcription, but particularly by the falhionable
and gay. At the upper end of the principal walk is a
fraall fpace walled in for the purpofe of confining fome
large oftriches and a few dee' ; and a little to the right
of this is a fmall menagery, in which the company have
half a dozen wild animals and about the fama number
of curious birds.

There are t\vo churches in the to'.vn ; one large,
plain, and unadorned, for the Calvinifts, the prevail-
ing feci ; and a fmaller one for the Lutherans. The
hofpital, which is large and extenfive, is fituated at the
upper end of the town, dole to the company's garden ;
where the convalefcents reap the benefit of a wholefome
pure air, perfumed with the exhalations of a great va-
riety of rich fruit trees, aromatic ihrubs, and odorous
plants and flowers ; and likewife have the ufe of every
produiftion of it.

Befides their hofpital, the Dutch Eaft India com-
pany have feveral other public buildings, which tend to
improve the appearance of the town. The two princi-
pal of thefe are. the ftables and a houfe for their llaves.
The former is a handfome range of buildings, capable
of containing an incredible number of horfes. Thofe
they have at the Cape are fmall, fpirited, and full of
life. The latter is a building of confiderable extent,
where the flaves, both male and female, have feparate
apartments, in a very comfortable llyle, to refide in af-
ter the fatigues and toil of the day ; and there are feve-
ral officers placed over them, who have commodious
apartments, and treat them humanely.

The inhabitants of the Cape, though in their per-
fons large, ftout, and athletic, have not all that phlegm
about them which is the charafteridic of Dutchmen in
general. The phyfical influence of climate may in fome
degree account for this ; for it is well known that in all
fouthem latitudes the temper and difpofition of the peo-
ple are more gay, and that they are more inclined to
luxury and amufements of every kind, than the inhabi-
tants of the northern hemifphere. The ladies are lively,
good natured, and familiar j and from a peculiar gay

Vol. IX. Part II.

turn, they admit of liberties that would be thought re- Good H'<pp.
prehenfible in England, though perhaps they as feldom ^~~^'~~~
overleap the bounds of virtue as the women of other
countries.

The heavy draft work about the Cape is moftly per-
formed by oxen ; which are here brought to an un-
common degree of ufefiilnefs and docility. It is not
uncommon to fee 14, 1 6, and fometimes 18, in one of
their teams; when the roads are heavy, they fome-
times, though rarely, yoke 20 ; all which the Hotten-
tots, Malays, and Cape ilaves, have in the moft perfeft
fubjeftion and obedience. One of thefe fellows places
himfelf on the fore part of the waggon, or, when loaded,
on the top of the load, and with a tremendous long
whip, which from its fize he is obliged to hold in both
his hands, manages thefe creatures wilh inexprefTible ad-
drefs. When he finds expedition needful, he can make
them keep whatever pace he choofes, either trot or gal-
lop, (a gait performed or kept up with difficulty by
European oxen^;, and that with as much eafe as if he was
driving horfes. They likewife manage horfes with the
fame dexterity ; and to i'ee one of them driving three,
four, five, and fometimes fix pair, in hand, wilh one of
thefe long whips, would make the moft complete ma-
fter of the whip in England cut a defpicable figure.
Carriages are not very numerous at the Cape, as the in-
habitants in general travel in covered waggons, which
better fuit the roughnefs of the country. The governor
and fome few of the principal people keep coaches,
which are a good deal in the Englilh ftyle, and always
drawn by fix horfes.

The Cape of Good Hope was taken by the Britiih
on 17th Auguft 1796, with little or no difficulty, and
afterwards given up at the peace of 1801. It has been
fince retaken, and is at prefent (i8c6) in the poffeffion
of the Britifti.

When the news of the capture of this important
fettlement reached England, it was confidered as of
incalculable value to the Eaft India Company in parti-
cular, forming a b;irrier or grand outwork to their im
menfe pofleffions in Ir.dia. They obtained the uncon-
ditional grant of fupplying the Cape with India and
China goods, and care was taken to defeat eveiy at-
tempt that could be made to undermine their intereli.
Aware of its great importance, it was the refolution of
mir.irtry, "that no foreign power, direflly or indireclly,
Ihould obtain pofleffion of the Cape of Good Hope, for
that it was the phyfical guarantee of the Britifti terri-
tories in India." \\Tiile all were con\-inced of its po-
litical importance, none difputed its commercial advan-
tages.

Its geographical pofition on the globe is fo comman-
ding a feature, that the mere looking at a map, inde-
pendent of any other information, muft ftievv its value
and importance in various refpefts. Its diftauce from
thecoaftof Brazil is a month's voyage; from the Dutch
colonies of Surinam, Berbice, and Effeqiiibo, it is a
voyage of fix weeks ; it is about equally diftant from
the Red fea, and two months from Coromandel and
Malabar. It, is half way between ^Britain and India,
in a temperate climate, and produftive of every fpecies
of refrelhment in great abundance.

Confidered in the light of a naval ftation, the im-
portance of the Cape is equally confpicuous. It may
lervc as a port for refrelhing and refitting the Ihips ot
5 H the

GOO

[ 794 J

G O R

Gwil Hope. tlie Eaft India Company; a flation for lliips of
'"~'^^^~~- keeping the entrance into tlie Indian feas, and afford-
ing by its geographical pofition, a ready communica-
tion with eveiT part of the globe. There is no place,
in the homeivard bc-und voyage from India, fo proper
or convenient for the valuable ileets of the Eaft India
Company, to alTerable at for convov, as the Cape of
Good Hope. Their crews might be refrelhed with
fruits, vegetables, and frefli provifions, at a very reafon-
able rate. Salt beef for the remainder of the voyage
might there be laid in. An ellablilhment for curing
fait provifions, would be an incalculable fa\-ing to the
Company, as well as a Angular convenience. The
moderate expence at which a deet could here be main-
tained, is a circumllance that deferves attention. At
the Cape a failor may be fumllhed his ration of frefh
beef or mutton, bifcuit and wine, for one-fourth of
what the fame ration of fait beef colls the government
when fent out from Britain. He can have a pint of
wine for threepence, and were it not for the monopoly
of that article, he might purchaie it for half the fum.

If a naval- eflablilhment was formed at Saldanha
bay, many coafting veiTels and filhing lliips would be
conftrufted in it, as it abovmds with every convenience
that could be required for building ihips, which would
be the means of very much increaiing the coafting
trade.

To what extent the Cape might have been rendered
advantageous to the Britifh empire as an emporium of
eaftern produce, as furnillung articles of export for
confumption in Europe and the Weft Indies, and tak-
ing articles of Britilh growth and manufacture in ex-
change for colonial produce, it may be proper to en-
quire. The chief objeclion againft this ufe of the
Cape is the prejudice it would occafion to the fales of
Leadenhall ftreet, and the diminution of his majefty's
cuftoms ; for though the Eaft India Company might
be made refponfible to the crown for the duties on the
amount of its iales at the Cape, yet the intention of
the emporium would be entirely defeated, if the duties
temanded there fo far enhanced the value of the Indian
commodities, as to make it equally eligible for foreign
iliipping to proceed to India, or to refort to the London
market. The Eaft India Company could fupply their
eraporiam at the Cape with the produce and manufac-
ture of Great Britain to any amount, and at fo cheap a
rate as to underfell any other nation.

Should the Cape become a commercial depot in the
hands of the Eaft India Company, the confumption in
Spanifti and Portuguefe America, of eaftern produce,
would increafe to a very great extent, for all which
they would pay in fpecie, of which the Company ftand
in the greateft need for their China trade.

A new branch of traffic might be opened betw^een
the Cape and Ne^v South Wales, the latter fupplying
the former with coals, of which they have abundant
mines, in exchange for cattle, butter, wine, and articles
of clothing.

The Cape may alfo be confidered as of advantage to
the Britilh nation, /by fumifhing articles of export for
general confumption in Europe and the Weft Indies.
Thefe are grain and pulfe, wine and brandy, wool,
hides, and fkins, whale oil and bone, dided fruits, fait
- provifions, foap and candles, aloes, ivory, and tobacco.

Were a depot for the fouthem whale fifliery eftabliUi-

ed at the Cape, it might be attended with beneficial Goud
confequences. By promoting navigation, the ftrength Manners
and fecurity of the Britifh empire are alfo promoted, _ ,"
and its very exiftence as an independent nation is owing
to the fuperiority of its navy. A nation of filhermen
implies a nation of feamen, a race of bold and hardy
ivarriors. The cultivation of the fifheries would aiforJ
a never-failing fupply of men fo inftrucled, increafe our
conveniency, and promote our commerce.

The colony of the Cape comprehends at leaft 1 2O,O0O
f-]U.ire miles, yet the whole population of whites, blacks,
and Hottentots, does not exceed 6c,0C0 fouls, or a
lingle individual for every two fquare miles. The
upper regions of the mountains are raafles of fandftone,
and where the ^vaters break out in fprings upon the
furface of the plains, vegetation is very luxuriant. In
the vicinity of the Cape, where the foil is coloured with
iron, or oxide of iron combined with clay, the moft
luxuriant crops of grapes are produced. The climate
in general is friendly to vegetation, but being within
the influence of the periodical winds, the rains are very
unequal.

The chief rivers on the fouth coaft are the Gauritz,
Knyfna, Keurboom, Camtoos, Zwartkops, Sunday,
and Great Fifh rivers, and the two principal rivers on
the ^veftern coaft are the Berg, or mountain river,
and the Oliphant river, which falls into the Southern
Atlantic in 31" 30' S. Lat. * * Barma'i

Good Manners. See MaNSERS. TnvtUin

GOOINGS, in fea-Ianguage, are clamps of iron ■f""''
bolted on the ftem-poft of a ftjip, whereon to hang
the rudder and keep it fteady ; for which purpole there
is a hole in each of them, to receive a correfpondent
fpindle bolted on the back of the rudder, which turns
thereby as upon hinges.

GOOSE. See Anas, Orkithology Index. The
goofe was held in great efteem amongft the Romans, for
having faved the Capitol from the invafion of the Gauls
by cackling and clapping its wings. Geefe were kept
in the temple of Juno ; and the cenfors, when they en-
tered upon their oftice, provided meat for them. There
was alio an annual feaft at Rome, at which they car-
ried a filver image of a goofe in ftate ; and hanged a-
dog, to punilli that animal becaufe he did not bark at
the arrival of the Gauls.

GoosE-yJnder. See Mkrgus, Ornithology IndeK.

GoosE-Bernj. See RiBES, Botany Index.

Gooie-Neck, in a ftup, a piece of iron fixed on the
one end of the tiller, to which the laniard of the
whip-ftaff or the wheel-rope comes, for fleering the
(hip.

Goost-Wing, in the fea language. When a fliip
fails before, or with a quarter-wind on a frefti gale,
to make the more hafte, they launch out a boom and
fail on the lee -fide ; and a fail fo fitted is called a
goufe-wing.

GORCUM, a towni in South Holland, which car-
ries on a confiderable trade in cheefe and butter. It is
fituated on the rivers Eigne and Maefe, in E, Long.
4. SS- N- Lat. 51. 49.

GORDIANUS I. (a Roman general), was for Us
valour and virtues chofen emperor by the army in the
reign of Maximinus, A. D. 237; but his fon, whom
he had aiTociated with himfelf in the throne, being
flain by Capellian, the governor of Mauritania for
Maximinus,

G O R

Ooidlanus Maximinu?, Gordianus killed himfelt the iame year.

!• See RoMK.
■C,: GORDIAKUS III. (grandfon of the former), a re-
nowned uarrio;-, and llyled The guardian of the Roman
commonwealih. He was treacheroully affaflinated by
PhUippus, an Arabian, one of his generals \ who, to
the eternal difgrace of the Romans of that era, iuc-
ceeded him in the empire, A. D. 244. See Rome.

GORDI.-\N-KNOT, in antiquity, a knot made in
the leathers or harnefs of the chariot of Gordius king
of Phrygia, fo very intricate, that there was no find-
ing where it began or ended. The inhabitants had a
tradition, that the oracle had declared, that he who
untied this knot fliould be matter of Afia. Alexander
having undertaken it, was unable to accomplilh it ;
when tearing left his not untying it Ihould be deemed
an ill augury, and prove a check in the way of his
conquefts, he cut it alunder with his fword, and thus
either accomplilhed or eluded the oracle.

GORDIUS, the HAIR-WORM, a genus of infefts
belonging to the clafs of vermes iniejiina. See Hel-
MINTHOLOGY Index.

Gordius, king of Phrygia, and father of Midas,
was a poor hulbandman, with two yokes of oxen,
wherewith he ploughed his land and drew his wain.
An eagle fitting a long while upon one of his oxen,
he confalted the foothfayers ; a virgin bid him facrifice
to Jupiter in the capacity of king. He married the
virgin, who brought forth IWidas. The Perfians in-
llrufted by the oracle to fet the firft perfon they met
in a wain upon the throne, met Gordius, and made him
king. Midas for this good fortune dedicated to Jupi-
ter his father's cart. The knot of the yoke, they lay,
was fo well twifted, that he who could unloofe it was
promifed the empire of Afia ; hence the proverb of the
Gordian htot had its original. See Goudian Knot.

GORDON, AlexaXDER, an excellent draughtfman
and a good Greek fcholar, who refided many years in
Italy, vifited moft parts of that country, and had
alfo travelled into France, Germany, &c. was fecre-
tary to the Society for Encouragement of Learning :
and afterwards to the Egyptian Club, compofed of
gentlemen who had vifited Egypt (\-iz. Lord Sandwich,
Dr Shaw, Dr Pococke, &c'.) He fucceeded Dr
Stukeley as fecretary to the Antiquarian Society, which
office he rcfigned in i 741 to Mr Jofeph x\mes. He
went to Carolina with governor Glen, where, befides a
grant of land, he had feveral offices, fuch as reglfter of
the province, &c. ; and died a jullice of the peace,
leaving a handfome ellate to his family. He publiihed,
I. Itinerarium Septenlrionale, or a Journey through moft
parts of the Counties of Scotland, in two parts, with 66
copperplates, 1726, folio. 2. Supplement to the Itine-
rarium, 1732, folio. 3. The Lives of Pope Alexander VL
and his fon Caefar Borgia. 4. A complete Hiftory of
the ancient Amphitheatres, 1730, 8vo, afterwards en-
larged in a fecond edition. 5. An Elfay towards ex-
plaining the hieroglyphical figures on the Cotlin of the
ancient Mummy belonging to Capt. William Lethieuller,
1737, folio, with cuts. 6. Tv.enty-five Plates of all the
Egyptian Mummies and other Egyptian Antiquities in
England, 1739, folio.

Gordon, Thomas, noted for his tranflations and
political writings, was bom at Kirkcudbright in North

[ 795 ]

Britain.

G O R

He came young to London ;

will

ported himfelf by teaching languages, until he
red employment under the carl of Oxford in Q^ui
Anne's time, but in what capacity is not now kno.vn.
He firft dillingui(hed himfelf in the defence of Dr
HoaJley in the Bangorian controverfy ; which recom-
mended hira to Mr Trenchard, in conjunclion with
whom he wrote the well-known Cato's Letters, upon
a variety of important public fubjcfts. Thcfe were
followed by another periodical paper, under the title
of the Independent Whig ; which was continued fome
years after Mr Trenchard's death, by Gordon alone,
againft the hierarchy of the church ; but with more
acrimony than was fliown in Cato's Letters. At length
Sir Robert Walpole retained him to defend his admi-
niftration, to which end he wrote feveral pamphlets.
At the time of his death, July 28th 1750, he was firft
comraiffioner of the wine licences, an office which he
had enjoyed many years. He was twice married. His
fecond wife was the widow of his great friend Tren-
chard, by whom he had children. — He publiihed En-
gli(h tranilations of Salluft and Tacitus, Avith additional
difcourfes to each author, which contain much good
matter. Alfo, two colleftions of his tracls have bee;i
preferved : the firft entitled, A Cordial for Low-
fpirits, in three volumes : and the fecond. The Pil-
lars of Prieftcraft and Orthodo.vy lliaken, in two vo-
lumes. But thefe, like many other pofthuraous things,
had better have been fuppreffed. In his tranflations as
well as his other works he places the verbs at the ends
of fentences, according to the Latin idiom, in a very
ftiff and aflfefted manner.

GORDONIA, a genus of plants, belonging to the
monadelphia clafs. See Botany Index.

GORE, in Heraldry, one of the abatements, which,
according to Gullira, denotes a coward. It is a figure
confifting of two arch lines drawn one from the finifter
chief, and the other from the finifter bafe, both meet-
ing in an acute angle in the middle of the fefs point.
See Heraldry.

GOREE, a fmall ifland of Africa, near Cape de
Verd, fubjeil to the French. It is a fmall fpot not
exceeding two miles in circumference, but its impor-
tance arifcs from its fituation for trade fo near Cape
Verd, and it has been therefore a bone of contention
between European nations. It was firft pofTelTed by
the Dutch, from whom, in 1663, it was taken by the
Englifti ; but in 1665 it was retaken by the Dutch,
and in 1677 fubdued by the French, in whofe poffef-
fion it remained till the year 1759, when the Britilh
arms were every where triumphant ; and it was redu-
ced by Commodore Keppel, but reftored to the French
at the treaty of peace in 1 763. It was retaken by
the Englifti in the laft war, but again reftored at the
peace of 1783. E. Long. 17. 20. N. Lat. 14. 43.

GoREE, the capital town of an iftand of the fame
name in Holland, eight miles fouth of Briel. E.
Long. 3. 50. N. Lat. 51. 55.

GOREY, a borough, fair, and poft-town in the
county of We-xford, province of Leinfter, otherwife
called Kewboroiigh. It ftands about 1 8 miles north of
Wexford town, and 45 from Dublin. N. Lat. 52. 40.
W. Long. 6. 30. It fends two members to parlia-
ment ; patronage in the family of Ram.

5 H 2 . GORGE,

G o n

[ 7

GORGE, in ArchheBure, the narroueft part of the
Tufcan and Doric capitals, lying between the aftra-
1, above the ihaft of the pillar, and the annulets.
Gorge, in Fortification, the entrance of the plat-
form of any work. See Fortification.

GORGED, in Heroldnj, the bearing of a crown,
coronet, or the like, about the neck of a lion, a fwan,
&c. a:iJ in that cafe it is {aid, the lion or cygnet is
gorged with a ducal coronet, &c.

Gorged is alfo ufcd when the gorge or neck of a
peacock, fwan, or the like bird, is of a different colour
or metal from the rell.

GORGET, a kind of breaft-plate like a half-moon,
with the arms of the prince thereon ; worn by the of-
ficers of loot. They are to be either gilt or filver,
according to the colour of the buttons on the uni-
Jorn?s.

Gorget, or GoRGERET, in Su'jen/, is the name
which the French give to the concave or cannulated
condurtor, ufed in lithotomy. See Surgery J/tJex.

GORGONA, a fmall illand of Italy, in the fea of
Tufcany, and near that of Corfica, about eight miles
in circumference ; remarkable for the large quantity of
anchovies taken near it. E. Long. lo. O. N. Lat.
43. 22.

GoRGOKA, a fmall ifland of the South fea, i 2 miles
weft of the coaft of Peru, in America. It is indiifer-
ent high land, very woody, and lorae of the trees are
very tall and large, and proper for malts. It is about
JO miles in circumference, and has feveral fpriiigs and
rivulets of excellent water, but is fubjeift to conftant
rains. W. Long. 79. 3. S. Lat. 30.

GORGONIA, in Natural Hijiory, a genus of zoo-
phytes, which formerly were called 6V/-«/c/)//i//o/w, and
are known in Englilh by the names oifea-fans,fea-fea-
thers, and/ea-iv/;:/)i. Linnaeus and Dr Pallas confider
them as of a mixed nature in their growth, between
animals and vegetables ; but Mr Ellis (hows them to
be true animals of the polype kind, growing up in a
branched form refembling a llirub, and in no part vege-
table. They differ from the frefh water polype in
many of their qualities, and particularly in producing
trom their own fubftance a hard and folid fupport, ferv-
jng niany of the purpofes of the bone in other animals.
'I'his is formed by a concreting juice thrown out from a
peculiar fet of longitudinal parallel tubes, running a-
loMg the internal furface of the fieiliy part : in the coats
of thefe tubes are a number of fmall orifices, through
ivhich the ofleous liquor exudes, and concreting, forms
the layers of that hard part of the annular circles,
which fome, judging from the confidence rather than
the texture, have erroneoufly denominated woor/. The
furface of the gorgonia is compofed of a kind of fcales,
fo well adapted to each other as to ferve for defence
from external injuries : and the ilelli, or, as fome have
called it, the bari or cortex, confills of proper muf-
tles and tendons for extending the openings of their
tells J for fending forth from thence their polype fuc-
kers in fearch of food ; and for drawing them in fud-
denly, and contrafting the fphinder mufcles of thefe
ftarry cells, in order to fecure thefe tender parts from
danger ; and alfo of proper fecrttory dufts, to fuinifh
and depofjt the offeous matter that forms the flem
and branches as well as the bafe of the bone. Mr El-
lis affirms, that there are ovaries in thefe animals, and
a

96 ] G O R

thinks it very probable that many of llcm arc vivi-
parous. See Corallines.

GORGONS, in Antiquity and Mythci'ogj. Au- ,.
thors are not agreed in the account tliey give of the
Gorgons. The poets reprefent there as three fillers,
whom names were Stheno, Euryale, and Mcdufa ; the
latter of whom was mortal, and, having been deflower-
ed by Neptune, was killed by Perleus j the ttto for-
mer were lubjeft neither to age nor de.ith. They are
defcribed with wings on their (houlders, with ferpents
round their heads, their hands were of brafs, and their
teeth of a prodigious fize, fo that they were objefts of
terror to mankind. After the death of Medufa, her
fillers, according to Virgil, were appointed to keep
the gate of the palace of Pluto.

Multaque prccterea variariim rnonjlra ferarum—^
CokaoNES, Ilarpyiicque

Diodorus Siculus will have the Gorgons and Amazons
to have been tAvo warlike nations of women, who in-
habited that part of Libya which lay on the lake Tri-
tonidis. The extermination of theli? female nations
was not effected t?ll Hercules undertook and performed
it.

Paufanias fays, the Gorgons were the daughters of
Phorbus •, after whofe death Medufa, his daughter,
reigned over the people dwelling near the lake Tri-
tonidis. The queen was paffionately fond of hunting
and war, fo that (he laid the neighbouring countries
quite wafte. At laft, Perfeus having made war on
them, and killed the queen herfelf, when he came to
take a view of the field of battle, he found the queen's
corpfe fo extremely beautiful, that he ordered her
head to be cut off, which he carried with him to ihoiv
his countrymen the Greeks, who could not behold it
without being llruck with aftonifhment.

Others reprefent them as a kind of monftrous wo-
men, covered with hair, who lived in woods and forefts.
Otliers, again, make them animals, refembling wild
(heep, whofe eyes had a poifonous and fatal inflaence.

GORITIA, or GoRiTZ, a llrong town of Germa-
ny, in the circle of Aullria, and duchy of Carniola,
with a caille ; fcated on the river Lizonzo, 20 miles
north eaft of Aquileia, and 70 north-eafl of Venice.
E. Long. 13. 43. N. Lat. 46. 12.

GORLj^US, Abraha-,1, an eminent antiquary,
was born at Antwerp, and gained a reputation by col-
lefling medals and other antiques. He was chiefly
fond of the rings and feals of the ancients, of which
he publilhed a prodigious number in 1 601, under this
title, DaByliotheco ; fwe Annulornm SigU/arium, quorum
apud prifcos tarn Graces qitam Romanos iifus ex ferro^
cere, argento, et auro, Promptuarium. This was the
firft part of the work : the fecond was ftntitled, Varia~
rum Gemmarum, quibus antiquitas in f.gnando uti folita
fculpturie. This work has luidcrgone feveral editions,
the bell of which is that of Leyden, 1695 : for it not
only contains a vad number of cuts, but alfo a (liort
explication of them by Gronovius. In 1608, he pub-
lilhed a collcdlion of medals : which, however, if we
may believe the Scaligcrana, it is not fafe always to trull.
Gorlceus pitched upon Delft for the place of his refi-
dence, and died there in 1609. His colleilions of an-
tiques were fold by his heirs to the prince of Wales,

GORJulTZ, a town of Germany, in Upper Lufatia,
fubjcft

G O S

C 797 1

GOT

fubjeft to the eleclor of Sasony. It is a handfome
ftrong place, and feated on the river Neiffe, in E.
^ Long. 15. 15. N. Lat. 51. 10.

GORTERIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
fyngenefia clifs, ar.J in the natural flietliod ranking
under the 49th order, Comfiofjcv. See Botany Indix,

GOSH WVK. See Falco, Orn:tiiology Index.

GOSHEN, in ylncunt Geography, a canton of
Egypt, which Joleph procured for his father and his
brethren when they came to dwell in Egypt. It was
the moft fruitful part of the country ; and its name
feems to be derived from the Hebrew, Gejhcm, which
fignifies " rain ;" becaufe this province lying very near
the ^Mediterranean, was expofed to rains, which were
very rare in other c;i:itons, and more efpecially in Up-
per Egypt. Calmet does not quellion but that Golhen,
which Jofhua (x. 41. xi. 16. xv. 51.) makes part of
the tribe of Judah, is the fame as the land of Goihen,
which was given to Jacob and his fons by Pharaoh
king of Egypt ; (Gen. xlvi. z8). It is certain that
this country lay between Palelline and the city of Ta-
nais, and that the allotment of the Hebrews reached
fouthward as far as the Nile, (Joih. xiii. 3.).

GOSLAR, a large and ancient town of Lower
Saiony, and in the territory of Brunfwick : it is a free
imperial city, and it was here that gunpowder was firft
invented, by a monk as is generally fuppofed. It is a
large place, but the buildings are in the ancient tafte.
In 1728, 280 hollies, and St Stephen's fine church,
were reduced to aihes. It is feated on a mountain,
near the river Gote, and neur it are rich mines of iron.
The inhabitants are famous for brewing excellent beer.
E. Long. 3. 37. N Lat. 51. S5'

GOSPEL, the hiltory of the life, anions, death,
lefurreftion, afcenfion, and doclrine of Jefus Chrill. —
The word is Saxon, and of the fame import with the
Latin term evangelium, which fignifies " glad tidings,"
cr " good news."

This hillory is contained in the writings of St Mat-
thew, St Mark, St Luke, and St John ; ivho from
thence are called evangelijls. The Chriftian church
never acknowledged any more than thefe four gofpels
as canonical ; notwithftanding which, feveral apocryphal
gofpels are hafided down to us, and others are entirely
lolt.

GOSPORT, a town of Hampfnire, 79 miles from
London, in the parilh of Alverliock. It has a ferry
over the mouth of the harbour to Portfmouth, and is
a large town and of great trade, efpecially in time of
war. Travellers choofe to lodge here, \vhere every
thing is cheaper and more commodious for them than
at Portfmouth. The mouth of the harbour, \Nhich is
not fo broad here as the Thames at Weftminifter, is
fecured on this fide by four forts, and a platform of
above 20 cannon level with the water. Here is a
noble hofpital built for the cure of the fick and wound-
ed failors in the fervice of the navy j befides a free
£:hool.

GOSSAMER is the name of a fine filmy fabftance,
like rijjwebs, which is feen to float in the air, in clear
days in autumn, and is more obfervable in Hubble-
fieldsj and upon furze and other low bulhes. This is
probably farmed by the tlying fpider, which, in tra-
verfing the air for food, llioo.s out ihcfe threads from
its anus, which are borne do'.vn by the dew, &c.

GOSSYPIUM, or Cotton, a genus of plants bo- Coffjpuim,
longing to the monadelphia clafs, and in the natural ^''''^- ,
method ranking under the 37th order, Columnifer.v. ^
See Botany Index.

T!ie American iflands produce cotton fiirubs of va-
rious fizes, which rife and grow up without any cul-
ture ; efpecially in low and marlhy grounds. '1 heir
produce is of a pale red ; fome paler than others ; liut
fo Ihort that it cannot be fpun. None of this is brought
to Europe, thougli it might be ufefuUy employed in
making of hats. The little that is picked up, ferves
to make matrafles and pillows.

The cottO!i-lhrub that fupplies our manufaftures, re-
quires a dry and ftony foil, and thrives bell in grounds
that have already been tilled. Not but that the plant
appears more ilourifhing in frefh lands than in thofe
which are exhaulled •, but while it produces more
wood, it bears lefs fruit.

A weftern expofure is fitteft for it. The culture of
it begins in March and April, and continues during the
firft fpring-rains. Holes are made at feven or eight
feet diftance from each other, and a few feeds throwrk
in. When they are grown to the height of five or fix
inches, all the Aems are pulled up, except tv.-o or three
of the ftrongeft. Thefe are cropped twice before the
end of Auguft. This precaution is the more necelTary,
as the wood bears no fruit till after the fecond pru-
ning ; and, if the (hrub was fuffered to grow more tlian
four feet high, the crop would not be the greater, nor
the fruit fo eafily gathered. The fame method is pur-
fued for three years ; for fo long the Ihrub may conti-
nue, if it cannot conveniently be renewed oftener with
the profpeft of an advantage that ^vill compenfate the
trouble.

This ufefiil plant will not thrive if great attention is
not paid to pluck up the weeds that grow about it. Fre-.
quent rains will promote its growth ; but they muft
not be incelTant. Dry weather is particularly necefTiry
in the months of March and April, which is the time
of gathering the cotton, to prevent it from being difco-
loured and fpotted.

When it is all gathered in, the feeds rauft be picked
out from the wool \vith which they are naturally mix-
ed. This is done by means of a cotton-mill ; which is
an engine compofed of two rods of hard wood, about
18 feet long, 18 lines in circumference, and fiuted
two hues deep. They are confined at both ends, fo as
to leave no more dillance between them than is necef-
fary for the feed to flip through. At one end is a
kind of little raillftonc, which, being put in motion
with the foot, turns the rods in contrary direilions.
They fcparate the cotton, and throw out the feed con-
tained in it.

GOTHA, a town of Germany, in the circle of Up-
per Saxony, and capital of the duchy of Saxe-Gotha,
in E. Long. 10. 36. N. Lat. 51. Some fancy this
town hud its name from the Goths, and that they forti-
fied it in their march to Italy ; but it was only a village
till fiurrounded with walls by the bilhop of Mcntz in
964. It is fituated in a fine plain on the river Leina,
well built and ftrongly fortified. Here are two hand-
fome churches and a very good hofpital. Its chief
trade is in dyers wood, of which they have three crois,
but the third grows wild. The neighbouring country
produces a vail deal of corn. The calllcor ducal palace

GOT

t 79^ ]

GOT

Gothatd of Gotlia ^^•as rebuilt in tlie i6th century by duke
II Erneft, iurnamed the P/ous, who caufed both that and
_ "^ " . the toAvn to be encompafled with ditches and ramparts ;
and gave it the name of Friedenjlein, or the Cajile of
Peace, in oppofition to its ancient name of Grimmer-
J}ein, or the Cajile of the Furies. It is fituated on a
neighbouring eminence, from whence there is a vaft
prolpeft of a fruitful plain. In one of the apartments
tliere is a colleclion of valuable rarities, and a noble
library.

The dukedom of Saxe Gotha is about 30 miles
long, and 1 2 broad. The reigning duke is Lewis
Emeft, born in 1745, and married to the princers
Maria Charlotte of Saxe Meningen, by ivhom he has
ifl'ue. He is the head of the Erneftine line of Saxony,
defcended from the eleflor John Frederick the Magna-
nimous, who was deprived of the deflorate by the em-
peror Charles V. in 1574; iince which the youngeft
branch called the yllhertlne has enjoyed it. He has feve-
ral other principalities befides that of Saxe Gotha; and
his revenues are computed at 20o,ocol. a-year, with
which he maintains about 3000 regular troops. As
he is the moft powerful of all the Saxon princes of the
Erneftine branch ; fo of all the courts of Saxony, next
to that of Drefden, he has the moft numerous and the
moft magnificent. His guards are well clothed, his li-
veries rich, and his tables fer^'ed with more elegance
than profufion. And yet by the prudent management
of his public finances, his fubjefts are the leaft bur-
dened with taxes of any ftate in Germany. The reli-
gion is Lutheran.

GOTHARD, one of the higheft mountains of
Switzerland •, and from the top, where tliere is an hof-
pital for monks, is one of the fineft profpecls in the
world. It is eight miles from Aldorf.

GOTHEBORG, Gothenburg, or Gottenburg.
See Gottenburg.

GOTHIC, in general, whatever has any relation to
the Goths ; thus we fay, Gothic cuftoms, Gothic ar-
chitecture, 8ic. See Architecture.

GOTHLAND, the moft fouthem province of
Sweden, being a peninfula, encompafled on three fides
by the Baltic Sea, or the channel at the entrance of it.
It is divided into feveral parts, which are, Eaft Goth-
land, Weft Gothland, Smaland, Halland, Bleaking,
and Schonen. It was a long time in the pofieflion of
the kings of Denmark, but was ceded to Sweden in
1654. The principal towns of Gothland are Calmar,
Landfcroon, Chriilianople, Daleburg, Gothenburgh,
Helmftat, Lunden, Malmone, and Vexio.

GOTHS, a warlike nation, and above all others
famous in the Roman hiftory, came originally out of
Scandinavia (the name by which the ancients diftin-
guiftied the prefent countries of Sweden, Norway, Lap-
land, and Finmark). According to the moft probable
accounts they were the firft inhabitants of thofe coun-
tries ; and from thence fent colonies into the iflands of
the Baltic, the Cimbrian Cherfonefus, and the adja-
cent places yet deftitute of inhabitants. The time of
their firft fettling in Scandinavia, and the time when
they firft peopled with their colonies the above-men-
tioned illands and Cherfonefus, are equally uncertain ;
thougli the Gothic annals fuppofe the latter to have hap-
pened in the time of Serug the great grandfather of

Abraham. This firft migration of the Gotlis is faid to
have been conducted by their king Eric ; in which all '
the ancient Gothic chronicles, as well as the Daniih and
Sivedilh ones, agree. Their fecond migration is fup-
pofed to have happened many ages after ; when, the
above-mentioned countries being overftocked with
people, Berig, at that time king of the Goths, went
out with a fleet in queft of new fettlements. He landed
in the country of the Ulmerugians, now Pomerania,
drove out the ancient inhabitants, and divided their lands
among his followers. He fell next upon the Vandals,
whofe country bordered on that of the Ulmerugians,
and overcame them ; but inftead of forcing them to
abandon their country, he only made them Uiare their
polTelTions with the Goths.

The Goths ^vho had fettled in Pomerania and the
adjacent parts of Germany being greatly increafed, in-
fomuch that the country could no longer contain them,
they undertook a third migration in great numbers,
under Filimer fumamed the Great, their fifth prince
after leaving Scandinavia ; and taking their route eaft-
ward, entered Scythia, advanced to the Cimmerian
Bofphorus, and driving out the Cimmerians, fettled
in the neighbourhood of the Pa'us Ma;otis. Thence
in procefs of time, being greatly increafed in Scy-
thia, they refolved to feek new fettlements ; and, ac-
cordingly taking their route eaflward, they traverfed
feveral countries, and at length returned into Ger-
many.

Their leader in this expedition was the celebrated
Woden, called alfo Voden, Othcn, Oden, Godan, and
Guadan, Of this Woden many wonderful things are
rehted in the Sueo-gothic chronicles. He was king of
the Afgardians, whom the northern writers will have
to be the fame ^rith a people called Jfpurgians men-
tioned by Strabo and Ptolemy. By Strabo they are
placed near the Cimmerian Bofphorus. Afpurgia was
the metropohs of a province which Strabo calls yfjia ;
and Woden and his foUowers are ftyled by the ancient
Gothic writers ^/,e, jiftame, and yifwtce. The kings
of Aipurgia were mafters of all that part of Scythia
which lay to the we ft ward of Imaus, and was by the
Latins called Scylliia intra Imaum, or " Scythia within
Imaus."

At what time Woden reigned in this country, is
quite uncertain ; but all hiftorians agree, that he went
out in queft of new fettlements ^vitli incredible num-
bers of people following him. He firft entered Ro.xo-
lania, comprehending the countries of PruiTia, Livo-
nia, and great part of Mufcovy. From thence he went
by fea into the north parts of Germany ; and having
reduced Saxony and Jutland, he at laft fettled in Swe-
•den, where he reigned till his death, and became fo fa-
mous that his name reached all countries, and he was
by the northern nations worlbipped as a god. He is
fuppofed to have brought with him the Runic charac-
ters out of Afia, and to have taught the northern nations
the art of poetry; whence he is ftyled the father of
the Scaldi or Scaldri, their poets, who defcribed in
verfe the exploits of the great men of their nation, as
the bards did among the Gauls and Britons.

The Romans diftinguilhed the Goths into two claf-
fes ; the Oftrogoths and Vifigoths. Thefe names they
received before they left Scandinavia, the Vifigoths be-
ing

G.-h..J

G O T

[ 799

or thofe
, as the

part

GOT

Gotlii. ing foftehed by the Latins from Wefierogolhs
•~~\~~^ »vho inhabited the wefteni part of Scandinavia, as
Oftrogoths were thofe who inhabited the eillern
of tliat country. Their hirtory aftbrds nothing of
ment till the time of their quarrelling ^v^th the Ro-
mans ; which, happened under the reign of the emperor
Caracalla, fon to Severus. After that time their hillory
becomes fo clofely interwoven ivith that of the Ro-
mans, that for the moil remarkable particulars of it
we. mull refer to the article Rome. After the deilruc-
of the Roman empire by the Heruli, the Ollro

all other barbarous or foreign nations, and often chofe Gotuj.
kings from among their philofophers. Polygamy was ' v ■'
not only allowed but countenanced among them ; every
one being valued or refpefled according to the number
of his wives. By fo many wives they had an incre-
dible number of children, of whom they kept but one
at home, fending out the rell in quell of new fettle-
ments ; and hence thofe I'warms of people which over-
ran fo many countries. With them adultery was a ca-
pital crime, and irremillibly punilhed with death. This
leverity, and likewife polygamy, prevailed among them

goths, under their king Theodoric, became mailers of when they were krtowii to the Romans only by the
the greatell part of Italy, having overcome and put to name of Gette (their moft ancient name) ; as appears
death Odoacer king of the Heruli in 494. They re- "" ' '" ' ' .. ^.-

tained their dominion in this country tili the year 553 ;
when they were finally conquered by Narfes, the em-
peror Juliinian's general. See (Hillory of) IrALY.
The Vifigoths fettled in Spain in the time of the em-
peror Honorius, where they founded a kingdom which
continued till the coimtrv was fubdued by the Saracens.
See S?Aix.

The Goths were famous for their hofpitality and
kindnefs to llrangers, even before they embraced the
Chriftian religion. Nay, it is faid, that from their
being eminently good, they were called Goths by the
neighbouring nations ; that name, according to Gro-
tius and moll other writers, being derived from the
German word goten, which fignifics " good." They
encouraged, fays Dio, the ftudy of philofophy above

from the poet IMenander, who was himfelf one of that
nation ; and from Horace, who greatly commends the
challity of their women. Their laws fell little (liort of
thofe of the ancient Romans. Their government was
monarchical ; their religion was much the fame with
that of the ancient Germans or Celtes ; and their drefs
is defcribed by Apollinaris Sidonius in the followng
words: " They arc (liod (fays he) with high (hoes
made of hair, and reaching up to their ankles ; their
knees, thighs, and legs, are without any covering j
garments of various colours fcarce reaching to the

the

knee ; their tleeves only cover the top of their arms ;
they wear green caflbcks with a red border ; their belts
hang on their ihoulder ; their ears arc covered with-
twilled locks ; they ufe hooked lances and miflile wea-
pons."

EXD OF THE NINTH VOLUME.

Errata.-

-Page 332 col.
339 col.

lines 19 and 31, for iron wire, read zinc wire,
lines 27 and 30, for iron wire, read zinc wire.

DIRECTIONS FOR flacing the PLATES of Vau IX

^V 4 7 3 2 2 1

Plate CCXXr.— CCXXIII. to face

Page 32

CCXXIV.

208

CCXXV.— CCXXVTL

3=4

CCXXVIII.

3 20

CCXXIX.

368

Part II.

CCXXX.—CCXXXVM.

544

CCXXXVIII. CCXXXIX.

626

CCXL— CCXLV.

666

CCXLVI.

692

CCXLVII.

■ 754

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